Lecture 3: Environmental Management in Singapore/ Garden City Singapore Brown Agenda Describes the states approach in managing Singapores

pores environment from the early years of independence to the early 1990s Priority given to developmental goals e.g. economic growth, industrialization, urbanization substantial human intervention with natural landscapes Emphasis high economic growth and wealth for the nation and its citizenry Stressed the rigorous management of the environmental impact of rapid urbanization and industrialization Gross National Product, employment and trade figures tend to receive far more attention than the traffic congestion that has grown in tandem in the countries major cities, as well as other environmental problems End-of-the-pipe pollution control approach brown agenda first before green agenda o Nature is seen as part of resources to be consumed in the process of development and growth o Introduced the necessary measure to manage the environmental impact of such rapid growth

Brown Agenda: Resultant Landscapes Drastic changes to the physical environment o Land reclamation at the expense of the coastal ecological systems around the island, removal of natural areas, shifting coastlines, creation of reservoirs, changing land use etc. o Result in environmental disasters such as floods, soil erosion, deforestation, forest fire, air pollution etc. Ameliorating pollution and eradicating pollutive landscapes led to removal of slums and squatters, itinerant hawkers/ outdoor markets and replacement with food centers, wet markets, cleaning up of river and waterways, controlling emission of pollutants o Control of hawkers now involve licensing administered by ENV which involves a grading system of the hawkers standards of hygiene o Resettlement of a majority of the population has been equivalent to the erasure of the central area dwelling landscapes, which were deemed both congested and unhealthy o Singapore River port-related activities were entirely removed and shifted further south away from the river Singapores landscape changes were due to infrastructural development for industry and business, industrial estates, reclaimed land, port and airport facilities, and telecommunications, which have supported the rapid economic growth achieved by Singapore o Filling in of swamps like the project to develop the Jurong Industrial Estate

Environmental Planning Top down MOH and MOE being key authorities & statutory boards o Focus on domestic environmental issues and not global environmental issues o Efficient law enforcement Legal framework for enforcing the environmental standards Standards have been imposed gradually over time in keeping with the availability of technology that can be incorporated by firms in order to treat waste water and effluents discharged into the air from factories BUT issues such as noise pollution or waste recycling have not received much attention until recently

Attempts to control air pollution: Make public transport the main mode for the work commuters Charge car owners and making it more expensive to own a car, public bus, MRT and taxi Population control: Stop at Two, ageing population policies practical and pragmatic approach ENV and EDB provide incentives and investment packages to attract international business investments Seriousness of the government on environmental management amongst earliest to introduce Ministry of Environment

3 Stages of Environmental Planning 1. Colonial Singapore Botanic Gardens green areas dedicated to the protection of biodiversity not only for nature conservation purposes but with a view to exploring the commercial potential of many of the tree species like the rubber tree for further and wider exploitation Municipal Commissioners took charge of health and sanitation measures to control infectious diseases and inspection of food supplies. A riverbank was built and a swamp was filled in to control flooding. A water-borne sewerage system was also provided efforts had been initiated to collect solid waste and maintain drains Implementation of Ministrys Programmes (Rio UN Conference) MOH public health; MND management of sewerage and drainage; PUB water supply Toa Payoh Public housing. Provided the blueprint for the management of residential estates in terms of the impact on waste generation, sanitation and sewerage treatment Jurong Industrial Estate house industries. Emphasis centralization at one location of heavy industries Such centrality allowed for environmental protection services to be provided in a more economical manner including infrastructure for pollution control Initiation of Ministry of Environment Initial years focused on public health and pollution control through environmental engineering Second phase: projects such as the cleaning of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin. Land use planning with strict zoning prescription was a strategic planning tool meant to help in the environmental management effort. Space is allocated only if there is compatible land use in terms of their impact on environmental quality Nation-wide monitoring system was also established Campaigns Both British and PAP have adopted a highly centralized approach to environmental planning and management. The participation by both the market or private sector as well as the civil society organization has been relatively limited compared to the initiatives and programmes introduced by the state command and control. Earth Summit of 1992 might have encouraged the Ministry to adopt a more consultative approach in environmental planning public forums, smaller committee discussions o Aspects of environmental concerns such as nature conservation were included

2.

3.

Sustainable Development United Nations Conference in Environment and Development in Rio in 1992 It means achieving growth without sacrificing the quality of our living environment Principles of sustainable development

o o o

Efficiency: growing the city with less resources/ waste Clean: Growing the city without polluting the environment Green: Growing the city while preserving greenery, waterways and natural heritage

Environmental Management Sustainability although economic viability still remains primary concern Incorporation of global environmental concerns e.g. climate change Community involvement highly encouraged Transnational efforts

Contestation of Sustainable Development Impact of Singapores image Resistance against states pragmatism in environmental management Apathy High cost of going green Lack of political will haze transnational effects

Conservation Sanctuaries Recording the diversity went hand in hand with the planting of commercially viable plants that would increase the wealth of the colony Experimenting with trees that would yield timber suitable for ships and houses etc complemented the efforts at the Calcutta Botanic Gardens in creating produce and raw materials that benefited the British Empire Over the years, the economic role that the gardens performed decreased while the taxonomic and research emphases increased Singapore investigate and invest heavily in agro technology parks recognition of the potential for economic growth: hydroponics or aeroponics The Sanctuaries provide refuge and protect eco-systems which are self-generating Selected to cater to the needs of many society groups Suffer the fact that besides being natural environments with ecological merit, they must co-exist with adjoining developments and take into account the opportunity cost of alternative uses e.g. Machritchie Reservoir OVERALL a losing game in conservation. 5 nature reserves to only three. Example of giving priority to people is in the Marina South Marsh

Garden City Singapore Conceived in the early 1960s by then Prime Minister LKY whose vision was that for Singapore to march forward, we must industrialize and urbanize o These 2 processes would remove many areas of green vegetation; we must therefore plant back trees and shrubs wherever possible Master Plan for the Conservation of Nature in Singapore in 1990 The Greening Program o Enactment of the Parks & Trees Act of 1975 ensures that trees, plants and turfed areas are not willfully destroyed o Extensive trees & shrubs planting along all grades of public roads o Creepers on walls and pedestrian bridges and open spaces o Creation of human-made regional and neighbourhood parks and gardens of all shapes and sizes Demarcate the beginning of one new town while signifying the end of the other

Used as buffers to separate housing estates from busy highways Green lungs and relief from the high-rise and high density public housing environment Meet recreational needs and leisure purposes BUT not reflective of managed nature and landscape changes but also nature reduced to fit into the urban scheme of things smaller range of plants and animal life Targeted as leisure spaces Themed parks e.g. Chinese Garden and Japanese Garden o Soften the urban jungle landscape, soften the harsh and hard surfaces of the built area o All areas of new development must have tree planting schemes included in their plan submission pragmatic purposes: reduce noise pollution, provide share and shelter, add to aesthetics, are good for the catchment area and change street-level micro-climates Colour, variety and orderliness are emphasizes Types of trees meshes beauty, sensory stimulation and conservation together o Human made natural attractions such as Singapore Zoological Gardens, Night Safari, Jurong Bird Park and Sentosas Underwater World Waterbodies and Water Feature o ABC Waters initiative to spruce up 32 rivers, more than 7000km drains/ canals, 15 reservoirs and open up more recreational activities and space for the public Encourage property developers to integrate sustainable water design features Active, Beautiful Clean certificates award to property developers who incorporate attractive and functional water features into their design plans Innovative water landscapes all across the island Heritage Trees Scheme o Aimed at promoting conservation of our mature trees for purposes of greening, beautification and instilling identity o Supported by legislation Campaigns such as the Clean and Green Week o Beautification exercise as well as the avoidance of the prospect of the city becoming a concrete jungle given the rapidity of urban development

Evaluating Greening Singapore Visual effects and international accolades o Successful in achieving relatively high air and water quality standards o Extensive array of green/ natural spaces in Singapore o Programs for schools well taken up/ increased funding e.g. Adopt-A-Park, Parkwatch o Excellent response to community-directed effects e.g. Garden Festival Gardeners Cup Parks are bases for nation-building and rootedness Open spaces allow for reflection and encourage creativity, innovation and imagination while would in turn reap economic benefit for our country Green spaces can mentally stimulate and refresh local Singaporeans as well as attract foreign talent to live and work in Singapore High costs of developing/ maintaining Green Areas ~150 million Ecological insensitivity Native V.S. Foreign Trees Public ignorance/ complacency about nature Nature Groups around but voices of minority Unhappiness over top-down approach Nature is constructed as usufructuary, nature has been manipulated and even designed to fit the needs of humans. Nature can be harnessed as an economic resource

Future Plans More parks and gardens in the heartlands and linking them up Tie vision with nation-building process? Economic value? Environmental possibilism

Contested Nature Nature in Singapore is too engineered and might result in loss of natural areas over time Nature constructed as usufructuary and serve the needs of humans and valorized for its utilitarian more than its intrinsic ecological value Human intervention/ Divine intervention? is there a need to rethink how we approach nature in Singapore? Increasing (global) consciousness to environmental issues an opportunity

Lecture 5: Street Names, National Monuments and Iconic Symbols Nation, National Identity, Nation-Building and Landscapes of Nationhood Nation: socially constructed and does not exist a priori; imagined community; a community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, a shared history or national consciousness Nation-State: Legal and political organization with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens; has a bounded space or territory that is internationally recognized National Identity: Sense of identification with and belonging that different members of a nation feel toward the nation; can include the sense of belonging/ attachment to the country of which one is an official citizen; can be fostered through invented traditions e.g. Flag, National Anthem, Mystical Creatures, Icons like Eiffel Tower o Can be fostered through historically embedded ethnic, political and religious ties; may be known as cultural (Kurdsin Turkey), historical (Jews & Holocaust) or faith-led nations (Southern Thai & Islam); or through historical identification with the native or sacred land (Aboriginal people in Australia) o Can be inculcated by Shared histories Common values 4M ideology Even-handedness of state all are treated equally Sense of pride global recognizable icons (non-parochial in nature) Provision of needs etc bonding space to integrate & interact with each other

Resistance and Re-interpretation Not everyone accepts at face value the meaning ascribed to a landscape by the state Landscapes can be re-interpreted by people in their everyday lives which might differ from those of the state Contestation may be symbolic or material/ overt; or people can just choose to ignore or be ignorant of prescribed messages

Challenges to Singapores Nation Building Long history of colonialism (1819-1959); unstable union with Malaysia (1963-1965); short history as a nation (Since 1965) Multiracial population (& immigrants) Serious economic, political and social problems in the early years of independence Geographical constraints in development small country with no resources Globalisation e.g. Diaspora

Street Names The powerful use of everyday landscapes to assert hegemonic dominance (e.g. 4M + 1 meritocracy) Orientation and familiarity to create attachment Inculcate shared sense of history and creation of identity for places/ peoples (reminders of the past) Colonial Influence o Road names as reminders of: European governors Cavenagh Road, Crawford Street British Royalty Queen Road, Victoria Road, Queensway, Margaret Drive Cityfathers and officers Newton Road

Places within British Empire Bristol Road, Cambridge Road, Rangoon Road European civil servants Farrer Road Singapore as British trading outpost Market Street Marked places with racial connotations China Street, Kling Street o Road names reflecting colonial divisions and ethnic segregations Canton Street, Chinatown, Little India HOWEVER o Limited street named after local personalities, trades and activities Haji Lane, Jalan Kerbau (Only 10% in 1905) o Local versions of colonial names or refer through local landmarks Kwong Fuk Min, Ghi Hin Koi, Thimiri Thirdal, Masjid Sultan o Locals made feelings known to the British government leading to changes made Japan Tamba Veerasamy Road Malay Influence (National Language) o Steer clear of old colonial nuances, British snob names, towns and royalty o Used Jalan/ Lorong for road or street o But Chinese, dialect-speakers found some Malay street names to be tongue twisters of absolute horror Pesiaran Keliling o Developers of private housing estates and residents protested against Malay street names prejudicial to dignity and appealing for the reinstatement of English names e.g. Jalan Khairuddin in Opera Estate Fidelio Close o The attempt to create unity on the basis of a national language signifying identity with the mainland soon collided with another nation-building framework, the political ideal of multi-racialism Multiracialising - Numbering o Newly proposed guidelines for street-naming specified street-names should reflect the multi-lingual, multi-racial and multi-cultural context of the society o Not entirely feasible because Singapore roads were not laid out in a grid or cobweb radial fashion o E.g. Jurong Industrial Estate used permutations of words suggesting industry and progress in 4 languages Enterprise Road, Quality Road, Fan Yoong Road, Soon Lee Road, Jalan Tukang, Jalan Pesawat, Neythal Road o Criticized for sterility and lack of imagination o Nevertheless, numerical nomenclature continued to be used Pinyinising o Romanised translations of Chinese characters standardization o Those not educated in English would not be able to comprehend Romanised streetnames and in fact often transliterated beyond recognition o Argued that the old, familiar dialect place-names were part of our heritage, of strong historical meaning for Singapore and that the new pinyin code of pronunciation would baffle older-generation Singaporeans and even come across as insensitive to minority races Teh Kah Market Zhujiao market (Pigs legs market) o Difficulty in recognizing pinyinised street names o State appointed an authorized Chinese translation of street-names to systematize and simplify Chinese names and ensure that translations were not only faithful rendering by sound but also be elegant and meaningful took 3 years to complete Reflected the contradictions and swings in the policies of nation-building, on the other hand, it corporates to some extent the reactions and resistances of its citizens. The result is the richly textured co-existence of different systems of signification in Singapores landscape

National Monuments

Key to asserting/ representing the nation/ national ideologies can be a building, place or thing Evoke a sense of national pride through historical association, links between past and present, memory to the people, through the power of visuality/ spectacularity hence integral to the process of building national solidarity, identity and pride Identifiable not only by members of the nation but also by those outside the nation Chose by the state to symbolize o Multiracial, multicultural and multireligious complexion of Singapore o A good balance of colonial and local heritage o Icons of shared history and representations of Singapores past over the years National Monuments in Singapore are selected by the Preservation of Monuments Board 40 buildings in Singapore which include colonial buildings (City Hall), religious building (Armenian Church), commercial buildings (Raffles Hotel) and a couple private residences (Sun Yat Sen Villa) Reflect the multi-ethnic complexion of the nation in an even-handed fashion as well as a balance between colonial heritage and the heritage of the various communities Singaporeans agree that national monuments must represent the country and that locals must be able to identify with them and feel a sense of pride as Singaporeans; can also visually recognize national monuments and set them apart from other spectacular buildings which possess monumental qualities BUT historical knowledge/ specificity is poor Critiscised as parochial and community centre no sense of attachment or association as it was felt that National Monuments must clearly emphasis national significance and not just their functional or symbolic values. Only then will National Monuments begin to represent Singaporeans interlocking and collective histories, as testimonies to the forging of a nation e.g. Religious buildings Top down approach people not consulted before gazetting Too focused on architecture e.g. National Library, National Theatre Too much focus on pre-independence Disregard for uses e.g. St James Powerhouse Not internationally known as compared to monuments such as Eiffel Tower Disagreements over designs e.g. Hill Street Building, MICA many coloured windows

Iconic Symbols (E.g. Merlion) Total of 7 recognised Merlions 2 @Merlion Park, Mount Faber, Sentosa, 2 @ AMK, STB o Sentosa Merlion is a newly improved version designed to make the national icon look more like the King of the Beasts than a pussy cat. Comes equipped with a storyline too Sprung up from STPM logo competition though to be appropriate because it incorporated fact and legend lion sighting + fishing village Compared to other recognizable symbols, it was felt that the Merlion embodied rich historical symbolism Fitting symbol of Singapore increased tourism numbers Praises through poems and other writer works e.g. Ulysses by the Merlion by Edwin Thumboo gained literary currency as a symbol around which to write the Singapore story International Shenzhen, Suzhou, UK British Theme Park Links to superstition an ordinary landscape? Ng of its times, of globalizing logic and its banalities and an ironically suitable symbol of SG Tacky? Piece of kitsch? Contrived? No real historical basis/ limited genealogy especially measured against animal symbols of Asian mythology e.g. dragon, phoenix, garuda fail to evoke the same sense of historical depth and cultural creativity Singapores own uses of the term Merlion to indicate vomiting Competition from other iconic symbols in Singapore e.g. Changi Airport, Singapore Flyer, USS etc

Lecture 6: Historic Districts and Heritage Landscapes in Singapore Heritage Refers to an assemblage of cultural traditions and artifacts inherited from earlier generations o Concrete and visible repositories of the nations common memories and traditions, providing threads of continuity between past, present and future Not history per se but what has survived from the past into the present Can be divided into tangibles (material, physical like furniture, costumers, buildings) and intangibles (historical records, culture which are more symbolic in nature teamaking ceremony) Can be used in a conservative sense (top-down, high culture, for more affluent people elitist view of heritage; usually spectacular practices and landscapes; e.g. Statue of Liberty) or as a radical concept (everyday culture, vernacular heritage, even if the state doesnt acknowledge; e.g. shophouses, food stalls) Heritage is intimately associated with different scales individual (date movie stub), family (heirloom), community (ethnic communities), institutional (SAF, NUS), regional (ASEAN, EU), global (World Heritage overwrite state/ national government) o Can jump scales and or exist over multiple scales

Contestations Heritage is value laden and present oriented serve contemporary need and purpose e.g. nation building Platforms for contestation: what, whose, why, whom? different value, for tourist/ locals Can be state vs. locals, state vs. state (different statutory boards), locals vs. locals, locals vs. foreigners (tourists), insiders vs. outsiders

Heritage Process 1960s early 1980s: o Heritage wasnt given any consideration Pragmatism & Scorched Earth policy which was important for economic & social development, anything not contributing to urbanization was destroyed o Demolish and rebuild mentality to excise urban slums and rural kampongs and to optimize scarce land resources for economic development in creating a modern cityscape o Heritage a backseat to urbanization and modernization leading to neglect of urban conservation in Singapore 1980s 1990s o Heritage preservation and urban conservation began to emerge on the planning agenda in Singapore. Heritage has become more and not less important as Singapore aspires to become a cosmopolitan city jostling for a strategic position in the super league of globalizing cities Westernization vs. Asian Roots retain heritage but adopt foreign ideas; should not be root bound but neither should we abandon out roots Westernization brought in values that were incompatible with traditional Asian values Homogeneity/ Too Sanitized falling tourism (3.5% fall in 1983) because there was nothing unique in Singapore and tourists want to see exotic attractions. Heritage can repair the ravages of development and enrich the cityscape Nostalgia because of growing industrialization of everyday life, people are no longer able to attach individuals to familiar landscapes like kampong

Committee on Heritage assess the progress made in identifying, preserving and disseminating awareness of our heritage and to propose measures which will encourage SG to be more widely informed and appreciative of our multi-cultural heritage

Heritage Landscapes URA & its Conservation Master Plan covered more than 100ha Ethnic Chinatown, Little India, Kampong Glam Secondary Bugis, Geylang, Joo Chiat Colonial Civic District, Museum District Commercial Singapore Rover (Boat/ Clarke/ Robertson Quay) Residential Blair Plain, Emerald Hill, Cairnhill War-Related Changi, Bukit Chandu Museum, Fort Canning Nature Bukit Timah, Pulau Ubin Used for: o Nation-building provide a new glue to bind Singaporeans through traditions, familiarity and a shared heritage o Tourism and global image project a harmonious multiracial, multicultural nation to the world and insert more colour within the city as a means of attracting tourists; no group is ignored o Even-handedness in managing multi-ethnic heritage

Chinatown Was a separate living quarter specifically for Chinese immigrants One of the historic districts and ethnic quarters Conserving Chinatown as a veritable repository of tradition, history and culture is both a means to provide relief from the monotony of a high-rise cityscape as well as to serve the socio-political purpose of binding Singaporeans to place, to the city and ultimately and vicariously to the nation Identified with the pioneering spirit and enterprise of early Chinese immigrants and showcased as a distinctively Chinese culture area boost tourism by selling Singapore as New Asia, a city of many colours and contrasts, cultures and cuisines o Shophouses and temples, Chinese festivals, lion and dragon dances, calligraphy, wayang, puppetry and trishaw rides provide locals & tourists with a different kind of experience STB unveiled a $97.5 million plan to revitalize and enhance the Chinatown experience aimed to bring out the full flavor of the places sights, sounds and smells includes an interpretative centre, a new theatre for wayang performances, street performances from puppet-making demonstrations to martial arts shows, 5 themed gardens, a food street with open-air cooking and dining, and a new market square selling fresh produce State-driven initiative to refurbish the built environment as well as to serve the socio-political purposes of forging the nation Cultural life of the place does not simply reside in the architectural form but in the full range of trades and lifestyles inauthentic, tailored to appeal to the tourists way of seeing Post-conservation rent hike squeezed out the small, traditional businesses Demise of the much more prosaic elements of Chinese lived culture ethnic theme park The makeover betrays the individual and collective memories of those who have grown up there

Kampong Glam Allocated to the Malays and other Muslim traders and merchants Historic district marked out primarily based on existing roads; conservation landscape is centered around the areas historic hub (showhouse, teahouse, community house, festival street,

trading spine, former residence of the bendahara, Alsagoff Arab school and Malabar Muslim Jama-Ath mosque) Shophouses have been restored, important landmark buildings conserved, some streets pedestrianized and landscaped and information signboards erected to contribute to the overall charm, character and identity of the Historic District o Sultans Palace Malay Heritage Centre; Bendaharas residence Malay-themed teahouse or restaurant Madrasah Aljunied Al-Islamiah o Demolished to make way for an urban park an act tantamount to sacrilege for some o Built in commemoration of Syed Omar bin Ali Aljunied one of the earliest Arab traders and an illustrious leader and philanthropist looked upon as a prince o The school has played a sustained and active role in Islamic education, nurturing prominent Islamic leaders o Eventually rebuilt on a smaller plot of land Sate conservation-redevelopment practices are complicit in simultaneously erasing and inventing heritage

Little India Dwells the heart of the Singapore Indian heritage STB conserved 3 blocks of 1913 shophouses into a small arcade to showcase Indian heritage Little India Arcade selling authentic Indian products and cuisine o Meant to be culturally and economically vibrant but now became a commercial venture o Gentrified by tourist-oriented stalls & sported a clean organized look Traditional trades of Little India have disappeared eg. Betel nut vendor, flower garland maker The intangible sense of community has disappeared and has been replaced by a competitive market environment As Singapore jostles for global city status, it aims to portray itself as an orderly functioning city o Foreign workers who colonise Little India every weekend have come under surveillance

Civic and Cultural District Early urban landscape began to take shape here Urban renewal brought about the demolition of many old buildings and introduced concrete, steel and glass-clad structures e.g. RI Self-contained mega shopping and hotel (Raffles City) The transformation carried a price which Singapore could not afford and led to the loss of Singapores attractiveness to tourists o Under the Tourism Development Plan and the Strategic Plan for Growth 1993-95, conserving old colonial buildings, refurbishing old structures and giving some of the old buildings new life became part of the agenda to create a landscape that while capturing and preserving the islands colonial past, is commercially vibrant and relevant to todays population CCS is a unique tourist attraction with historical buildings and green open spaces which enriches out city form by providing contrast, variety and a sense of time and place Museumisation venture highly romanticized and easy to consume. Creates an ambience suitable for tourist consumption. Very little of the socio-cultural environment of the past, the people, the sights and the smells of the area were preserved o Bras Basah Road people pop over for lunch and browse second-hand bookshops o Raffles Hotel few Singaporeans identify with it as they see it as an elitist landscape Not fostering the sense of place and history that would cement a sense of nationhood Commercial viability > Preservation: Eu Court made way for road widening while its neighbor Stamford House was saved because it was deemed to have commercial value

Heritage Successes Over 6800 buildings protected through URAs conservation plans Awards: Urban Land Institute Global Excellence Award (2006) Achieved a balance between free-market economics and cultural conservation Still have a sense of what the place is like before (for locals as well as tourists) Exposed to spectacular landscapes of cultural heritage Contestations over use e.g. Labrador Nature Reserve (NHB vs. NP); Changi Hospital Loss of fields of care Places that are torn down & rebuilt lost significance e.g. YMCA, Geylang Serai Market Sanitatisation and loss of authenticity Diluted heritage e.g. Sago Street (Street of the Dead); Bugis Street Transvestites Gentrification upmarket, too inaccessible for the public (cost) e.g. Dempsey Road, Clarke Quay Dilution of place/ national identity e.g. Haji Lane in Kampong Glam Tourism and commercialization e.g. Chinatown Organic vs. planned landscapes e.g. Chinatown is not portrayed as an upbeat area but elderly create alternate landscapes there Lack of public consultation e.g. Buangkok Village last Malay village

Lecture 10: Public Housing in Singapore More Than Just A Roof Over Ones Head Housing during Colonial Times Black and White colonial bungalows owned by British Kampung & Shophouses (Chinatown, Kampung Glam) and Slums & Squatters (Organic landscapes created by the locals, not the state) owned by locals 1918 Housing Commission Report were produced suggesting that housing improvements were needed o Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) was set up by the colonial British responsibility was to condemn houses perceived to be unfit for human habitation as well as to eradicate slum property in the city o However SIT did not have much power (or funds) to build houses and could only condemn slums and squatters hardly enough to take care of locals o Queenstown first new town developed but was not planned hence cluster of individual estates (medium-rise apartment blocks) o Lack of effectiveness and distrust of high rise housing type led many to condemn the SIT

Housing after Independence Housing Development Board (Public Housing Authority) established to replace SIT o Statutory board under MND and hence had legal powers o Primary role was to solve the nations housing crisis Bukit Ho Swee Fire changed peoples mindset of living in slums, squatters and kampongs Distinctive features of HDB landscape: Light industries and factories get people to work near their houses (decentralization) & enabled women to get into the workforce Town centres and connectivity integrated with MRTs Void decks easier for the state to control the population e.g. Block staircases Gardens, parks and playgrounds higher quality of life Sheltered-covered walkways protected from weather elements Multi-storey carparks solving parking problems Other amenities swimming complex, hawkers Hanging Laundry out of houses Long and winding corridors Provide public housing units with modern amenities including electricity, clean drinking water and modern sanitation Each flat was self-sufficient but communal, recreational and educational facilities in the neighbourhood were lacking in the initial stages o Focused on a spatial distribution pattern for public housing development residents relocation to locations sufficiently close to central area amenities and did not cause great dislocation important in the socialization of the households into accepting high-rise public housing estates With more land secured further, new towns were built o Fortuitous that there was enough land to plan for a town centre as well as a hierarchy of neighbourhood centres that would meet the daily needs for goods and services o Town centre gardens, bus interchange, cinema, supermarkets, wet market, hawker etc o Sufficiently populated to allow for the provision of estate services at short distances o Chequerboard range of facilities are repeated at fixed distances, repetitive and homogenous landscape o Long Range Concept Plan brought educational, communal and recreational facilities

HOWEVER difficult for visitors to distinguish one town from another number streets and apartment blocks, colour of apartment blocks (limited impact)

Public Housing & Nation Building Instill pride in the nation and strengthen commitment and loyalty o Encouraged people to have a stake in country so that they will have a sense of belonging to the country: Home Ownership Scheme allowed using of CPF to purchase flats; periodic revision of the household income ceiling for eligibility to buy flat so more people are able to buy houses; rules on singles relaxed under Single Singapore Citizen Scheme; helping hand for lower income families to own flats; grants and legislations to encourage and help people buy and own flats; better provisions for the elderly through studio flats Owning a home was closely bound up with finding employment o Inculcating a sense of pride, place and belonging: Use of physical and architecture design to enhance sense of price for estate and community bonding; precinct concept; winning international accolades and awards (global city vision) e.g. Pinnacle @ Duxton, Tampines (UN model), Punggol; innovative architectural features; giving residents a greater stake in managing estates A repository of key ideologies of nation building and acceptable social values o Social Integration: inter-racial interaction through ethnic quotas, interclass mixing through estate upgrading and building flats for varied income groups in estates, intergenerational mixing Precinct allowed for greater opportunities for neighbours to interact socially when they use common or public spaces and facilities provided Ethnically mixed neighbourhoods were equally varied in terms of the income, occupational and educational backgrounds Critics of ethnic quotas emphasis the inability for the smaller ethnic groups to make electoral claims to stronger representation at the political level && support for cultural spaces that a spatially diffused small ethnic group might find difficult to create and sustain o Normative family ideology concretized in public housing landscapes emphasis on marriage, three-tiered extended family, Asian values of filial piety; various schemes e.g. Join Balloting, Multi-Tier, Multi-Generational Flat, Married Child, Fiance / Fiancee scheme Concern about the trend towards the nuclearisation of the family and the future need for the care of older residents Generally meet the needs of the average young nuclear Singapore family only o Harmonious living between races Social integration; Social cohesion grassroot dinners, lion dances, taichi exercises Tool of political legitimacy o Nation building: symbol of the governments success in delivering the goods; means of influencing everyday ways of living, shaping acceptable practices and values and controlling citizen participation and civil life ,e.g. CCs/ RCs mobilized for national events, dengue education programme, recycling project useful in knowing the state is there for the residents o Opposition estates given lower priority in terms of maintenance services o Executive condominiums used to quell dissatisfaction of sandwiched class as a means of winning over votes

The Role of the State

Grassroots organisations such as CCs were put in place to provide community leadership and the platform for community mobilization PA (statutory board of grassroots organization) HDB work closely with the grassroots organisations to develop a sense of community and place identity among public housing residents Delineation of territorial coverage does not always refer to the new town boundaries or lines or neighbourhood delineation employed by the HDB, hence place identity cues might be confusing Town councils decentralize day-to-day management of public housing estates. Boundaries are defined by electoral boundaries and chaired by MPs o Clean and keep in good repair of public housing estates Community Development Councils have been introduced because of political agendas to foster community bonding across ethnic and social groups

HDB Success Residents know an average of 10 persons but most of the interactions were extensive o Development of the spatial integration of the multi-ethnic and socially mixed population HDB had been successfully strategic about the socialization of the people into the idea of living in modern high-rise homes provided with modern sanitation, tap water supply and electricity HDB developed its pioneering estates in and around the urban fringes near to where people where living (near the city). Small neighbourhood centres with basic facilities proved sufficient to prevent a major dislocation of everyday life for people moving into the public housing estates o Revitalised the CBD New towns with a wider range of facilities o Discouragement of car ownership has probably been aided Estates clean and green and generally vandalism- and graffiti-free Sustain its effort at keeping up with SGs rising affluence upgrading projects, community development (convenience vs. community), new town design to create stronger place identity Design and architectural features not helpful lesser long winding corridors Low level of participation in community activities people do not bother Racial mixing not as high as desired Inevitable market forces pushing prices up Design, Build & Sell Scheme not highly subsidized and developers benefit most Burning of joss paper, laundry killer litter?, karaoke, void decks weddings vs. funeral Discrimination against singles, unmarried mothers and gay couples Singaporeans vs. PRs

Lecture 11: Globalizing Singapores Economic Landscapes Global Cities and Globalisation Globalisation: intensification of related processes in which physical distance has been overcome and barriers lowered or removed to facilitate the cross-border flows of peoples, goods, capital and information Resulting in increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of places o Brings about space-time compression places that are thousand miles away can be connected by things like the internet o Economic cooperation TNSs, ease of cross border capital flow Homogenization or Glocalisation o Spatial variation actually still exists o Combination of globalisation and localization: global forces made to fit into local context and how global forces incorporate into different local setting e.g. Macdonalds menus Global City vision for Singapore cannot have a narrow vision and rely only on Malaysia; Singapore is too small no raw materials and small domestic market o Strategies: Industrial development and tourism policies

First Industrial Revolution (1960s 1970s) Objectives: o Developmental and pragmatic approach labour-intensive, export-oriented industrialization programme in manufacturing o Create massive employment through labour-intensive, export oriented industrialization programme much restlessness amongst Singaporeans, want to get a better life o Attract foreign investments into Singapore US trying to relocate labor intensive operations, Singapore try to attract them o Encourage technology transfer Strategies: o Maintain low cost of production Employment Act in 1968: 39 to 44 hours; Salary based on performance to keep wages in check Resulted in a highly disciplined workforce and allowed Singapore to enter into the new international division of labour dominated by TNCs as they set up factories in developing countries o Image of efficient and corruption-free government confidence to invest o Open policy to encourage FDI from TNCs tax incentives o Infrastructure building roads, utilities, factories: to be efficient Statutory boards like PUB were set up o Building a number 1 workforce train workers to have relevant skills o State Capital: Companies such as Jurong Shipyard were set up as state-owned companies as the state did not see private capital as being adequate in providing the necessary industrial support for foreign firms o CPF was set up to provide long-term security money is invested wisely and helps the state to finance its national development plans Key State Institutions o Economic Development Board Promote investment, train manpower, solve unemployment and develop industrial sector o Jurong Town Corporation Low cost production sites for foreign manufacturing firms; manage industrial hubs in Singapore as well e.g. Jurong, Mandai, AMK, Bedok

Industrialization aided by regional neighbours following protectionist policies e.g. Malaysia, Indonesia Successful in attracting FDI especially from the US, UK, Netherlands, Germany and Japan By the late 1970s, Singapore becoming too expensive o Other countries have better value for low cost labour intensive manufacturing industry o Regional neighbours began to abandon protectionist policies to pursue FDI-oriented development strategies - increasingly footloose o Rise of a global new economy: Beginning of era of knowledge-intensive economy o Crippled local and private entrepreneurship o

Second Industrial Revolution (1980s 1990s) Economy had to be re-structured accordingly in line with global economic trends o Drive out labour-intensive manufacturing o Attract FDI in services and knowledge-based industries important for Globalisation Wages were increased to attract highly-skilled and innovative workers from abroad o Manufacturing industries could not survive and hence relocated Introduction of the Skills Development Fund to aid upgrading of labour skills Focus on higher level- and value-added industries e.g. Petrochemicals, financial, IT, R&D o Fusionpolis @ Buona Vista: Info-comm & media Jurong Island: Petrochemical Water Fabrication Park: Electronics industry Singapore Science Park: Scientific research & industries Changi Business Park: Engineering & Logistics A*STAR set up to oversee Singapores research institutes; dedicated to biomedical science, IT and engineering, innovative work Improving infrastructure and urban environment to attract foreign talent to relocate to Singapore o Singapores image as a vibrant city to live and work great working opportunity + good quality of life vibrant city o Special schemes to attract foreign talent in key industries Top Down Approach because indigenous entrepreneurship is underdeveloped in Singapore and hence would hinder regionalization efforts if led by domestic firms. Secondly, the state has sufficient economic power through its GLCs to lead the regionalization drive o The state has taken direct equity stake in large infrastructural development projects in the region, often using inter-state relations to facilitate and raise the profile of these investment projects o Many GLCs have been privatized to raise more capital for overseas ventures e,g, SIA Going Regional o Bringing the region in: Regional HQs Incentive schemes from statutory boards to attract regional offices or regional HQs (SGs aspiration to be an international business hub) e.g. Operational Headquarters Scheme and Business Headquarters Scheme Encourage TNCs to locate high-end operations in Singapore use Singapore as command & control centre to coordinate operations Relocate labour- and land-intensive operations to nearby cheaper locations o Going out of Singapore: overseas investments and industrial parks The need for an external wing. With global competition, heavy reliance on foreign TNCs alone is not sufficient in achieving its long term goals The need to develop indigenous economic capabilities that can tap into growth potentials in other countries SINGAPORE UNLIMITED; alongside Regionalisation 2000

Regionalisation 2000: aim of creating a global city with total business capabilities so that Singapore would not only be an attractive location for global TNCs but also function as a deal springboard to the AP region for TNCs that wished to venture into the region. o EOS would be generated and enable SG to play a leading role in the growth of the region 1993 new state intiatives o Develop local entrepreneurs so they can go and invest overseas but continue to contribute to Singapores economy o Build up the external wing of the Singapore economy Principles for Overseas Investment o Spread out investment o Build upon strength in traditional areas should not weaken historical links o Go into new markets with a long term view investors should go for a steady and durable relationship o Investments must benefit host countries generous in technology transfer and manpower training to help them grow faster o Good corporate citizens support host countries in cultural and civic activities Factors motivating firms to venture overseas o Market presence o Host country being located in an important growth region in the industry o The need to serve customers in host regions or countries with quality and customized products and/or services o The need to maintain regional coverage of operations in order to complete their networks of global operations o Lack of market growth potential within Singapores domestic economy Strategic Economic Plan (1990s) 2 pronged regional approach o 1. Push for Singapore investors to go abroad; selling technological know-how o 2. Regional Industrial Parks program unveiled to tap into regional opportunities sell management expertise Region Industrial Parks programme o Singapore government developing and managing self-contained industrial estates in Asia o Offering high quality secondary factors of production e.g. infrastructure and administration o Aim to generate profits through sale of industrial units and management charges to supplement Singapores economy o Also serves as test beds for Singaporean companies going abroad confidence o E.g. Suzhou Industrial Park, Eco Business Park (Tianjin, China), International Technology Park (Bangalore, India), Iskandar Development Region (Johore, Malaysia) Access to resources that Singapore lacks; take advantage of large markets that are close by Susceptible to global economic conditions e.g. 1997 Global Financial Crisis Regional Parks: Regulations in host countries and lack of understanding of the local cultures (e.g. Suzhou Industrial Park); lack of help for private firms as compared to GLCs

Tourism to the Global Economy Major contributor to economic growth and important job generator need and desire for Singapore to get onto the tourism bandwagon Factors impacting upon tourism in Singapore o Rising competition from Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and China launching new tourism development plans o Singapores small size, lack of natural resources and attractions will pose increasing difficulties for Singapore to maintain visitor arrivals and tourism receipts o Asia Pacific as major region of growth West to Asia tourism shift

Under Tourism 21, the vision for a Tourism Capital was spelled out. The fundamental element of the report was that of Singapores tourism spaces needed to be reconfigured both domestically and beyond o Enhancing Singapore as a tourist destination o Enhancing Singapore as a tourism business centre o Singapore as a regional hub for tourism-related activities o Regional export of tourism products and services o Cross-border tourism developments and cooperation without the state & government

Bringing the World to Singapore Attracting tourists into the country o World Class Tourism infrastructure hotels, Changi Airport o BT-MICE Suntect, Expo o Sports/ Events Venue F1, YOG, Asian Youth Games o Tourist Attractions Night Safari, Zoo, Bird Park o World-Class Cultural & Entertainment Hub Concerts @ Esplanade, MBS, USS, RWS Attracting tourism enterprises to the country Hard Rock, Star Cruises, Club Med Developing Singapore as a regional tourist hub to use our facilities Medical Hub, Education Hub Overcommercialisation of landscapes Disneyfication e.g. Chinatown Ethical and moral disputes e.g. Casino moral degregation Hardware with no heartware - .e.g not service-oriented and not professional Identity crisis Us vs. Them, weakening our culture and identity Logistics (traffic/ illegal hostels) compromise on their welfare Loss of familiarity overcommercialisation e.g. CHIJMES & Clarke Quay Competition between partners tourism hub status is highly contested o Cruise Hub: Phuket Air Hub: Bangkok, HK, KL Medical Hub: Bangkok, Penang Education Hub: KL MICE Hub: Bangkok, Manila

Bringing Singapore to the World Overcome our limitations, capitalize on the growth of the AP region, improve political ties Encourage local companies to venture abroad o Enhance Singapores capabilities as a source of tourism investments and products for the region and beyond e.g. Raffles Hotels & Resorts, Banyantree, Millenium Hotesl & Resorts Providing tourism consultancy services o Sharing of expertise and knowledge in both public sector planning and private sector development Singapore-Vietnam Tourism Co-op Singapore-India Tourism Co-op Singapore Airport Singapore Zoo o Overseas tourism/ trade fairs/ events e.g. Shanghai expo, STB in Vietnam Strategic alliances with neighbours regional tourism & reconfiguring tourism space o E.g. Jewels of the Mekong, Pearl River Delta o E.g. Malaysia-Singapore Tourism Council, Agreement of Tourism Cooperation between Indonesia and Singapore, ASEAN Tourism Centre o Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle beach/ golf/ hotel resorts and marinas are physically built in Indonesia with Singapore capital and Singapore serves as the

gateway for embarking and disembarking visitors e.g. Bintan Beach International Resort. Tourism developments/ services provided to Malaysia Formal regionalism phenomenon whereby countries collaborate with proximate neighbours through muturally beneficial projects

Regionalism Social and economic benefits Promote political goodwill Provide more lifestyle choices for the population Promotion of the Singapore brand name synonymous with efficiency, reliability, honesty and integrity Enhances regional attractiveness reduction of cost through collective marketing Overcome spatial limitations and increase market for tourism products, services etc. Unhelpful government policies in host countries Corruption Economic and political uncertainty Undevelopmed infrastructure Low staff skills, unskilled labour Cultural clash/ shock Others e.g. bureaucracy and language Neo-colonialism no respect for others Socio-cultural impacts on local communities Bintan & Batam: sex industry? Overdependence on foreign hospitality and cooperation Singapore subject to local instabilities e.g. Political Competition to Singapores own attractions

Case Study: The IMS-GT Each of the triangles three nodes has specific comparative advantage due to differences in factor endowments o Singapore: Skilled labour, business services, control and management functions and excellent transport and communication linkages with other global cities o Johor: skilled and semi-skilled labour at lower costs, land and recreation o Batam & Riau Islands: provide low-cost labour, land, and natural amenities (beach) o A firm can thus capitalize on these CA by locating various operations or functions here Batamindo Industrial Park in Batam (40% Singapore, 60% Salim Group) o Singapore: Design, physical development and management of the estate o Indonesia: Labour recruitment o Self-contained with its own power supply, water treatment plant, sewerage system, telecommunication services and accommodation for workers Lifestyle changes in Singapore and the demand for leisure sites have induced urban developments in Johor and Riau o Growing environmental consciousness and increased emphasis on quality of life o Weekend getaways megaresort, golf courses etc Political factors and security issues are important considerations o The 2 partners are parts of larger political bodies creates tensions when different countries have different agendas and are subject to different national priorities SGV hopes the growth triangle will increase regional amity and the SG investment and technology transfer will improve relations with neighbouring states

Case Study: Suzhou Industrial Park

Singapores expertise in planning, Chinas growth potential, and the desire for closer economic ties between the 2 countries Initial Stage: Keppel Corp; transferred software to Suzhou administrative expertise and economic planning capabilities; Singapore had direct equity in the township BUT Chinese authorities stated the Suzhou New District a rival for TNC investments o Singapore failed to appreciate the mercantilist nature of the Chinese o Resulted in gambles that would not ordinarily be taken by astute businessmen o Transferred to Chinese management SG: 35% stakes