Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Introductory Part

Introduction to APA Style Most classes in psychology will require you to write your papers in APA style, which is a writing style described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (which was just released in its fifth edition). APA style describes rules for the preparation of manuscripts for writers and students in psychology. These rules cover areas such as the content and organization of a manuscript, writing style, references, and how to prepare a manuscript for publication. APA style breaks papers up into sections, which helps you to present information clearly and also allows readers to quickly find and process the information they need.

Who Uses APA Style? APA style is also used in many other disciplines such as Sociology, Business, Economics, Nursing, Social Work, and Criminology. As a result, the Publication Manual is available at several libraries on the Purdue University campus (Consumer and Family Sciences Library; Engineering Library; Hicks Undergraduate Library; Humanities, Social Science, and Education Library; Pharmacy, Nursing, and Health Services Library; and Psychological Sciences Library) either in the reference section or on reserve. The basic information that you will need to write your papers can be found in this manual. However, if your question is not addressed on this manual, if you are writing a complex document such as a thesis or lengthy manuscript, or if you have detailed questions, you should refer to http://www.apastyle.org.

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Why Use APA Style? Abiding by the rules of APA style makes it easier for others to understand your writing. Your reader will be able to find what they are looking for, follow your writing more easily, and your communication will be more clearly understood. If you go on to publish your writing, the tasks of editors and publishers are simplified when everyone uses the same format. Using APA style also provides you with a model for thinking about psychological phenomena.

General Formatting
Title Page APA must have a title page. At least three pieces of information are required: a title , the authors name, and an institutional affiliation. The title page includes: 1. The page header (first 2-3 words of your title and page number; Note: EVERY page has a page number on it) 2. The running head for publication 3. The title 4. Your name 5. Your institution The title should be a concise statement of the main topic and inform readers of the content of the paper. The recommended length for a title is 10 to 12 words. The title is centered on the page with your name two spaces below the title and your institution below your name. The running head

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

is an abbreviated title (no more than 50 characters, including punctuation and spaces) and is typed at the top of the title page between the page header and the title. Note the capitalization of the running head.

Spacing Double-spacing is required throughout most of the manuscript. Single spacing can be used for table titles and headings, figure captions, references (but double-spacing is required between references), footnotes, and long quotations (APA, 2001, p. 326). Space once after: commas, colons, and semicolons punctuation marks at the end of sentences periods that separate elements of a reference citation periods after initials in personal names Do NOT space after: internal periods in abbreviations around colons in ratios

Text Details Make sure the text is left aligned and not justified. With left aligned text, the left margin forms a straight line and the right margin is ragged. Footnotes are rarely used in APA papers. Use a 12 point font.

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Indent 5-7 spaces (one-half inch, 1.25 cm) within paragraphs. Single space after sentence terminators (i.e., '.', '?', '!'). Keyword emphasis requires the use of italics, but only the first time a term is used. Margins should be 1 all around. Page numbers are required on every page (top of the page and right alignment). The page header summarizes the title in a few words. The header and page number go inside the margin space, double spaced above the text, next to the right margin.

Use header top left corner (e.g., A study on Partex group); font size 8-10. xx No spacing (i.e., ) between the paragraphs

Headings APA headings follow a complex hierarchy, with provision for up to five levels. These come, in descending order, as levels 5, 1, 2, 3, 4. But, if one, two, or three levels of headings are required in a paper, use levels 1, 3, and 4, in that order. If four levels are required, interleave level 2 between levels 1 and 3. If five levels are required, start with level five and work down the remaining hierarchy in order (5, 1, 2, 3, 4). Most papers will need no more than three levels. To avoid confusion these are labeled A, B, and C below (APA levels 1, 3, and 4 respectively)

Headings:
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 period. Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading Indented, Italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a Level 5 CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Capitalization

Capitalize major words and all other words of four letters or more, in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference lists, for example, "A Study of No-Win Strategies."

Capitalize the first word after a comma or colon if, and only if, it begins a complete sentence. For example, "This is a complete sentence, so it is capitalized." As a counter example, "no capitalization here."

Commas

Use commas before "and" in lists, for example, height, width, and depth. Use commas between groups of three digits, for example, 1,453. Use commas to set off a reference in a parenthetical comment (Patrick, 1993). Use commas in exact dates, for example, April 18, 1992 (but not in April 1992).

Hyphenation

Do not hyphenate -ly and superlative words (widely used test, best informed students). Do not hyphenate common prefixes (posttest, prewar, multiphase, nonsignificant) unless needed for clarity (pre-existing).

Hyphenate if the base word is capitalized or a number (pre-Freudian, post-1960).

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Italics (Underlining)

Do not italicize or underline common foreign abbreviations (vice versa, et al., a priori). Do not italicize or underline for mere emphasis. Italicize or underline the titles of books and articles, species names, introduction of new terms and labels (the first time only), words and phrases used as linguistic examples, letters used as statistical symbols, and volume numbers in reference lists.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks for an odd or ironic usage the first time but not thereafter, for example, "This is the "good-outcome" variable, but as it turns out, the good-outcome variable predicts trouble later on . . ."

Use quotation marks for article and chapter titles cited in the text but not in the reference list. (In Smith's (1992) article, "APA Style and Personal Computers," computers were described as "here to stay" (p. 311).)

Extended Quotations

Add emphasis in a quotation with italics, immediately followed by the words [italics added] in brackets.

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Brackets are not necessary when changing the first letter of a quotation to upper case. For quotations over 40 words in length, indent and single space the whole block (double space in papers for review or publication). Indent five more spaces (one-half inch, 1.25 cm) if there are paragraphs within the long quotation after the first. Always provide author, year, and page citation.

Expand or clarify words or meanings in a quotation by placing the added material in quotes. For example, "They [the Irish Republican Army] initiated a cease-fire."

Reproduce a quote exactly. If there are errors, introduce the word sic italicized and bracketed--for example [sic]--immediately after the error to indicate it was part of the original source.

Use three dots with a space before, between, and after each (ellipsis points) when omitting material, four if the omitted material includes the end of a sentence (with no space before the first). Do not use dots at the beginning or end of a quotation unless it is important to indicate the quotation begins or ends in mid sentence.

Note that: A quotation longer than 40 words is set off from the text. Quotation marks are not used.

For example, the word ball occurred in 76 different sentences, including such different requests as Put the leaves in your ball, Show me the ball thats on TV, Vacuum your ball, and Go do ball slapping with Liz. Overall, 144 different content words, many of which were presented in ways that required syntactic parsing for a proper response (such as Knife your ball vs. Put the knife in the hat), were utilized in the study.

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Do Not Use Quotes to . . .

. . . cite a linguistic example; instead, underline or italicize the term (the verb gather). . . . hedge, cast doubt, or apologize (he was "cured"). Leave off the quotes. . . . identify endpoints on a scale; underline or italicize instead (poor to excellent). . . . introduce a key term (the neoquasipsychoanalytic theory).

Abbreviations

Avoid abbreviations (acronyms) except for long, familiar terms (MMPI). Explain what an abbreviation means the first time it occurs: American Psychological Association (APA).

The following abbreviations should NOT be used outside parenthetical comments:

o o o o o o

cf. [use compare] e.g. [use for example] etc. [use and so forth] i.e. [use that is] viz. [use namely] vs. [use versus]

Do not use the abbreviation "pp." for magazine or journal citations; just give the numbers themselves. Do use "pp." for citations of encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books.

Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state names (GA).

Using APA style: A comprehensive guideline

Miscellaneous: Colons, dashes, parentheses, numbering paragraphs

Use parentheses to introduce an abbreviation, for example, the galvanic skin response (GSR).

Use appendixes (appendices) as the plural of appendix. Use datum as singular, data as plural. Use matrix as singular, matrices as plural. Phenomenon is the singular form of the plural phenomena. Use schema as singular, schemas (not schemata) as plural.

Writing Non-Empirical Papers

If you have a non-empirical paper (for example, a literature review or historical paper), all of the same guidelines apply, except your section heading will be different. Rather than having the standard Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, you are more likely to break your literature review down into subsections and use a descriptive heading for each. Also, because the focus of these papers is on the theoretical background of a topic, the length, number of cited references, etc. will be much greater than for an empirical paper.

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Writing Appropriate English in APA

The most common student writing errors are described below. Please edit your papers using these guidelines.

Numbers According to APA, the general rule on the use of numbers is to use digits to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10. Digits are also used to express numbers that (a) immediately precede a unit of measurement; (b) represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles; and (c) represent time, dates, ages, sample or population size, scores and points on a scale, and exact sums of money. Words are always used to express any number that begins a sentence. In the abstract, use digits for all numbers except when they begin a sentence.

Contractions Scholarly papers do not use contractions, e.g. can't, won't. It would be preferable to say can not or will not

Seriation When it is necessary to enumerate elements in a series, identify the elements by a letter (within a paragraph or sentence or by an Arabic numeral. The seriation in Item 1 (Numbers) above is an example of the punctuation that is used within a sentence of three or more elements that have internal commas. (Notice the semi-colons between elements.) Two more examples follow:

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Students have three choices (a) write the paper, (b) change majors, or (c) join the Foreign Legion. Based on social psychological theory, the professor's dismal spelling is the result of one or more of the following: 1. English is her second language. 2. She has minimal brain damage. 3. Her dominant response for spelling in public is incorrect.

Style The Publication Manual encourages the use of "I" instead of the third person, e.g. "I found significant results," is preferable to "The researcher found significant results." However, it is not likely that authors will find it necessary to use personal pronouns in literature reviews. Similarly, the pronouns "you" and "we" are rarely used in scholarly papers because authors seldom address their readers directly. It is much preferable to say The difference between the groups was significant.

Right-Hand Margins APA style does not use right-hand justification. Right-hand justification often makes a paper more difficult to read.

Noun/Pronoun Agreement A pronoun must agree in number (i.e. singular or plural) with the noun it replaces. For example, it is not correct to write, "The child improved their scores dramatically."

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Subject/Verb Agreement A verb must agree in number (i.e. singular or plural) with its subject. The most common error of this type in scientific writing is found with the word "data." The word "data" is plural so its verb must also be plural, e.g. "The data were not accurately represented."

Affect or Effect? One of the most common errors in psychology papers is confusing the word "effect" with "affect." In most cases, "effect" is a noun; e.g. what effect did the independent variable have on the dependent variable? Generally, "affect" is a verb; e.g. The independent variable did not affect the dependent variable. Psychologists sometimes refer to emotion as "affect," so in that case it is a noun. However, as a rule, with few exceptions, affect is a verb and effect is a noun.

Its or It's? Its is the possessive for it, e.g. The dog ate its food with gusto. It's is the contraction for "it is." (although, remember that contractions are not generally used at all in APA style)

Clarity Clarity is determined by the ease with which the paper can be read and understood. The reader should be able to grasp the information in your paper the first time that he or she reads it. A good way to improve the clarity of your paper is to put the draft of your paper aside and read it aloud to yourself a few days later. Does it still make sense to you? If not, make the necessary changes before typing the final paper. It takes effort to write clearly, but it is important. Information that is communicated in a clear and understandable way commands respect and attention. It also helps to

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write using words that you are familiar with. Do not try to sound high and mighty by using jargon and words with which you are unfamiliar. At the same time, be sure that you write professionally (i.e., use proper grammar, write in complete sentences).

Active Versus Passive Voice Use active rather than passive voice (but without personal pronouns), for example, use Participants were instructed to rather than Participants were given instructions to

Since and While The word since does not mean because. The word while does not mean although. Although and because should be used instead. Since and while refer only to references to time.

Tense Generally speaking, use past tense in the abstract, introduction, and method. Results and discussion sections can be in the present tense. If you are writing a research proposal, you should use the future tense in the Proposed Method and Expected Results sections.

Proofread Proofread! Do not rely on spell checkers. Make sure you are writing in complete sentences. Be sure that you catch common mistakes such as using alot rather than a lot

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Parenthetical Information Make sure that information in parentheses is truly parenthetical. The reader should be able to skip the information in parentheses and still understand your paper. For example, This was clearly demonstrated by (Smith, 1990) in his groundbreaking research. Has incorrect usage of parentheses.

Writing in Specific Issues 1. 2. You must use complete sentences. The first sentence of a paragraph must be independent (able to stand on its own). For example consider While these studies are important, there is... This sentence would be correct in the middle of a paragraph, but as the first sentence, it should more appropriately read, While studies of the effects of whatever on whatever else are important, there is... 3. 4. 5. Try not to use slang (e.g., ...put a damper on...). Do not use contractions. That is, instead of it's, use it is. If you are doubtful about the spelling of a word, do not guess. Look up the correct spelling in an appropriate reference source (e.g., MerriamWebster.com). 6. Proofread the copy that you submit and do correct minor typographical errors, formatting, spelling, or even the wording, with a pencil. These corrections are inevitable and will communicate that you are serious about your work.

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Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language In general, avoid anything that causes offense. The style manual makes the following suggestions: DO NOT use . . . ethnic labels (for example, Hispanic) "men" (referring to all adults) "homosexuals" "depressives" when you can use . . . geographical labels (Mexican Americans) "men and women" "gay men and lesbians" "people with depression"

Correct Use of the Terms "Gender" and "Sex" The term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social groups, as in this example from the Publication Manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most heterosexual men and women were against it" (APA, 2001, p. 63). The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are emphasized, for example, "sex differences in hormone production." Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing "An American boy's infatuation with football" with "An American child's infatuation with football" (see APA, 2001, p. 66). Sensitivity to Labels

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Be sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a "patient," not a "case." Avoid equating people with their conditions, for example, do not say "schizophrenics," say "people diagnosed with schizophrenia." Use the term "sexual orientation," not "sexual preference." The phrase "gay men and lesbians" is currently preferred to the term "homosexuals." To refer to all people who are not heterosexual, the manual suggests "lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women and men" (APA, 2001, p. 67). In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect current usage. Currently both the terms "Black" and "African American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and "AfroAmerican" are not. These things change, so use common sense. Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as proper nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic groups. The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword names such as Asian American or African American. Labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are both acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly 450 Native American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names are far more informative. The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references. Just say "Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba. The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and again the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is known (for example, Chinese or Vietnamese). People from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often (but not always!) prefer Inuk (singular) and Inuit (plural) to "Eskimo." But some Alaska natives are non-Inuit people who prefer

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to be called Eskimo. This type of difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in place of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "people from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland." In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast one group of people with another group called "normal" people. Write "we compared people with autism to people without autism" not "we contrasted autistics to normals." Do not use pejorative terms like "stroke victim" or "stroke sufferers." Use a more neutral terminology such as "people who have had a stroke." Avoid the terms "challenged" and "special" unless the population referred to prefers this terminology (for example, Special Olympics). As a rule, use the phrase "people with _______" (for example, "people with AIDS," not "AIDS sufferers"). In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions like "under 16" or "over 65." Avoid the term elderly. Older person is preferred. Boy and Girl are acceptable referring to high school and and younger. For persons 18 and older use men and women.

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Tables and Figures

Note that APA style tables do not contain any vertical lines, so do not draw them in or use your word processor to generate them. Type the table number and then (on the next double spaced line) type the table title flush left and italicized. Note that there are no periods used after the table number or title. There are different ways to format tables. Your best bet is to set the tabs for the table or to use your word processor's table generating ability. When using columns with decimal numbers, make the decimal points line up.

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manuscript page header page number Table 1 Average Ages Sexual Information was Acquired Compared with the Youngest and Oldest Ages Subjects Believed the Information Should be Acquired -----------------------------------------------------Age Youngest Acquired Age Information How babies are made How babies are born Sexual intercourse Menstruation Nocturnal emissions Masturbation Birth control Homosexuality Genital terminology Orgasm STD's Oldest Age

-----------------------------Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD 10.1 2.9 10.0 3.1 11.6 2.2 8.5 2.8 11.9 2.7 8.4 3.1 11.6 2.8 9.9 2.1 12.6 2.1 ------------------------------------------------------

11.6 2.6 10.4 2.6 13.1 2.6 12.5 2.6 10.8 2.6 13.4 2.7 13.0 2.6 11.4 2.8 14.0 2.6 13.9 2.4 12.0 2.2 14.3 2.4 13.4 2.8 11.3 2.8 14.1 2.5 12.4 2.9 10.4 3.3 13.1 3.3 14.0 2.3 12.5 2.7 15.0 2.6 14.1 2.3 12.0 2.4 14.7 2.4

-----------------------------------------------------STD's = Sexually transmitted diseases

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Table notes Label each table beginning with the table number followed by a description of the contents. Each row and column must have a heading. Abbreviations and symbols (e.g., "%" or "nos.") may be used.

Use a zero before the decimal point when numbers are less than one. Add notes to explain the table contents. These may be general notes or footnotes.

Figures 'Figures' is the technical term for graphs, charts, drawings and pictures. Figures (other than pictures) may be drawn in black and white only (using a ruler and preferably on graph paper) or they may be generated with a computer graphics program (keeping it in two dimensions). Center each figure on the page vertically as well as horizontally and arrange for the figure to use the bulk of the page. If the figure is a chart or graph, verbally label the axes (do not use "X" and "Y") and provide a key if necessary (e.g., explaining what open vs. filled circles are). On the back of each figure (with a pencil), put the manuscript page header, the figure number, and the word TOP to indicate how the figure should appear on the page. Do not put the figure caption on the figure, since that is what the figure captions page is for. Figure Captions

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Start on a new page. Center the phrase Figure Captions at the top. Each figure caption is typed flush left in block format. The word 'figure' and the number are italicized, for example, Figure 1. The effects of...

Example of a Figure given in the next page:

manuscript page header page number Figure Captions

Figure 1. Mean activity counts as a function of maternal

diet and age of the rat at the time of testing.

Figure 2. Number of people arrested for drunken driving

as related to the day of the week.

Development of Conceptual Framework

Service Quality Corporate Image Trust

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Customer Loyalty

Figure1: Conceptual Framework of Research Variable and their Relationships

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Reference Citations (In-Text)

Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith (1990) points out, a recent study (Smith, 1990) shows. . . . Every source cited in your text--and only those sources cited in your text--are referenced in the reference list. There are numerous ways to formally cite a reference in the text. Examples include Some fact (last name, year)., Last name (year) noted that..., or In <year>, <last name> reported that... For more ideas, pay close attention to the articles you read. For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences. For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time, then use et al., so the first time it is Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but the second time it is Smith et al., with a period after "al" but no underlining, give the full citation in references. Include a page reference after the year, outside quotes. For example: The author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993), but she did not say which effect; Lopez found that "the effect disappeared within minutes" (p. 311). The sentence quoted is capitalized only if it follows a comma, and is a complete sentence not merged into the flow of the text. Join names in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason (1990) point out, the same argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith & Sarason, 1990).

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If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For example, "As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1991), blah blah . . . " and thereafter, "The previously cited study (NIMH, 1991) found that . . .

If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in order. In general, use letters after years to distinguish multiple publications by the same author in the same year. For example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a, 1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.

Multiple citations in parentheses are placed alphabetically and are separated by a semicolon and a space. For example, Some fact (Carlson, 1972; Moon, 1968; Partin, 1980).

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Table 2 Formatting Citations In Text SITUATION One Work 1 Author First citation and subsequent citations are the same 2 Authors Cite both names every time 3 - 5 Authors First Citation--Cite all authors Subsequent Citations-Cite surname of first author followed by et al. >_ 6 Authors First citation and subsequent citations-Cite surname of first author followed by et al. Two References Shorten to the Same Form Cite surnames of first authors and as many of subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the two references followed by et al. Electronic Sources If no page number provided use paragraph number

Author in Text Wendler (1996) discussed . . .

Author in Parentheses . . . is the basis of all healing (Wendler, 1996).

Lazar and O'Connor (1997) presented . . . Cribb, Bignold, and Ball (1994) described . . . Cribb et al. (1994) also delineated . . .

. . . is important for maintaining a patient's trust (Lazar & O'Connor, 1997). . . . is fundamental to holistic nursing (Cribb, Bignold, & Ball, 1994). . . . as the philosphical basis for nursing (Cribb et al., 1994). . . . has both a psychologic and physiologic basis (Wells-Federman et al., 1994) . . . had similar results (Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, et al., 1992; Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, et al., 1992).

Wells-Federman et al. (1994) also contrasted .. . .

Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, et al. (1992) and Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, et al. (1992) found that . . .

(Meyers, 2000, 5) _ using symbol OR (Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1) using section heading and paragraph within section and abbreviation para.

. . . quoted text material (Meyers, 2000, 5). Beutler (2000) stated: Block quote greater than 40 words . . . end of quotation. (Conclusion section, para. 1).

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SITUATION One Work Group as Author

Author in Text The Burton Goldberg Group (1993) stated . . . In 1998, the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) was renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), and the budget was significantly increased as well. According to the NCCAM (1998), the most widely used alternative therapies are . . . According to the Nursing 99 Drug Handbook (1999), doses up to 40 mg / kg / day may be given. Both E. A. Schuster (1992) and J. Schuster (1997) believe caring for the environment . . .

Author in Parentheses . . . are philosphically different (The Burton Goldberg Group, 1993). . . . has not been fully studied (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine [NCCAM], 1998). . . . has been reconsidered in light of new research (NCCAM, 1998).

Group as Author with Recognized Abbreviation First Citation--give group author with abbreviation in brackets Subsequent Citations-use abbreviation only

Work with No Author

. . . should not exceed the maximum daily dose (Nursing 99 Drug Handbook, 1999). NOTE: Alphabetically by first initial

Authors with the Same Surname

Two or More Works Same Author Order by year of publication Different Authors Alphabetical order by first author's surname Personal Communications NOTE: e-mail and other unretrievable electronic sources should be cited as personal communications Keegan (1996, 1998) states . .. Both Hoekstra (1994) and Boschma (1994) explore . . . Professor Johnston stated a need for more research in this area (personal communication, September 10, 1999). . . . in understanding hoslitic nursing practice (Keegan, 1996, 1998). . . . historical as well as scientifiic foundations (Boschma, 1994; Hoekstra, 1994) . . . as more research is needed in this area (Y. Johnston, personal communication, September 10, 1999).

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Reference Formats For Back Page References centered at the top of the page. Use a hanging indent for references (all lines after the first line of each entry in the list should be intended one-half inch from the left margin).

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Alphabetize the reference list by authors last names. If you have more than one work by an author, order them by publications date, oldest to newest

When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one author entries first

If no author is given for a source, alphabetize using the title of the work, ehich will be listed in place of the author

Use & instead of and when listing multiple authors of a single work Capitalize only the first work of a title and subtitle of a work Italicize titles of books and journals Only include a reference if it is cited in the text and can be retrieved

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Abbreviating Within a Reference

Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:

chap. for chapter ed. for edition rev. ed. for revised edition 2nd ed. for second edition Ed. for Edited by (Eds.) for multiple editors Trans. for Translated by

pp. for page numbers (plural) Vol. for a specific Volume vols. for a work with xx volumes No. for Number Pt. for Part Suppl. for Supplement, Tech. Rep. for Technical Report

Use the abbreviation "pp." for page numbers in encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples of reference formats).

Alphabetizing Within Reference Lists

Treat Mc and Mac literally; Mac comes before Mc. Single-author citations precede multiple-author citations of the same year (Zev, 1990 then Zev et al., 1990).

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APA Reference Style For Back Page Examples of references in APA style: Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle. If journal has sequential pagination for the volume do not include the issue number. If is journal is paginated by issue include issue number.

Journal Article, with Continuous Pagination by Volume

Deutsch, F. M., Lussier, J. B., & Servusm L. J. (1993). Husbands at home: Predictors of parentalparticipation in childcare and housework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1154-1166.

Journal Article, Paginated by Issue

Green, B. J. (2000) Picture books and teaching science. Science and Children, 38, 2, 43-45.

Magazine Article

Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science , 262, 673-674.

Newspaper Article, No Author

New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). Washington Post, p. A12. If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give all page numbers and separate the numbers with a comma(e.g., pp. B1, B3)

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Edited Book

Gibbs. J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (1991). Children of color: Psychological interventions with minority youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Book, No Author or Editor

Merriam-Websters' collegiate dictionary. (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, Ma: Merriam-Webster.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book

Massaro, D. (1992). Broadening the domain of the fuzzy logical model of perception. In H. L. Pick, Jr., P.van den Broek, & D. C. Knill (Eds.), Cognition: Conceptual and methodological issues (pp. 51-84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Encyclopedia or Dictionary

Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians. (6th ed., vols. 1-20). London: Macmillan. *For major reference works with a large editorial board, you may list the name of the lead editor, followed by et al.

Government Publications (Gpo)

National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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Eric Report

Narahara, M. (1998). Gender bias in children's picture books: A look at teachers' choice of literature. (Report No. CS 216 342). Long Beach, CA: University of California. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 419 247)

Citing a Court Case

Each reference for a court decision contains three sections, which are: 1) title or name of case (i.e. one party versus anther); 2) the citation (i.e. volume and page); and 3) the jurisdiction of the court writing the decision with the date of the decision in parentheses. For additional examples, see References to Legal Material in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Maryland v. Craig, 100 S. CT. 3160 (1990)

Television Broadcast

Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.

Television Series

Miller, R. (Producer). (1989). The mind [Television series]. NewYork: WNET.

Internet Articles Based on a Print Source:

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Tranby, P., Miller, P., & Jarrett, K. (2001). Role of the working mother in forecasting scholarly achievement of her children. [Electronic version]. Journal of Family Therapy, 5, 117-123. Article in an Internet-only Journal

Needham,C. L. (2000). Exploring the deep ocean floor. Oceanographic Journal. Retrieved from ftp://ftp.woodshole.edu/harad/Oceanographic/2000.volume7/ocean.00.7.011.oceanfloor.needham

Article in an Internet-Only Newsletter

Marshall, J.V., Lightfoot, G.M., King, C., Andrews, J.A., Dion, C., Durante, J., et al. (1999, May). Reasons why we need reference librarians in an information age. The New Breed Librarian, 3 (5). Retrieved from http://www/newbreedlibrarian.org/subscribe/newlettr_3.html

Mailing Lists (Listservs)

Any message or communication you cite should have scholarly value and should be retrievable. If the news group, online forum, discussion group, or listserv does not maintain an archive, the message should not be listed in the reference list, but cited as a personal communication. Richardson, M. (2000,May 23). Studying state authors encourages recreational reading [Msg 3]. Message posted to news://elementary.reading.teachers f the message is unsigned, use the authors screen name i Indicate the date when message was sent to the discussion list.

CD-ROM and Commercial Online Full-Text Databases

All references begin with the same information that would be provided for a printed source. The rest of the cite is a retrieval statement that identifies the date of retrieval (omitted for CD-ROMs)

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and the proper name of the database (e.g. Academic Elite, LEXIS-NEXIS, WILSONSELECT, etc).

Document Created by a Private Organization on a Web Page

National Council of Teachers of English. (2000). The NCTE Orbis Pictus Award for outstanding nonfiction for children. Retrieved July 31, 2001, from http://www.ncte.org/elem/pictus Use n.d. (no date) when a publication date for the web page or document is not available. NOTE: For back page reference students can use the End Note software.

Appendixes

Used to provide reader with detailed information that would be distracting if included in the main body

If only one appendix then label it Appendix (centered at the top of the page) If more than one appendix then label Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix must have a title: Double-space and type the title of the appendix (centered, in uppercase and lower case letters) below the label

If a table constitutes an entire appendix, the centered appendix label and title replaces the table number and title

Double-space indent the first line 5-7 spaces, and begin text Sequence appendixes in the order in which they are mentioned in the text Begin each appendix on a separate page

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In text, refer to appendixes by their labels (e.g., Appendix A contains.)

A Brief Check Sheet of APA Style

This checklist is designed for students to use after studying the writing guide upon which is based. The checklist tries to summarize briefly (using as few words as possible) the main point in the corresponding outline item of the more detailed document. This checklist should also be useful material for the student to prepare good reports. I. General Topics A. Typing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Must be typed or printed on a computer. Font style- either Times New Roman or Courier New Double space throughout. Use 1 inch margins. Use normal paragraphs (5 space indent) in body of manuscript. Use 12 point font (10 characters/inch). No spacing (i.e., ) between the paragraphs Page number Top right corner (Note: Do not insert page number at first page) 9. Use header top left corner (e.g., A study on Partex group); font size 810. 10. Font size heading ONLY for the title is 14 for an instance Introduction or Purpose of the study for those cases.

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11.

Font size for the subheading is 12; however, to differentiate the subheading(s), the author(s) can use either italic or underline

12. 13.

Capitalize 1-st letter following colon if clause is a complete sentence. Always use double space after completion of each sentence.( more specifically after every full stop ()

14. 15. 16.

Text is left aligned (& not justified). Do not hyphenate words at end of sentences. Staple or clip manuscript.

B.

Writing in General 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Must use complete sentences. 1st sentence of a paragraph must be independent. Avoid slang. Do not use contractions. Spell check & look up when necessary. Proofread.

C.

Style Details in General 1. 2. 3. When in doubt, check Publication Manual of APA. Write for submission to a scientific journal. Model other APA journal articles.

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Avoid using personal pronouns. Avoid sexist language. Avoid using empty words. Past tense in the abstract/intro/method, present in results/discussion. Try to read as if naive before handing in.

D.

Abbreviations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When abbreviating, spell out the first time. Do not use too many abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are used only in parenthetic material (except for et al.). Do not use E & S as abbreviations for experimenter & subject. Common abbreviations do not use periods.

E.

Numbers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All measurement is metric. 0-9 are spelled out (with exceptions). 10+ are written as numbers. Capitalize nouns followed by numerals. In abstract, use digits for all numbers (except when beginning a sentence). Spell out any number when it is the 1st thing in a sentence. Be consistent with number formats (e.g., decimals).

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F.

Citations in the Text 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. If you use someone's words/ideas, you must cite them. There are numerous ways to formally cite. First time reference is cited, spell out all authors. If citation is in parentheses use ampersand for "and". Multiple parenthetic citations are placed alphabetically. Second hand citations should be clear.

G.

Quotations 1. 2. 3. You must give page numbers for direct quotes. 3-4 quotes in 10 page paper is upper limit. Display quotation of >40 words as free-standing block.