Mass Media In India Development Journalism Community Media Television Media Of Communication Folk Arts And Traditional Media

For Development Alternative Media Rural Development (New Technologies) Social Movements Right To Information Campaign Narmada Bachao Andolan Social Mobilization

MASS MEDIA IN INDIA In the advanced western countries, the Communication Revolution had not preceded but followed the industrial Revolution. Western societies had become advanced industrial and urban societies when the communication revolution happened. This revolution was symbolized by the Radio and Television and other new ways of passing ideas, information, attitudes, images from person to person The importance of the role of communication for national development was underscored in India even prior to her independence. The Indian National Congress while formulating policies for National Development for Independent India set up a Sub-committee on Communication under the National Planning Committee to offer recommendations for development of communication for independent India. After independence of the country in 1947, the new Indian government announced a development-oriented agenda of governance dedicated to the amelioration of the economic, educational, and health conditions of the people. With the target of Development Communication, the new government adopted the recommendations of the erstwhile National Planning Committee as the mainstay of its communication policies. The issue of using modern communication acquired high priority as a developmental resource during the Nehru era when the planners explored the prospects of using radio as a development agent, that is, for information and enlightening the people in the countryside and towns on developmental issue Nehru was hesitant of introducing television in India as he was apprehensive that it will be monopolized by the middle class rather than be of use for the development of the masses. Nehru believed that a poor country like India could ill afford the extravagance of television. But post Nehruvian era, the thrust began to change, visionary scientists like Vikram Sarabhai argued that India needs all possible technological know - how to reduce all round development. Sarabhai famously said: Our national goals involve leap-frogging from a state of economic backwardness and social disabilities attempting to achieve in a few decades a change which was incidentally taken centuries in other countries and in other lands. This involves innovation at all levels. Sarabhai argued on this premise that television be given special priority for accelerating national development. He believed that technology can help set a national agenda for

implementing schemes of economic and social developmentit is of particular significance for population living in isolated rural countries Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was supportive of Sarabhais ideas and it culminated in the launching of the momentous Satellite Instructional Television Experiment in 1975-76 from the Space Application Centre located at Ahmedabad. It started beaming development oriented programmes to 2400 Indian Villages, the software were designed according to the socio cultural specificities of the areas concerned. It was a path breaking experiment in the field of development communication not only in India but also for the whole world. Till then Radio and television was considered an instrument of entertainment for the elite. And this was a new effort in utilizing both the media for Development Support Communication. These experiments were revolutionary in character as market forces would never have taken TV sets to many of these villages and most certainly not to the houses of the poor and the marginalised--- the most information needy. This means was high technology (a direct broadcast satellite and a direct reception system) and the configuration was need-based. Accepting that the western world used the new technology and innovation to spread consumer culture, Nehru urged upon the scientists and the technologists to bend the same technology to achieve the Gandhian task of ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity. During the days of Indira Gandhi the infrastructure for television communication received a major boost. Between the years 1984-85 over 120 television transmitters were installed in India. But as is a typical Indian trait, the SITE experiment in the Kheda district died a silent death with Sarabhai. The Kheda Project itself was wound up under tremendous pressure of the new rural middle class which was carried away by the glitter and glamour of the new television software With the impending globalization of the media the question of ownership pattern and issues became a very important topic of deliberation. In fact this issue was much thought about even during the days of Nehru. Nehru showed an unambiguous indication of predilection towards the BBC style of autonomy. On a speech delivered on freedom of information on March 5, 1962 Nehru said The mass media which are very useful have an element of danger in them in that they may be distorted for private aim. The rich group (inside) or the rich nation (outside) can flood the country and the world through the mass media with its own view of things which may or may not be correct view. These words had turned out to be ominously true in the present world. Because after India adopted neo-liberal economic policies in early 1990s, the communication policies underwent a drastic change. The state-controlled media agencies, viz., All India Radio and Doordarshan (national television network), till then dedicated more to the objective of public welfare, were asked to generate their own revenue. Both Radio and Television were laid open to private players. TRP and RAM started dictating the terms of popularity and hence advertisement revenue. Television was the major victim of this market oriented media policy. Slowly, the villages started disappearing from the visual media. So did the issues inflicting the marginalized rural population. Whatever rural flavour was left in Radio was the run of the mill, very stale and unimaginative. However, it is not that urban India was realistically represented; it was more of a conjecture with no specific geographical root. Development Communication Using Various Media: The history of development communication in India can be traced to rural radio broadcasts in the 1940s in different languages.

Have you ever heard a rural programme on radio? If you come from a rural area, you probably would have heard.People who present these programmes speak in a language or dialect that the people in your area speak. The programmes may be about farming and related subjects. The programme may comprise of interviews with experts, officials and farmers, folk songs and information about weather, market rates, availability of improved seeds and implements. There would also be programmes on related fields. During the 1950s, the government started huge developmental programmes throughout the country.In fact, when Doordarshan started on 15th September 1959, it was concentrating only on programmes on agriculture. Many of you might have seen the Krishi Darshan programme on Doordarshan. Later in 1975, when India used satellites for telecasting television programmes in what is known as SITE (Satellite Instructional Television Experiment), the programmes on education and development were made available to 2400 villages in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. As far as the print media is concerned, after Independence when the Five Year Plans were initiated by the government for planned development, it was the newspapers which gave great importance to development themes. They wrote on various government development programmes and how the people could make use of them. If the print media have contributed to development communication, the electronic media radio and television especially All India Radio and Doordarshan have spread messages on development as the main part of their broadcasts. However, amongst all the media that are used for development communication, traditional media are the closest to people who need messages of development like the farmers and workers. Such forms of media are participatory and effective. You may have seen construction workers cooking their meal of dal and rice over open fires in front of their tents set up temporarily on the roadside. They need to be educated about the values of balanced nutrition, cleanliness, hygiene and water and sanitation. Have you wondered how messages on such issues are communicated? In various parts of India, groups of volunteers use street theatre as a medium for development communication. This is done through humorous skits and plays through which the importance of literacy, hygiene etc. are enacted. The content for the skits is drawn from the audiences life. For example, they are told about balanced nutrition . This means supplementing their staple diet of dal and rice with green leafy vegetables known to cure night blindness, an ailment common among construction workers. Similarly, female construction workers and their children are taught how to read and write. However, problems in communicating a message in an effective way has been a matter of concern to development workers. How can people be taught new skills at a low cost? What would be a good way to deal with sensitive topics such as health issues? How can complicated new research, like that in agriculture for example, be simplified so that ordinary people can benefit? One option has been the use of comics. But, in order to achieve the desired results, these comics should be created locally. But what are comics? You must have all at some point of time read a comic. Comics involve story telling using visuals which must follow local ideas and culture in order to be understood correctly by people.

The important thing about comics is that they are made by people on their own issues in their own language. So, readers find them closer to their day-to-day lives. Programmes are organized in the remote areas of Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, and the North East to provide training to rural communicators to enable them to use comics in development communication. Information on sensitive health issues such as HIV/AIDS has been communicated through the medium of comics in several states. However, you must understand that development communication using various media is possible only with the active involvement of the following: (i) Development agencies like departments of agriculture. (ii) Voluntary organizations (iii)Concerned citizens (iv) Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Whenever we speak about development, the contribution of voluntary groups, concerned citizens and non-governmental organizations cannot be ignored. Actually these groups help the government in implementing development programmes. Of course the government, both central and state have various departments to reach out to people on various issues. The NGOs undertake studies, conduct research and develop appropriate messages for spreading awareness on various issues pertaining to development. Core Areas of Development You must know that the basic purpose of development is to enlarge peoples choices and create an environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives. Let us list some of the core areas of development: Agriculture, Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, Food Security, Communication, Irrigation, Public Works, Employment, Environment, Ecology, Income generation activities, Education, Health and Sanitation, Family welfare etc. Role of the state controlled Media in Health Communication: All India Radio had been the forerunner in the process of implementing Communication strategy being adopted by the government. The Radio Rural Forum experiment was conducted by the All India Radio at Poona during 1956. The project covered 156 villages where listening and discussion groups were organized in each of the selected villages. A programme of thirty minutes duration was broadcast on two days in a week covering agriculture and allied subjects to help promote rural development. Prof. Paul Neurath on behalf of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences conducted an evaluation study, and came out with interesting results: (1) The radio is very suitable medium to communicate with rural audience and to spread the message of development. (2) A majority of the listeners appreciated the value of the messages. The Farm and Home units were subsequently established at many AIR stations to provide wider support to the Integrated Agriculture Development Programme (IADP). The contribution of the radio is widely acknowledged by farm scientists in increasing agriculture production and achieving a green revolution. Similar attempt was taken in respect of the Family Welfare programme. Till date All India Radio has its Family welfare programmes broadcast everyday focusing on the various government schemes. The government controlled media has been more or less toeing a centralized form of communication. AIR (All India Radio) during its initial days formulated its communication policies in Delhi and got it translated to the various languages for dissemination. The irony was that it never even looked at the regional variations of the problems. To cite an example, every year, the government observes the first week of August as Breast Feeding week to emphasise

on the importance of Breast Feeding for the new born as well as the lactating mother. The government media goes overboard with the campaign. Whereas, in India the people of the Northeastern part needs no campaign as all mothers breast feed their babies instinctively. Hence spending so much of valuable transmission time on such campaigns for these areas could never elicit any result. However no such knowledge level is decipherable in the annual orders that are sent to all the AIR stations about such campaigns. The state controlled television, Doordarshan, which has a very wide coverage area too has its programmes designed for health and family welfare too suffer from the same affliction. The most tragic development is that, such a huge public service broadcasting infrastructure right now is almost redundant and non- functional. The ministries of the central and state governments engaged in nation building and development tasks seem to create neither any communication apparatus within their own ministries nor do they make demands on the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB) for information and communication support adequate to the needs of policy formulation or implementation. The MIB is far from playing the role of a true communicating link within the government and between the government and the people in nation-building activities. DEVELOPMENT JOURNALISM Development journalist is related to communication used for the purpose of development of human beings, individuals, or society as a whole. Coined in 1968 at press foundation of Asia conference in the Phillipines, the term refers to the press's cataytic role in the socio-economics development in developing countries. A western views, however is suspicious of this kind of journalism. Seeing at its means by which the state can with hold information that it contents may affect growth. Both a way of empowerment and propaganda. Development journalism covers both urban and rural poverty, the environment, agriculture, health and sanitation, gender issues, infrastructure, road safety, education, innovation, human rights etc. Skills required for Development Journalism:1) Excellent communication skills. 2) Good interpersonal skills. 3) Good general Knowledge and awareness. 4) Ability to pitch story to TV/newspapers. Pros and Cons for Development Journalism:5) Satisfying work, as it touches lives. 6) A high responsibility job. Your work can influence the reader. 7) Tight deadlines 8) Relatively low pay. 9) Limited job options. 10) You may have to travel in remote places. 11) You have risk your life. COMMUNITY MEDIA Community media is any form of media that is created and controlled by a community, either a geographic community or a community of identity or interest. Community media is separate from commercial media, state run media, or public broadcasters. The fundamental premise is to engage those groups that are categorically excluded and marginalized from the media making

process. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, The World Bank, and The European Commission recognize community media as a crucial element in a vibrant and democratic media system. Definition Community media is described by Rennie, in a broad sense, as "community communication." Fundamentally, it is elusive to define the term in an absolute manner because it can take so many forms, be applied by so many different groups of people, and be directed at such a wide range of issues. The premise, however, that community media is a facilitative tool for discussion and engagement of the ordinary citizenry has some inherent implications. A major implication is that community media is for the most part independent of the market-driven commercial and mainstream media outlets. This, in turn, allows for different models of community media to offer either a wide open editorial policy or a more fine-tuned approach that is still loyal to the encouragement of community participation. Key characteristics Community media is without market influences. Different groups of community media makers may follow this philosophy more strictly than others. Rennie (2006) points out that although there is a clear aversion to engage with commercial forces in the production of community media for obvious reasons, there may be times when some market interaction is desirable. Essentially, this can serve as a means by which to avoid self-marginalization while still adhering to the principles of community interests and social objectives. Community media is a form in which local news and information is spread directly to affected communities. The consolidation of ownership of media outlets into fewer and fewer hands has translated into a neglect for local reporting of news that impacts communities. Community media can be a remedy to this by allowing citizens to inform themselves about the issues taking place around them. Community media outlets reflect their communities. They become integral to the communities which they serve. Such integration is achieved not only through ensuring their independence from commercial interests as referred to above, but also though ensuring their accountability to the particular community concerned. Often such accountability goes beyond the provision of opportunities to get involved in the operation and management of the service and takes the form of community ownership within a legally constituted non-profit distributing structure. When community media accountability works effectively, it ensures that the organisation concerned genuinely reflects the needs and aspirations of its community. Although in practice it may be arguable that no accountability structure can fully reflect such needs and aspirations (not least because some of these might be mutually exclusive) independence and agreed formalized structures for accountability and access can at least form a useful starting point in efforts to create the most appropriate community media vehicle for the community involved. There is an important distinction between community media as a whole and grassroots media. Community media can be a form of direct local level media; however, it also can be framed around a local issue pertaining to a community whose parameters can be national, international, and even global. Grassroots media on the other hand, as defined by Paul Riismandel of Mediageek, is focused more specifically on media making by and for the local community that it serves making the discussion more narrow and precise. There are a variety of other forms of media that may in some cases follow the community media model of access and participation but may have different social, political, and organizational strategies. Some of these

forms of non-mass mediated forms of communication include alternative media, radical media, democratic media, participatory media, development media, and citizen media. Citizens' media, in particular, has some interesting characteristics. It is essentially a re-framing of community media by Clemencia Rodriguez that focuses on small scale media projects that look to bring different visions and perspectives to the "codes" that are so easily embedded in the social psyche. All of these variations and different focuses allude to another key characteristic of community media in its broader perspective; geographic scope. Modes of community media Community media is bound only by the limits of creativity and of course accessibility to resources and spectrum. Probably the first mode that is envisioned is content created for television. PEG Access centers are still a viable option that offer an arena for citizens to produce, for example, a documentary or local news program and disseminate it to the community. PEG Access centers are provided through local franchise agreements between local municipalities and cable (and more recently telco) companies. Although an accessible resource in terms of equipment, training, and spectrum, public access centers are under attack by the telco and cableco companies to set new standards in franchise negotiations. Satellite television has a long history and the technology has advanced to a point where it provides a residential alternative to cable and broadcasting services. While the services are similar, satellite TV opens up another avenue for community media content and productions. In particular, Free Speech TV offers a variety of programming with direct and tangible community media possibilities. Radio has a long history in allowing communities to rally around various issues and provide a democratic and participatory platform of news information. Like television, radio is also subject to licensing requirements and spectrum availability. Radio is the most widespread electronic communications device in the world and community radio is a practical and cost-effective means of reaching and connecting the world's poorest communities. While many low power and microradio stations comply with the rules and regulations, other vibrant and vital stations have operated illegally only to be shut down by the FCC eventually. Low-power television (LPTV) which was created in 1982 to give spectrum space for local programing is in some instances a form of community media. LPTV stations also often simply supply retransmission signals from the major networks, but they are a potential community media outlet. The introduction of digitized technology has created obstacles for both LPTV as well microradio due to the loss of spectrum availabity during periods of conversion. It remains to be seen how the switch from analog to digital will play out regarding community media. The mode of community media that bypasses legal obstacles is print media. No special licensing is required to produce fanzines, newsletters, leaflets, etc. In societies where press freedoms are more repressed, print mediums may face some distributive challenges, but, given their underground nature, DIY projects find ways to reach the particular community often at relatively large scales. Similar to satellite technology, the advancement of the digital environment that puts media production hardware, software, and equipment in the hands of the amateur consumer facilitates a virtual world of community expression. Essentially, the Internet is a space for the digital propagation of the aforementioned modalities of community media. For example, groups, organizations, and individuals can create video, audio, and text and graphics based media, upload it to the Internet, network it, and ultimately spark discussion, interaction, and real-life activities. Some examples are vlogs, blogs, audio and video podcasts, websites, and video and audio

streaming. Rennie (2006) points out that the intitial discourse around Internet technology emphasized the important potential for democracy and participation within global and real-time contexts. This "cyberdemocracy" was premised on the direct relationship between technology and the growth of civil society. Clearly, in terms of community media, the implications were (and still are) exciting. The initial discourse, however, has been complicated by the market and commercial forces that threaten to alter the democratic and open virtual environment of the Internet into one targeted on consumption and profit. Obviously, this would change the strategies of community media on the Internet and make it even more vital as a countervailing influence. The role of policy Historically, communications policy has had direct consequences for community media. The future of the various modes of community media are largely dependent on the path that legislation takes. The main theme of community media in whatever form it is created is access and participation. Policy can be written in ways that are conducive to the strengthening of these democratic principles while also, conversely, be enacted as barriers to the enhancement of civic society as it pertains to media. Rennie (2006) points out that community radio and television have consistently been in a binary position to the "dominant cultural policy objectives." For example, public access television in the United States has throughout its history been linked to policy. From its earliest form as community antenna television (CATV), the relationship between the FCC, the cable industry, the National Association of Broadcasters, and local municipalities and citizens can be likened to a roller coaster ride. The FCC recognized the public interest implications of public access television and in 1969 ordered cable companies to transmit their own programming as well as begin experimenting with community access channels. A downside of public access developing with a focus on the local is the lack of a national vision in terms of policy which consequently left ambiguity around community media as a whole. In 1972 the FCC issued a Report and Order that sought to guide the role of the cable industry towards the benefit of the public interest. In addition, the new cable rules gave the FCC regulatory powers, set up the franchise agreement negotiations to be worked out by local governments and cable companies, and also via national policy mandated the setting aside of up to three channels for PEG use. The Supreme Court reversed this legally in 1979 when suit was brought by the Midwest Video Corporation arguing that their editorial right was being infringed upon. At the congressional and municipal levels, however, access remained mandated. The Cable Television Consumer Protection Act of 1992 did indeed restore cable companies' editorial control as it pertains to indecent material. A clause in the act allows " cable television operators who by law have no say in access programming decisions - to ban "indecent" or "obscene" material, or " material soliciting or promoting unlawful conduct." Many access providers fear that cable operators - who have often considered access a thorn in their side - could use this clause to meddle with and possibly even shut down access centers. There has been little publicized evidence of what First Amendment freedoms are presently at risk. From these examples it is clear that policy has a great influence on community media. The Telecommunications Act of 1996, the beaten back proposals of the Chairperson Powell version of the FCC in 2003, and the recent legislation in the House of Representatives that succumbed to a congressional mid-term power shift are other examples of the role policy can play in the community media reality. Currently, the legislative battles are particularly consequential to the community sphere. Some of the key issues that are on the table today that have potentially dire consequences for community media include video franchise reform, community internet,

network neutrality, and the continued trend of media consolidation. The shape that policy takes as well as the level of activism and grassroots organizing will be vital to the future of community media in the United States and the rest of the world. The digital era has enormous possibilities for civil society and democracy building. The activist issues are all interconnected and must be safeguarded in terms of access and participation so that the tools of community media are not usurped by the dominant social forces and rendered irrelevant. TELEVISION MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION Television is the powerful media of communication, education and entertainment. The penetration of television in urban areas is nearly 100%. Even in rural areas almost every household has access to television. In India there are nearly 100 television channels are available to the urban community and around 10 are available to the rural community. Though their main theme/content is entertainment and communication, they disseminate sufficient information on governance, agriculture practice, livelihood options, health services, practices and several others which are useful to citizens. Government owned Doordarsan has local language channels in every state and also several satellite based channels dedicated to news, parliament and education etc. the Doordarsan transmission is available through the regional transmitters located every 40 to 50 Kms. Private television channels are totally based on satellite transmission. Usually in urban areas are in big villages entrepreneurs are cable operators receive various channels through large dish antennas, receiver sets and then supply this through a cable to the households. The cable operators supply as many channels and charge monthly fee from the households. In big rural areas the pattern is followed in small scale with limited channels. However each household gets most of the popular local channels. There are nearly 10 satellite channels in Telugu language.

FOLK ARTS AND TRADITIONAL MEDIA FOR DEVELOPMENT The urge to express, communicate, and share something beautiful gave birth to performing arts such as folk and traditional media. In the process, the living progressive impulse to the timeless universal got a coherent shape in creative designs. Folk performing arts have changed structure continuously over centuries, modifying to the needs of changing situations, yet continuing to be functionally relevant to society. "Tradition" suggests a process of the transmission of age-old values and the contextual manifestation and interpretation of the universal. Tradition is not only a repetitive behavioural pattern or some persistent symbol or motif in community culture; it is also an assertion of an identity, a revival and regeneration of the life- force of the community. Traditional media rely on this cultural support and context. 90% of the world's population lives in developing countries and 70% of them live in rural areas. Mass media such as newspapers, television, and the internet do not effectively reach these people, or as many research studies show, these media do not have the required impact in terms of motivating change and development. The high rate of illiteracy added to the inadequate reach of mass media impede almost 80% of India's population who reside in the rural areas. Folk arts and traditional media are the aesthetic components of the concepts of belonging and affinity in a

cultural context. In traditional societies, art is an integral part of the process of living in the community. For social change and development, what is required is a change in the beliefs and the value systems of individuals, thus making them more adaptive and responsive to organic evolution and growth. The role of the development communicator is to find communicative ways to influence these beliefs and value systems. The communication potential of Indian traditional performing arts has been proven time and again throughout history: Alha, the popular ballad of Uttar Pradesh, and its counterparts like Laavani of Maharashtra, Gee-gee of Karnataka, Villupaattu of Tamil Nadu, and Kabigan of Bengal (which changed their content and focus depending on the contemporary need), were effective in arousing the conscience of the people against the colonial rule of the British; traditional media became effective in the many political and social campaigns launched by Mahatma Gandhi; and, after independence, the Union government continued to utilise these traditional performing arts to convey messages and generate awareness of development programmes in the rural areas. Unlike Western theatre, folk performance is a composite art in India; it is a fusion of elements from music, dance, pantomimes, versification, spic and ballad recitation, graphic and plastic arts, and religious and festival pageantry. It encompasses ceremonial rituals, beliefs and social value systems. It has deep religious and ritualistic overtones and it can project social life, secular themes, and universal values. One type of folk art, puppetry, is indigenous to India; from time immemorial, it has been a popular and appreciated form of entertainment throughout India. The stylised vocabulary of puppet theatre in India carries relevant messages of social awareness, historical and traditional identity, and moral value systems. Puppet theatre is fully integrated in the ritual observances and the social milieu of the rural people in India. Puppet theatre has shown remarkable staying power as societies have changed. The 1974 New Delhi seminar of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) focused specifically on the potential of the various forms of traditional media and the technique of their production as well as their integration with mass media for motivational purposes. This particular seminar was notable because it generated a number of guiding principles on how to use traditional or folk media for motivational purposes and for promoting development programmes. Folk media should be an integral part of any communication programme for rural development. Wherever possible, these should be integrated with mass media but in all cases, integration with ongoing extension work is vital. The prerequisites to the use of folk media are: i) an understanding of the rural audience; and ii) the use of these media to provide rural people with entertainment in order to attract their attention and to ensure their participation in developmental activities. The significance of folk arts in social and political communication was felt and recognised by Jawaharlal Nehru who once said, "I am greatly interested in the development of a people's theatre in Ind ia. I think there is a great room for it, provided it is based on the people and their traditions. Otherwise it is likely to function in the air. It is a people's approach. Nevertheless, I think an effort should be made in the direction." (IPTA bulletin, 1943). For example, in the 1940s, the traditional theatre of Bengal became a symbol for the anticolonial struggle, and the Bengali elite who had previously ignored or denigrated traditional theatre began to give importance to these performing arts. Rabindranath Tagore and others advocated the use of traditional theatre in programmes of cultural revival and anti-colonial protest in the context of rural fairs and festivals. In the 1920s the playwright Mukunda Das transformed the rural folk form of Jatra, which had earlier dealt with historical or mythological

themes, and created a new form of Swadeshi or Nationalist Jatra which dealt with contemporary themes of colonial injustice, caste oppression and feudal exploitation. The colonial government sent him to prison. The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) was formed at this same time. This operated all over India but its strongest contingent was in Bengal. In 1943, during the Bengal famine in which five million people starved to death, the Bengal IPTA troupe traveled all over India performing a play exposing hoarders and black- marketeers and launching a campaign to save food. The Ramalila of Ramnagar near Varanasi is one theatrical genre which currently provides an opportunity for the young and old, rich and poor to come together for 16 to 20 days preceding the Dussehra to witness a vast pageant of human life. Each section of the city constructs raised platforms or transforms streets, terraces, or gardens into palaces, woods, and streams. The whole city is the stage, the arena, of the performance. The play moves sequentially day after day and the audience moves with it from locale to locale. Puppets are increasingly being used as a strategy for addressing varied development issues such as educating children, encouraging scientific methods of farming, promoting the use of fertilizers, etc. The Song and Drama Division of the Government of India makes wide use of puppets in its campaigns to promote various government projects, and Life Insurance Corporation of India used puppets to educate the rural masses about life insurance, enlisting the help of the Literacy House in Lucknow. During the general elections, members of the various political parties used folk songs for campaigning and presented humorous skits to ridicule the opposition's candidates and win support for their own candidates. Swang and Ragini have been effectively utilised by political parties in Haryana. Kabigaan and Tarza have been used by IPTA groups to support candidates of the communist parties in Bengal. Tamasha and Lavani in Maharashtra have been extensively used for political propaganda in the State. The utilisation of folk media in communication programmes should be viewed not only from the perspectives of political and socio-economic development but also from that of cultural development. Folklore needs to retain social authenticity. The folk forms have evolved gradually, and wherever they are flexible they retain their appeal to the rural people. Not all folk forms can be used for development communication purposes; thus, they should be carefully studied from the points of view of content and characterisation for their possible adaptation for development purposes. Folk media productions should be consistent with the needs of the social context and related to the customs and beliefs of the local communities. Since folk media have sociological roots, their utilisation should be related to local events and their function in the local communication strategy should be properly assigned. Efforts should be made to preserve the originality of each folk form; adaptation need not alter nor destroy the form. For effective community- level communication strategies, the integrated and planned use of both folk and mass media is necessary for achieving optimum impact and for obtaining desired feedback. Collaboration between the folk artistes and the media producers is absolutely essential for the successful integration of folk media and mass media communication strategies for development purposes. Peasants, agricultural labourers, bonded labourers, women, tribals, and other oppressed groups are rediscovering the potential of folk and traditional performing arts as a weapon in their struggle for land, better health status, better working and living conditions, and human rights. Many development planners in the Third World are beginning to appreciate the use of folk media as a mode of communication to explain development programmes. Government agencies, international organisations, and donor agencies

should progressively use this important and powerful communication tool as a means for mobilising people for economic and social development. ALTERNATIVE MEDIA Alternative media are media (newspapers, radio, television, magazines, movies, Internet, etc.) which provide alternative information to the mainstream media in a given context, whether the mainstream media are commercial, publicly supported, or government-owned. Alternative media differ from mainstream media along one or more of the following dimensions: their content, aesthetic, modes of production, modes of distribution, and audience relations. Alternative media often aim to challenge existing powers, to represent marginalized groups, and to foster horizontal linkages among communities of interest. Proponents of alternative media argue that the mainstream media are biased in the selection and framing of news and information. While sources of alternative media can also be biased (sometimes proudly so), proponents claim that the bias is significantly different than that of the mainstream media because they have a different set of values, objectives, and frameworks. Hence these media provide an "alternative" viewpoint, different information and interpretations of the world that cannot be found in the mainstream. As such, advocacy journalism tends to be a component of many alternative outlets. Because the term "alternative" has connotations of self-marginalization, some media outlets now prefer the term "independent" over "alternative". Several different categories of media may fall under the heading of alternative media. These include, but are not limited to, radical and dissident media, social movement media, ethnic/racial media, indigenous media, community media, subcultural media, student media, and avant-garde media. Each of these categories highlights the perceived shortcomings of dominant media to serve particular audiences, aims and interests, and attempts to overcome these shortcomings through their own media. The traditional, binary definition of alternative media as stated above has been expanded in the last decade. Simply comparing alternative media to the mainstream media ignores the profound effect that making media has on the makers. As producers and actors within their community, modern alternative media activists redefine their self-image, their interpretation of citizenship, and their world. Clemencia Rodriguez explains, "I could see how producing alternative media messages implies much more than simply challenging the mainstream media ... It implies having the opportunity to create one's own images of self and environment; it implies being able to recodify one's own identity with the signs and codes that one chooses, thereby disrupting the traditional acceptance of those imposed by outside sources. With the increasing importance attributed to digital technologies, questions have arisen about where digital media fit in the dichotomy between alternative and mainstream media. Blogs, Facebook, Twitter and other similar sites, while not necessarily created to be information media, increasingly are being used to spread news and information, potentially acting as alternative media as they allow ordinary citizens to bypass the gatekeepers of traditional, mainstream media and share the information and perspectives these citizens deem important. Additionally, digital media provide an alternative space for deviant, dissident or non-traditional views, and allow for the creation of new, alternative communities that can provide a voice for those normally marginalized by the mainstream media. However, some have criticized the weaknesses of the Web. First, for its ability to act as both "alternative and a mass medium brings with it the tension

of in-group and out-group communication." Second, the Web "rarely lives up to its potential" with constraints to access. Digital technologies have also led to an alternative form of video more commonly known as citizen generated journalism. Individuals and smaller groups have the potential to describe and make public their interpretations of the world. Video shot on camcorders, FLIP cameras, and now cell phones have been utilized by the alternative media to commonly show human rights abuses. In turn the mainstream media picks up on these videos when it fits their narrative of what it deems "newsworthy". RURAL DEVELOPMENT Literally and from the social, economic and political perspectives the statement is valid even today. Around 65% of the State's population is living in rural areas. People in rural areas should have the same quality of life as is enjoyed by people living in sub urban and urban areas. Further there are cascading effects of poverty, unemployment, poor and inadequate infrastructure in rural areas on urban centres causing slums and consequential social and economic tensions manifesting in economic deprivation and urban poverty. Hence Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs becomes essential. The present strategy of rural development mainly focuses on poverty alleviation, better livelihood opportunities, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities through innovative programmes of wage and self-employment. The above goals will be achieved by various programme support being implemented creating partnership with communities, non-governmental organizations, community based organizations, institutions, PRIs and industrial establishments, while the Department of Rural Development will provide logistic support both on technical and administrative side for programme implementation. Other aspects that will ultimately lead to transformation of rural life are also being emphasized simultaneously. Though the percentage of persons below poverty level in Tamil Nadu has come down significantly between 1993-94 (35.03%) and 1999-2000 (21.12%) as a result of the implementation of various Central and State sponsored schemes, the level of poverty both in absolute numbers (130.40 lakh persons) and percentage of population below poverty line (21.12%) in Tamil Nadu is highest among the four southern States. In spite of huge investments on wage and self -employment programmes, the level of unemployment as per the NSSO 55th round (1999-2000) for Tamil Nadu compared to All India is the second highest among major States in 1987-88 and 1993-94 and third highest in 1999-2000. The Government's policy and programmes have laid emphasis on poverty alleviation, generation of employment and income opportunities and provision of infrastructure and basic facilities to meet the needs of rural poor. For realising these objectives, self-employment and wage employment programmes continued to pervade in one form or other. As a measure to strengthen the grass root level democracy, the Government is constantly endeavouring to empower Panchayat Raj Institutions in terms of functions, powers and finance. Grama sabha, NGOs , Self-Help Groups and PRIs have been accorded adequate role to make participatory democracy meaningful and effective. The Rural Development in India is one of the most important factors for the growth of the Indian economy. India is primarily an agriculture-based country. Agriculture contributes nearly

one-fifth of the gross domestic product in India. In order to increase the growth of agriculture, the Government has planned several programs pertaining to Rural Development in India. The Ministry of Rural Development in India is the apex body for formulating policies, regulations and acts pertaining to the development of the rural sector. Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries, poultry, and diary are the primary contributors to the rural business and economy. The introduction of Bharat Nirman, a project set about by the Government of India in collaboration with the State Governments and the Panchayat Raj Institutions is a major step towards the improvement of the rural sector. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 was introduced by the Ministry of Rural Development, for improving the living conditions and its sustenance in the rural sector of India. Rural Development in India-Schemes Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): This is a scheme launched and fully sponsored by the Central Government of India. The main objective of the scheme is to connect all the habitations with more than 500 individuals residing there, in the rural areas by the means of weatherproof paved roads. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): This was implemented as a total package with all the characteristics of self employment such as proper training, development of infrastructure, planning of activities, financial aid, credit from banks, organizing self help groups, and subsidies. Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY): This scheme aims at increasing the food protection by the means of wage employment in the rural areas which are affected by the calamities after the appraisal of the state government and the appraisal is accepted by the Ministry of Agriculture. Indira Awaas Yojana (Rural Housing): This scheme puts emphasis on providing housing benefits all over the rural areas in the country. E-Learning Technologies for Rural India Computer based training and video based training have been very common for several decades in India in the Software Industry. Specific software applications have been built and Computer based training has been developed for them using easy to use Authoring tools. Today the Internet has enabled such CBT's to be made available on-line with a high amount of interactivity and also has helped increase the reach and widened the applicability of such training. Technologies to enable e-learning have tremendous potential for India. However, the benefits of these technologies must be made available to the Rural masses of India, otherwise, they will only widen the Digital Divide. Various technologies have been used over the years to propagate Distance Learning including the Radio, TV and now the Internet. There are several problems which affect Rural India but amongst them, a major problem is that literacy amongst farmers and Rural folk of India is very low. Emerging technologies such as Natural Language Interfaces and the Next Generation Internet will enable several innovative applications in elearning and enable parallel learning by helping to break the cycle of literacy followed by computer literacy. This paper will bring out these two technologies - The Next Generation Internet and Natural Language Interfaces and discuss their potential for e-learning applicability in Rural India. The Next Generation Internet The Internet has grown so fast and wide that there is tremendous clogging happening on the Net. This choking has actually restricted the usage of the Internet and has not permitted applications such as Virtual Reality to be made available for Distance Learning purposes. The

Next Generation Internet hopes to rectify that by providing higher bandwidth and better quality audio and video to enable Multimedia as well as a high amount of interactivity which is so essential in learning. The main projects currently leading the initiatives are the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development which is monitoring two projects - the INTERNET 2 and the Abilene Project; the United States Government led Next Generation Internet Project and the National Science Foundation vBNS Backbone project. The Internet 2 project is a joint project of Industry, Academia and Government. The basic purpose of the Next Generation Internet is to increase bandwidth and quality of service so that a new generation of applications could be possible on the Net. Some of the major initiatives of the Internet 2 Project include improving the Quality of Service, Middleware Initiative, Distributed Storage Initiative and Digital Video Initiative. Amongst new applications which can be enabled with the Internet 2 are applications in Teaching and Learning. Learning is extremely easy when it is in the form of Virtual Reality, Multimedia and Collaborative interactivity. The Internet in its current form is unable to handle such heavy loads to enable such high quality distance learning to the Rural masses. Furthermore, as more and more users get on the Net, clogging is happening and the Net is unable to provide the level of quality needed for high-end interactive e-learning applications. Applications which can be enabled by this technology include Virtual Laboratories and Digital Libraries. An interesting application of the Next Generation Internet is the area of Digital Libraries. Very high bandwidth and improved quality of service will permit applications such as continuous digital video and audio to be used for a very wide range of Library applications. Images and Multimedia can supplement text based reading and learning at the Rural level. The Advanced Internet will also permit Multimedia interfaces to the user of the Library as well as real time Consultation with experts over video conference. In addition, computer companies like Sun Microsystems are collaborating with the Internet 2 project to create a testbed for higher education. As, of today, this is restricted to the USA, but it could be extended to remote parts of India as well in future. Through this Testbed, students will be able to find and communicate with experts and other interested students through instant messaging and video conferencing. The Advanced Internet will also facilitate the development of Multimedia courseware across various development platforms in a highly distributed environment. The student based in Rural India will be able to access the best Libraries and Laboratories in the World. The Carnegie Mellon University's Informedia project is already a step in the direction of Digital Libraries. The Next Generation Internet will also permit Virtual Laboratories by which students using Laboratory instruments connected to the Advanced Internet will be able to conduct a Laboratory experiment remotely. Therefore, a student in a Village in India will be able to virtual access the best Laboratories in the world. The University of North Carolina has already attempted the setting up of a Virtual Laboratory on the Advanced Internet. Natural Language Interfaces Natural Language Technology is another area, which could be of great use in e-learning. The technology, though in a nascent stage today, has a tremendous potential for Rural India. There is already a lot of work going on in this technology in India - prominent among them being the projects at CDAC, NCST, and at IIT Madras, Kanpur, Bombay. Natural Language Interfaces is a way by which humans can communicate with the machine in a language that is natural to them. The Interfaces to Natural Languages can be to various areas including Intelligent Tutoring systems and Virtual Reality systems. In an e-learning environment these technologies could be of

great use to build various customised training applications for the Rural Indian. Rural based NGO's which are working for Rural development in India could then build such training applications directly without needing to wait for the IT industry to develop applications for them. Natural Language Interfaces along with touchscreen technology and voice enabled inputs could be a way by which the National Literacy mission could be achieved through a process of parallel learning and the cycle of literacy followed by computer literacy and usage can be broken. In addition, automatic translation systems are available today on the Web, which enable automatic translation of messages and content from English into several International languages. Developments can be made by which our villagers will be able to access the Net in their own language and hence dependency on an English translator will be reduced. The Ministry of Information Technology is already involved in several projects such as Bharat Bhasha Kosh, Web based learning system in Indian languages, Speech Synthesis system at CEERI Pilani and Multilingual dictionaries. IIT Madras have developed an Indian Language word processor which has been tested at an NGO in Madras. Similarly NCST'S MATRA project 's focus is on man-machine synergy. Natural Language interfaces can be used as front ends to databases as well as with Speech based systems. Both these technologies have great potential for Rural India since especially speech based systems since E-learning can actually be voice enabled through this technology and the villager will be freed from his lack of literacy and therefore inability to communicate. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of individuals and/or organizations focused on specific political or social issues, in other words, on carrying out, resisting or undoing a social change. Modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature), and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture is responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. However others point out that many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. RIGHT TO INFORMATION CAMPAIGN In 2005, after a nine-year campaign by peoples organisations, the Indian government implemented a far-reaching Right to Information (RTI) Act. The Act, which requires all central, state and local government institutions to meet public demands for information is one of the

strongest in the world. It empowers citizens to demand greater government accountability, improve their participation in decision-making, and help reduce corruption. New political opportunities Since the early 1990s India has been gradually liberalising its economy, a process increasingly criticised by various peoples organisations. The debate became more and more adversarial, with less and less room for negotiation and compromise. However, a major political opportunity for activists opened up in the 2004 elections. The ruling coalition government led by the Hindu Nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was defeated, in part due to growing public concern about rising unemployment, inflation and worsening economic disparities. The Congress Party formed a coalition government with Communist parties based on the negotiation of a Common Minimum Programme, which included a commitment to various predevelopment policies, such as a commitment to a RTI Act. There was widespread opposition within the coalition government with support from Communist parties to a comprehensive RTI bill partly because of fears that it would be used to challenge government decisions or reveal corruption. Civil society engaging with government A key actor driving the legislative change was the National Campaign for Peoples Right to Information (NCPRI), a network launched in 1996. The success of the campaign was particularly impressive because the NCPRIs member organisations belonged mainly to small, local and often marginalised groups that were neither Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) that drew on donor funding, nor formal political parties. The network drew much of its inspiration from these organisations. The groups known as peoples organisations or jan sangathans, and peoples campaigns/movements or jan andolans included national and local groups campaigning about rural or urban development issues, such as dams and mining projects, the entry of corporate firms into agriculture and urban infrastructure and state services. Two of the most important members of the network were the Workers and Farmers Power Union (Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan) based in southern Rajasthan, and Parivartan based in a working class area of East Delhi. Various government allies also played a vital role in driving change. A key actor was Sonia Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party. Immediately before the 2004 elections she reportedly contacted the NCPRI saying that Congress wanted to include the RTI in its manifesto. After winning the election she set up and headed a National Advisory Council (NAC) to implement the Common Minimum Programme, including the RTI. Other government officials saw the RTI as an opportunity for reform, and a few senior bureaucrats used their power to push through progressive orders even before the national legislation came into effect. Since 1996, nine out of 28 Indian states have enacted legislation to grant citizens the right to information. Building support for the right to information In the early 1990s very few organisations were directly campaigning on the RTI; neither was it immediately obvious how the RTI could benefit them. To encourage alliances across disparate groups and cut across class lines, the NCPRI successfully framed the RTI as a fundamental enabling right, essential for the effective exercise of rights in all other spheres. This involved persuading: Middle class welfare associations that they could use RTI to investigate why their streets were not being cleaned by the municipality Poor slum-dwellers that they could use RTI to find out why their ration cards had been delayed State officials that if workers built better roads, their motorcycles would run better

 Left-wing groups that RTI was a tool to empower people to claim their rights, rather than a sop to legitimise a neo-liberal agenda that was undermining peoples livelihoods. From the outset, the NCPRI sought to create a broad-based coalition of grassroots peoples organisations. It did this by approaching groups working in different sectors, and by holding workshops where they would discuss issues specific to each sector, and their particular information needs. Moreover, the NCPRI also built alliances with key government officials, and involved them in a policy dialogue. Unusually too, the NCPRIs membership included wellconnected leaders from the intelligentsia and ex-government workers, some of whom had spearheaded the local campaigns by the jan sangathans. Mixing tactics to ensure success While the NCPRI developed allies within the state, it also derived its power from sustained public pressure from a vigilant and mobilized citizenry. This involved public hearings or jan sunvais to compare official records with actual services provided by village committees or panchayats, as well as state and national level meetings and conventions of activists. The NCPRI also organised journeys or yatras involving a caravan of activists, ordinary villagers and students travelling from place to place with the RTI message, communicated through songs and sketches. The movement also printed newsletters in Hindi and English, and received media attention. Although the NCPRI leadership sought to distance itself from the international neo-liberal agenda on transparency and accountability, it also indirectly benefited from it. The prevailing ideology of economic liberalisation, with its critical view of state intervention, prompted greater openness among some government officials about the failure of service delivery and governance, and the need for greater accountability. Insights One of the most interesting aspects of this campaign is the way activists succeeded in bringing together a wide range of disparate peoples organisations and individuals to campaign under a common umbrella for national policy change. The case study shows how inspirational grassroots campaigns can be scaled up by strong leaders and good networking to form effective national campaigns. It also suggests that policy achievements driven by grassroots organisations are more likely to be sustained and actually implemented, than those driven only by national NGOs. NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN Narmada Bachao Andolan is the most powerful mass movement, started in 1985, against the construction of huge dam on the Narmada river. Narmada is the India's largest west flowing river, which supports a large variety of people with distinguished culture and tradition ranging from the indigenous (tribal) people inhabited in the jungles here to the large number of rural population. The proposed Sardar Sarovar Dam and Narmada Sagar will displace more than 250,000 people. The big fight is over the resettlement or the rehabilitation of these people. The two proposals are already under construction, supported by US$550 million loan by the world bank. There are plans to build over 3000 big and small dams along the river. Background Post-1947, investigations were carried out to evaluate mechanisms in utilizing water from the Narmada river, which flows into the Arabian Sea after passing through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Due to inter-state differences in implementing schemes and sharing of water, the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal was constituted by the Government of India on October 6, 1969 to adjudicate over the water disputes. This Tribunal investigated the

matters referred to it and responded after more than 10 years. On December 12, 1979, the decision as given by the Tribunal, with all the parties at dispute binding to it, was released by the Indian Government. As per the Tribunal's decision, 30 major, 135 medium, and 3000 small dams, were granted approval for construction including raising the height of the Sardar Sarovar dam. In 1985, after hearing about the Sardar Sarovar dam, Medha Patkar and her colleagues visited the project site and noticed the project work being shelved due to an order by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The reasons for this was cited as "nonfulfillment of basic environmental conditions and the lack of completion of crucial studies and plans". What she noticed was that the people who were going to be affected were given no information, but for the offer for rehabilitation. Due to this, the villagers had many questions right from why their permission was not taken to whether a good assessment on the ensuing destruction was taken. Furthermore, the officials related to the project had no answers to their questions. While World Bank, the financing agency for this project, came into the picture, Patkar approached the Ministry of Environment to seek clarifications. She realized, after seeking answers from the ministry, that the project was not sanctioned at all, and wondered as to how funds were even sanctioned by the World Bank. After several studies, they realized that the officials had overlooked the post-project problems. Through Patkar's channel of communication between the government and the residents, she provided critiques to the project authorities and the governments involved. At the same time, her group realized that all those displaced were only given compensation for the immediate standing crop and not for displacement and rehabilitation. As Patkar remained immersed in the Narmada struggle, she chose to quit her Ph. D. studies and focus entirely on the Narmada activity. Thereafter, she organized a 36-day long, solidarity march among the neighboring states of the Narmada valley from Madhya Pradesh to the Sardar Sarovar dam site. She said that the march was "a path symbolizing the long path of struggle (both immediate and long-term) that [they] really had". This march was resisted by the police, who according to Patkar were "caning the marchers and arresting them and tearing the clothes off women activists". Formation There were groups such as Gujarat-based Arch-Vahini (Action Research in Community Health and Development) and Narmada Asargrastha Samiti (Committee for people affected by the Narmada dam), Madhya Pradesh-based Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti (Committee for a new life in the Narmada Valley) and Maharashtra-based Narmada Dharangrastha Samiti (Committee for Narmada dam-affected people) who either believed in the need for fair rehabilitation plans for the people or who vehemently opposed dam construction despite a resettlement policy. While Medha Patkar established Narmada Bachao Andolan in 1989, all these groups joined this national coalition of environmental and human rights activists, scientists, academics and project-affected people with a non-violent approach. Aftermath Within the focus of Narmada Bachao Andolan towards the stoppage of the Sardar Sarovar dam, she advised addition of World Bank to their propaganda. Using the right to fasting, she undertook a 22 day fast that almost took her life. In 1991, her actions led to an unprecedented independent review by the World Bank. The Morse Commission, appointed in June 1991 at the

recommendation of The World Bank President Barber Coinable, conducted its first independent review of a World Bank project. This independent review stated that "performance under these projects has fallen short of what is called for under Bank policies and guidelines and the policies of the Government of India." This resulted in the Indian Government pulling out of its loan agreement with the World Bank. In response, Patkar said "It is very clear and obvious that they used this as a face-saving device", suggesting that if this were not to happen, the World Bank would eventually would have withdrawn the loan. The World Bank's participation in these projects was eventually cancelled in 1995. She further undertook a similar fast in 1993 and resisted evacuation from the dam site. In 1994, the Bachao Andolan office was attacked reportedly by a couple of political parties, where Patkar and other activists were physically assaulted and verbally abused. In protest, a few NBA activists and she began a fast and 20 days later, they were arrested and forcibly fed intravenously. Supreme Court's decision Patkar led Narmada Bachao Andolan had filed a written petition with the Supreme Court of India, the nation's apex court, seeking stoppage of construction on the Sardar Sarovar dam. The court initially ruled the decision in the Andolan's favor thereby effecting an immediate stoppage of work at the dam and directing the concerned states to first complete the rehabilitation and replacement process. The Supreme Court also deliberated on this issue further for several years but finally upheld the Tribunal Award and allowed the construction to proceed, subject to conditions. The court introduced a mechanism to monitor the progress of resettlement pari passu with the raising of the height of the dam through the Grievance Redressal Authorities (GRA) in each of the party states. The courts decision referred in this document, given in the year 2000 after seven years of deliberations, has paved the way for completing the project to attain full envisaged benefits. The court's final line of the order states, "Every endeavour shall be made to see that the project is completed as expeditiously as possible". Subsequent to the courts verdict, Press Information Bureau (PIB) featured an article which states that: "The Narmada Bachao Andolan has rendered a yeoman's service to the country by creating a high-level of awareness about the environmental and rehabilitation and relief aspects of Sardar Sarovar and other projects on the Narmada. But, after the court verdict it is incumbent on it to adopt a new role. Instead of 'damning the dam' any longer, it could assume the role of vigilant observer to see that the resettlement work is as humane and painless as possible and that the environmental aspects are taken due care of." SOCIAL MOBILIZATION Social Mobilization, as defined by UNICEF, is a broad scale movement to engage people's participation in achieving a specific development goal through self-reliant efforts. It involves all relevant segments of society: decision and policy makers, opinion leaders, bureaucrats and technocrats, professional groups, religious associations, commerce and industry, communities and individuals. It is a planned decentralized process that seeks to facilitate change for development through a range of players engaged in interrelated and complementary efforts. It takes into account the felt needs of the people, embraces the critical principle of community involvement, and seeks to empower individuals and groups for action.

Mobilizing the necessary resources, disseminating information tailored to targeted audiences, generating intersectoral support and fostering cross-professional alliances are also part of the process. While the components of the process may be everyday practice in many development programs, they tend to be taken up in isolation of each other. Social mobilization in total aims at a continuum of activities in a broad strategic framework. The process encompasses dialogue and partnership with a wide spectrum of societal elements. At the policy level, the outcomes should be a supportive framework for decision making and resource allocation to empower communities to act at the grassroots level. The outcomes should be people's active involvement ranging from identifying a need to implementation in achieving the development objective and evaluation effort. The solidarity of bureaucrats and technocrats and a broad alliance of partners among various non-governmental groups are equally critical for the attainment of any change-oriented development goal. Simply stated, social mobilization calls for a journey among partners and results in the successful transformation of development goals into societal action. Though circumstances differ from country to country and often from one part of a country to another, health programs depend upon the collaboration of other sectors. WHO has stressed the need to recognize the intersectoral nature of health, but little concrete action has been taken to effectuate such an approach. For a health program to succeed, the health sector needs not just a helping hand from others, but a genuine partnership whereby ownership of the programs is shared and the stakes of other sectors are clearly recognized. The societal mobilization strategy calls for partnership with all stake holders, which are illustrated in the diagram: I. Political - policy makers The extreme left column names some types of policy makers. Advocacy with and among leaders in this group helps foster the commitment that will clear the way for action. The goal here is to build consensus with sound data, to create a knowledgeable and supportive environment for decision-making, including the allocation of adequate resources. II. Bureaucratic/Technocratic government workers and technical experts Policy makers depend on the technocrats, bureaucrats, and service professionals to provide the rationale for decisions as well as to plan and implement programs. This sector includes disparate groups, each with its own agenda, conflicting interests and concerns. Harmonizing the disparate units in this sector is probably one of the greatest challenges in development, because development specialists have hitherto failed to recognize how difficult it is to foster unity among government units and technical groups. III. Non-governmental sector This covers a multitude of interests. Non-governmental organizations for special purposes, social institutions and associations that represent organized support, religious groups with their ideological bends, commerce and industry that operate on a for-profit basis, and professional groups that exist to advance their interests are here. Though difficult to mobilize, they do not hide their positions. If their stakes are given recognition, they are important partners and allies to mobilize the civil society for various health objectives. IV. Community Groups Community leaders, schools, churches, mosques and grassroots groups are critical to get communities involved. They help transform development goals into action. Unfortunately, they are often not given a voice in identifying problems and designing solutions. Popular participation takes place here. V. Households and Individuals

Individual actions are the ultimate pay-off of the health program. In the household, where such behavioral actions take place, key individuals in traditional society often hold sway. There needs to be deliberate action to inform and educate individuals in the household so that they can make informed choices.

TH EA TR E FO R DE VE LO P M EN T T heatre for Development, or TfD, means live performance, or theater used as a development tool as in international development. TfD encompasses the following in-person activities, with people or "puppets", before an audience: a spoken-word drama or comedy a music, singing and/or dance production a production with movement but no sound (mime) participatory or improvisational techniques using any or all of these Theatre for Development can be a kind of participatory theatre, that encourages improvisation and audience members to take roles in the performance, or can be fully scripted and staged, with the audience observing. Many TfD productions are a mix of the two. "Theatre

of the Oppressed", a technique created by Augusto Boal is a form of participatory theatre for development. Hundreds, if not thousands, of organizations and initiatives have used theatre as a development tool: for education or propaganda, as therapy, as a participatory tool, or as an exploratory tool in development. An account of an early use of TfD is the thesis Theater as a Means of Moral Education and Socialization in the Development of Nauvoo, Illinois, 1839-1845, which recounts how theater was used to promote ideological and civil development in a religious community in the US (Hurd 2004). Participatory Performances In usual performances there are actors on stage and spectators who watch the play. With usual plays it is meant the Eurocentric way that was long seen as the only right way to do theatre all over the world, especially by the former European rulers of colonized countries. In e.g. African or Asian countries different forms of theatre were and still are very common in the sense of bringing information to the people in an oral way. Thus, different theatre traditions developed worldwide and re-lived in colonized countries after independence, whilst in rural areas they were even common during colonization. By now these times are over, and development communication got a very important topic, thus it seems perfect to make up still living traditions through participative theatre methods. First of all it is very important for actors and organisers of the performance or TfD-project to get to know the society and the problems people face. Therefore, the play that is going to be performed and worked with has to be developed with local people, who know cultural behaviors and social problems of the society. Moreover, it is very helpful to have local authority persons and opinion leaders in the team of a TfD-project, whom the regional society listens to and trusts. In this way it is even possible to take advantage of the knowledge that locals have about best dates for performances or even to advertise for the ongoing TfD-performance. Forum theatre In TfD programmes the performance is mostly played on a community (or gathering) place, but randomly on a stage. In forum theatre the scene acted out shows one ore even more problems the audience faces on their daily routine. Afterwards forum theatre is explained to the audience by another person of the team and the scene will be shown again. This second and even third, fourth, fifth etc. time, one person after another from the audience can stop the play wherever she or he think its suitable and come into the scene. Spectators become so called spect-actors, whereas the replaced actor steps back. Through being part of the scene participating people dive into the situation performed, what makes the whole topic feel more real for the person who came in to change the situation. Thus, it is an alternative way of problem solving, where creativity is asked for and different approaches are tried. Forum theatre functions as a rehearsal for reality, like Augusto Boal used to call it. Non-participative 'Theatre for Development' performances The plays are performed to build awareness about critical topics which are mostly within a political or developmental context. Especially in patriarchal regimes it is not possible to perform political plays, as they will be prohibited from the very beginning on or the revolutionists become prisoners. A lot of creativity is asked for writing and performing a politically critical play that is a very important feature of TfD methods. Besides political issues common topics are non-formal education, hygiene, disposal of sewage, environment, women's rights, child abuse, prostitution, street children, health education, HIV/AIDS, literacy etc. Street theatre

Methods like e.g. 'invisible theatre' or 'image theatre' can be acted in the streets, seen by people passing by. 'Invisible theatre' seems like a real situation to the audience, which mainly functions as a thought-provoking impulse to the people who observe the situation. Every kind of TfD-programme trusts in the strength of the word of mouth via people who face the situation, are part of a project or watch a critical play. 'Invisible theatre' in the streets reaches people who wouldn't attend a workshop or watch a play, thus the coverage of addressed people can be even higher and social change is another step closer.