CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 736749

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Multi-functional machine tool

T. Moriwaki (1)
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Setsunan University, Neyagawa, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Machine tool Machining center Multi-functional

The functions of metal cutting machine tools have been increasing to meet the demands of high productivity and high accuracy in machining complicated and difcult parts on one machine. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of multi-functional machine tools used for metal cutting, and their kinematic congurations, control and programming technologies. Design principles and assessment of multi-functional machine tools are discussed mainly taking examples of 5-axis machining centers. The paper also presents examples of latest multi-functional machine tools as well as current status of related supporting technologies. 2008 CIRP.

1. Introduction The fundamental functions of machine tools are to transform the raw materials with given mechanical properties to the nished parts with required geometry, dimensions and surface quality. As the demands are increasing to produce parts with higher quality at reduced cost, the machine tools are required to have higher machining accuracy and speed. In recent years, the demands are also increasing to machine difcult to cut materials and parts with complex geometry. As the production lot size becomes smaller, a single part with complicated geometry has to be machined without a trial cut. In order to meet such requirements, the machine tools are expected to have multiple functions with modular and recongurable design architectures [45,56,57]. Many of the parts are nished by a sequence of processes, which may include various cutting processes, grinding, plastic deformation, heat treatment and other nishing processes. In order to manufacture such parts with small quantity, it is necessary to have one machine tool which can perform various manufacturing processes as opposed to distributing the operations to a series of many single purpose machine tools. Various kinds of multifunctional machine tools with integrated processes have been developed for general as well as for specic purposes [12,30,34,79]. Typical combinations of processes of such machines are shown in Table 1. The integration of various cutting processes has been accelerated in recent years for machining parts with small lot size but with complicated geometry and high accuracy in a short machining time. The turning centers and machining centers are typical machine tools of such multi-functional machine tools. The purpose of this keynote paper is to review the historical background and the recent developments of multi-functional machine tools used in metal cutting industry.
0007-8506/$ see front matter 2008 CIRP. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2008.09.004

2. Histroical review of multi-functional machine tools 2.1. Multi-functional turning machines The origin of modern machine tools goes back to those developed prior to or during the industrial revolution in late 18th century. The boring machine developed by John Wilkinson and the lathe developed by Henry Maudslay are typical examples of such machines. The basic conguration of a lathe or turning machine, which cuts the rotating work with a single point tool, did not change for a long time. In order to increase the productivity of the turning machine, the multi-axis automatic turning machine was developed, which can perform several turning operations simultaneously on one machine equipped with multiple spindles. The turret was also developed so that multiple turning processes could be performed with different cutting tools while the work was chucked to the main spindle. As simultaneous multi-axis control became possible with the advances in NC technology, turning machine with two turrets was developed which could simultaneously cut the work with two cutting tools. The rotary parts with off-axis drilled holes, key ways and other off-axis plane surfaces were generally nished with drilling machines or milling machines after turning. In order to nish such parts on one turning machine, a small milling spindle was attached to NC turning machine, which was later called a Turning Center (TC). The functionality of the TC increased as the number of simultaneous axes control was increased. Typical simultaneous axes control are C-axis control to index the rotary position of the work, B-axis control to incline the milling head against the rotary axis of the work, and Y-axis control to offset the relative position of the rotary axis of the work and the tool position. Some TCs are equipped with two main spindles opposing each other so that the long work can be chucked with two spindles, and the opposite side

T. Moriwaki / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 736749 Table 1 Possible process integration of multi-functional machines. Cutting Turning Milling Drilling Gear cutting Planning Surface grinding Cylindrical grinding Internal grinding Forming Burnishing Laser sintering Laser softening Electrodischarge machining On machine measurement Parts handling Fig. 2. Evolution of turning machines.

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Grinding

Forming

Heat treatment

EDM Measurement Handling

of the work can be machined after machining with one spindle. An example of an early TC developed in 1974 is shown in Fig. 1. As the geometrical complexity increased, the functionality and the number of simultaneous axes control of TC was increased. Fig. 2 shows a brief history of the advancement in the conguration of TC, and Fig. 3 shows an example conguration of a recent multifunctional machine tool [80]. Fig. 4 shows typical examples of machined parts as the functionality of TC was increased [80]. Some of the recently developed TCs with a heavy duty milling head are called combined multi-axis machine tools, as it is difcult to say if they are turning machines or milling machines. 2.2. Multi-functional milling machines The milling machine, which uses a rotary cutter with multiple edges, was developed by Elly Whitney in 1827 in USA [140]. It was initially mainly used to machine at surfaces. The application of the milling machine was later expanded to 2D and 3D surfaces. The rst NC machine tool developed by John T. Parsons in 1952 was a 3axis milling machine. A noteworthy advancement of the NC milling machine was the development of the Machining Center (MC). The rst MC named Milwaukee-Matic was developed by Kearney and Trecker in 1958 as shown in Fig. 5. One of the specic features of the MC is the automatic tool changer, or ATC so that various kinds of milling as well as drilling operations can be performed once the work is xed on the table. As the rotary table or index table was equipped on the MC, it became possible to machine ve faces of a cubic workpiece. The attachment to change the direction of the main spindle from horizontal to vertical, or from vertical to horizontal was also introduced to machine the ve faces of the work. Most of the MCs

Fig. 3. Sample conguration of recent multi-functional machine tool.

Fig. 4. Evolution of parts machined by turning machines.

Fig. 1. An example of TC developed in 1974 (Source: Okuma).

Fig. 5. Milwaukee-Matic Model II developed by Kerney and Trecker in 1958.

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Fig. 8. Mathematical model of machine tool.

Fig. 6. Typical conguration of MC with added rotary axes.

3. Design principle of multi-functional machine tools The geometry of the surfaces to be cut is given by the tool geometry and the relative motion between the tool and the work. Fundamental research has been carried out to analyze and determine the machine tool conguration and structure [42,97,114]. One of the approaches is to determine the machine tool structure based on the concept of variant design [107,108] and utilization of accumulated knowledge [75,76,109,110]. Analytical approaches have also been developed to determine the motions of the machine elements and the machine tool structure based on the geometrical relations between the tool, the work and the machine elements [15,43,86,105]. Inasaki [40] and Inasaki et al. [41] dened the mathematical model of a machine tool as shown in Fig. 8, and the coordinate transformation matrices as shown in Table 2, where x, y and z are translational motions along the X, Y and Z axes, and w, c and u are rotary motions around the A, B and C axes, respectively. The shape generation motion can be expressed by the chain of the relative motions of ks. Inasaki also dened the machining error functions based on this approach. Similar approaches have been taken by
Table 2 Coordinate transformation matrices. Relative motion Linear motion X-Axis Coordinate transformation matrix 0 1 1 0 0 x B0 1 0 0C 1 C A B @0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 B0 1 0 yC 2 B C A @ 0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 B0 1 0 0C 3 C A B @0 0 1 z A 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0C C 0A 1 1 0 0C C 0A 1 1 0 0C C 0A 1

at this stage contained simultaneously controlled three Cartesian axes (X, Y, Z). As the demands are increasing for machining of parts with complex shapes, such as those for aerospace industries, the number of simultaneous axes control was increased due to the developments in CNC technology and drive units. Most of MCs, with added axes of control, in the market at present are 5-axes MCs. Typical additional axes of control are a C-axis for the rotary table, A-axis for tilting of the table and B-axis control for inclination of the main spindle as illustrated in Fig. 6. The machining accuracy of the parts with complex shape has been much increased, and the machining time has been reduced by 5axes MCs. Some of the MCs with a rotary table with heavy duty and high rotational speed can be applied to turn the rotary work, just like a vertical turning machine, as well as undertake milling operations. Such MCs are regarded as combined milling and turning machines. An example of such simultaneous machining is shown in Fig. 7.

Y-Axis

Z-Axis

Rotary motion A-Axis

B-Axis

C-Axis Fig. 7. An example of simultaneous milling and turning on one machine (Source: Mazak).

1 0 0 B 0 cos sin A B @ 0 sin cos 0 0 0 0 cos c 0 sin c B 0 1 0 A5 B @ sin c 0 cos 0 0 0 0 cos u sin u 0 B sin u cos u 0 A6 B @ 0 0 0 0 0 0
4

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Fig. 9. Three possible congurations of machine structure.

Reshentov and Protman [95] and Moriwaki et al. [77] to analytically evaluate the machining error in the shape generation motions. Such analytical approaches can help to understand the shape generation process and to evaluate possible machining errors. However these approaches do not give any preferable congurations of the machine tool structures for specic purposes. Possible congurations of the machine tool structure are given by the combinations of motions of the individual axes. In order to simplify the discussion, a 5-axis MC is considered here which has three linear motions of X, Y and Z and two rotary motions. There are 2160 possible combinations of machine tool congurations in this case. Sato [102] extracted 216 possible congurations of 5-axes vertical MCs out of the above-mentioned 2160 congurations by eliminating technically unfeasible cases, such as the case in which the linear motion axis is attached to the rotary motion axis. There exist at least three types of structures for each conguration: vertical type, horizontal type and double column type in the actual design of machines, see Fig. 9. Fig. 10 shows half of 216 possible congurations of vertical MCs. The actual structure of the machine is determined by accuracy, rigidity, thermal deformation property, and ease of manufacture [35,81].

Fig. 11. Possible combination of multi-functional turning machine.

In the case of turning machine based multi-functional machine tools, expansion of the functionality is rather straightforward. As it was mentioned earlier, the number of turrets is increased in order to perform simultaneous machining with multiple tools. The main spindle is also increased from one to two so that both sides of the work can be machined simply by transferring the work from one spindle to the other. The turret is equipped with the milling spindle and assigned the additional linear and rotary motions to increase functionality of multi-tasking. Fig. 11 shows combinations of the main spindles and the additional functionality of the turret [78]. Some machines are equipped with an automatic tool changer (ATC), and also additional control axes for the specic purposes.

Fig. 10. Possible congurations of vertical MC.

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Fig. 14. Feasible machining operations of combined multi-axis machine tool.

Fig. 12. An example of high productivity, high exibility CNC turning center.

4. Examples and practical applications 4.1. Multi-functional turning machines The multi-functional machine tools are now widely applied to machining of mechanical parts with complicated geometry including free form surfaces in the aero space, automotive and other mechanical industries as well as machining of dies and molds. The turning machine based multi-functional machine tools are mainly used to machine parts, with complicated geometry, efciently. Fig. 12 shows an example of a high productivity, high exibility CNC turning center incorporated with a complete CAPP/ CAM system with an integrated Expert system for dening the machining strategies [14]. In order to minimize the production time with respect to the machine and part technology constraints, the rule based Expert system assigns tools/operations to the different turrets, denes the machining conditions, denes the cutting strategies and calculates the cycle times. Fig. 13 shows an example of a recently developed turning machine based combined multi-axis machine tool, which is equipped with two spindles and two tool posts. One of the tool posts is equipped with a heavy duty milling spindle which has X, Y, Z and B axis control. The center of gravity, or DCG, principle [37] is applied to drive this tool post. Typical feasible machining operations are illustrated in Fig. 14.

Fig. 15 shows a special 9-axis mill/turn lathe to machine gas turbine fuel nozzles for advanced high quality and lower cost. This machine is equipped with two spindles, 2 turrets holding 28 tool positions for cutting tools and part probing, and one milling head with a 6 tool changer [66]. Reduced production cycle time, elimination of multiple labour steps in component assembly and signicantly increased quality performance are obtained with cost savings. Fig. 16 shows another example of a heavy duty multi-purpose 5-axis mill/turn machine applied to machine large forged parts [66]. 4.2. Multi-functional milling machines The 5-axis MC is widely used to machine dies and molds [2,3,26,134]. However, due to the complexity of programming, simultaneous 5-axis control is not necessarily used in many cases, but a simultaneous 3-axes control cut with additional off-line 2-

Fig. 13. An example of combined multi-axis machine tool (Source: Mori Seiki).

Fig. 15. Special 9-axis control mill/turn lathe and gas turbine fuel nozzle machined.

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Fig. 16. Heavy duty multi-purpose 5-axis mill/turn machine (Source: Ameriforge).

axis control for the work posture change is applied. The posture of the spindle against the work is adjusted by controlling two rotary motions, and then the work is cut with conventional 3-axes control. This cutting method is known as 3 + 2 axes control machining. The prime advantage of this method is simplicity of the programming, and the following advantages are reported, see Fig. 17 [102]:

Fig. 18. Comparison between 5-axis control and 3 + 2 axis control.

1. The overhang of the end mill can be reduced so that heavy duty cutting can be performed. 2. The faces and holes of a deep wall can be easily cut, and the machining time can be reduced.

Fig. 17. Advantages of 3 + 2 axis control machining.

Fig. 19. 5-Axis MC with tilting rotary table (Source: Okuma).

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Fig. 20. Machining of impeller.

3. Most appropriate part of the edge of the ball end mill can be utilized to cutting and therefore the cutting conditions can be optimized. 4. The JIGS and xtures can be simplied. Fig. 18 shows a comparison between 5-axis control and 3 + 2 axis control. The most popular 5-axes MC in the market is the one with tilting rotary table, or trunnion table, which has two rotary axes control of the work and conventional three linear axes control. A typical example of this type of 5-axes MC is shown in Fig. 19. Components with complex shapes including free form surfaces are machined with this type of 5-axes MC. An example of machining an impeller is shown in Fig. 20. Fig. 21 shows another example of 5axes MC and a machined compressor or turbine part for jet engines made of titanium alloy. Large structural parts made of aluminum alloy for aircraft are also machined with large 5-axes MC, such as that shown in Fig. 22. A Parallel Kinematic Machine (PKM) structure is adopted here to control the tilting motion of the spindle [66].

Fig. 22. Example of large 5-axis MC to machine structural parts for aircraft (Source: DS Technologies).

Fig. 23. An example of commercial PKM machine (Source: Okuma).

4.3. PKM machines Most parallel kinematic machines are designed to have two to six degrees of freedom of motion. An example of a commercial PKM machine is shown in Fig. 23. The linear and rotary motions of X, Y, Z, A, B and C in the Cartesian coordinate are realized by controlling the lengths of six struts L16 in this case, Fig. 24. There are also

Fig. 21. Example of 5-axis MC and machined part.

Fig. 24. Coordinate transformation of PKM machine.

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Fig. 27. Double-V parallel kinematic structure for polishing with 4-axis control. Fig. 25. An example of 4-axis control ultraprecision machine (Source: Toyoda Machine Works).

equipped with a NURBS base control unit for Fast Tool Servo turning and local corrective polishing. Fig. 27 shows the adaptive polishing module set up as a parallel kinematic structure with four degrees of freedom. Mitsuishi et al. [69] developed a 9-axes control machine tool for bone cutting. There are many other developments and contributions [32,68], but they are not described in detail in this paper. 5. Key components and supporting technologies 5.1. Feed drive Major structural components of machine tools are the structure, spindle and feed drive mechanism. Accurate and fast moving feed drives are required to improve the performance of multi-functional machine tools. There are basically two types of feed drives, one is linear and the other rotary. Table 3 summarizes how the linear and rotary motions are generated from the prime motors. The ball screw is a well-known and established mechanism to transform rotary motion of the servo motor to linear motion. The accuracy and drive speed of the ball screw have been continuously improved, and the ball screw is most widely used for the linear motion drive of multi-functional machine tools [141]. The linear motor has been introduced to machine tool drives for its advantages of high speed, high acceleration and high accuracy. The characteristic features of linear motors as compared with those of ball screw drives are reported by Pritschow in the CIRP Keynote Paper [89]. As the linear motor does not contain any mechanical parts in its driving system, the lost motion error, caused by the backlash in the case of the ball screw drive, is eliminated, therefore, the linear motor is widely adopted to precision and ultra-precision machine tools. The largest disadvantage of the linear motor at present is higher cost as compared with the ball screw. Fig. 28 shows an example of a 5-axes linear motor driven superprecision machine, which can perform milling and turning as well as complex machining of free form surfaces [116]. In order to eliminate the nonlinear friction problem of contact type guideways, non-contact type aerostatic bearings are implemented in this machine. 5.2. Rotary drive As the rotary drive becomes more important for the multifunctional machine tools, efforts have been devoted to increase its
Table 3 Mechanism of motion generation. Motor Servo motor Linear motor Servo motor Direct drive motor Transformation mechanism Rotary to linear transformation mechanism (ball screw, etc.) Speed reduction mechanism (worm gear, etc.) Motion Linear motion Linear motion Rotary motion Rotary motion

Fig. 26. Schematic illustration of 5-axis control ultraprecision machine equipped with laminarized air bearing system.

combinations of parallel and serial kinematic structures to increase the exibility of motions as shown in Fig. 22. The design features and the specic characteristics of PKM machines are reported by Weck and Stainmer in the 2002 CIRP Keynote paper [137], and therefore they are not repeated here. Some additional CIRP papers on PKMs are listed in Refs. [48,67,72,82,132,135]. 4.4. Other multi-functional machine tools Demands for multi-functional machining are increasing in the eld of precision and ultraprecision machining, as the geometry to be machined, including mathematically dened surfaces and free form surfaces, become more and more complicated and the accuracy requirement becomes tight [103,123,125,126]. Typical machining functions required are turning, y cutting, planning, milling and grinding. On-machine measuring functions are also required in most of the cases to perform additional corrective cutting to guarantee the required accuracy and surface roughness. Fig. 25 shows an example of 4-axes control untraprecision machine, which can machine dies and molds with axi-symmetric shapes as well as free form by turning and planning. It is equipped with on-machine prole measuring and tool positioning devices. The machine can also perform grinding with the use of a grinding spindle attached to the B-axis table. Most of the ultraprecision machine tools are equipped with hydrostatic bearing or air bearing spindles, and hydrostatic oil or air bearing for linear guide ways to guarantee extremely high motion accuracy. Kawai et al. [47] developed a unique air bearing system to laminarize the air ow by a design change and mirror surface nish of the air ducts and bearings. The microvibration of the air bearing system is eliminated by suppressing the turbulence of air ow, and the machining accuracy and the surface roughness are much improved. Fig. 26 shows a schematic illustration of a 5axes control ultraprecision machine equipped with a laminarized air bearing system. Brecher et al. [18] developed an ultraprecision free form machining system for optical components. The machine is

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Fig. 29. Example of rotary table driven by direct drive motor.

maximum rotational speeds of 20,00030,000 min1. Some special machine spindles have a maximum rotational speed up to 100,000 min1. The maximum DmN value of such spindles reach 2,000,000. The machine tool structures are also designed appropriately for high speed machining [112]. 5.4. CAM software As the variety of machining processes and the number of control axes are increased, the supporting CAM software becomes more important to efciently run the multi-functional machine tools [115]. The items which require further development are: 1. tool path or cutter path generation; 2. control of simultaneous cutting; 3. selection of proper machining method; 4. collision avoidance; 5. tool posture control; 6. post processing. Several CAM software packages for general purpose or for specic applications are available in the market, which are provided by CAM vendors and also machine tool manufacturers. However, as compared to the advancement of machine tool hardware, the development of software for multi-functional machining is still behind. The ultimate goal of CAM software will be to generate the NC program directly from CAD data. Attempts are also being made to machine sculptured surfaces directly from CAD data by introducing a concept of digital copy milling [111]. 5.5. Control technology The control technology plays an important role in the design and implementation of multi-functional machine tools. Various kinds of control technologies for advanced high speed, and high accuracy feed control have been developed, which are summarized in 1992 CIRP keynote paper by Koren and Lo [54]. In order to increase exibility in the design of machine tool controllers, the open controller architecture is also an important issue. The technologies of open controller architecture were surveyed and summarized by Pritschow et al. in his 2001 CIRP Keynote paper [91]. Recent advances in the control technologies and the controller architecture, which appear in the Annals of the CIRP are summarized in Refs. [5,6,16,24,29,73,88,90,92,93,118,119,131,142,146]. The architecture of a CNC system is depicted in Fig. 30, which shows a virtual model of trajectory generation and control of axes positions, prepared by Altintas et al. in their 2005 CIRP Keynote

Fig. 28. Example of 5-axis linear motor driven super-precision machine.

performances in terms of speed, power and accuracy. The required functions and specications of rotary axes are summarized in Table 4 [51]. In the past, the rotary table was mostly driven by a servo motor via worm gear or some other speed reduction mechanism in order to obtain enough driving torque. It is however difcult to obtain enough speed by the mechanical speed reduction mechanism required for current machine tools, and it is also difcult to eliminate the motion error caused by the friction and the backlash. Efforts have been devoted to develop a direct drive motor [87] to drive the rotary axis of a machine tool with high driving torque, high accuracy and stability for a long operation time [52]. Mori et al. [74] developed a direct drive motor for versatile machine tool systems based on a design methodology, called the Taguchi method, and computer simulation. An example of a rotary table driven by a direct drive motor is schematically shown in Fig. 29, which has a maximum rotational speed of 100 min1 with 3.5 kW power. 5.3. High speed spindle High speed machining is always an important issue for high productive machining. In addition, when machining sculptured surfaces or free form surfaces, ball end mills with a small diameter are commonly used for nishing. Many of the multi-functional machine tools are equipped with high speed spindles with direct drive motors. The maximum rotational speed of the main spindle has been continuously increasing thanks to the efforts for R&D in this eld [19,44,136,137,138]. Many of the high speed machining centers are currently equipped with high speed spindles with
Table 4 Functions and specications of rotary axis. Indexing Rotational speed (min1) Rated torque Torque ripple Medium up to 100 Low

Contouring Low up to 50 Medium As low as possible

Turning High 500 or more High As low as possible

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Fig. 30. Virtual model of trajectory generation and axes control.

paper on virtual machine tools [9]. Once the CAD data are given, CAM software generates the CL data which are further transformed to motion commands of individual axes, Fig. 31. Algorithms and software are developed in order to meet requirements for high performance multi-axes interpolation [55,58,59]. Geometric modeling and interpolation to generate tool paths for complicated geometry, such as free form surface or sculptured surfaces are important issues and researches have been continued [25,36,38,63,101,120,121]. Well-known interpolation methods called NURBS [53] or B-spline [144] are applied. One of the issues to be discussed from a practical point of view, concerning the CNC controllers for multi-functional machine tools, is maximum number of axes of simultaneous control. The CNC controllers currently available in the market can control up to 24 axes simultaneously with maximum 10 path control [117], which seems to be sufcient for control of most of the multi-functional machine tools. The other issues are speed and accuracy or resolution of axis and path control. The resolution of motion control of commercially available CNC controllers for precision machine tools is one micro-meter, and special CNC controllers with nanometer resolution for the interpolation are already available in the market. Some of the CNC controllers can read up to 1000 blocks of NC command in advance to determine the optimum speed of each axis so that the speed, speed difference between blocks, acceleration and jerk of each axis do not exceed the permissible values. The acceleration/decelerations are carried out to achieve the target speed and control the motion smoothly at high speed without shock or vibration. One of the challenges in multi-functional machine tool control is to generate jerk and acceleration trajectory proles both along the tool path as well as at the axis level. Any

discontinuity in the trajectory prole would excite the natural modes of the machine tool structure during acceleration, and leave vibration marks on the nish surface. Efforts have been made to smooth the trajectory prole using high order polynomials without violating the velocity, acceleration and jerk limits of the simultaneously moving drives. 5.6. Cutting technology When milling complex shaped surfaces with cavities or sculptured surfaces, the geometry and the orientation of the cutter to the machined surface becomes critical. The cutter may interfere with the surface to be machined if the center point of the cutter edge simply follow the surface to be machined [60]. The cutting speed is practically zero at the end point of ball end mill, and therefore it is recommended to practically cut with curved edge. This means that there exists a proper range of the angle of the cutter axis to the machined surface. The NC programming of sculptured surfaces by 5-axes control must take into consideration the cutting edge movement and the tool orientation [11,65,70,71]. Takeuchi et al. [124] proposes to machine sculptured surfaces by planning under simultaneous 6-axes control. In order to improve the productivity of multi-axes MC or TC, the cutting conditions as well as the cutter path must be optimized without sacricing the machining accuracy [7,17,94,133]. In the case of end milling, the cutting force plays an important role to determine the cutting conditions [23,61,83,84], as the end mills are easily deformed by the cutting force and sometimes chatter vibration may arise. Budak et al. [21] developed a force-based feedrate scheduling algorithm and improved cycle time in sculptured surface machining. Similar approaches are taken to control the feed rate [28]. The chatter vibration is a serious problem in high speed end milling, especially when machining with end mills of small diameter and long overhang. The fundamental theory of selfexcited chatter vibration in milling was claried by Tlusty et al. [127], Smith and Tlusty [113] and Altintas and Budak [4]. The chatter stability limit can now be predicted, based on the structural dynamics of the machine measured and the cutting force coefcient. The dynamic testing of the machine including the cutting tool and the work is now becoming common practice on the shop oor when the chatter vibration is a critical problem such as the case of proling with long slender end mills at high speeds. The accumulated knowledge and information concerning the chatter vibration in cutting and grinding are summarized by Altintas and Weck in the 2004 CIRP keynote paper [8]. Further information is listed in the references [1,10,22,33,143]. However,

Fig. 31. Coordinate transformation in CNC system.

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Fig. 32. Collision avoidance system based on simulation (Source: Okuma).

there has not been much research for chatter stability models when more than one operation is carried out simultaneously on multi-functional machine tools. 5.7. NC program verication and collision avoidance Verication of NC programs is always challenging especially when the variety of machining processes and the number of control axes are increased [62,145]. In order to avoid the collisions between the tool, the work, the chuck, the jigs and xtures and the machine, Rehsteiner et al. [96] and Takeuchi et al. [122] developed algorithms for collision-free tool path generation for 5-axes machining. As virtual machine tool technology [9] based on real time simulation has been much advanced, the verication of NC programmes and avoidance of collision are becoming much easier in recent years. Okuma developed a real time machine tool simulator, taking into consideration the geometrical changes of the work by machining, which is run in synchronization with actual machining. The machine is automatically stopped just before the actual collision by referring to the simulation, which runs slightly ahead of actual machining, Fig. 32. 6. Assessment of multi-functional machine tools 6.1. Evaluation of geometrical and motion accuracy As was mentioned earlier, fundamental researches have been carried out to evaluate the accuracy of machine tools [25,27,31].

However, it is not easy to actually measure the accuracy of machine tools. In the past, the motion errors of individual axis, such as those of linear motion or rotary motion were measured independently to evaluate the accuracy of a machine tool. Technologies are being developed recently to evaluate the accuracy of multi-functional or multi-axes machine tools, especially 5-axes MC, as it is most widely used in practice [20,50,129]. Testing and evaluation of rotary motion in connection with other linear motions are important in this case [49,64]. Let us take the case of the most popular type of 5-axes MC, one shown in Fig. 6 but without B-axis [130]. When the rotary axes, A and C are used in combination with linear axes, X and Y, the position and the orientation of the rotary axes must be known accurately, as these parameters strongly inuence the accuracy of the machined work. According to Inasaki et al. [41], there are eight sources of error or geometric deviation, or aAY, bAY, gAY, bCA, dxAY, dyAY, dzAY and dyCA in this case as shown in Fig. 33. Among the eight deviations, three deviations dxAY, dyAY and dzAY, which dene the relative deviation of the origin of Aaxis coordinate to the machine coordinate, can be adjusted by the CNC. The angular deviation aAY corresponds to the initial angular position of rotation of the A-axis, and it can be adjusted. The remaining four deviations must be identied and compensated later. In addition, there are also errors associated with rotations around A- and C-axis. The well-known double-ball bar technique, proposed by Bryan, has been widely applied to evaluate the motion accuracy of machine tools [46,98]. It has been extended to evaluate the motion error in simultaneous 4- and 3-axes control motions [99,100]. The ball bar detects the displacement or error only in the direction parallel to the axis of the telescopic bar and does not account for the displacement in the other directions, and hence the error component along the sensitive direction can only be detected when the attitude of the ball bar axis is kept constant. Figs. 34 and 35 show the sensitive directions of measurement of the ball bar during simultaneous 3 axes control motion of Y, Z and A and also X, Y and C, respectively [130].

Fig. 33. Denition of coordinate system and eight deviations.

Fig. 34. Sensitive directions of ball bar in simultaneous 3-axis motion of Y, Z and A.

T. Moriwaki / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 736749 Table 5 Required machining time and productivity increase of new machine. Machine type Machine price Sample work 2-Axis lathe 6.5 Million yen Multi-axis turning machine 18 Million yen

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4-Axis lathe 19.25 Million yen

Machining time of existing machine (TWl) Required machining time of new machine (TWm) Required productivity increase (TWl/TWm)

188 s 123 s 1.5 times

727 s 559 s 1.3 times

970 s 843 s 1.15 times

7. Conclusions Multi-functional machine tools for metal cutting and their related technologies are surveyed together with their historical review. They are basically classied into two types of turning center (TC) based, and milling machine (MC) based. Some of the machines have a combined structure of the two. Various kinds of multi-functional machine tools have been developed and put into practical use in the past to meet specic purposes or demands of customers. However, there is still not a rational and systematic methodology to determine the conguration of the machine. Effort must be devoted to develop a scientic methodology to design new multi-functional machine tools as their demand is still increasing in order to machine complicated and difcult parts at higher speed with higher accuracy. The control technology is the key issue to run the multifunctional machine tools effectively and accurately. The virtual machine tool technology is expected to play an important role to support advancement of the collision free tool path and simultaneous control of multiple drives. CAM software and the supporting technologies, such as NC programming and collision avoidance, are important from the practical point of view, and further efforts are needed to develop these technologies. Last but not least, is the technology to measure and evaluate the motion error of the multi-functional machine tools. As the number of axes of simultaneous control increases, it becomes extremely difcult to measure the motion error of the machine, especially when the linear and rotary motions are combined. Further research in this eld is also needed. Acknowledgements The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Prof. Y. Altintas, Prof. E. Abele, Prof. C. Brecher, Dr. M. Fujishima, Dr. W. Knapp, Dr. D. G. McIntosh, Dr. M. Mori, Prof. S. Shimizu, H. Shinno, Prof. A. Verl, Prof. K. Weinert, Dr. B. Winfough and all colleagues and industrial partners who sent valuable contributions to prepare the article.

Fig. 35. Sensitive directions of ball bar in simultaneous 3-axis motion of X, Y and C.

Weikert [139] developed a new device named, R-test to measure X, Y, Z deviations of circular and spherical movements simultaneously on continuous paths, and applied it to calibrate parameter errors like backlash, positioning error, squareness, parallelism, etc. Researches are also carried out to evaluate the accuracy of the PKM machines [39,85] and effects of thermal deformation [106]. Calibration of machine tools [13] and error compensation in multi-axis controlled machining [133] are also important issues [128]. The geometric error measurement and error compensation of machines are reported in the 2008 CIRP Keynote paper [104]. 6.2. Economical justication It is well understood that parts, even with complicated geometry, can be machined much more accurately and much faster by multi-functional machine tools. It is claimed that most of the time reduction obtained by introducing multi-functional machine tools comes from elimination of re-loading of the work from one machine to the other, or from one position to the other, and also reduction of the measuring time. The machining time including the idle time, such as the tool change time and the rapid traverse, should also be shortened for a highly productive multifunctional machine tool. Such advantages of the multi-functional machine tool must be economically justied if one should replace existing machines or machining systems with a multi-functional machine tool. In order to determine specications for a new multi-axes machine tool to be developed, Nakaminami et al. [80] calculated the requirement of productivity increase for the new machine as compared with the existing machines taking into account the market prices. Table 5 compares estimated machining times of current machines and the required machining times for corresponding new machines for sample parts shown in the table. It was assumed that the sum of the machine costs and the operation cost for the predetermined period is equal for both cases. It is understood from the table that the new machine to be developed must have a 1.5 times productivity increase in the machining time as compared with the existing 2-axes lathe. The required productivity increase is 1.3 times in the cases of multi-axes turning machine, and 1.15 times in the case of 4-axes lathe, respectively. They also estimated necessary improvements in the specication, such as rapid feed speed, feed speed and tool change time, for the new machine to be justied economically.

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