LONG-SPAN PRECAST PRESTRESSED GIRDER BRIDGES

James R. Libby

James R. Libby & Associates San Diego, California

This paper reviews contemporary practice in long-span precast prestressed concrete girder bridge construction. There have been many projects on which this mode of framing has been used or proposed for use. This has normally been the result of cost estimates and practical considerations indicating this type of framing being the most economical and practical for the particular conditions of each individual project.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

For long-span bridges, a well-proportioned precast girder must have a cross-section which is efficient in resisting bending moments but which does not have excess crosssectional area that contributes unnecessary dead load. It is also important that the finished profile of a bridge is very near the theoretical profile if the riding characteristics of the structure are to be good. The engineer must determine the short and long time deflection characteristics of the flexural members specified
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and provide details to permit field adjustment during construction when the anticipated deflections differ from those that were predicted. The fabricator of the precast bridge members must use materials of high uniform quality and good workmanship in order to minimize variations in camber and deflections between the members. Advantages and disadvantages of using continuity in the design of bridge superstructures must be considered. Roadway joints are often undesirable from the "ridability" standpoint and frequently result in maintenance problems. Continuous bridges have fewer joints and hence fewer sources for maintenance problems. Continuity in bridge structures results in reduced deflections and, because of their greater stiffness, continuous members are much less likely to vibrate to an annoying degree under service conditions than are simple structures. However, providing continuity, or simulated continuity through the use of cantiPCI Journal

Fabrication, handling and temporary construction loads, as well as structural requirements for shear and flexure, influence long-span precast prestressed girder dimensions and details. An analysis of the distribution of wheel loads to girders is presented. Various types of erection procedures are described.

levered members from which simple beams are suspended, may result in undesirable restrictions on the construction methods. In addition, these schemes may require construction procedures and details that are either expensive or time-consuming and hence extend the construction period. At times the finished appearance of a proposed bridge is also a significant design consideration.
GIRDER DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS

In selecting the dimensions and proportions for a precast prestressed concrete girder, the designer must consider the practical problems of girder fabrication, handling and temporary construction loads as well as the structural requirements of design shear and flexural stresses. The proportions of a girder should be selected to facilitate construction where possible. For example, it should be confirmed that a practical tendon layout can be obtained with
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the contemplated web thickness and end block dimensions, giving due regard to the space that will be occupied by reinforcing steel. One must be certain that sufficient space remains for proper concrete placing and consolidation. Providing a relatively wide top flange frequently eliminates the need for temporary lateral bracing during handling of the precast girders as well as when they are subjected to temporary construction loads. A wide top flange may also permit the use of a concrete having a moderate rather than a high 28-day strength. However, the overall weight of a girder is greater when a wide top flange is provided. This must be given careful consideration both from a transportation and erection viewpoint. Modern lightweight aggregate concretes with strengths of 5000 psi (35 kg/cm) or more generally weigh about 110 lb. per cu. ft. (1750 kg/ms). The reduction in dead load that results from the use of such lightweight concrete can be very sig81

^>wn

z'-zN
Fig. 1. AASHO-PCI Type IV standard bridge beam

porary deck must be provided over the tops of the girders when the erection of multispan bridges is to be done by launcher (see page 94) unless the permanent deck is placed prior to advancing the launcher. Sufficient prestress to withstand the construction loads often will not exist in the bottom fibers of the girders if the permanent deck is placed before the launcher is advanced. Girders having the proportions shown in Fig. 2 normally do not require temporary lateral bracing during handling and may only require temporary bridging or diaphragms between girders to resist construction loads even when launchers are used.

_i ^./

nificant in long span girder bridge construction. This weight reduction can result in savings in prestressing steel, reinforcing steel, and substructure costs as well as in transportation and erection costs. Girders having proportions similar to those shown in Fig. 1 have frequently been used in bridge construction. The narrow top flange frequently results in these girders being unstable during handling and under the action of constuction loads unless they are provided with some form of temporary lateral bracing. This is especially true for the longer girders. This type of girder is customarily used with a cast-in-place deck that extends across the tops of the girders. Reinforcing steel normally extends from the tops of the precast members into the cast-inplace slab. The result is that a tem82

C) i

Fig. 2. Precast girder with a wide top flange

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BRIDGE DECK DETAILS

Narrow top flange. The most frequently used detail for the connection of the bridge deck to the top of narrow-flanged bridge stringers is shown in Fig. 3. This detail provides a thickened section of the deck immediately over the girder. The thickened section is frequently called a haunch. The haunch is normally given a specific dimension at the center lines of bearings and is allowed to vary between bearings. With this detail, assuming the haunch dimension is sufficiently large, variation in cambers between the precast girders can be accommodated easily and without the girders extending into the bottom of the deck. Occasionally the deck-girder connection detail shown in Fig. 4 is specified; strict conformance to this detail is impossible due to camber variations between individual stringers. When this detail is used, the finished grade of the deck will generally require field adjustment in order to accommodate the camber variations and still obtain a satisfactory profile. For this reason the detail in Fig. 4 is not recommended. Wide top flange. A number of factors must be considered in determining the deck details that are to be used with girders that have wide top flanges. The principal decisions that must be made include the methods of handling the transverse slope of the deck and the camber variations between adjacent girders. If the deck is to be cast-in-place over the top of the precast girders, using a haunch of suitable dimension as shown in Fig. 5 will afford a satisfactory solution just as it does for girders with a narrow top flange. The dead load of the structure and the depth of the haunch increase with the width of the top flange because
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rt iy

Fig. 3. Recommended slab haunch detail

the minimum thickness of the haunch is controlled by the haunch depth at the edge of the girder flange on the low side. This is a significant disadvantage in using this solution with girders having a wide top flange. On the other hand, if the engineer wishes to use the top flange of the girder in bending as a portion

Fig. 4. Poor slab haunch detail

83

i+ -r n rti

Fig. 5. Typical bridge cross-section with cast-in-place deck

Bri cJ5 e

Fig. 6. Bridge cross-section with asphalt wearing surface of variable thickness

L^velinq ^Svrface..^;`

wpa^y Sur GC

Bridge

Fig. 7. Bridge cross-section with separate leveling and wearing courses

84 PCI Journal

Fig. 8. Bridge cross-section formed with girders of asymmetrical crosssection

of the structural slab, several solutions, none of which are ideal, are possible. One solution is to place the girders on the same level as shown in Fig. 6 and use the wearing surface to provide the necessary transverse slope as well as to accommodate camber variations. The obvious disadvantage to this solution is the amount and weight of material required in the wearing surface. Another method is to place the girders on bearings set at different elevations as dictated by the desired transverse slope. This is illustrated in Fig. 7. The amount of material in the leveling course and wearing surface is less than that required when the girders are placed on the same level, but it is still a sizeable amount. Furthermore, the actual dimensions

of the leveling course and wearing surface must be field adjusted to accommodate camber variations between the individual girders after their erection. An additional undesirable feature of this detail is the difference in slope between girder flange and the deck closure, which results in the steel being bent around reentrant corners. The transverse slope can also be built into the girders, but this detail results in an asymmetrical girder section and is considered undesirable for this reason. A wearing surface is required with the sloping girders (Fig. 8) to eliminate the unevenness resulting from camber variations and to provide a suitable profile. The scheme shown in Fig. 9 has

Fig. 9. Bridge cross-section with slab of variable depth

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,: O -

i(i.)ci

I)

jut I

d/v/ (.)

rieiorinea r/vse5

Fig. 10. Reinforced concrete intermediate diaphragm

the advantages of the normal haunch detail and yet uses the top flange of the precast girder structurally as a component of the deck. The variable depth of the deck results in a reduction in the transverse positive bending moments and an increase in the negative bending moments both of which are advantageous for slabs having thickened sections near the supports. Proper detailing and construction methods will render a wearing surface unnecessary with this solution. A manufacturing disadvantage of the schemes shown in Fig. 6, 7 and 8 is that the reinforcing steel must be extended from the girder into the cast-in-place portion of the deck. This complicates the edge forms for the girder top flange and increases the labor required to assemble and strip the top flange edge forms. In addition the deck reinforcing costs are higher; the many short bars
86

which must be used with these details result in more material (many lap splices) and higher placing costs. The decks shown in Fig. 5 and 9 can be effectively done in reinforced or post-tensioned concrete. In addition, with these details it is not necessary to extend reinforcing bars through the edges of the top flange.
INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGMS

Moment resisting intermediate diaphragms are provided in concrete bridges to distribute the effect of concentrated loads over a number of girders. The deck effectively distributes a wheel load to the adjacent girders but the intermediate diaphragms, being very stiff, cause the girders to deflect together. In order to perform as intended, it is necessary that the diaphragms have the capability of carrying bending moments and shear forces. In bridge superstructures which are narrow
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when compared to their span, the intermediate diaphragms can be considered to be infinitely stiff and subject to positive bending moments. In bridges which are wide when compared to their span, the intermediate diaphragms are not infinitely stiff but deflect elastically and may be subject to negative as well as positive bending moments. The most commonly used detail for intermediate diaphragms is illustrated in Fig. 10. The diaphragms are generally from 8 to 10 in. (20 to 25 cm) thick depending upon their depth. To facilitate the removal of the girder forms after casting, holes are normally formed through the interior girders and inserts are provided in the exterior girders at the locations of the intermediate diaphragms, instead of casting the girders with reinforcing steel dowels protruding from their sides at the diaphragm locations. The holes and inserts are used as shown in Fig. 10;

the detail facilitates construction and yet provides the diaphragm with the capability of transmitting moment and shear forces. Occasionally post-tensioning in the intermediate diaphragms is specified. Although post-tensioned diaphragms are excellent from a structural standpoint, they are not in general use because they cost more than reinforced concrete diaphragms.
END DIAPHRAGMS

End diaphragms perform the important function of providing lateral bracing of the girders at the ends. To do this properly, they must be capable of resisting nominal axial loads and moments. End diaphragms on girders that are supported by metal bearings often are similar to that shown in Fig. 11, where the diaphragm does not extend the full height of the girders. With this type of bearing, the forces from the

Fig. 11. End diaphragm detail when metallic bearings are used
July-August 1971 87

^ Pier

2''hici expanded PO/J s/Irene

cansfruofion jo,,l

Expansi,n End

Pier -C p

"$hegr key /'ned wiA expanslo, ,J crn Ma7e,.l.

1n

Fixed E,,d

Fig. 12. End diaphragm detail for use with elastomeric bearings

superstructure are transferred to the substructure through the metal bearing assemblies. When elastomeric bearings are used, the end diaphragm may be extended to the top of the pier and be provided with shear keys that extend into the pier between the girders (Fig. 12). With this detail the lateral forces can be transmitted to the substructure without restraint against rotation. The use of elastomeric bearing pads has significantly increased in bridge construction in recent years. This can be attributed in part to the fact that the AASHO "Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges" no longer restricts the use of elastomeric bearing pads to spans of 80 ft. (24m) or less. In addition, their lower cost and simplicity of construction details have enhanced their use. Elastomeric bearing pads have the advantage of providing the intended rotational and shear deformations as a function of the physical properties and shape of the principal component materials from which the bear88

ings are made rather than relying upon a frictional coefficient that may vary with the passage of time due to corrosion or other causes as is the case with metallic bearings.
DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOAD TO GIRDERS

The "Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges" adopted by the American Association of State Highway Officials in 1969 (10th Edition) in Division 1, Section 3, stipulates that "in view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved in the distribution of wheel loads to stringers, the empirical method herein described is authorized for the design of normal highway bridges." The live Ioad bending moment from each interior stringer with this empirical method is then given to be the same for bridges having concrete decks on steel I-beam stringers and on prestressed concrete girders. For bridges of two or more traffic lanes having an average girder spacing of 14 ft. (about 4m) or less, the
PCI Journal

cr

T
M ^

IW QI^

Il :g ^o

e,

JI
mIO'

0.17
^I

mIN
a II

l
M

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I

Fig. 13. Cross-section of a prestressed concrete stringer bridge at an intermediate diaphragm (top); loading and deflection relationships for the loaded girder (lower left); loading and deflection relationships for the unloaded girders (lower right)
July-August 1971 89

2
LOS

De l ec fion
Fig. 14. Loading and elastic curve for the intermediate diaphragm

cm4 ) and an elastic modulus of 3,000,000 psi (210,000 kg/cm2). If a load of 20,000 lb. (9,060 kg) is placed at midspan of the central girder, and the intermediate diaphragms are as sumed to be infinitely stiff, the loads and deflections of the third points and midspan of the loaded and unloaded girders would be as shown in the lower left and lower right corners, respectively of Fig. 13. Equating the relationships for third-point deflections given in Fig. 13, one finds that P' = 0.115 P and if P = 20,000 lb., P' = 2300 lb. (1050 kg). Using these values of P and P', the deflections of the unloaded and loaded beams and diaphragm (see Fig. 14) are calculated.

empirical facor is S/5.5, where S is girder spacing in feet. The product of this factor and the moment due to one wheel load is the moment to be used in the design of an interior girder. If the factor of S/5.5 is reasonably accurate for a bridge of normal steel stringer construction, it should be very conservative for a typical prestressed concrete girder bridge because the latter would have moment-resisting intermediate diaphragms whereas the former would not. As an example of this, consider the cross-section of the prestressed concrete girder bridge shown in Fig. 13. Assume the bridge is a simple span of 100 ft. (30 m) with intermediate diaphragms at the third points. The transformed composite girder section will have a moment of inertia of the order of 530,700 in.4 (22,000,000 em4) and an elastic modulus of 4,000,000 psi (280,000 kg/cm2). The diaphragm will have a moment of inertia of 189,700 in.4 (7,900,000
90

For unloaded beam:

8 (third point)

_ 5 x 2300 x 1003 x 1728 162 x 4,000,000 x 530,700 = 0.578 in.

8 (midspan)

_ 23 x 2300 x 100,3 x 1728 648 x 4,000,000 x 530,700 = 0.0665 in.

For loaded beam: S (third point)

_ 23 x 20,000 x 1003 x 1728 1296 x 4,000,000 x 530,700 20x2300x1003x1728 162 x 4,000,000 x 530,700 = 0.2889 0.2311 = 0.0578 in.

Ba ed on a T-section with flange 6 x 72 in. (15 x 183 cm) and stem 8 x 45 in. (20 x 115 cm). PCI Journal

8 (midspan)
92 x 2300 x 1003 x 1728 - 648 x 4,000,000 x 530,700 = 0.3392 0.2658 = 0.0734 in.

48 x 4,000,000 x 530,700

20,000 x 1003 x 1728

For diaphragm: (max.)

_ 21 x 2300 x 29.03 x 1728

384 x 3,000,000 x 189,700

= 0.00932 in. The diaphragm deflection is small (16 percent) in comparison to the girder deflection and hence the assumption that the diaphragm is infinitely stiff is not unrealistic. However, the assumption that the intermediate diaphragms are infinitely stiff is conservative in the analysis of the exterior girders and not conservative in the analysis of the girders located near the center of the bridge. The deck is not as efficient in distributing the loads laterally as are the intermediate diaphragms. This should be apparent when one realizes that a 6 in. (15 cm) thick deck having a width of 331/3 ft. (10 m) has a moment of inertia of 7200 in.4 (300,000 cm4 ) which is less than 4 percent of that of an intermediate diaphragm. Consider the design live load moments one would use based upon the assumption that the intermediate diaphragm is infinitely stiff, in comparison to those obtained using the empirical AASHO requirements. Consider the same bridge cross-section as shown in Fig. 13 with two lanes of truck loading placed as eccentrically as possible (according to AASHO requirements). With this girder arrangement the proportion of the wheel loading per girder is shown in Fig. 15 for both design methods. The AASHO method gives
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higher live load design moments for the interior girders but a much lower design moment for the exterior girder. Note that AASHO permits [Section 3-1.3.1 (B) (2)] the loads due to curbs, railings and wearing surfaces to be distributed equally to all. roadway stringers when such loads are applied after the concrete deck slab has cured. It seems logical in this day of the programmable electronic calculators and computers that bridge engineers would be designing bridge structures based upon elastic and plastic analysis rather than with empirical methods. The prestressed concrete industry might well enhance its position in the area of bridge construction by sponsoring some research into more sophisticated methods of designing prestressed concrete bridge superstructures, which take the stiffness of the transverse members (diaphragms or deck) into account. It should also be mentioned that girder bridges without intermediate diaphragms are being used in Europe. In these bridges the deck is relied upon to distribute the wheel loads to the girders. The decks of bridges of this type are subjected to moments resulting from the differential deflection between the supporting girders. Hence, the decks must be thicker and more heavily reinforced than are the decks of bridges having moment-resisting intermediate diaphragms. The savings in construction cost resulting from the elimination of the intermediate diaphragms can be significant in some instances. The deck design requirements of AASHO are for bridges without moment resisting intermediate diaphragms.Provision for decks of variable depth should also be given in the bridge design criteria
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0 N

4 SD.@7.3" ='' -o M 11 P o.GGP 0 C) Fig. 15. The bridge cross-section of Fig. 13, eccentrically loaded with moment distribution factors based upon an infinitely stiff diaphragm and upon AASHO standards
/ OZP 0.8o P 1.32P I.3ZP l.o2P /.24P /nf sfi A" diop;i. J. 3:P 0.66P AASHO

Fig. 16. Floating crane shown erecting a 230-ton girder for the Crossbay Parkway Bridge in New York since the distribution of moment is affected by the variable depth. The prestressing industry would probably benefit from such provisions because they would enhance the use of post-tensioning in bridge decks.
PRECAST GIRDER ERECTION

Use of cranes. Precast prestressed concrete bridge girders have been erected with a variety of equipment. Truck cranes have been used extensively in the erection of grade separation structures and bridges across dry river beds. The principal appeal of truck cranes lies in their ability to be moved relatively quickly and at low cost as well as the fact that they are available in a variety of sizes in almost all locations. The principal disadvantage of truck cranes is their relatively low capacity when handling loads on large radii or when handling loads at heights requiring long booms. Crawler cranes having rated capacities larger than those of truck cranes are available. As with truck cranes, the actual capacity of crawlJuly-August 1971

er cranes depends upon the load radius on which the crane is operating as well as the length of boom with which it is equipped. A principal disadvantage of crawler cranes is that they must be moved from job to job with other equipment. With both large truck cranes and large crawler cranes, a significant amount of dismantling must be done before they can legally be moved over the highways. This contributes to the cost of using this equipment. A limited number of floating cranes having very high lifting capacities are available to construction projects in some localities. Some of the larger floating cranes have capacities as high as 600 tons (545t). The use of floating cranes is normally limited to projects across deep water and the availability of such equipment should be confirmed before a framing scheme requiring such equipment is adopted. A floating crane erecting one of the cantilevered girders of the Crossbay Parkway Bridge in New York City is shown in Fig. 16.
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Movincf

Lclunche r

Erecfind Girde r 3
Fig. 17. The principles of erection with a cantilevered launcher

Use of launchers. Specially constructed girder launchers have been used to a limited extent in the United States, and to a large degree in other countries. Launchers are designed as steel or aluminum trusses which are capable of being moved across a body of water or deep canyon, erecting the girders in each span as the launcher progresses across the obstacle. Launchers must be capable of cantilevering from an erected span to the next pier or abutment preparatory to the erection of another set of girders. Additionally, the launcher must be capable of lifting and erecting the girders. Another requirement for the use of launchers is that the erected girders must be sufficiently strong (this may require temporary bracing) to support the launcher when it is being moved forward as well as the girders that are being moved into position for erection. The basic sequence of erecting precast bridge girders with a launcher is as follows:
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1. Using a precast girder as a counterweight and the hoist at the rear of the launcher, the launcher is raised in such a manner that the span from the inboard portal to the outboard portal is cantilevered. 2. The launcher and counterweight girder are moved forward as a unit. 3. When the outboard portal has reached the next pier, the hoist at the rear of the launcher is released allowing the launcher to become a simple span from inboard to outboard portal. 4. The girder that is to be erected is moved forward. 5. The outboard erection hoist on the launcher is connected to the girder. 6. With the outboard and inboard ends of the girder being supported by the launcher and a dolly respectively, the girder is moved outboard. 7. When the inboard end of the girder reaches a point where
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the dolly can no longer be used, the inboard end of the girder is picked up by the inboard hoist. 8. With the girder being supported by both hoists, it is moved into place. A launcher in the moving mode as well as in the erection mode is illustrated in Fig. 17. After all of the stringers in any span are erected, the launcher is moved ahead and into position for erecting the next span. Temporary bracing may or may not have to be provided between the erected girders before the launcher is moved ahead. The launcher may be designed two spans long with its own counterweight as shown in Fig. 18. With this configuration it is not necessary to use a girder as a counterweight when the launcher is moved forward. The disadvantage to this framing scheme is that more material is required in the launcher itself than if a girder is used for the counterweight. For spans of 120 to 150 ft. (36 to 45 m), launchers which are designed as cantilevers are feasible. For long-

er spans a launcher can be provided with a tower at the inboard portal and with ties which extend to the extremities of the launcher. In this manner the trusses of the principal launching span are not subject to moments of opposite sign during the launching sequence. The result is an economy of materials in the launcher. Launchers have been provided with transverse beams and trollies for use in moving the girders transversely into their final position after they have been moved into place longitudinally (Fig. 18). In other instances the girders are moved laterally with greased sliding plates and hydraulic jacks after the launcher has positioned the girders longitudinally. Use of falsework. Temporary falsework has also been used for the erection of precast prestressed bridge girders on bridges across streams that flow violently yet intermittently. This method is especially applicable in areas where suitable cranes or launchers are not available. The principal advantage of this method lies in the reduced risk. If the superstructure were cast-in-

Fig. 18. Cable-stayed launcher equipped to move girders longitudinally and transversely, used on the Yapacani River Bridge in Bolivia
July-August 1971 95

place on falsework, the work would be vulnerable to possible flood damage for a longer period than is the case when the stringers are precast outside of the limits of the river bed and moved into place on falsework.
LONG SPAN BRIDGE APPLICATIONS

The following brief descriptions of several projects illustrate some of the factors discussed above. Yapacani River BridgeRepublic of Bolivia. This bridge consists of 11 interior spans of 128 ft. (38m) each and end spans of 107 ft. (32m). The spans are all simply supported with prestressed girders that were designed to be precast. The typical span consisted of four girders 6.7 ft. (2m) deep that weigh approximately 60 tons (54 t). It was originally planned to construct steel falsework trusses that would span from pier to pier below the girder soffit grade and cast the girders in place on top of this falsework, moving the trusses from span to span after the girders in each span had been stressed. During construction of the substructure it was observed that the river could rise during floods to a level which provided only 1 ft. (30 cm) of clearance between the river and the specified girder soffit elevation. For this reason the falsework trusses were not used. The material that had been purchased for the falsework trusses was fabricated into the launcher shown in Fig. 18 and the stringers were successfully launched. Temporary bracing of the individual stringers during handling was required due to their narrow top flanges. Top flange bracing and temporary X-bracing (bridging) had to be provided laterally between the four erected girders in each span before the launcher could be moved ahead and before additional girders
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could be moved into position for erection. Because of the very rapid rise in water level that is possible when the Yapacani River floods, erection with the use of cranes in the river bottom would have been extremely risky. In addition, cranes of the required capacity do not exist in Bolivia and because of transportation limitations could only be brought into the country at great expense. Bolivian Highway Projects 1 and 4. Forty-five bridges were included in this project. They varied from bridges of one span to those having eight spans, with span lengths from as little as 50 ft. up to 130 ft. (15 to 39 m). The bridges were scattered throughout the 170 miles (270 km) of new highway that was included in the project. The bridges on the western side of the project are on a section of road that winds down very steep mountain sides with the result that many of the bridges are on tight horizontal curves over small creeks that are normally dry, but which can be torrents during rain storms. The bridges on the eastern side of the project are in the jungle and cross tropical rivers which are wide, meandering streams that are easily crossed during the dry season and impossible to cross during the rainy season. These bridges were all designed as simple spans with precast prestressed girders having narrow top flanges. A launcher was used to erect the girders in the longer multispan bridges in the jungle because: 1. The jungle terrain is relatively flat which facilitates moving the launcher from bridge site to bridge site. 2. The use of cranes was not considered practical due to their inavailability in Bolivia and the
PCI Journal

risk of working them in the river bottoms if they had been imported. 3. The launcher permits girder erection even during the rainy season. The bridge girders on the western side of the project were either castin-place or precast and moved into place with the use of temporary falsework because: 1. The extremely steep terrain made pioneering the road a major operation and the bridges were needed in the early stages of the project in order to facilitate the road construction. Moving large erection equipment from bridge site to bridge site in the early stages of construction would have been very costly and perhaps impossible. 2. Many of the bridges are on horizontal curves of small radius with super-elevations as great as 10 percent. Since launchers are not easily adapted to these conditions, the contractor was willing to take the risk involved with the use of temporary falsework. Temporary bracing was required on all but the shortest girders during handling. Substantial temporary bracing of the erected girders was required for launcher erection operations. Cross bay Parkway BridgeNew York City. This structure has several simple spans of 130 ft. (39 m) and a main channel span of 275 ft. (83 m). The main channel span was accomplished through the use of two cantilevered spans of 66 ft. (20 m) with a suspended span of 143 ft. (43 m). The typical bridge section has eleven modified T-shaped precast girders that are 8 ft. (2.4 m) wide and 8 ft. deep. The depth of the cantilevered
July-August 1971

girders varies from 8 to 11 ft. (2.4 to 3.3 m). The girders were precast at Cape Charles, Virginia, and transported by barge to the bridge site at Jamaica Bay on the south side of Long Island. The girders were erected with a floating crane (see Fig. 16). The largest were the cantilevered stringers which were about 200 ft. (60 m) long and which weighed 230 tons (210 t). Because of their wide top flanges, these girders did not require temporary bracing during handling and no significant loads were imposed upon the girders after their erection and before the diaphragms and deck closures were in place. The basic solution used on this project was well adapted to the structure because of the availability of precasting facilities on the water, adequate barges and floating cranes. Dacca-Aricha ProjectEast Pakistan. This project includes five major bridges. Two of these have simple spans of 80 ft. (24 m) using girders similar to the standard AASHO-PCI prestressed concrete girders, which will be erected by floating cranes. The largest bridge crosses the Kaliganga River and consists of five cast-in-place box girder portions having main spans of 200 or 220 ft. (60 or 66 m) with cantilevers 50 ft. (15 m) long at each end. This results in cast-in-place sections that are either 300 or 320 ft. (90 or 96 m) long. Suspended spans, composed of precast girders with a cast-in-place deck, span 100 ft (30 m) between the cast-in-place sections. A significant disadvantage with the cast-in-place box girders lies in the design requirement that the falsework must remain in place until the suspended span girders are erected at each end. This results in a substantial amount of falsework material being required
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since two cast-in-place sections must be completed before one precast span can be erected. The narrow suspended girders require temporary bracing during handling and will be erected with floating equipment. The remaining two bridges cross the Mirpur and Bangshi Rivers and are similar in design. Their mainspan framing is similar to that which was used on the main span of the Cross Bay Parkway Bridge. In each bridge, I-shaped cantilevered girders, which are designed to be castin-place, support I-shaped suspended girders. All of the girders are designed to receive a cast-in-place deck after the suspended spans are erected. The contract documents provide that the cantilevered girders on one of the latter two bridges must remain on falsework until the suspended girders are in place. Temporary prestressing tendons are provided in the cantilevered girders of both bridges. The temporary tendons are to be stressed during the first phase of stressing permanent tendons and must remain in place until the suspended girders are erected. In each case, a portion of the permanent tendons must be stressed after the suspended spans have been erected. Because the cantilevered girders have narrow top flanges they are very flexible laterally and must be provided with significant lateral bracing in order to prevent their buckling when the suspended stringers are

erected. The only feasible means of erecting the suspended span precast girders is with floating cranes. A girder launcher is not feasible because of the loads that would have to be imposed upon the cantilevered girders with this erection method. Scheduling and site conditions will not permit other erection procedures. Alternate designs for these bridges were prepared using simple span precast, prestressed girders without cantilevers. The same spans as well as vertical and horizontal clearances were maintained. The contractor evaluated these designs and decided that a significant saving could have been made on these bridges if these alternate designs had been r sed. The saving would have been significantly greater if lightweight concrete could have been used. This is in spite of the fact that the largest girders would have weighed 270 tons (245 t), and the enormous launcher required to erect these girders would have been completely amortized on this project. There is no doubt that precast prestressed concrete members have an important role to play in future bridge construction. The maximum economy will be derived through the use of simple, economical details as have been described above, in combination with the proper selection of framing types and construction procedures to fit the prevailing conditions.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Please forward your comments to PCI Headquarters by Nov. 1 to permit publication in the Nov.-Dec. 1971 issue of the PCI JOURNAL. 98
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