Name Subject

: Hervina : Error Analysis

A. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS (CA) Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second-languagelearning situation. As Lado detailed, one does a structure-by-structure comparison of the sound system, morphological system, syntactic system, and even the cultural system of two languages for the purpose of discovering similarities and differences. The ultimate goal is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for learners. Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing two languages to determine similarities and dissimilarities.

B. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS (CAH) Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis is the prediction that similarities between two languages do not require learning and that the differences are what need to be learned. An examination of the available empirical data that addresses the CA hypothesis has revealed that: 1. In neither child nor adult L2 performance do the majority of the grammatical errors reflect the learners L1. 2. L2 learners make many errors in areas of grammar that are comparable in both the L1 and L2 errors that should not be made if positive transfer were operating. 3. L2 learners judgments of the grammatical correctness of L2 sentences are more related to L2 sentence type than to their own L1 structure.

4. Phonological errors exhibit more L1 influence than do grammatical errors, although a substantial number of the L2 phonological errors children make are similar to those made by monolingual first language learners, and only a small proportion of phonological errors in reading are traceable to the learners L1. (Dulay, 1982, p.97) C. ERROR ANALYSIS AND SECOND/FOREIGN LANGUAGE

STRATEGIES 1. Error Analysis Error analysis, as the name suggests, is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. Unlike contrastive analysis (in either its weak or strong form), the comparison made is between the errors a learner makes in producing the TL and the TL form itself. It is similar to the weak version of contrastive analysis in that both start from learner production data; however, in contrastive analysis the comparison is made with the native language, whereas in error analysis it is made with the TL. A great deal of the work on error analysis was carried out within the context of the classroom. The goal was clearly one of pedagogical remediation. There are a number of steps taken in conducting an error analysis. 1. Collect data. Although this is typically done with written data, oral data can also serve as a base. 2. Identify errors. What is the error (e.g., incorrect sequence of tenses, wrong verb form, singular verb form with plural subject)? 3. Classify errors. Is it an error of agreement? Is it an error in irregular verbs? 4. Quantify errors. How many errors of agreement occur? How many irregular verb form errors occur? 5. Analyze source.

6. Remediate. Based on the kind and frequency of an error type, pedagogical intervention is carried out. 2. Second/Foreign Language Strategies Learning strategy is a choice that the learner makes while learning or using the second language that affects learning: steps taken by the learner to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable. (Oxford, 1990) Types of learning strategies Extensive research that goes deeper into learning strategies has been carried out by OMalley and Chamot (1990) within an overall model of L2 learning based on cognitive psychology. Direct 1. Memory strategies, that is, remembering more effectively, say by visualizing the spelling of a new word in your mind. 2. Cognitive strategies, that is, using all your mental processes, for instance by looking for patterns in the new language. 3. Compensation strategies, that is, compensating for missing knowledge, for example by trying to anticipate what the other person is going to say next. Indirect 1. Metacognitive strategies, that is, organizing and evaluating your knowledge, for example, by preparing in advance what is going to come up in the next class. 2. Affective strategies, that is, managing your emotions, say, by trying to relax when speaking. 3. Social strategies, that is, learning with others, for instance, by asking the other person to slow down. D. LEARNERS ERRORS: GLOBAL AND LOCAL ERRORS

1. Global Errors Global Errors are errors that affect overall sentence organization significantly hinder communication. The most systematic Global Errors include: a. Wrong order of major constituents e.g. English language use many people. b. Missing, wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors e.g. (If) not take this bus, we late for school. He will be rich until (when) he marry. c. Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to pervasive syntactic rules e.g. The students proposal (was) looked into (by) the principal. d. Regularization of pervasive syntactic rules to exceptions e.g. We amused that movie very much. (That movie amused us very much.) 2. Local Errors Local Errors are errors that affect single elements (constituents) in a sentence do not usually hinder communication significantly. These include errors in noun and verb inflections, articles, auxiliaries and the formation of quantifiers. E. INTER-LANGUAGE, IDIOSYNCRATIC DIALECT, TRANSITIONAL COMPETENCE 1. Inter-Language Interlanguage is the language produced by a nonnative speaker of a language (i.e., a learners output). Refers to the systematic knowledge underlying learners production.

2. Idiosyncratic Dialect and Transitional Competence

Either idiosyncratic dialect, transitional competence or interlanguage is used to describe basically the same concept. Each term has a slightly different focus. However, inter-language is the most commonly used one. F. INTERLINGUAL ERRORS, INTRALINGUAL ERRORS,

DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS, AND CULTURAL ERRORS (IDIOMS) 1. Interlingual Errors Interlingual Errors are similar in structure to a semantically equivalent phrase or sentence in the learners native language. In other words, interlingual errors are errors found to be traceable to L1 interference. 2. Intralingual Errors Intralingual Errors are errors found to be committed by SL learners regardless of their L1. 3. Developmental Errors Developmental Errors are errors similar to those made by children learning the target language as their first language. G. TYPES OF ERROR BASED ON LINGUISTIC CATEGORY 1. Omission Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance. e.g. He study English yesterday. 2. Additions errors Addition errors are the opposite of omissions. They are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. a. Double markings Example: He doesnt knows my name. b. Regularizations Example: The fishes doesnt live in the water.

c. Simple additions An error which is not a double marking nor regularization. 3. Misformation Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure. While in omission errors the item is not supplied at all, in misformation errors the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect. e.g. The dog eated the chicken. There are three types of misformations that have been frequently reported in the literature, they are: a. Regularizations Regularization errors that fall under the misformation category are those in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in runned for ran or gooses for geese. b. Archi-forms The selection of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the class. Example: Give me that. Me hungry. c. Alternating forms Various members of a class are alternated fairly free with each other. Example: I seen her yesterday. He would have saw them. 4. Misordering Misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance. e.g. What he is doing?