AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts

Topics in this section:
The Course The Very Basics Rockets
Solid Liquid Nuclear Electric

Air breathing propulsion

Propellers Turboprops Turbojets Turbofans Ramjets

Course Overview and Syllabus

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.1 The Course

In this course, we will explore the hows, whats, and whys of air and space propulsion, namely: How do jet propulsion devices work? What are the performance criteria for aircraft and spacecraft propulsion systems? Why are particular systems congured in particular ways? What components go into these congurations? How do the components work? What are the challenges and keys to future development? All of these issues will be discussed in the framework of Newtonian mechanics, fundamental uid mechanics, and classical thermodynamics, topics which we will briey review, but with which you should now be very familiar.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.1 The Course

Historically, prior to the establishment of engineering design principles for jet and rocket propulsion systems, there were a a number of propulsion related questions that did not have clear or easy answers: Could a jet or rocket engine exert thrust while discharging into a vacuum? Could a rocket vehicle be propelled to a speed much higher than the speed at which the jet leaves the rocket nozzle? Could a rocket vehicle lift a payload far out into space?

AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

If we consider a closed tube or vessel with a cross-sectional area, Ai . The pressure external to the tube is pa and the tube is lled with a gas at high pressure with an internal pressure of p0 . The internal and external pressure forces acting on the tube in the horizontal direction are in balance and there is no net thrust, i.e., T =0

AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

If the right half of the tube is instantaneously removed at time, t0 , a thrust, T , is required at a innitesimal time, t0 + dt, to ensure that the remaining left half of the tube remains stationary. The instantaneous thrust, prior to the development of a nite velocity at the exit of the now open end of the tube is given by T = Ai (p0 pa )

AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

After a nite time increment, gas leaves the tube with a velocity ue and this results in a drop in the internal pressure to p. The trust is then given by T = Ai (p pa ) The thrust will eventually drop to zero as p pa .

AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

A steady trust could be maintained if the uid is supplied to the tube at the rate it leaves. The thrust is held constant and given by T = Ai (po pa ) provided that the internal pressure is maintained at po . Note that these thrust estimates ignore shear force eects and shown here to illustrate the general idea that if the distribution of internal and external pressures are known, one can calculate the thrust by summing the components of all forces exerted on all of the engine surfaces.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

Unfortunately, the internal geometry of many propulsion devices is so complex that the estimation of the thrust by summation of the pressure and surface forces acting on the engine would not be practical. Fortunately, as we will see later in this course, the steady-state thrust can be estimated in a simpler manner using Newtons laws of motion, from which it can be shown that T = mue where m is the rate of mass ow out of the tube or chamber and ue is the mass averaged exhaust velocity. The expression for the thrust above assumes that the pressure in the exhaust, pe , is equal to the ambient pressure, pa , and external shear forces are neglected. It is clear that, using this type of analysis, engine thrust can be estimated independently of the internal pressure distribution, details of internal engine geometry, and the ambient pressure.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.2 The Very Basics

The expression for engine thrust T = mue is applicable to a chemical rocket, in which production of exit momentum ux results from the steady combustion of a propellant stored on the vehicle and having no momentum. It is also valid for moving propulsion devices travelling in a straight line at constant velocity (an observer travelling with the engine would see the same thrust). Note also that for a given exit momentum ux relative to the engine motion, the thrust is independent of the ight speed; thus it is possible that vehicle can be propelled to a velocity higher than ue .

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3 Rockets

1.3.1 Solid Propellant Rocket Motors

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.1 Solid Propellant Rocket Motors

Solid propellant rocket motors are the oldest technical development in jet propulsion. Nozzle momentum is due to the expansion of hot gases generated by the combustion of solid material that contains both the fuel and oxidant. The pressure inside the chamber may or may not be steady.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.1 Solid Propellant Rocket Motors

History: Gunpowder: emerged in China around 850 - a formula was printed in 1044 Solid propellant rockets for military applications: Chinese, Mongols, Indians, and Arabs up until 1800s Solid propellant rockets used in the War 1812 between US and Britain/Canada Non-military uses emerged in 19th century
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3 Rockets

1.3.2 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.2 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors

The advantages using a liquid fuel and oxidizer (e.g., liquid hydrogen and oxygen) in rockets were recognized in the early 1900s.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.2 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors

Early History:
Potential for liquid rocket vehicle propulsion - 3 pioneers:
Konstantin Ziolkovski (Tsiolkovsky or Ciolkowski) - 1903 Robert Goddard - 1914 Herman Oberth - 1923

Subsequent work by Walter Dornberger and Werner von Braun during 1940s

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.2 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors

Space and Arms Race:
1957: Soviet Union success in orbiting the rst articial satellite about the earth launched using liquid propellant rocket April 12, 1961: Yuri Gagarin became the rst human to orbit Earth in Vostok 1 (again launched using liquid propellant rocket motors). Vostok 1 circled Earth at a speed of 27,400 kilometers per hour and the ight lasted 108 minutes. July 20, 1969: Apollo 11 moon landing mission. N. Armstrong and B. Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2.5 hours exploring while M. Collins orbited above.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3 Rockets
1.3.3 Nuclear Powered Rocket Motors

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.3 Nuclear Powered Rocket Motors

Both liquid- and solid-propellant rockets have now reached high levels of performance. However, with chemical rockets the thrust that can be developed per unit ow rate of propellant is strictly limited by the chemical energy of the propellant. Thus the mass of propellant that must be carried with the vehicle per unit impulse (thrust time) can undesirably large for many missions, particularly deep space missions. In these cases, specic propellant energy very much greater than can be obtained with chemical rockets is desirable.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.3 Nuclear Powered Rocket Motors

High energy densities are potentially available from nuclear ssion and fusion and nuclear energy sources were recognized early on as having signicant potential for space exploration applications. The energy available from a unit mass of ssionable material is about 107 times larger than that available from most energetic chemical reactions.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.3 Nuclear Powered Rocket Motors

Solid-Core Fission Reactor Rocket Motor

In a solid-core ssion reactor, the propellant is heated as it passes through a heat generating reactor. Control drums regulate the reactivity of the reactor and an expander cycle drives the turbo pumps. Material properties are limiting factors: the maximum operating temperature of the propellant must be less than the melting point of the fuel, moderator, and core structural materials.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.3 Nuclear Powered Rocket Motors

Propulsion Concept: Nuclear Fusion Rocket Motor

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3 Rockets
1.3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems

In electric propulsion devices, electrical energy from solar cells or a nuclear reactor, is used to energize the working uid to yield much higher specic impulses than those available with chemical rockets. Overall mission benet of electric propulsion involves a trade-o between propellant mass savings and power system mass as compared to the chemical propulsion systems.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems

Types of Electric Propulsion
Electrothermal Propulsion
Resistojets Arcjets Inductively or Radiatively Heated Systems

Electrostatic Propulsion
Field Eect Electrostatic Propulsion (FEEP) Colloidal Thruster Hall Thruster Ion Thruster

Electromagnetic Propulsion
Pulsed Plasma Thruster Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems

Example: Ion Thruster NSTAR on Deep Space 1, Demonstration Mission in October 1998

NSTAR (NASA SEP Technology Application Readiness), uses a hollow cathode to produce electrons to collisionally ionize xenon. The Xe+ is electrostatically accelerated through a potential of up to 1280 V and emitted from the 30-cm thruster through a molybdenum grid. A separate electron beam is used to neutralize the plasma.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems

Example: VASIMR Variable Specic Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket

Magnetoplasma rocket concept device considered by NASA Johnson Space Center under the leadership of Franklin Chang-Diaz (former US astronaut). Uses a magnetic nozzle and has potential high specic impulse for interplanetary and deep-space missions.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4 Air breathing engines

One of the biggest problems with rockets is that all of the mass that gets expelled in the jet must be carried by the vehicle. In chemical rockets, this mass includes the oxidizer that is burned with the fuel to release energy Air breathing engines instead use the air in the atmosphere, both for the thrust-generating uid and as the combustion oxidizer. Engines are classied based on where and to what purpose the airow is used.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4 Air breathing engines

From conservation of momentum, the thrust of an air-breathing engine is approximately T ma (ue u) The minimum possible energy added to airstream in passing through the engine is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the air. For a given engine thermal eciency, th , dened by th = shaft power chemical energy consumption rate

the minimum possible fuel-energy consumption rate, E , is then given by 2 ma ue u2 E= th 2 2

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4 Air breathing engines

For the time being, we will assume t is a given quantity, although in fact it depends on the pressure ratio and maximum temperature. If we eliminate ue in above equation by using the thrust relation we can obtain T Tu E +2 2t ma u For a given T , u, and t , the minimum energy consumption E is inversely related to largest possible airow through the propulsion system. As ma , we approach the least possible fuel energy consumption rate, E , namely Tu E t

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4 Air breathing engines

Of course ma is not realistic, but the analysis above helps to understand why propellers, turbojets, turbofans, and turboprops are used in dierent situations.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

Acceleration of a stream tube of air through a propeller.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

For aircraft propulsion, the primary advantage of propellers is that most of the propellant gas need not be carried on the vehicle (rate of air ow through propeller can be two to three orders of magnitude larger than the fuel ow rate). Propellers also oer much better propulsion eciency than that provided by a rocket.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

The task of the propeller is to accelerate the airstream passing through it from approach velocity, u, to exhaust velocity, ue . In steady ow at moderate velocities, the stream cross-sectional area drops as the ow accelerates. Recall, T ma (ue u) ma E= th
2 ue u2 2 2

where ma is the mass ow rate of air through the propeller.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

The ratio of thrust, T , to minimum possible fuel-energy consumption, E , is then T 2th = ue + u E A typical value for the engine thermal eciency is th = 2/5 and, for in practical congurations, ue is only slightly greater than u. The maximum possible propeller thrust ratio can then be approximated by T th 2 u 5u E
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

For a chemical rocket, the thrust can be expressed as T mp uer where mp is the rate of propellant consumption and uer is the rocket exhaust velocity. The minimum possible energy consumption for the rocket is u E mp er 2
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

It therefore follows that

T 2 uer E

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

For the same minimum rate of chemical energy consumption, the ratio of the propeller and rocket thrust is therefore Tpropeller uer Trocket 5u For maximum propulsion eect, chemical rockets have higher velocities and a typical value would be about 5000 m/s. For uer 5000 m/s, Tpropeller 1000 Trocket u
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

For a low-speed aircraft (u 100 m/s or 360 km/h), Tpropeller 10 Trocket and a propeller would develop about 10 times the thrust of a rocket. By using the ambient air as most of its propellant, the propeller has an advantage and, with high exhaust velocity, the rocket inevitably wastes a great deal of kinetic energy in propelling a low-speed vehicle.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers
Relative Blade Motion

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

u = velocity of the air approaching the propeller parallel to the axis of rotation ue = the component of velocity leaving the propeller parallel to axis of rotation (somewhat larger than u) u = swirling velocity component of ue Ut = propeller tip speed w1t = approach velocity of air relative to the blade (vector dierence between u and Ut )
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

To ensure well-behaved ow over the blade, two conditions should be met: 1. must be kept small otherwise ow may separate from the blade; and 2. Relative approach velocity must not be too close to the speed of sound so as to prevent shock waves from forming on blade surface. If these conditions are not met, the gas near the blade surface will not ow smoothly and can be signicantly disrupted.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.1 Propellers

Conventional propellers have been used extensively on aircraft with ight speeds much less than speed of sound. The inherent eciency of the propeller, relative not only to rockets but also to turbojets, has motivated much work in last decades to develop propeller designs for higher ight speeds. The potential to accommodate transonic or supersonic relative velocities, w1t , is currently being explored.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.2 Turbojets
1.4.2 Turbojets

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.2 Turbojets
1.4.2 Turbojets
History: Frank Whittle (England)
Patented gas-turbine engine for aviation 1933 Prototype testing (20 minutes at 16,000 rpm) 1939 First British jet aircraft ew Gloster Meteor 1941

Hans von Ohain (Germany)

PhD student developed jet engine concept 1933 First prototype using hydrogen 1937 First successful German ight test Heinkel He 178 1938

The age of jet aircraft thus began both in Germany and England

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.2 Turbojets
Development of Airbreathing Turbojet Engines
Introduction of the turbojet principle and turbine engine into aircraft propulsion systems lead to a drastic revolution in air transport: increased ight speed supersonic ight became possible; greater unit thrust than piston engine allowed the development of larger airplanes; lower maintenance costs; signicant reductions in the cost of air travel; and radical improvements in aircraft safety and, hence, in air transportation.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.3 Turboprops and Turboshafts

1.4.3 Turboprops and Turboshafts

Although the mass and size advantages of turbine engines were rst demonstrated on turbojets, turbine engines were subsequently used to drive propellers (turboprops) for medium-speed, moderate-size aircraft. Turboprops (and turboshafts) are highly ecient but limitation on ight speed is a serious disadvantage. If better propeller blading could be developed to allow more ecient operation at speeds approaching conventional jet aircraft, signicant reductions in fuel consumption would be possible.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.3 Turboprops and Turboshafts

A second disadvantage is the necessity for geared transmission between the propeller and engine shaft. For stress reasons, the tips speeds of the propeller and turbine must be comparable. As the tip diameter of the propeller is much larger than that of the turbine substantial reduction in the rotational speed is essential. This can require massive gearboxes for large turboprop engines.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.4 Turbofans
1.4.4 Turbofans

The turbofan engine is a compromise between a turbojet and turboprop. Turbofan engines have a large internal propeller (fan rotor) that accelerates an airow stream bypassing the core engine ow. Typically, the bypass air ow is 5 to 6 times higher than the airow through engine core.

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.4 Turbofans
Important design features of turbofans: fan is enclosed; aerodynamics is easy to control, even as high as M = 0.85; gearbox problems of turboprops are not present (except, to a lesser extent, in very high bypass ratio designs) substantially lower fuel consumption than turbojet;
total airow, ma , is larger for same thrust, T ; and thrust eciency, t , is higher for turbofan because the nozzle temperature is lower due to energy utilized in the turbine to drive fan;

both t and T /ma increase with turbine inlet temperature;

turbine inlet temperatures are limited to about 1800 K (this temperature requires ecient turbine blade cooling and advanced materials); and

engine thermal eciency, t , and thrust per unit mass are signicantly aected by the compressor pressure ratio.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.4 Turbofans
Turbofan Engine with High Bypass Ratio

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.4 Turbofans
Turbofan Engine with Low Bypass Ratio

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.4 Turbofans
The optimal pressure ratio across the compressor for turbofan and turbojet engines depends on ight speed. For subsonic aircraft, the optimal compression ratio is around 30:1. For ight at Mach number of around 2, an optimal pressure ratio is only around 10:1 to 12:1. Trends in compressor pressure ratios Calendar Years Compressor pressure ratio Late 1930 to mid1940 3:1 to about 5:1 Second half of 1940s 5:1 to 6:1 Early 1950s About 10:1 20:1 to about 25:1 Middle to late 1960s End of 20th century 30:1 to 40:1 Currently About 40:1

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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.4.5 Ramjets
1.4.5 Ramjets

For ight at higher Mach numbers, say 3.5-4, analysis shows that the compressor is no longer needed, ram compression of the air is sucient, and the most ecient engine conguration is the ramjet. Ramjet engines have the virtue of maximum simplicity, with no need for turbomachinery, and have high tolerance to high-temperature operation.
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AER510: AEROSPACE PROPULSION

1. Introduction and Overview of Propulsion Concepts A. M. Steinberg c 2012

1.5 Applications of Airbreathing Engines

1.5.1 Thrust Specic Fuel Consumption

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