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Topic 3- Voice of the Genome

Cells and Organelles


Prokaryotic Cell- Before the nucleus (Bacteria) They do not have a nucleus They are very small And DNA lies free in the cytoplasm They contain Ribosomes Cytoplasm Cell wall Circular DNA Infolding cell membrane - respiration Plasmid - small circle of DNA Pili - Allow bacteria to stick to surfaces Capsule- protection Flagellum - Allows bacteria to stick to surfaces

Eukaryotic Cell - After the nucleus Nuclei, mitochondria, chloroplasts larger not all have cell walls They contain Rough ER (ribosomes transported) Golgi apparatus (modifies proteins) Nucleoulus (ribosomes made) Pair of centrioles (transport in cell division) Lysosomes (breakdown of unwanted structures) Smooth ER ( Makes lipids) Mitochondria (site of aerobic respiration)

Protein Trafficking Nucleus 1. Transcription of DNA to mRNA

2. mRNA leaves through the nuclear envelope Ribosome 3.Amino acids made into proteins Rough ER 4. Proteins travel through rough ER 5. Vesciles pinched off the end of the rough ER contain the proteins Golgi apparatus 6. Protiens transported to them 7. Proteins are modified here 8.Vesciles are pinched off from the ends containing the modified proteins Cell surface membrane 9. vesciles fuse here releasing the protein

Cell Organisation Cells - All cells of multicellular organisms are eukaryotic Tissue - Is made up of many cells to perform a function (muscle tissue) Organ - Made up of many tissues to perform a function (heart) System - made up of many tissues to perform a large function (digestive system)

Cell Cycle
To make the vast number of cells to build individuals new cell contents must be synthesised and then one cell must divide into two. 1. Interphase New cell organelles are synthesised and DNA replication occurs . This then means one cell contains double the amount of organelles, cytoplasm and DNA to form 2 cells. To do this individual chromosomes are unravelled allowing access to genetic material enabling new proteins to be synthesised. Cells must also produce two copies of DNA. The length differs depending on the role of the cell.

2. Mitosis Prophase Chromosomes condense and two become joined at the centromere. The 2 strands are identical copies of one another. Each chromosome is visible as two strands (chromatids) Microtubles from cytoplasm form spindle. The centrioles are involved in organisation of the spindle Metaphase This phase begins when the nuclear envelope has been broken down. The centromeres attach to the spindle fibres at the equator Anaphase The spindle fibres contract and pull the 2 halves of each centromere towards the poles. The spindle then breaks down Telophase This is the reverse of prophase. Chromosomes unravel and nuclear envelope reforms to that 2 sets of genetic material become inclosed in seperate nuclei. 3. Cytoplasmic Division Into 2 cells. Animals: cell surface membrane constricts around the centre by muscle contraction untill the cell is divided into two. Plants: A new cell plate is synthesised between 2 new cells. Practical to observe Mitosis The root tip squash - cut the ends of the root tips from the plant. Add stain and usually add acid as this highlights the chromosomes. Break open on a microscopic slide to spread out the cell so it is easier to view, add more stain and warm. Production of Gametes (sperm and egg) Involves meiosis where the number of chromosomes halve. 23 chromosomes (haploid number) 46 chromosomes (diploid number) EGG Zona Pellucida (jelly like - prevents entery of more sperm) Lysosomes Cytoplasm (energy rich material)

Lipod droplets Cell surface membrane Haploid nucleus Follicle Cells

SPERM Mid region full of mitochondria (energy to drive the flagellum) Flagellum (move sperm towards ovum) Acrosome ( contains digestive enzymes that break down the zona pelludia Haploid nucleus

The Acrosome Reaction sperm reach the ovum where the cells are released from the layer of cells surrounding the ovum triggering this reaction Digestive enzymes are released digesting through the follicle cell and the zona pellucida surrounding the ovum. The sperm fuses with the ovum membrane enabling the nucleus to enter the ovum. Enzymes released from lysosymes thicken the zona pellucida stopping more sperm from entering. Nucleus to sperm and ovum fuse.

How do Gametes Form Mitosis - Produces new body cells as the organism grows and develops. Retaining diploid number (asexual) Meiosis - Produces gametes with only half the number of chromosomes. (sexual). Chromosomes replicate before division. Each chromosome is therefor made up of two chromatids. Homologous chromosomes pair up and then seperate. Chromatids seperate and gametes are formed with only half the original number of chromosomes. This results in genetic Variation INDEPENDANT ASSORTMENT During meoisis only one chromosome from each pair ends up in the gamete. This is random. In organisms with many chromosomes there are many possible combinations therefore is a large amount of genetic variation. The arrangement of each chromosome pair is random. CROSSING OVER During first division homologous chromosomes come together as pairs and all four chromosomes come into contact. At these contact points the chromosomes break and rejoin

exchanging sections of DNA. The point at which they break is called the Chiasma. Several of these occur giving rise to a large amount of variation. Fertalisation in Mammals Nuclei from gametes have to combine. Allowing the acrosome reaction to occur, where the genetic material of the sperm and egg fuse forming a fertalised ovum called the zygote. Fertalisation in Plants Nuclei also have to combine in plants This takes place in the embryo sac within the ovule Pollen grains germinate on the style and pollen tubes grow down the style towards ovary. Tube grows through a microscopic pore into the embryo sac with 2 male nuclei. 1 fuses with the egg cell to form the diploid zygote (divides to form embryo) The 2nd fuses with 2 polar nuclei to form a triploid cell ( this divides to form seeds, storage tissue and endosperm) Plant Gametes Male - stamen ( anther attached to a stalk. inside cells divide to produce pollen grains which contain nuclei called Tube and Generate Nucleus) generative breaks down to form 2 haploid nuclei. Female - Female ovary ( one or more ovules develop with contain female gametes) Stem Cells and Cell Specialisation Stem cells: undifferentiated cell that can keep dividing and give rise to other types of cell Totipotent stem cells - Have the potential to give rise into a individual (can give rise to all cell types) Pluripotent stem cells - Give rise to most cell types though cant give rise to all Multipotent stem cells - some cells retain a certain capacity to give rise to a variety of different cell types after the cells have become differentiated. Differentiated: embryo develops into a multiceullular body and the cells become differentiated ( specialised to perform a certain function ) Plant cells reamin totipotent throughout the life of a plant. Many differentiated plans cells can undifferentiate and then develop into a completly new plant (animals cant do this) How cells become Specialised A stimulus is given to the unspecialised cells Some genes are swtiched on - become active and others are switched off

Messenger RNA is made from the active genes only mRNA moves to the ribosomes where the correct protein is made. this protein can alter the structure and function of cells Demonstrating Totipotency (core practical) A few plant cells of the same type need to be taken Placed onto an agar which has growth hormonoes added Cells divide by mitosis forming a cluster of cells The clusters are divided and placed in containers with agar Different growth hormonoes are added to the above stimulating the plant cells to differentiate into roots, stem and leaves

Stem cells and medical therapies Sources of stem cells Early embryo - totipotent cells Older embryo - pluripotent cells Differentiated cells - some multipotent but most can only make one or few types of cell.

Embryonic stem cells - From used embryos in IVF (advantages - Easy to extract and Grow/ Disadvantage - Ethical issues, rejection by body, risk of infection) Adults stem cells - Source found in body (advantages - Fewer ethical issues, rejection risk avoided/ disadvantages - Difficult to extract, more difficult to produce different types of cell, risk of infection) Fused Stem cells (Nucleus taken from body cell, human egg cell with nucleus removed. fuses then divides to form embryo containing patients DNA) (advantages - rejection risk avoided, potential for treating genetic disorders/disadvantages ethical issues, risk of infection) Using Stem cells They can be used to treat medical conditions where there is a less of functioning of a type of cell Parkinsons disease - Loss of nerve cells in brain used for muscle control Multiple scerosis (MS) - Electrical insulating layer around nerve cells break down. Type 1 diabetes - cells in pancrea produce low levels of insulin. Burns - skin cells damaged

Issues of using Embryonic Stem cells When does an embryo become a human with rights

Is it acceptable to use human embryo for research Is it acceptable to fuse an adult human cell with a human egg cell to creat new stem cells. Who makes the decision People who work with stem cells - as they have an understanding or issues and what is possible Everyone else as they can give a range of points of view Final decisions made by the HFEA Cell cloning - Dolly the sheep Transplanted the nucleus from the egg cell from the ovary into the mammary cells. These cells fused and grown in culture to create an early embryo Implanted in the uterus of 3rd sheep - where embryo develops and dolly the sheep is created. This sheep is chromosomally identical to the mammary cell donnar. Variation in Phenotype Phenotype : The outward expression of a cell of organisim due to an interaction of genotype (genetic make up of a cell) and environment. E.g Siamese hair colour: Genotype - gene codes for enzyme tyosine which helps to make fur dark. Environment - Enzyme only active when temp is lower than 31 degrees. Phenotype - Ears drop below 31 so they will be dark (distinct areas) Lung cancer and smoking Genotype: Presence of proto:oncogenes involved in regulating cell cycle. Environment: Chemical components of cigarette smoke can alter these genes to oncogenses in lungs. Phenotype: Cell cycle not regulated by oncogenes therefore lung cells keep dividing without a check - leading to cancerous tumers. Polygenic inheritance and Continuous Variation Polygenic inheritance - more than one gene is involved in influencing the phenotype. These genes will be at different locations on chromosomes ( human heigh in age group) It gives rise to continuous variation where there are few extremes and many in middle.

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