Name of student: Chandan Mungra Student ID: 008672 Module Name: Electromechanical Systems (MM1EM1) Title of work: Semiconductors

and Amplifiers Lab Report Lecturer Name: Dr Woo Ko Choong Laboratory conducted on: 19th July 2011 Group: G1

PART 1 CALIBRATION EXPERIMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY.............................................................................................. 3 1.1 AIM OF EXPERIMENT................................................................... 4 1.2 BACKGROUNG INFORMATION.................................................. 4 1.3 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL..................................................... 6 1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES................................................. 7 1.5 DATA COLLECTION, CALCULATION AND ANALYSIS......... 7 1.6 DISCUSSION..................................................................................... 10 1.7 CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 11

1.0 DIODES

1.1 Diode I-V curve The circuit was setup as shown below:

Figure 1: Showing the experimental setup The 0-2 V DC knob was varied to give different nominal voltages across the diode. The corresponding actual voltage and current were then read from the multimeters. These results were then were tabulated.
Nominal Voltage (mV) 100 200 300 400 500 550 600 650 700 Actual Voltage (mV) 99.2 199 300 404 500 552 599 651 702 Current (A) 0.00 0.02 1.50 11.9 86.6 260 660 1940 4980

750 800 850

750 800 850

10690 21000 35100

Table 1: Showing the actual voltage and corresponding current Using the values from Table 1, a graph of current against voltage was then plotted.

Figure 2 Graph of current against voltage Question 1: At what voltage does the current start to flow significantly (specifically, at what voltage does it exceed 5mA)? By using construction lines at I= 5000 A (5mA), the voltage was found to be about 705mV. Experiment 1.2: Half wave rectifier The circuit board was set up as follows;

Figure 3: Showing the experimental set up The voltage and timebase setting are as follows:
CH1 CH2 Time base 2 V/div 2 V/div 5 ms/ div

Table 2: Showing the voltage and timebase setting The oscilloscope traces were sketched on the following graph.

Figure 4: Showing the oscilloscope trace obtained for experiment 1.2 Peak voltage for CH1: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 3.1 V x 2V/div = 6.2 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (4div) x 5 ms/ div = 20ms Frequency = 1 / 20ms = 50Hz

Question 2 Identify the two main differences between the AC and rectified signals.
i. From Figure 4 it can be seen that for the AC signal is a full cycle (Signal

changes from 0 to +ve, down to 0 again, then fall down to -ve and then raise up to 0 and repeat the same cycle.) For the rectified signal only half of the original cycle was obtained; signal changes from 0 to +ve, then fall down into 0 and stays zero until the negative cycle of the original signal raise up to +ve ,and fall back to 0 and repeat the same cycle.

ii. The amplitude variation for AC signal is fixed but for rectified signal,

amplitude depends on the way the diodes are connected. A forwardbiased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it. Experiment 1.3: Smoothing circuit and reservoir capacitor The circuit diagram for this experiment is as follows:

Figure 5: Showing the experimental setup The voltage and timebase setting are as follows:
CH1 CH2 Time base 2 V/div 2 V/div 5 ms/ div

Table 3: Showing the voltage and timebase setting The oscilloscope traces were sketched on the following graph. Figure 6: Showing the oscilloscope trace obtained for experiment 1.3 Peak voltage for CH1: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (4div) x 5 ms/ div = 20ms Frequency = 1 / 20ms = 50Hz
2.0

Transistors and Amplification

For this part an NPN bipolar junction transistor was used. It has three connections: collector, base and emitter as shown in the figure below.

Figure 7 Its main function is amplification, particularly amplification of small currents and of small variations in voltage. 1. Collector output characteristics experiment The circuit was setup as follows:

Figure 8 Values of the base current and collector current were then collected and tabulated. Base Current Target Value (A) 10 Base Current Actual Value (A) 10.3 Collector Current for V c = 1V (mA) 2.20

20 30 40 50

20.5 30.6 40.4 50.0

4.82 7.22 9.58 11.49

Table 4: Showing the values of the base current and corresponding collector current A graph of collector current against base current was then plotted using the tabulated values. Figure 9: Showing the graph of collector current Ic against base current Ib Question 3: Rearrange equation 1 to show current gain in terms of the collector current, Ic and base current, Ib. Hence calculate the current gain (or hFE) of the transistor (using the last row of your table of values) Ic = Ib = IcIb = 11.49 x 10-350x 10-6 = 229.8 is dimensionless (no units)
2. Voltage amplification: AC experiment

The circuit was setup as follows:

Figure 10: Showing the experimental setup The voltage and timebase setting are as follows:
CH1 CH2 Time base 2 V/div 2 V/div 5 ms/ div

Table 5: Showing the voltage and timebase setting The oscilloscope traces were then sketched on the following graph. Peak voltage for CH1: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (4div) x 5 ms/ div = 20ms Frequency = 1 / 20ms = 50Hz

Question 4: Calculate the gain of the amplifier as:

AC voltage gain of amplifier=Amplitude of AC signal output (Channel 2)Amplitude of AC signal input (Channel 1)

= 2.2 x 2 V2.2 x 50 x 10-3 V = 40 (dimensionless)

3.0

Operational Amplifiers
1. Inverting Amplifier Experiment

In this part the Digiac 3000 Op Amp Board was used. The wires were connected as follows:

Figure 12: Showing the experimental setup Channel 1 Setting 1 V/div 1 V/div CH 1 Probe Setting x1 x1 Channel 2 Setting 2 V/div 5 V/div Table CH 2 Probe Setting x1 x1 Time base Setting 0.2 ms/div 0.2 ms/div

Rf = VR1

Vin

Vo

Is output signal inverted ?

Measured Gain, G=Vo/Vin 3.6 9

Theoretical Gain, G= - Rf / Rin -1 -4

10 40

2V 2V

7.2 V 11 V

No No Table

The voltage and timebase setting are as follows:

CH1 CH2 Time base Table 8 1V /div 2 V/div 0.2 ms/ div

The oscilloscope trace was then sketched;

Figure 13: Showing the oscilloscope trace for experiment 3.1

Peak voltage for CH1: 2.0 V x 1V/div = 2.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 3.5 V x 2V/div = 7.0 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (4div) x 0.2 ms/ div = 0.8 ms Frequency = 1 / 0.8ms = 1250Hz

The voltage and timebase setting are as follows:

CH1 CH2 Time base Table 9 1V /div 5 V/div 0.2 ms/ div

The oscilloscope trace was then sketched;

Peak voltage for CH1: 2.0 V x 1V/div = 2.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 2.1 V x 5V/div = 10.5 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (4div) x 0.2 ms/ div = 0.8 ms

Frequency = 1 / 0.8ms = 1250Hz 2. Operational Amplifiers in practice; non-inverting amplifier The wires were connected as follows:

Figure 15: Showing the experimental setup The values used and results were tabulated: CH 1 CH1 Probe CH2 Setting Setting Setting 1 V/div x1 5 V/div Table 10 Is output signal inverted? YES Measured Gain, G=Vo/Vin 7 Theoretical Gain,
G=R9+R10R10

CH2 Probe Setting x1

Timebase Setting 0.2 ms/div

Vin

V0

1V

7V

4.191

The oscilloscope trace was then sketched. Peak voltage for CH1: 1.0 V x 1V/div = 1.0 V Peak voltage for CH2: 1.2 V x 5V/div = 6.0 V Period for CH1=Period for CH2 = (6div) x 0.2 ms/ div

= 1.2 ms Frequency = 1 / 1.2ms = 833.3Hz

QUESTIONS 5. Explain the purpose of a diode. A diode is an electronic component made from semiconductor materials (Typically silicon). Diodes function as one-way valves when placed inside circuits, thereby allowing current to flow in one direction only. As shown by experiment 1.1, Diodes conduct when certain threshold voltages are reached, and they are essentially closed or open to current flow based on their position in the circuit and current direction. They are, therefore, used as switches. They are used as rectifiers in this way, converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) by periodically reversing direction to DC. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) provide illumination, and are widely used in many devices as indicator lamps. Also unlike light bulbs, LEDs rarely burn out unless their current limit is passed. Photodiodes are specially formulated to detect light, including infrared. This makes them useful in devices such as remote controls, robotics and burglar alarms.

Diodes have many other purposes, such as voltage regulation, current regulation, voltage multiplication and surge protection. They are used as gates in logic circuits, where they perform "OR" and "AND" operations. They are also used for Temperature Sensing, Signal demodulation, Radio receiver and Random noise generators. 6. Explain the purpose of rectification There are two types of rectification, namely half wave and full wave rectification; In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.

Figure 17: Half wave rectification using a single diode A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.

Figure 18: Full-wave rectification using 4 diodes.

The primary application of rectification is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers find uses inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment. Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated. One method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a

device called an inverter), then use a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies power back to DC. Rectification also finds a use in detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The signal may be amplified before detection, but if un-amplified, a very low voltage drop diode must be used. When using a rectifier for demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched. Too low a capacitance will result in the high frequency carrier passing to the output and too high will result in the capacitor just charging and staying charged. Rectification is also used to supply polarised voltage for welding. In such circuits control of the output current is required and this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the diodes in bridge rectifier with thyristors, whose voltage output can be regulated by means of phase fired controllers.

7. Explain the process of smoothing when applied to a rectifier circuit.

Figure 19 The output waveform in second figure above shows how the smoothing process works. During the first half of the voltage peaks from the rectifier, when the voltage increases, the capacitor charges up. Then, while the voltage decreases

to zero in the second half of the peaks, the capacitor releases its stored energy to keep the output voltage as constant as possible. Such a capacitor is called a 'smoothing' or 'reservoir' capacitor when it is used in this application. The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak voltage. However, there are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage. Too low a value and the capacitor has little effect but if the smoothing capacitor is large enough (parallel capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be almost as smooth as pure DC. 8. Describe how a transistor operates in terms of collector current and base current.

Figure 20

The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode. A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across the base-emitter junction is 0.7V or more. The small base current IB controls the large collector current Ic. Ic = hFE IB (unless the transistor is full on and saturated) hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a typical value for hFE

is 100 (it has no units because it is a ratio) A value of 40 was obtained in experiment 2.1

The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the base current IB:

o o o

IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off IB small RCE reduced transistor partly on IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on ('saturated')

A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'. When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is reduced to almost 0V. When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the supply voltage and the external resistance in the collector circuit, not by the transistor's current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a saturated transistor is less than the current gain hFE. The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.

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