Earthquakes Mechanics and Effects: Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Earthquakes Mechanics and Effects
Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples
Earthquake Mechanics 2 - 1
Earthquakes: Cause and Effect
Why earthquakes occur How earthquakes are measured Earthquake effects Mitigation strategy Earthquake time histories
Seismic Activity: 1961-1967
Plate Boundaries
Plate Tectonics: Driving Mechanism
Plate Tectonics: Details in Subduction Zone
Seismicity of North America

North American Plate
Pacific Plate
Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples Earthquake Mechanics 2 - 7
Seismicity of Alaska
North American Plate
Pacific Plate
Faults and Fault Rupture

Epicenter
Rupture surface
Hypocenter (focus) Fault plane
Types of Faults
Strike slip (left lateral)
Strike slip (right lateral)
Normal
Reverse (thrust)
Elastic Rebound Theory

Time = 0 Years
New fence
Time = 40 Years
New road
Old fence
Time = 41 Years
New road
Old fence
Seismic Wave Forms (Body Waves)
D pr irec op tio ag n at of io n
Di pr rec op tio ag n at of io n
Compression wave (P wave)
Shear wave (S wave)

Seismic Wave Forms (Surface Waves)
Di pr rect op ion ag ati of on
Di pr rec op tio ag n o at f ion
Love wave
Rayleigh wave
Arrival of Seismic Waves
P waves
S waves
Love waves
Relationship Between Reservoir Level and Seismic Activity at Koyna Dam, India
Inflow
Reservoir level
Earthquake frequency
Effects of Seismic Waves
Fault rupture Ground shaking Landslides Liquefaction Tsunamis Seiches

Surface Fault Rupture, 1971 Earthquake in San Fernando, California
Cause of Liquefaction
If a saturated sand is subjected to ground vibrations, it tends to compact and decrease in volume. If drainage is unable to occur, the tendency to decrease in volume results in an increase in pore pressure. If the pore water pressure builds up to the point at which it is equal to the overburden pressure, the effective stress becomes zero, the sand loses its strength completely, and liquefaction occurs.
Seed and Idriss (1971)
Liquefaction Damage, Niigata, Japan, 1964
Liquefaction and Lateral Spreading, 1993 Earthquake in Kobe, Japan
Landslide on Coastal Bluff, 1989 Earthquake in Loma Prieta, California
Cause of Tsunamis
Tsunamis are created by a sudden vertical movement of the sea floor. These movements usually occur in subduction zones. Tsunamis move at great speeds, often 600 to 800 km/hr.
Tsunami Damage, Seward, Alaska, 1964
Result of Ground Shaking, 1994 Earthquake in Northridge, California
Mitigation Strategies
Earthquake effect Fault rupture Tsunami/seiche Landslide Liquefaction Ground shaking Strategy Avoid Avoid Avoid Avoid/resist Resist
Measuring Earthquakes
INTENSITY Subjective Used where instruments are not available Very useful in historical seismicity MAGNITUDE Measured with seismometers Direct measure of energy released Possible confusion due to different measures
Modified Mercalli Intensity

Developed by G. Mercalli in 1902 (after a previous version of M. S. De Rossi in the 1880s) Subjective measure of human reaction and damage Modified by Wood and Neuman to fit California construction conditions Intensity range I (lowest) to XII (most severe)

I. II.
Not felt except by a few under especially favorable circumstances. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors if buildings. Suspended objects may swing.
III.
Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Standing automobiles may rock slightly. Vibration like passing truck.

IV.
During the day, felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing automobiles rocked noticeably. [0.015 to 0.02g] Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes and windows broken. Cracked plaster. Unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects. [0.03 to 0.04g] Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved. Fallen plaster and damaged chimneys. Damage slight. [0.06 to 0.07g]
V.
VI.

VII.
Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction, slight to moderate in well built ordinary structures, considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures. Noticed by persons driving cars. [0.10 to 0. 15g] Damage slight in specially designed structures, considerable in ordinary construction, great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, stacks, monuments. Sand and mud ejected is small amounts. Changes in well water. Persons driving cars disturbed. [0.25 to 0.30g]
VIII.

IX.
Damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame structures thrown out of plumb, damage great in substantial buildings with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously. Underground pipes broken. [0.50 to 0.55g] Some well built wooden structures destroyed. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations badly cracked. Rails bent. Landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud. Water splashed over banks. [More than 0.60g]
X.

XI.
Few, if any, (masonry) structures left standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly.
XII.
Damage total. Waves seen on ground surface. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into air.
Isoseismal Map for the Giles County, Virginia, Earthquake of May 31, 1897.
Isoseismal Map For New Madrid Earthquake of December 16, 1811
Isoseismal Map for 1886 Charleston Earthquake
Isoseismal Map for February 9, 1971, San Fernando Earthquake
Comparison of Isosiesmal Intensity for Four Earthquakes
Comparisons of Various Intensity Scales
MMI = Modified Mercalli RF = Rossi-Forel JMA = Japan Meteorological Agency MSK =Medvedez-Spoonheur-Karnik
Instrumental Seismicity
Magnitude (Richter, 1935) Also called local magnitude
ML = Log [Maxumum Wave Amplitude (in mm/1000)] Recorded Wood-Anderson seismograph 100 km from epicenter
Magnitude (in general)
M = Log A +f(d,h) +CS + CR

A is wave amplitude F(d,h) accounts for focal distance and depth CS and CR, are station and regional corrections
Other Wave-Based Magnitudes

MS Surface-wave magnitude (Rayleigh waves) mb Body-wave magnitude (P waves) MB Body-wave magnitude (P and other waves) mbLg (Higher order Love and Rayleigh waves) MJMA (Japanese, long period)
Moment Magnitude Seismic moment = MO = AD

[Units = force times distance]
Where: = modulus of rigidity A = fault rupture area D = fault dislocation or slip Moment magnitude = MW = (Log MO-16.05)/1.5
(Units = dyne-cm)
Moment Magnitude vs Other Magnitude Scales (Magnitude Saturation)
Approximate Relationship Between Magnitude and Intensity

10 9 8 7 Magnitude 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Intensity
M L = 0.67 I 0 + 1
Richter (Local) MbLg
mbLg = 0.49 I 0 + 1.66
Seismic Energy Release
Log E = 1.5 MS + 11.8

1E+28 1E+26 1E+24 Energy, Ergs 1E+22 1E+20
.
1E+18 1E+16 1E+14 1E+12 0 2 4
31
1000
10
Magnitude, Ms
Seismic Energy Release

1E+28
Nuclear bomb
1E+26
1964 Alaska earthquake

1E+24 Energy, Ergs 1E+22 1E+20
.
1906 San Francisco earthquake 1972 San Fernando earthquake Atomic bomb 1978 Santa Barbara earthquake
1E+18 1E+16 1E+14 1E+12 0 2 4
10
Magnitude, Ms
Ground Motion Accelerograms

Sources: NONLIN (more than 100 records) Internet (e.g., National Strong Motion Data Center) USGS CD ROM Uses: Evaluation of earthquake characteristics Development of response spectra Time history analysis
Sample Ground Motion Records
Ground Motion Characteristics
Acceleration, velocity, displacement Effective peak acceleration and velocity Fourier amplitude spectra Duration (bracketed duration) Incremental velocity (killer pulse) Response spectra Other (see, for example, Naiem and Anderson 2002)
Corrected vs Uncorrected Motions

Corrections made primarily:
To remove instrument response To account for base line shift
Base Line Correction for Simple Ground Motion

500 250 0 -250 -500 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Acceleration, in/sec2
200 150 100 50 0
Velocity, in/sec
0
800 600 400 200 0 0
9
Displacement, in
10
5 Time, sec
10
Typical Earthquake Accelerogram Set

600 400 200 0 -2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0 0 5
Horizontal acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2
-463 cm/sec2 10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
600 400 200 0 -2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0 0 5 10 -500 cm/sec2 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Vertical acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2
600 400 200 0 -2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0

0 5 10 -391 cm/sec21 5 20 T im e (s e c ) 25 30 35 40 45
Horizontal acceleration (N-S), cm/sec2
Time, Seconds
Loma Prieta Earthquake

Definition of Bracketed Duration

Acceleration, cm/sec2
600 400 200 0 -200 -400 -600 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.05g
Time, Seconds
Bracketed duration
Definition of Incremental Velocity

600 400
400
200 0
300 200 100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400

8 9
-2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time, Seconds
10
11
12
Time, Seconds
Concept of Fourier Amplitude Spectra

&& v g (t ) a0 + a j cos(2jf 0 ) + b j sin( 2jf 0 ) = a0 + A j cos(2jf 0 + j )
j =1 j =1 j =1 N /2 N /2 N /2
f 0 = df = 1 / Ndt
600 400
bj j = arctan a j

1.2 1.0
Aj = a 2 + b2 j j
Normalized Fourier Coefficient
200 0 -2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 10 20 30 Frequency (Hz)
N points at timestep dt
N/2 points at frequency df

Concept of Fourier Amplitude Spectra

Amplitude 50 40 30 20 10 0 -1 0 -2 0 -3 0 -4 0 -5 0 0 .0 0
0 .1 0
0 .2 0
0 .3 0
0 .4 0
0 .5 0 T im e , S e c o n d s
0 .6 0
0 .7 0
0 .8 0
0 .9 0
1 .0 0
12 10 Fourier Amplitude 8 6 4 2 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
F re q u e n c y , Hz.
Ground Motion Frequency Content (1)

Horizontal acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2
600 400
Fourier Amplitude 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
200 0 -200 -400 -600 0 10 20 30 40 50
0.0 0 5 10 15 Frequency (Hz) 20 25 30
Vertical acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2

600
F o u rie r Am p litu d e
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 5 10
400 200 0 -200 -400 -600 0 10 20 30 40 50
15 Frequency (Hz)
20
25
30
Time, Seconds
600 400 200 0 -2 0 0 -4 0 0 -6 0 0 0

40 30 20 10 0 -1 0 -2 0 -3 0 -4 0 0
Ground Motion Frequency Content (2)

Fourier Amplitude
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Horizontal acceleration, cm/sec2
-463 cm/sec2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.0 0 10 20 30 Frequenc y (Hz )

1.2
Horizontal velocity, cm/sec

Fourier Amplitude
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
-30.7 cm/sec
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.0 0 10 20 30 Frequenc y (Hz)
15 10 5 0 -5 -1 0 -1 5 0 5 10
1.2
11.0 cm
Horizontal displacement, cm
Fourier Amplitude
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 10 20 30 Frequenc y (Hz ) `
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Time, Seconds
Development of an Elastic Displacement Response Spectrum

0.40 GROUND ACC, g 0.20 0.00 -0.20 -0.40 0.00
El Centro Earthquake Record
Maximum Displacement Response Spectrum

16
DISPLACEMENT, inches
1.00
2.00
3.00 TIME, SECONDS
4.00
5.00
6.00
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
DISPLACEMENT, in.
4.00 2.00 0.00 -2.00
T=0.6 Seconds
-4.00 0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
10
PERIOD, Seconds
DISPLACEMENT, In. 8.00 4.00 0.00 -4.00 -8.00 0.00
T=2.0 Seconds
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00

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Earthquakes Mechanics and Effects

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Earthquakes: Cause and Effect

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Seismic Activity: 1961-1967

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Plate Tectonics: Driving Mechanism

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Plate Tectonics: Details in Subduction Zone

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Seismicity of North America

Faults and Fault Rupture

Hypocenter (focus) Fault plane

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Strike slip (left lateral)

Strike slip (right lateral)

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Elastic Rebound Theory

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Seismic Wave Forms (Body Waves)

Compression wave (P wave)

Shear wave (S wave)

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Seismic Wave Forms (Surface Waves)

Di pr rect op ion ag ati of on

Di pr rec op tio ag n o at f ion

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Arrival of Seismic Waves

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Effects of Seismic Waves

Fault rupture Ground shaking Landslides Liquefaction Tsunamis Seiches

Surface Fault Rupture, 1971 Earthquake in San Fernando, California

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Liquefaction Damage, Niigata, Japan, 1964

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Liquefaction and Lateral Spreading, 1993 Earthquake in Kobe, Japan

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Landslide on Coastal Bluff, 1989 Earthquake in Loma Prieta, California

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Tsunami Damage, Seward, Alaska, 1964

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Result of Ground Shaking, 1994 Earthquake in Northridge, California

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Modified Mercalli Intensity

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples

Isoseismal Map For New Madrid Earthquake of December 16, 1811

Instructional Material Complementing FEMA 451, Design Examples