INTRODUTION

Organizations are everywhere in our society and in other societies. From birth to death we find ourselves involved with them- we work in them, we buy our goods and services from them, we join them for social and sporting pursuits, etc. but what are they? In this study we shall consider the nature of organizations and key aspects which condition the way in which they function. In doing so, the study shall introduce a number of concepts and themes to which shall return throughout the rest of the study in particular, organizational goals, culture and structure- as well as considering the central role of management in all these features.

DEFINATION
An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment. The word itself is derived from Greek word opyavov (organon) meaning tools. The term is used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways.(Weber, 1947).According to Farham D et. al (1996) define organization as social constructs created by groups in society to achieve specific purposes by means of planned and coordinated activities. These activities involve using human resources to act in association with other Inanimate resources in order to achieve the aims of an organization. Further, Robbins S. P. (1998) defines organization as a consciously coordinated social unit, compared of two or more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. While, Rollinson D. et al (1998) defines organizations as social entities brought into existence and sustained in an ongoing way by humans to serve some purpose, from which it follows that human activities in the entity are normally structured and coordinated towards achieving some purpose or goals. Robbins (1998) indicates that there are a are a variety of legal types of organizations, including: corporations governments, non- governmental organizations, international organizations, armed forces, charities, not- for- profit corporations, partnerships, corporative and universities. A hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector, simultaneously fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. As a result the hybrid organization becomes a mixture of a government and a corporate organization. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organization) Rollinson D., et, al., (1998) states that in the social sciences, organizations, organizations are the object of analysis for a number of disciplines, such as sociology, economics, political science, psychology, management, and organizational communication. The broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization

analysis. A number of different perspectives exists, some which are compatible:(Fayol, 1911). From a process- related perspective, an organization is viewed as an entity is being (re-) organized, and the focus is on the organization as a set of tasks or actions. From a functional perspective, the focus is on how entities like businesses or state authorities are used. From an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context. (Weber 1947) Kleiman (2010) indicates that management is interested in organization mainly from an instrumental point of view. For a company, organization is a means to an end to achieve its goals, which are to create value for its stakeholders (stockholders, employees, customers, suppliers, community. Moreover, (Samson, p25. 2005) describes organizing as the management function concerned with assigning tasks, grouping tasks into departments, and allocating resources to departments.

Formal and informal

Faced with the multiplicity of organizations, it is useful to classify them. There are several ways in which this can be done, and one organization might fit into several classifications. Formal organizations maybe defined as those that have been established for achieving certain goals, aims, or objectives. They possess clearly defined rules and structures and well developed channels of communication to help them achieve their goals. Example of these types of formal organizations include all business, government and international institutions. (Farham D et al, (1996) Informal or social organizations, on the other hand, are those in which social activities are carried out, usually without any clearly defined goals, rules or structures. Examples of informal organizations are families, friendships and communities. (Business organization, second Edition 2002)

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
According to Fayol (1949), the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. According to management science, most human organizations fall roughly into four types Pyramids or hierarchies Committees or Juries Matrix organizations Ecologies (Taylor, 1949)

Pyramids or hierarchies
Farham. D. et al (1996) indicates that a hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization. This arrangement is often associated with bureaucracy. These structures are formed on the basis that there are enough people under the leader to give him support. Just as one would imagine a real pyramid, if there are not enough stone blocks to hold up the higher ones, gravity would irrevocably being down the monumental structure. So one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in the peter principle (1969),a book that introduced hierarchiology and the saying that in a hierarchy every employ tends to rise to his level of incompetence. Bureaucracy and its operation According to weber (1947) saw bureaucracy as being the ultimate expression of organizational form: The decisive reason for the advance of bureaucratic organization has always been its purely technical superiority over any other form organization Certainly bureaucracy is, or at least has been, the prevailing form of organization for most enterprises- in industry and commerce, government institutions, trade unions, the military, etc. It has dominated management thinking as the appropriate method of structuring and making legitimate the operation of an organization. Bureaucracy is also used to describe a system of rule by officials, whereby what should be an open institution appears to have insulated itself against participation by the general public and is no longer representative of the people to which it is supposed to be responsible- the public in the case of governmental institutions and shareholders and customers in the case of industrial or commercial undertakings. (Max weber 1864- 1920)

Committees or juries
Robbins (1998) says that these consist of a group of peers who decide as a group, perhaps by voting. The difference between a jury and a committee is that the members of the committee are usually assigned to perform or lead further actions after the group comes to a decision, whereas members of a jury come to decision. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of quilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are also used in athletic contests, book awards and similar activities. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury. In the middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus amongst local notables. (Samson, 2005) According to Rollinson. D. et, al (1998) reveals that committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions. Condorcets jury theorem proven that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote (however correctness is defined).

The problem is that if the average member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice, the committees decisions grow worse, not better staffing is crucial. (Samson & Draft, 2005) Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of order, helps prevent committees from engaging in lengthy discussions without reaching decisions.

Matrix organization
According to the Kleiman (2010) this organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies. One hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well- trained, and measured by a boss who is supper- expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts. Project might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other scheme. (Taylor, 1911). As an example, a company might have an individual overall responsibility for products X and y, and another individual with overall responsibility for engineering quality control etc. subordinates responsible for quality control of project x with therefore have two reporting lines.

Ecologies
Kleiman(2010) states that this organization has intense competition. Bad parts of the organization starve. Good ones get more work. Everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. (Samson & Daft, 2005). Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one- sided view of what goes on in ecology. It is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural borderecoregions do not in general compete with one another in anyway, but are very autonomous.

Leadership in organizations
According to Kleiman (2010) a leader in a formal, hierarchical organization, who is appointed to a managerial position, has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competition, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead . however, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, which commensurate authority. (Kotter & Cohen, 2002)

Formal organizations
Rollinson D. Et. Al (1998) Reveal An Organization That Is Established As A Means For Achieving Defined Objectives Has Been Referred To As A Formal Organization. Its Design Specifies How Goals Are Subdivisions Of The Organization. Divisions, Department, Sections, Positions, Jobs, And Tasks Make Up This Work Structure. Thus, The Formal Organization Is Expected To Behave Impersonally In Regard To Relationships With Clients Or With Its Members. According To Webers Definition, Entry And Subsequent Advancement Is By Meant Or Seniority. Each Employee Receives A Salary And Enjoys A Degree Of Tenure That Safeguards Him From The Arbitrary Influence Of Superiors Or A Powerful Clients. The Higher His Position In The Hierarchy, The Greater His Presumed Expertise In Adjudicating Problems That May Arise In The Course Of The Work Carried Out At Lower Levels Of The Organization. It Is This Bureaucratic Structure That Forms The Basis For The Appointment Of Heads Are Chiefs Of Administrative Subdivisions In The Organization And Endows Them With The Authority Attached To Their Position. (Weber, 1947).

Characteristics of good organization.

According to Farham. D. et al (1996) any good organization must have an inspiring, shared mission at its core- and it must have capable leadership in place and in development. Assuming these two factors are present, the following eight traits define a healthy corporate or organizational culture.

i.

Openness and humility from top to bottom of the organization

Arrogance kills of learning and growth by blinding us to our own weaknesses. Strength comes out of receptivity and the willingness to learn from others. (Farham. D. et al, 1996)

ii.

An environment of accountability and personal responsibility

Denial, blame, and excuses harden relationships and intensify conflict. Successful teams hold each other accountable and willingly accept personal responsibility. (Rollinson D., et al, 1998)

iii.

Freedom for risk taking within appropriate limits.

Both extremes an excessive, reckless risk-taking and a stifling, fearful control threaten any organization. Freedom to risk new ideas flourishes best within appropriate limits. (Farham D. et. al, 1996)

iv.

A fierce commitment to do it right

Mediocrity is easy; excellence is hard work, and there are many temptations for shortcuts. A search for excellence always inspires both inside and outside an organization. (Robbins, 1998)

v.

A willingness to tolerate and learn for mistakes

Punishing honest mistakes stifles creativity learning from mistakes encourages healthy experimentation and converts negatives into positives. (Samson & Daft, 2005)

vi.

Unquestioned integrity and consistency

Dishonesty and inconsistency undermine trust. Organizations and relationships thrive on clarity, transparency, honesty, and reliable follow- through. (Kleiman, 2010)

vii.

A pursuit of collaboration ,integration, and holistic thinking

Turf was and narrow thinking are deadly. Drawing together the best ideas and practices, together the best ideas deadly. Drawing together the best people into collaborative teams, multiplies organizational strength.

viii.

Courage and persistence in the face of the difficulty

The playing field is not always level, or life fair, but healthy cultures remain both realistic about the challenges they face and unintimidated and undeterred by difficulty. (Rollinson D. et. al, 1998).

THE ROLE OF A DEPARTMENTAL MANADER WITJIN AN ORGANIZATION. Management

Fayol (1949) states that there is no single, universally accepted definition of management. Indeed, there are probably as many views as there are writers- to quote just a few: deciding what should be done, and then getting other people to do it Rosemary Stewart. to forecast and plan, to organize , to command, to coordinate and to control Henri Fayol (1841-1925). the organization and control of human activity directed towards specific ends international labour office . Sensible working arrangement Mary parker Follet. Whilst these writers all emphasizes different elements, there are a degree of commonality in what they have to say. So we have a composite definition which goes something alone lines that: Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available recourses efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or efforts for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the

deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to manage oneself, a pre- requisite to attempting to manage others. According to Samson & Draft (2005) management is better described as part of the continuous social process that applies in organizational life. The actions of the managers are always concerned with achieving results through other people. Thus the key elements of management are: Achieving organizational objectivities. Within a changing environment. Balancing efficiency, effectiveness and equality. Obtaining the most from limited resources With and through other people.

Managers
Kleiman (2010) reveals that managers maybe termed as people who achieve organizational or cooperate goals through people. Managers make decisions; allocate resources, and direct activities of others as to attain the set goals. In the very demanding and competitive environment in which managers find themselves, managers are expected to have managerial abilities. Managers undertake risks and handle uncertainties. Management requires distinctive forms of expertise and capabilities. The manager or supervisor is the point of reference for the staff. He is looked up for quick and effective decisions, solutions to problems, and creation of an effective and productive place of work. Risk taking is at the core of management. Some of the main managerial abilities expected of a manager are listed below:

Managerial Abilities
Acting under uncertainty Preserving flexibility Political awareness Timing Judgment Using Rhetoric effectively Running multiple agendas. (Farham D. et. al, 1998)

According to Kleiman (2010) closely to managerial abilities are managerial roles. According to Henry Mintberg, who carried out a close study of five executives, managers perform ten highly related roles. These ten roles can be grouped in ten categories. These are:

i. ii. iii.

Interpersonal role: Roles that include figurehead, leadership, and liaison activities. Informational roles: Roles that include monitoring, disseminating, and spokesperson activities. Decisional roles: Roles that include those entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator.

Basic Functions
Taylor (1911) states that management operates various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/ directing, controlling/ monitoring and motivation. (Kleiman, 2010). All policies must be discussed with all managerial personal and staffing that is required in the execution of departmental policy. Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight- step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the by- in, empower action, create short- terms wins, dont let up, and make change stick. (Kotter & Cohen, 2002)

Policies and strategies in the planning process.

They give mid- and mid- and lower- level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization. A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made. Mid- and lower- level management may add their own plans to the businesss strategic ones.

Levels of Management
According to Kleiman (2010) states that in organizations, there are generally three different levels of managers: first- level managers, middle- level managers and toplevel manager. These levels of managers are classified in a hierarchy of importance and authority, and are also arranged by the different types of management tasks that each role does. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid, in which the first- lvel has many more managers than middle- level and toplevel managers, respectively. Each management level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.

Top- Level Managers

Farham D et. al (1996) indicates that, this typically consist of board of directors, president, vice- president, chief executive officers etc. These individuals are mainly responsible for the controlling and overseeing all departments in the organization. They develop goals, strategic plans, and policies for the company, as well as make many decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top- level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are for the most part responsible for the share holders and general public. (Peter & Hull, 1970).

According to Kleiman (2010) the following skills are needed at the top managerial level. Broadening their understanding of how factors such as competition, world economics, politics and social tends influence the effectiveness of the organization.

Middle- Level Managers

Samson & Daft (2005) indicates that these personal typically consist of general managers, branch managers, department managers. These individual are mainly responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing plans of their organization in conformance with the companys policies and objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from the top management, to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance. Some of their functions are as follows: Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and information system. Defining and monitoring group- level performance indicators. Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups. Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior. (Kleiman, 2010).

First- level managers

Samson & Daft (2005) reveals that first- level managers typically consists of supervisors, section officers, foremen, etc. These individuals Kotter & Cohen, (2002) Focus more on the controlling and direction of management functions. For instance, they assign tasks and jobs to employees, guide and supervise employees on day- to- day activities, look after the quantity and quality of the production of the company, make recommendations, suggestions and communicate with employee problems to the higher level above, etc. In this level, managers are the image builders of the company considering they are the only ones who have direct contact with employees. Basic supervision. Motivation. Career planning. Performance feedback.

CONCLUSION:
It is clear from the foregoing study that organizations exist to achieve a purpose in a structured and organized manner. The purpose of an organization might be to: make a profit, enjoy social activities with like- minded people and provide a service to the public or raise money for the under- privileged. Any good organization must have an inspiring, shared mission at its core and it must have capable leadership in a place and

development as discussed in this paper. Among the characteristics of a good organization are openness and humanity from top bottom of the organization, an environment of accountability and personal reasonability, freedom for risk taking within appropriate limits, a fierce commitment to do it right , a willingness to tolerate and learn from mistakes, unquestioned integrity and consistency, a pursuit of collaboration, and holistic thinking and courage and persistence in the face of difficulty. Further, it is clear from the foregoing that departmental managers within an organization play an important rate as discussed in this paper. Among the rate are planning, organizing, staffing, leading\directing, controlling\monitoring, motivation, interpersonal, informational, decisional, political, conceptual, diagnostic etc.

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