Language and Literature: A Stylistic Analysis of Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors

Hsiung, Ji-Ching

Abstract
Owing to the diffusion of English around the world, universally acceptable standards appear to be absent and English is now the language of those who use it. The English language was originally a language spoken by only a small amount of people in Britain. The expansion of British Empire and colonisation contributed to the global spread of the language. English in each of the settler colonies (i.e. America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand) has changed and developed its own style and usage. Therefore, apart from British English and American English, we now have other varieties of English, such as Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English and so forth. Each of these Englishes has its own characteristics and each has been creating its own literature. This paper is mainly aimed to analyse the language of these literatures, focusing on Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors. With a detailed

stylistic analysis, the researcher hopes to facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of this unique literary work.

Key Words: stylistic analysis, Alan Duff, Once Were Warriors, post-colonial literature.

Lecturer in the Department of Applied English Studies at MingDao University

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1. Introduction: varieties of English and varieties of literature

The English language was originally a language spoken by only a small amount of people in Britain. The geographical expansion of the English language began with the arrival of English-speakers in North America and with the language being imported into the northern areas of Ireland in the late 1600s. The development of Southern Hemisphere varieties of English began with the colonisation of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa during the 1800s. From the 17th to 19th centuries, as the British spread their Empire throughout the world, the English language was brought to many African and Asian countries such as Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia, India, Malaysia and Singapore. Slave trade from Africa and West Indies to English-speaking countries also led to the birth of pidgins, creoles and a variety of regional dialects. English in each of the settler colonies (i.e. America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand) has changed and developed its own style and usage. As Strevens points out,

in the United States first of all but later in Australia and elsewhere, the colonies began to take their independence from Britain, which greatly reinforced the degree of linguistic difference: Noah Webster, for example, urged Americans to take pride in the fact of their English reflecting the dynamic new life of the United States. (1992:30)

To make its English distinct from British English and to assert its national and cultural identity, America has since its independence developed different spellings of many vocabulary words such as center instead of centre and color instead of colour. The transformation of English has also been taking place in other English-speaking territories. In Australia, for example, soon after the English language arrived with the settlers in the eighteenth century, did it begin to absorb words from the Aboriginal

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languages.

The case in New Zealand is more or less similar to that in Australia.

As

a result, the English language has become, in a sense, many languages instead of one single language, and each belongs to a particular geographical area. Therefore, apart

from British English and American English, we now have other varieties of English, such as Canadian English, Australian English, and New Zealand English, to name just three. Each of these Englishes has its own characteristics and each has been creating its own literature. The experience of colonisation has produced a large number of literary voices from diverse cultures. Most writers in these cultures are well aware that English is a colonial language, but they still choose to use English as a literary medium, even though they have access to a myriad of local languages. Since English has become a world language, the choice of English as a medium of creative writing may help to communicate to an international readership. Ashcroft, Griffiths and

Tiffin (1989) use the term post-colonial to refer to all the cultures affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonisation to the present day (2). One of the recurring phenomena the reader may find in post-colonial literature is using language as an assertion; there seems to be an awareness of rules being broken and of new words being invented. In so doing, writers of post-colonial literature have

performed the political act of freeing their countries from colonial forms (Iyer, 1993: 59). As Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin point out,
The first post-colonial society to develop a national literature was the USA.Ideas about new kinds of literature were part of the optimistic progression to nationhood because it seemed that this was one of the most potent areas in which to express difference from Britain. (1989: 16)

The case in America set a model for all later post-colonial writing. Thus writers in
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those post-colonial societies are reinventing the English language and the English literature as well. However, while reinventing the English language to break its rules and to represent their own cultures, writers of post-colonial literature still use standard English in their literary works so as to make their works intelligible. So standard English is not totally abandoned in post-colonial writing. This seems to be reflected in the research by Thumboo that
Naturally, the language of the new literatures is often shaped to portray particular communities and societies. The writer has to negotiate between the pressures exerted by the sense of a standard English and those pressures working to localize it. (1985: 55)

In the UK, standard British English co-exists and mixes with regional dialects. There has been a linguistic hierarchy between standard British English and other dialects. Scots is one of the indigenous languages in Scotland. Of the language used by the people of Scotland, McArthur puts it
The people of Scotland occupy a unique historical and cultural position in the English-speaking world. They use the standard language (with distinctive phonological, grammatical, lexical, and idiomatic features) in administration, law, education, the media, all national institutions, and by and large in their dealings with Anglophones elsewhere, but in their everyday lives a majority of them mix the Kings English with what in an earlier age called the Kings Scots. (1998: 138)

Irvine Welshs Trainspotting can be seen as a literary voice that springs from the distinct cultural setting of Scotland. In the novel, Scots usage is immensely incorporated, as the following passage shows:
Ahm doon thair, stickin a fuckin bar-towel oan the draftpaks split heid, tryin 218

Language and Literature: A Stylistic Analysis of Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors tae stem the blood. The cunt just growls at us, n ah dinnae ken whether thats um showin gratitude or ready tae stomp ma baws, but ah cairry oan. (1993: 80)

Here Ah is employed instead of I, doon instead of down, dinnae instead of dont, ken instead of know, and tae instead of to. However, standard English can also be found in the novel, especially in narration:
It took him a few seconds to realise that it was Dianne. Renton instantly knew why women, when referring to the removal of their makeup, often say that they are taking their faces off. Dianne seemed about ten years old. She saw the shock on his face. (1993: 145)

As Skinner points out, Rather than abandon standard English entirely Trainspotting merely overturns conventional linguistic hierarchies by marginalizing the language (1998: 291). The way Welsh includes both Scots and standard English in his novel also reflects the fact that the majority people of Scotland mix Scots with standard English in their daily lives. Nigeria is an ethnically, linguistically, and culturally heterogeneous territory. The languages spoken in this country include standard English, Nigerian Pidgin English and other local languages. Although English is an official language and a lingua franca among different ethnic groups in Nigeria, the competence of the English language among Nigerian people may vary from a native-like fluency to broken English. Ken Saro-Wiwa was one of the well-known Nigerian writers, from whose Sozaboy: A Novel in Rotten English the following passage is drawn:
Although, everybody in Dukana was happy at first. All the nine villages were dancing and we were eating plenty maize with pear and knacking tory under the moon. Because the work on the farm have finished and the yams were growing well well. 219

2007 3 (1985: 1)

This is the opening of the novel. The very first sentence, being also the first paragraph, appears to be a dependent clause used independently. However, the conjunction

Although is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, which makes the word function more like an adverb than a conjunction. Lets look at another one which is also the protagonists narration:
When we wake up next morning, the rain was falling bad bad. The roof of the school was leaking plenty plenty and everywhere na soso water water. (1985: 86)

Taking a glance at the passages, the reader may notice that there are many invented words, phrases and some grammatical errors. In order to help his readers understand these words and phrases, the author offers a glossary in his book. The word sozaboy is a soldier boy, knacking tory means chatting, and soso denotes mostly or entirely. In addition to the glossary, there is still standard English in the novel as revealed in the passage:
I returned to my seat in the bar and she went and brought me another bottle of tombo wine. This tombo was special. (1985: 14)

Writing his novel in this way, Saro-Wiwa uses English to assert the linguistic autonomy and to represent the ingenious features in Nigeria. Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors is a literary voice from New Zealand. The next part of this paper is devoted to examining how the English language is shaped to represent the characteristics of New Zealand English in Once Were Warriors and how the novel is distinct from the long-established tradition of the English literature.

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2. New Zealand English and Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors

2.1. Flavour of New Zealand English English has been spoken in New Zealand since the arrival of British settlers in the early nineteenth century. The majority of inhabitants in New Zealand are the

descendants of European colonists, and most of them are of British origin. A large white English-speaking majority apart, New Zealand has a small aboriginal population (i.e. Maoris). Of New Zealand English, Greenbaum and Quirk write
New Zealand English is more like BrE than any other non-European variety, though it has adopted quite a number of words from the indigenous Maoris. And over the past half-century has come under the powerful influence of Australia and to a considerable extent of the United States. (1990:8)

Although there are some similarities between British English and New Zealand English, New Zealand English has developed its own style and usage and has been recognized as a distinct variety of English primarily because of its pronunciation. As Trudgill and Hannah indicate, Varieties of English around the world differ relatively little in their consonant systems, and most differences can be observed at the level of vowel systems (1982: 5). Maori is an indigenous language spoken in New Zealand. As Australian English has absorbed words from the Aboriginal languages, many Maori words have found their way into the usage of English speakers in New Zealand. Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors was published in New Zealand in 1990. The novel is set in modern New Zealand society and it is a story about a Maori family. According

to Trudgill and Hannah, in New Zealand vowel system, the RP vowel // corresponds not to // but to // and in unstressed word-final position, NZEng has a vowel that is identical to the stressed vowel // (1982: 24). So Alan Duff alters the standard spellings of many words, such as sista (138) instead of sister and each utha (139)
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instead of each other, so as to give the reader a flavour of New Zealand English. Slang words or colloquial expressions frequently appear in the novel as well. Some of them are universal, like bread (143) for money and nags (69) for racehorses; others belong to Australian colloquial expressions, such as sheila (143) for a girl, and chooks (17) for chickens. There are also many other slang words that come from American English. The high incidence of slang words and colloquial expressions in the novel seems to reflect the influence of other varieties of English on New Zealand English.

2.2. Non-standard linguistic features In post-colonial literature, an awareness of rules being broken and of new words being invented is evident. The novel contains non-standard features such as the absence of main verbs. For example,
Grace going, Abe! But Abe not even glancing at her. Then Nig shadow of His father standing at the door. And Abe stiffening, touching his breast pocket. Gimme, gimme, Abe, Nig chuckling but menacing. (29)

There are five sentences in this passage. One of the prominent features in all five sentences is the absence of main verbs. There are only verbs in the progressive form (i.e., going, glancing, standing, stiffening, touching, chucking and menacing). And in the following passage,
Aee, Beth, nemine the crying for your own race. I were you Id be crying for you, girl. Just you. (48)

The If before I were you is dropped. The syntax in the novel may as well draw

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the readers attention; Duff employs a syntax which other writers have hardly used. For example,
(I) he moves like hes got oil in his joints. (143)

The juxtaposition of two subjects (i.e. I, he), one of them being put in brackets, is unusual in writing. And new words are invented in the novel:
Jake? in that voice, girlish, come-onish, a you-can-have-me-if-you-like tone. (19)

As we can see from the example, words are compounded and used as adjectives as the come-onish and you-can-have-me-if-you-like.

2.3. Innovative narrative techniques Among the numerous formal innovations in Once Were Warriors, the way Alan Duff presents his characters speeches and thoughts would most impress the reader. In order to recognize how it is different from the normal methods in speech and thought presentation, we might need Leech and Shorts framework (1981: 318-351) which has been frequently applied for the analysis of fictional prose. The diagram accompanying Leech and Shorts framework is reproduced in figure 2.1:

Figure 2.1 223

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(1981: 324)

As the above diagram indicates, varieties of speech presentation include NRSA (Narrative Report of Speech Acts), IS (Indirect Speech), FIS (Free Indirect Speech), and DS (Direct Speech). Of FDS (Free Direct Speech), Leech and Short write
Direct speech has two features which show evidence of the narrators presence, namely the quotation marks and the introductory reporting clause. Accordingly, it is possible to remove either or both of these features, and produce a freer form, which has been called FREE DIRECT SPEECH: one where the characters apparently speak to us more immediately without the narrator as an intermediary. (1981: 322)

The following passage is a piece of conversation between Grace, one of the main characters in the novel, and her friend Toot (for convenience of reference, the sentences in the passage are numbered):

(1) Saying to Toot, Member when I told you bout, you know (2)Yep. (3) Oh dont say yep like that Toot, like its sumpthin happens like every damn day, like its sorta normal. (4) Or like it was me did it. (5) G, I never said IWell it sounded like it. (6) Sorry. G. (7) Thats alright. (8) (My its dark. So dark everywhere.) (9) Well, Toot? again. (12) Oh, Grace! (115) (10) Yeow? (11) Its uh, its been happening

The whole passage is in FDS except sentence (8), which is Graces free direct thought. In sentence (1), Graces speech is introduced by the reporting clause Saying to Toot, but the quotation marks around Graces speech are removed. In addition to the removal of the quotation marks around each characters utterances, the to and fro of the conversation between Grace and Toot is presented without being separated out by vertical arrangement. Sometimes narration is mixed with a characters free direct
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speech (or thought):

Just sat there, a boy and his (good) sister in the foyer of Two Lakes Courthouse, on a Friday morning when his mates (what few he had) were at school, probably laughing about me, I bet. (22)

This passage begins with a third-person narration, and toward the end of it there is a sudden change into the free direct thought of Boogie Heke (i.e., probably laughing about me, I bet). As for thought presentation, let us take another passage in the novel as an example. The passage runs like this:
m I dreaming? Must be. Grace could smell beer in the dream; beer breath. And fags. And there were all these men standing about drinking and smoking and talking how they do in real life but she felt something on her leg. A touch. Then the cool of the blankets being off. Dizzy with sleep. Then this voice going, Shhhhhh. And the hand it was stroking her leg. (This is no dream.) Oh God, what do I do?! And totally dark. The curtains across. Door closed. And a girl in her head realising: I think Im being, uh, molested. (89-90)

In the paragraph before this extract, the narrator recounts that Grace, after checking her younger brother and sister, starts to undress herself, draws the curtains shut, closes the door and then gets into bed. Meanwhile, her father and his friends are having a party downstairs. In this extract, the narrator brings us into Graces internal

thoughts and feelings. The three dots at the very beginning of this extract indicate that Grace is suddenly awakened from her sleep; she smells beer breath and cigarette smell and then she feels a touch on her leg. While the party is still going on, one of

the men enters Graces room and sexually attacks her. The narrative style of Once Were Warriors is more speakerly than writerly; features of spoken language such as the discourse marker you know, get-passives,
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and heads appear frequently in the narration. For example, when the narrator describes Jake Heke, he says
He thought about other things. You know, sport he liked sport, especially rugby league. (51; boldtype mine)

And get-passives:
Grace hearing quite distinctly because it was a very common utterance of her fathers: Fuckim (fuckim, fuckim, echoing on and on in her head like that Lost Tribe had) as Bennett finally got the door unlocked. (36-37; boldtype mine)

And heads:
Thats cos people they respect a man in McClutchys where he always drinks. (53; boldtype mine)

Besides, the word cos in the last passage is a non-standard version of the word because and it is not normally used in written language. In his novel, Alan Duff

uses orthographic conventions such as italicization and capital letters to indicate prosodic features of the characters speeches. In addition to italicization and capital letters, Duff also invents some idiosyncratic spellings for the same purpose. For example,
Hey, eeeasy, brotherrr, Dooly tried to lighten it up. You not that thirsty are y? (58)

The three es in the word eeeasy indicate that the /i/ sound in the word easy is elongated by Dooly, and the repetition of the letter r suggests the drawling sound. Another example is like this:
More glass breaking, and someone toppling oversloooowwwly, slow-motion 226

Language and Literature: A Stylistic Analysis of Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors stuff, onto a table of full bottles and jugs and glasses. Hey! Pop, the fullas nose being punched, bone snapped just like that. Spill our fucking beer. (61)

Here, the spelling of the word sloooowwwly suggests the physical movement of the person who is carefully walking over broken glass. In Once Were Warriors, Alan Duff also uses many onomatopoeic words to achieve sound effects in the written text, like the Pop in the passage just quoted. More examples can also be found elsewhere in the novel:
Claaaangggggg!! the bell for last orders went off like a fire engined just charged into the packed bar. (79)

Here the sound of last orders bell is denoted by the word Claaaangggggg. Although there are many examples of rule-breaking in the novel, they do not seem to be obstacles to the understanding of it. In fact, the style of the novel contributes to a vivid portrayal of New Zealand culture.

3. The world in Once Were Warriors

In his Culture and Imperialism, Said maintains that, Partly because of empire, all cultures are involved in one another; none is single and pure, all are hybrid, heterogeneous, extraordinarily differentiated, and unmonolithic (1993: xxix). Once Were Warriors is rooted in modern New Zealand society. Jake Heke and Beth Heke

are husband and wife and there are five children in the family: Nig, Boogie (whose real name is Mark), Grace, Polly and Huata. They are inhabitants in the world constructed in the novel. In addition, they are Maoris living in an area called Pine Block. Maoris as they are, none of them speaks the Maori language to each other.
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Instead, they all speak English. The history of the country that led to the condition is recounted by Beth, as she says
it was what we lost when you, the white audience out there, defeated us. Conquered us. Took our land, our mana, left us with nothing. (47)

It is apparent enough that the we refers to the Maori people and the you to the European colonists in New Zealand. The word mana, according to Trudgill and Hannah (1982: 27), is a Maori word corresponding to power, honour in English. However, since it is distinguished as a Maori word from other English words in the passage, it might also represent the Maori language as a whole, no matter what its meaning or what its English equivalent is. Thus Beth seems to be saying that the white settlers took not only their land but also their language. Of English in New Zealand, sociolinguists Holmes and Bell write
The Maori people constitute about 12% of the New Zealand population. However only about 25% of all Maori people, and a very small proportion of younger Maori, can speak their language fluently. Though the language is now gaining increasing official recognition and use, this may well have come too late to reverse the effects of a century of neglect and opposition. Even in isolated rural areas it has been replaced by English. (1990: 1)

In the light of this research by New Zealand sociolinguists, the reader might be curious to know the effects of a century of neglect and opposition on these Maori characters; that is, how much do they understand their own language and what are their attitudes towards it? The passage quoted below can probably answer these questions:
Oh, kia ora! Jake being greeted in Maori, the language of his physical appearance, his actual ethnic existence, and yet they could be speaking

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Language and Literature: A Stylistic Analysis of Alan Duffs Once Were Warriors Chink-language for what it mattered. Course a man understood kia ora, who doesnt even the honkies do, but as for the rest. Made him uncomfortable if they spoke it to him (64)

Here Jakes attitude towards the Maori language is clearly depicted.

Instead of

feeling intimate upon hearing the Maori greeting words, Jake feels uneasy. Throughout the novel, there are few or no Maori words appearing in these main characters utterances. It seems that the Maori language has become a rather unfamiliar language for them. Owing to colonisation, these Maori characters are not using their own language but the colonisers languageEnglish. In Once Were Warriors, Alan Duff obviously tries to construct a world where the indigenous people are losing their own language and adopting a new one. While reading the novel, the reader may well come across the characters difficulty in employing appropriate words to express themselves. Examples can be found at many places in the novel. For instance,
So it looked no different to the area, the tone of Pine Block: neglected, run-down, abused. And, you know (a womand have to think hard to find the right word), prideless. (11)

Since the English language is not her mother tongue, Beth needs to think hard to find a suitable word to express her thought. And there is one more example:

Light rain pitterpattering on the iron roof; itd been like that all day. Ah, the sky weeping. A sure sign from the heavens of exceptional grief. And rightly so. In the, uh, you know, the circumstances. (122)

Again, Beths endeavour to use the decent word circumstances is made explicit by

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the filler uh and the discourse marker you know. The title of the novel is Once Were Warriors. It seems to suggest that these Maori characters are not warriors as their ancestors were. The traditional Maori warriorhood has declined, and it no longer has the same function in contemporary society as it did before colonisation. As Beth tells us, the warriors thing got handed down, see. Well, sort of handed down; in a mixed sense it did (47). The traditional Maori warriorhood has become savagery, as it is shown in Jakes physical violence and in the criminal behaviours of the gang, the Brown Fists:
They helped each other haul the fulla to his feet. Jimmy did the talking. Back tamarrow, cuz. TV or the bread. Or your fuckin head. Ya get that? He let the fulla go and punched him again. Then shoved him backwards, stumbling, bleeding, moaning, falling down in his own passage. Nig followed his leader off into the night. (157)

The gang leader Jimmy and other gangsters are extorting money from a man. The man is ferociously punched by these gangsters. Apart from the deterioration of traditional Maori warriorhood, a strong bond of family, which is also a Maori tradition, is missing as well. The adult Maoris indulge excessively in alcohol, leaving their children alone. As we have seen, not merely the Maori language but also the

Maori traditions are missing in the world in Once Were Warriors. One theme that also dominates post-colonial literature is the meeting of two cultures. As Pawson points out, The British colonisation of New Zealandbrought

together two peoples whose underlying cultural assumptions and practices were very different (1992: 16). The aim of Pawsons article is mainly to explore the question as to whether the Maori people and the descendants of European colonists share a joint home harmoniously in contemporary New Zealand society. In Once Were Warriors,
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Alan Duff presents a modern New Zealand society through the perspectives of Maori people. The world in the novel is by no means a harmonious one; the Maori people and the descendants of European colonists seem to live in two different worlds. While reading the novel, the reader may very well sense an isolation of the two peoples. The contrast between them is obvious from the very beginning of the novel, as it is revealed in Beths thought:
Good luck to you, white man, for being born into your sweet world, and bad luck to you, Beth Heke for being married to an arsehole. (7; my omission)

The white man here refers to Mr. Trambert, who lives near the Hakes and whose house contrasts sharply with their slum house. Tramberts house, in Graces eyes, is such a completely different world as another planet even though it is actually very close to their house. For Grace, the Maoris and the white persons are very different; when she accompanies her brother Boogie to the court, her attention is drawn by some portraits hung on the walls of the court room:
Those pictures: great big things in fancy frames and every one ofem a grey-haired white man. Hah, imagine a Maori in one ofem. Some chance. Only Maoris in here get to sit where we are, I bet. Unless they got a high-up job like Mr Bennett here. But how many Maoris like him around? (32-33)

In Graces perception, the world of Pakehas (white persons) is almost impenetrable. The hatred that these Maori characters feel for Pakehas can also be found in the novel. Take Jake Heke for example, the hatred he feels for Pakehas is reflected in his frequently-used swear words. Although these Maori characters express their hatred for Pakehas, it does not mean that they resist other culture in defence of their own. These Maori characters are not only ignorant of their own language but also of their
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own culture.

A story about Maori people in modern New Zealand society, the novel Although there might be some other

can be seen as a vocalisation of the minority.

social, economic problems that resulted in the isolation of the two peoples, the Maori people are supposed to appreciate and value their own culture and feel proud of themselves.

4. Conclusion
The spread of the English language led to the birth of its varieties. Each of these Englishes has its own characteristics. Writers of post-colonial literature are perfectly

capable of using standard English, but they are consciously using non-standard English. By using English in different ways, they demonstrate a linguistic autonomy in their writing. The most interesting feature in post-colonial literature is the way the English This analysis

language is used to construct difference from the metropolitan norm. further confirms that English is the language of those who use it. Duff captures voices that exist in modern New Zealand society.

In the novel, Alan It not only gives the

reader a flavour of New Zealand English, it also vividly depicts contemporary New Zealand society through the perspectives of the indigenous people. This literary My

voice contains even more voices from the minority or the dispossessed. interpretation of the novel is very likely to be incomplete or inexperienced.

Readers

with different backgrounds and experiences may well have different interpretations. In addition, some readers might think that the novel contains vulgar language and several violent scenes. But the novel is a unique literary construct in which the

situation of modern New Zealand society is incarnated and it is a creative product to be enjoyed by the reader.

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References
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. and Tiffen, H.(eds) (1989). The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literatures. London: Routledge. Duff, A. (1990). Once Were Warriors. London: Vintage. Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990). A Students Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Longman. Holmes, J and Bell, A. (1990). Attitudes, varieties, discourse: an introduction to the sociolinguistics of New Zealand English. In A. Bell and J. Holmes (eds), New Zealand Ways of Speaking English. Clevedon: Multicultual Matters Limited, pp. 1-20. Iyer, P. (1993). The Empire Writes Back. In Time February 8, 1993, pp.48-53. Leech, G. N. and Short, M.H. (1981). Style in Fiction. London: Longman. McArthur, T. (1998). The English Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pawson, E. (1992). Two New Zealands: Maori and European. In K. Anderson and F. Gale (eds), Inventing Places: Studies in Cultural Geography. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire Pty Limited, pp. 15-33. Said, E. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage. Saro-Wiwa, K. (1985). Sozaboy: A Novel in Rotten English. London: Longman. Skinner, J. (1998). The Stepmother Tongue. London: Macmillan. Strevens, P. (1992). English as an International Language: Directions in the 1990s. In B. B. Kachru (ed), The Other Tongue. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, pp. 27-47. Thumboo, E. (1985). English literature in a global context. In R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson (eds), English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 52-60. Trudgill, P. and Hannah, J. (1982). International English: A Guide to the Varieties Of Standard English. London: Edward Arnold. Welsh, I. (1993). Trainspotting. London: Vintage.

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(varieties of English) (Alan Duff) (Once Were Warriors)

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