HUMAN BIOLOGY

DNA and Chromosomes

Structure of DNA
DNA - (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Arranged as a double helix(to reduce space) Polymer of nucleotide monomer units. Each nucleotide (one strand) contains a sugar phosphate group and
nitrogenous base (purine and pryimidine- big base + small base).

4 bases: adenine (purine)-thymine (pryimidine) and cytosine (purine)guanine (pryimidine).

 DNA consists of 2 strands of nucleotide polymers (polynucleotide) and the

backbone of each strand is comprised of a sugar phosphate sequence.

The bases along one strand link onto the bases of the second strand of DNA
via hydrogen bonding. A-T double hydrogen bond whilst G-C triple hydrogen bond (more stable).

DNA self replicates, self repairs and holds information A gene is a length of chromosome that codes for a trait. A gene equals one
polypeptide. A polypeptide is a series of amino acids. An amino acid is a series of 3 bases.

 DNA running from 5 prime to 3 prime DNA replication is semi conservative meaning one parental strand ends up in the daughter strand.

DNA to Protein
DNA ------------------ mRNA ------------------ Protein Transcription Translation Chain of sugars Chain of amino acids The information contained in DNA directs production of proteins within cells. Proteins are used by cells as structural components or as enzymes that regulate chemical activity in the cell. A set of bases is called a codon, for every codon there is a particular amino acid. There are 20 amino acids and 64 combinations of codons possible- thus more than one codon for each amino acid. DNA vs. RNA - in RNA uracil replaces thymine, RNA is a single strand rather than double as its temporary, sugar backbone is made of ribonucleotides rather than deoxnucleotides.

Transcription: Occurs in nucleus of cell Enzyme RNA polymerase unzip double stranded
DNA in section which consists of a single gene. Copying RNA from DNA.

Introns (junk/virus/bad stuff) are taken out of the RNA transcript, and
remaining exons are spliced together producing mRNA.

Translation:
mRNA is transported out of nucleus through nuclear pores, entering the cytoplasm.

2 ribosome subunits (large and small) join the mRNA molecule, with the mRNA in between.

tRNA(transfer RNA consisting of 3 basses) carrying amino acids will move towards mRNA to carry out protein synthesis, type of amino acid is specific to the type and order of bases on the tRNA. Only one type of tRNA for each mRNA codon. Each tRNA contains an anti codon which contains 3 nucleotides complimentary to the nucleotides of the codon on mRNA. Allowing tRNA and mRNA to bond.

The amino acids form peptide bonds and the beginning of a polypeptide chain Stop codon when protein complete. (UAA, UGG, UGA) AUG start codon.

Protein synthesis requires 3 types of RNA- messenger RNA, transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA. DNA is stored in the nucleus of the cell in the form of chromosomes. (Though mitochondria also contain their own DNA)

During interphase (when cell isn't dividing) DNA molecules exist as diffuse stands within the nucleolus. Not visible and need to diffuse so genes can be copied. DNA packs into chromosomes before cell division to make sure the DNA copied is balanced.

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes:

22 autosomes (identical in female and male) 1 sex chromosome ( XX female XY male)

Having too many chromosomes causes problems in development i.e. having trisomy of chromosome pair 21 causes down syndrome.

Cell Cycle
1. Interphase: - Accounts for 90% of cell cycle, cell grows and copies chromosomes - Preparation for cell division (mitosis) - DNA is stretched out as it can be expressed - Divided into 3 major stages: G1, synthesis stage (DNA is synthesized, chromosomes are replicated), G2

2. Goes into Mitosis: - Prophase: long thin chromatid pairs condense as the chromatin becomes super coiled, nuclear envelope disappears and the centriole move to opposite ends of cell and for the spindle. - Metaphase: the chromatid pairs line up on spindle at the midline of cell, attached at centromere - Anaphase: spindle fibers shorten pulling centromere apart, chromatid pairs separated into single chromosomes. 3. Telophase: chromosomes reach poles of original cell and nuclear membrane reforms. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm, after last step of mitosis.

Cell Structures & Functions

Level of Organization:
Atomic molecular cellular tissue organ organ system body. - A cell is a basic structural and functional unit of a living organism, the activity of cells involves individual + collective actions of these cells. - Cells made up of organelles (sub cellular structures which dictate cells, specific set of reactions and roles in that cell, located in cytoplasm-fluid space) - The centriole divides the cell and allows it to reproduce

Organelles & Structures

1. Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane - Phospholipid bilayer

- Centre hydrophobic (water hating) - Outside hydrophilic (water loving) Protein Layers - Passive, allow movement across gradient (high to low), doesn't require energy happens naturally - Active requires energy to move ions across membrane

2. Nucleus - Nucleolus assemble ribosomes- production protein - DNA of

3.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - Rough: (ribosomes embedded in it) - translate mRNA - Smooth: assemble lipids and detoxifies poisons (sacroplasmic reticulum)

4. Golgi Apparatus Body (looks like a pack of pancakes) - Process and package amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates that are attachedproteins aren't functioning till they are folded, and added with lipid and carbohydrate. - Also makes hormones, channel protein exocytosis (waste release from cytoplasm)- makes lysosomes

Lysosomes - Digestive particles - Cell defense

Endomembrane System

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and releases energy. (Energy released from breakdown of food molecules is used to produce ATP).

ATP made in mitochondria (all cells needs this to produce energy). THIS IS THE SITE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION (outer/inner membrane is folded to maximise surface area) Cell metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell In aerobic respiration (when oxygen available) 1 glucose molecule will make 36 (if fat cell) or 38 (active cell) ATP. Anaerobic respiration (when no oxygen) produces lactic acid. Cytoskeletal Microtubules: centrioles and cilia + flagella

intermediate filaments (maintain structure/support shape e.g. actin and myosin) microfilament like microvilli( support protein channels)

SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Bone is a living tissue - There are 206 bones in the human skeleton o The smallest are the ossicles in the ear o The largest in the femur - There are 2 types of bones o Compact Bone Bone consisting of a solid matrix gives strength and rigidity. o Cancellous/Spongy Bone Bone consisting of a cavity filled matrix gives impact absorption. Flexibility, rigidity and strength are important factors for bones, and these are created through the multi-composition of bone.

Function of Skeletal System

The skeleton is the framework of the body, but has many functions 1. Support Rigid, strong bone is important for bearing weight and is the major supporting tissue of the body. 2. Protection Bone is often hard and rigid, providing protection for the organs which it surrounds, but bone also has some impact/shock absorption properties 3. Movement Skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons (strong bands of connective tissue). Contraction of the skeletal muscles moves the bones, producing body movements. Joints where two or more bones come together, allow movement between bones. Smooth cartilage covers the ends of bones within most joints, reducing friction and allowing free movement. Ligaments allow some movement between bones but prevent excessive movement. 4. Storage (of salts) Some minerals (Calcium and Phosphorus) are taking in the bone and stored. Should blood levels/concentrations of these minerals decrease, they are removed from the bone and released into the blood. Adipose (fat) tissue is also stored within bone cavities, and if needed is released to be used as energy sources.

5. Blood cell production Red bone marrow within the bone cavities contains stem cells, which are able to differentiate into red blood cells, white blood cells or other blood elements.

Structures of Skeletal System

The bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments of the skeletal system are all connective tissue. Composition of Bone: 25% organic Collagen (a tough protein a secretion from the osteocytes). Collagen gives flexible strength to the bone. 50% inorganic Calcium and phosphate. The mineral component gives compression (weight-bearing) strength to the bone. 25% water. Osteoblasts Build bone Osteocytes Maintain bone Osteoclasts Breakdown bone There are 3 types of cells that are found in bone:

General Structure Epiphysis The end of a bone Diaphysis The central shaft of a bone. A thin layer of articular cartilage covers the ends of the epiphyses where the bone articulates (joins) with other bones. This helps to reduce friction and aid in free movement. An epiphyseal plate (or growth plate) composed of cartilage, sits between each epiphysis and the diaphysis on a growing long bone. This plate is where the bone grows in length. When growth stops, the cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and becomes an epiphyseal line. Medullary Cavity (main cavity within the diaphysis) and Other Cavities contain soft tissue called marrow. Marrow Yellow marrow consists of adipose (fat) tissue. Red marrow contains stem cells that are able to differentiate into blood cells and other blood components. Red marrow is the only site of blood cell production in the body.

The outer surface of bone is covered by a dense connective tissue called the periosteum, which contains blood vessels and nerves. The surface of the medullary cavity (main cavity inside the diaphysis of a long bone) is lined with a thinner connective tissue membrane known as the endosteum.

Histology of Bone: The periosteum and endosteum contain osteoblasts. As bone is formed over the osteoblasts they are referred to as osteocytes. Bone is formed in thin sheets of extracellular matrix called lamellae (these are formed in a ring around a central canal), with osteocytes situated between each layer in small hollows known as lacunae. Canaliculi are small channels that radiate from the lacunae in order to allow cellular processes (such as the transfer of nutrients and the removal of wastes) to occur. The canaliculi primarily provide contact with the central channel to allow contact with the local blood vessel as well as connecting one lacunae to another. There are two types of bone: Compact Bone o Compact bone forms most of the diaphysis of long bones and the thinner surfaces of all other bones. o Has a solid matrix gives strength and rigidity o The lamellae (sheets of extracellular matrix) are organised into concentric rings, with each surrounding a central canal (or haversian canal). The central canal contains a blood vessel that runs parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bone.

o Each central canal, with the lamellae and neighbouring osteocytes (contained in lacunae) is called an osteon or Haversian system. o Compact bone is produced as the Haversian systems are closely compact giving the bone a denser structure. o Nutrients leave the blood vessels of the central canal and diffuse to osteocytes through the canaliculi. Waste products diffuse in the opposite direction. The blood vessels in the central canals are also connected to the blood vessels in the periosteum and endosteum. o Within compact bone (therefore the periosteum) [osteoblasts] > [osteoclasts] Cancellous/Spongy Bone o Spongy Bone is mainly located in the epiphyses of long bones. It forms the interior of all other bones. o Has a cavity filled matrix and therefore absorbs impact. o It consists of delicate interconnecting rods or plates (called trabeculae) that form a scaffold-like structure. This creates strength without excess weight. o The spaces or cavities between the trabeculae are filled with marrow. The red bone marrow contains stem cells that differentiate to produce red blood cells, white blood cells and other blood elements. Yellow bone marrow contains adipose (fat) tissue. o The trabeculae have no blood vessels or central canals. Therefore, nutrients exit vessels within the marrow and pass by diffusion through canaliculi to the osteocytes of the trabeculae.

Formation of Skeletal System Ossification

Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts. As a fetus, bones develop by two processes, each involving the formation of bone matrix on pre-existing connective tissue. Intramembranous Ossification Occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone in a membrane template Most often occurs in flat bones Connective tissue membranes are used as a template and osteoblasts penetrate the membrane and become embedded. The osteoblasts begin to

deposit bone matrix to form trabeculae (interconnecting rods/plates within cancellous bone). This occurs from an ossification centre and the trabeculae radiate outwards. The bone is formed as trabeculae from one ossifcation centre fusses with that of another. The trabeculae may be replaced by dense bone as development continues. Occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone within a cartilage template The cartilage template carries the general shape of the mature bone. During endochondral ossification, cartilage cells increase in number, enlarge and die, causing the cartilage matrix to become calcified. As a blood vessel grows into the centre of the bone it also brings osteoblasts, stimulating ossification (in the form of trabeculae production) in the space left by the dying cartilage cells. This occurs in both the diaphysis (known as the primary ossification centre) and the epiphyses (known as the secondary ossification centres). Additionally a membrane surrounds the diaphysis cartilage, forcing some unspecified connective tissue cells to become osteoblasts. These then produce a collar of bone around the outer surface of the diaphysis. Endochondral Ossification

Maintenance
Bone Growth Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue. Longitudinal growth occurs in the epiphyseal plate (or growth plate). This occurs via endochondral ossification. The growth plates (and longitudinal growth) will often continue until 18-20 years of age. Appositional growth (width/radial growth) will continue throughout an individuals lifetime and occurs as osteoblasts in the periosteum continue to produce lamellae upon existing bone. Bone remodelling Bone remodelling involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by osteoblasts. Remodelling is responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair and calcium ion regulation in the body fluids.

As bone diameter increases through deposition of new bone matrix, simultaneously bone is removed from the medullary cavity. This means that as bone diameter increases, the thickness of the compact bone remains fairly constant this ensures that the bone does not become too heavy. Further, two much bone deposition and the bones can develop abnormal lumps that interfere with normal function too little bone formation (or too much bone removal) and bones can become weak and susceptible to fracture.

Periosteum contains higher [osteoblasts], therefore growth occurs outwards in Endosteum contains higher [osteoclasts], therefore decay occurs inwards out Bone Repair: o When a bone is fractured, blood vessels are damaged. The vessels bleed, and form a clot in the damaged area. Blood vessels and cells then invade the clot (3 days after break). These cells then produce a fibrous network of connective tissue between the disconnected bone or fracture plane, which holds the bone fragments together and fills the gap between.

Calcium Homeostasis: o Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body, and movement of calcium into and out of bone helps determine blood Ca2+ level, which is critical for normal muscle and nervous function. o Ca2+ moves into the bone as osteoblasts build new bone, and Ca2+ moves out of the bone as osteoclasts break down bone. o Low [Ca2+] Parathyroid glands are stimulated to produce Parathyroid Hormone (PTH). PTH stimulates osteoclast activity and increased bone breakdown occurs, resulting in increased Ca2+ movement into the bloodstream PTH promotes Ca2+ reabsorption from the urine (glomerular filtrate) in the nephrons of the kidney, resulting in increased Ca2+ movement into the bloodstream

Additionally PTH stimulates the kidney to form active vitamin D, which increases Ca2+ absorption in the small intestine.

o High [Ca2+] Thyroid glands are stimulated to produce Calcitonin. Calcitonin decreases osteoclast activity, thereby inhibiting breakdown of bone. Thus as Osteoblast activity > Osteoclast activity, Ca2+ into bone > Ca2+ out of bone. Therefore, blood [Ca2+] decreases. o Increase [PTH] Increase Blood [Ca2+] o Increase [Calcitonin] Decrease Blood [Ca2+]

Articulation of bones
Axial Skeleton Is composed of the skull, the vertebral column and the thoracic cage Skull o Frontal bone (front), Parietal bone (top and high rear), Temporal bones (one on both sides of the skull) and Occipital bone (lower rear) Vertebral Column o Cervical region (superior), Thoracic region (2nd superior), Lumbar region (middle), Sacrum (2nd Inferior), Coccyx (inferior) Thoracic Cage o Thoracic vertebrae, the ribs and associated cartilages and the sternum Appendicular Skeleton Is composed of the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, upper limb, lower limb Pectoral Girdle o Consists of two scapulae (shoulder blade) and two clavicles (collar bone), which attach the upper limb to the body. Pelvic Girdle o The place where the lower limbs attach to the body. Consists of the right and left coxal bones (hipbones) join each other anteriorly, and the sacrum (part of the vertebral column) posteriorly to form a ring of bone. Upper Limb

o Consists of the bones of the arm, forearm, wrist and hand Lower Limb o Consists of the bones of the thigh, leg, ankle and foot.

Joints
Fibrous Joints (fixed) o Consist of two bones that are united by a fibrous tissue and exhibit no movement. Eg: Sutures (joints between the bones of the skull) Cartilaginous Joints (slight movement) o Consist of two bones by means of cartilage and only slight movement can occur at these sites. Eg: cartilages between the ribs and the sternum Synovial Joins (freely moving) o Are freely moveable joins that contain synovial fluid in a cavity/capsule surrounding the ends of articulating bones. The fluid acts as a lubricating agent to aid free movement in the joint. Eg: Elbow, Knee, Shoulder, Hip.

Note: Most joints that unite the appendicular skeleton are synovial joints, whereas many of the joints that unit the bones of the axial skeleton are not. This reflects the greater mobility of the appendicular skeleton compared to that of the axial skeleton.

Anatomical Terms
The anatomical position is: Standing erect, eyes looking forward, arms at the sides of the body with palms and feet pointing forward. Superior Towards the head of upper part of the body Inferior Towards the feet or lower part of the body Anterior (Ventral) Towards the front side of the body Posterior (Dorsal) Towards the rear side of the body Medial Towards the middle or midline of the body Lateral Away from the middle or midline of the body Proximal Close to the trunk of the body or point of attachment Distal Farther from the trunk of the body or point of attachment

Types of movement:
Flexion Movement of a body part in the anterior direction from the frontal plane Reduction in the angle between two bones Extension

Movement of a body part in the posterior direction from the frontal plane Increase (or straightening) of the angle between two bones (up to 180 degrees)

Abduction Movement away from the medial plane. Ie. Outwards movement Movement towards the medial plane. Ie. Inwards movement Rotation to face inferiorly - downwards (ie: Rotate arm so palm faces down) Supination Rotation to face superiorly - upwards (ie: Rotate arm so palm faces up) The turning of a structure around its longitudinal (long) axis. Lateral and Medial Rotation. Occurs at freely moveable joints so that a cone like shape is produced upon a full movement cycle Rotation Adduction Pronation

Circumduction

Muscles
Three main muscle tissues:
1. Skeletal (Striated) Muscle - Formed in long, cylindrical fibres. Striations Non-branched fibres. Multiple nuclei, placed in the peripherals of the cell/fibre. Voluntary contraction found in biceps

2. Cardiac Muscle - Branched fibres Striations Dark junctions where the cells join Intercalated disk Involuntary contraction found in heart

3. Smooth Muscle - Lines all hollow organs but heart. Fibres run in all directions allowing contraction to occur in all directions Involuntary contraction found in organs like small intestine Non striated

Skeletal muscle fibre:

The sacromere is arranged with repeating units of actin and myosin myofilaments along the myofibril. Sacromere structure o Each sacromere extends from one Z disk to another Z disk. Each Z disk is a network of protein fibres forming an attachment site for Actin myofilaments. o In the centre of each sacromere is the H zone, which consists only of myosin myofilaments.

Actin Thin filaments o Actin myofilaments are arranged in a double helix structure o They have attachment sites for the myosin o Troponin molecules are attached at specific intervals along the actin which have binding sites for Ca2+. o Tropomyosin filaments are located along the actin, blocking the myosin attachment site on an unstimulated muscle. (acts like a switch)

Myosin Thick filaments o Myosin molecule constructed with head and a rod (golf club-like structure). o The head is moveable, and contains an ATP binding site, and has 3 important functions: Binding to attachment sites on the actin Bend and straighten during contraction and in doing this can;

Break down ATP to release energy and convert to ADP (when pulling back and when snaps back into place converted back into ATP). This shape also changed shape of protein.

Sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

During muscle contraction, neither the actin nor the myosin fibres shorten, instead the H zones and I bands shorten, while the A bands remain the same length. For this to occur, the myosin heads reach out to bind to the attachment sites on the actin myofilament, pulling them inwards. Process of Muscle Contraction: An action potential produced in skeletal muscle fibres at the neuromuscular junction travels along the sarcolemma (cell membrane of skeletal and cardiac muscle) and the T-tubule membranes (a evagination of the sarcolemma allows a action potential to penetrate a cell faster) The action potential causes the membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (the main storage site for Ca2+ ions in the cell) adjacent to the T-tubules to become more permeable to Ca2+, and Ca2+ diffuse into the sarcoplasm through the terminal cisternae. The Ca2+ bind to troponin molecules attached to the actin myofilaments, changing the shape of the troponin molecule. The shape of the Ca2+-Troponin complex causes the tropomyosin molecules to move into a groove along the actin molecule and expose the myosin attachment sites. The exposed attachment sites on the actin myofilament bind to the heads of the myosin myofilaments to form cross-bridges between the actin and myosin myofilaments. An ATP molecule bound to the head of a myosin myofilament is broken down to an ADP molecule and Phosphate by the enzymatic capabilities of

the head. At this stage the energy stored within the ATP molecule is released and momentarily stored within the myosin head, giving it potential energy. This energy is used to move the head of the myosin myofilament towards the middle of the sacromere, thus pulling the actin myofilament inwards. Simultaneously ADP is released from the myosin head. Another ATP molecule will bind to the myosin head, and as this ATP molecule is broken down into ADP and P, the myosin head will release from the actin attachment site and return to its neutral position, where it can attach to the next actin site. An ATP molecule MUST attach to the myosin head before it can release. After a person dies, ATP can no longer be produced. This means that the cross-bridges formed between actin and myosin myofilaments cannot be released, causing the muscles to become ridged. This is known as rigor mortis. Muscle relaxation occurs as Ca2+ is actively transported back into the sacroplasmic reticulum. As a consequence, the attachment sites on the actin molecules are once again covered by tropomyosin so that the crossbridges cannot reform, and contraction stops. Membrane Potential: Outside cell membrane = Positive charge compared to inside The charge difference is called Resting Membrane Potential Develops on account of 2 reasons: 1. Concentration of potassium ions inside cell is higher than outside 2. Membrane is more absorbent to potassium ions than any other including negative charged proteins. (Potassium channels are open/ sodium channels are closed). When muscle stimulated sodium channels open up and membrane is permeable, the sodium ions concentration is greater outside than inside Sodium ions diffuse down concentration gradient into cell causing it to be more positive inside the cell. This is called DEPOLOARISATION.- near end sodium ion channels close so less comes in and the tendency for

potassium ions to leave occurs, thus making the inside of the cell membrane more negative once again- this change back to the resting potential is called REPOLORISATION. At rest, the tropomyosin molecules cover the myosin attachment sites on the actin myofilament, and therefore need to be removed in order for muscle contraction to occur. Troponin is the switch molecule that removes tropomyosin. However, troponin requires regulation to prevent muscle contraction occurring constantly. Ca2+ binds to troponin to make it active, and allows muscle contraction to occur. Thus, Ca2+ is the regulating ion that controls when troponin is active, and when muscle contraction can occur.

Anaerobic vs. Aerobic

Glucose ( 6 carbon molecule) is broken down into 3 carbon molecule of pyruvic acid with the need of oxygen, where pyruvic acid is fed into mitochondria where carbon dioxide released, this produced 32 ATP but is slow process. Can also be fast where glucose produces pyruvic acid and lactic acid but this only produces 2 ATP.

Muscle Fibre Type:

-Red (slow, lots of O2) -White (fast, no O2)

Digestive System
The body requires Water main consistent of cells Carbohydrates glucose for energy production (ATP) Protein amino acids to build bodys own proteins Fat fatty acids and glycerol to build bodys own fats (and is a major part of the cell membrane) Vitamins coenzymes in metabolic pathways Minerals essential for normal cell function

Action of digestive enzymes

Enzymes make up the chemical digestion process.

They carry out chemical reactions to breakdown/convert food into its smaller, constituent components. Enzymes are biological catalysts, and a specific enzyme controls every reaction and process the body. Some reactions will not occur as efficiently without enzymes and some reactions will not occur at all without enzymes. Hence, without digestive enzymes the body would not be able to convert food into its individual nutrients and death would occur.

Enzymes do not get used up in reactions and are therefore re-usable Peptidases breakdown peptides into amino acids Eg: Pepsin Amylase breakdown polysaccharides/carbohydrates into disaccharides (eg: maltose) and monosaccharides (eg: glucose) Lipase breakdown of emulsified fat into fatty acids and glycerols Maltase breakdown maltose to glucose.

The main digestive enzymes are:

Oral Cavity:
The oral cavity is the first part of the digestive tract. Lips, cheek and tongue- mechanical breakdown which is important as it increases the surface area of food thereby increase the rate of chemical digestion. Contains three pairs of salivary glands parotid (largest), submandibular and sublingual glands which produce saliva (serous and mucous) and secrete through ducts into the mouth.

Saliva is a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous fluids. The serous component moistens food, providing lubrication for swallowing, and dissolves food for tasting. It also contains the enzyme salivary amylase, which breaks starch and other carbohydrates (polysaccharides) into maltose (disaccharides) which is the start of chemical digestion. In the short time in the mouth 10% of carbohydrates are broken down into maltose. The mucous component of saliva lubricates food and contains antibacterial properties helping to prevent infection.

The sight and smell of food send nerve impulses from the brain to Salivary glands to increase secretion of saliva to make food suitable for swallowing Stomach glands to start secretion of gastric juices (HCl and Pepsinogen) to prepare the digestive system thereby increase rate of digestion.

Pharynx
The Pharynx is a funnel-shaped tube that connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx. It consists of 3 parts (nasopharyx, oropharyx, larynopharyx) The epiglottis covers the larynx(voice box) when food is swallowed, directing it down the esophagus. The role of the Pharynx is to transmit food from the oral cavity to the esophagus.

Esophagus
The Esophagus transports food from the pharynx to the stomach. The upper and lower esophageal sphincters, located at the superior and inferior ends of the esophagus respectively, regulate the movement of food into and out of the esophagus. Muscular contractions of the esophagus occur in peristaltic waves (waves of relaxation followed by waves of contraction along the tube) push food downwards towards the stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a large muscular sac that plays a major role in the mechanical and chemical digestion of food. Food enters the stomach through the lower esophageal sphincter at the superior end of the stomach. Food leaves the stomach through the Pyloric sphincter into the duodenum of the small intestine. The stomach lumen is lined with an alkaline mucus layer that prevents damage to the stomach by preventing contact of HCl and Pepsin with the stomach wall. Within the stomach, food is churned for mechanical breakdown and mixed with stomach secretions to be converted into chyme. Food stays in the stomach for 2-4 hours. Mechanical action of the stomach Peristaltic waves generate contractions and push food through the stomach. However, this occurs in both superior and inferior directions, resulting in the solid component of food consecutively moving back up and down the stomach, aiding breakdown into a liquid. The liquid component is moved through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. Only a small volume of food/chyme moves through to the duodenum at a time. Chemical actions of the Stomach Gastric glands in the stomach wall secrete gastric juices composed of: Hydrochloric acid, Enzymes, Intrinsic Factors and Alkaline mucus.

The Hydrochloric acid has a pH of 2, it acts to kill bacteria and softens fibres in meat and vegetables through structural changes as a result of chemical reactions. Additionally, HCl actives the enzymes of the stomach (activates pepsin from its inactive form pepsinogen). Additionally, HCl alters the environment to provide the optimal pH for the stomach enzymes.

Enzymes. The main enzyme is pepsin, which breaks down proteins into polypeptides. It is secreted from Chief cells in its inactive form of Pepsinogen (this occurs as cells are constructed from proteins and thus prevents cells being destroyed by their own secretion). Pepsinogen is converted into active pepsin through contact with HCl which only occurs in the stomach lumen.

Intrinsic factor is secreted in the presence of food, and while not related to digestion, binds to Vitamin B12 allowing it to be absorbed more readily in the small intestine. Vitamin B12 is important in DNA synthesis and RBC production.

Alkaline mucous is a fluid that prevents the stomach wall from contact with HCl and Pepsin, thereby preventing damage to the stomach. This is a very thick layer, approximately 1mm thick.

Absorption by the stomach There is very limited absorption through the stomach wall; only substances with a very low molecular weight can pass through. (e.g.: Water, Alcohol and Aspirin) Control of Stomach actions/Stomach Secretions. Both nervous and hormonal mechanisms regulate gastric secretions, in 3 different ways 1. Nervous - Sight, smell and taste of food stimulate centres in the medulla of the brain that influence gastric sections. 2. Vagus nerve transmits signals from the brain to the stomach, which initiate secretion of HCl, pepsinogen and gastrin ( hormone that enters the circulation and is carried back to the stomach, where It stimulates additional secretory activity)

3. Nervous - Stretch receptors are stimulated when the stomach expands to accommodate food capacity. Local and central pathways result in the secretion of HCL and pepsinogen 4. Hormonal Polypeptides produced from initial digestion stimulate release of hormone gastrin from cells in the top of the stomach. This stimulates major part of stomach to continue to secrete acid and enzymes. The hormonal mechanism continues operation until all food is digested and passed into the duodenum. Gastrin is inhibited by the hormone secretin, which is released when pH reaches 2. As chyme (which is acidic) moves into the small intestine, the acidity stimulates the duodenum to secrete secretin. Secretin is carried in the blood to the stomach wall, to stop sending chyme into the small intestine. When the acid is neutralized and chyme digested, secretin is no longer produced, and more food is sent to the duodenum.

Small Intestine
Is a long, coiled tube consisting of three parts: Duodenum, Jejunum and ileum. The Small Intestine has a major role in digestion of food as well as absorption of nutrients. Food entering the small intestine is only partially digested, and mechanical digestion involves mixing of chyme with enzymes

Chemical digestion relies on enzymes released from the pancreases, bile released from the gall bladed and enzymes released from the lining of the small intestine.

The mucosa of the duodenum secretes mucus, ions and water to lubricate and protect the intestinal wall from the acidic chyme. The small intestine also secretes many digestive enzymes. Peptidases breakdown peptides into amino acids E.g.: Pepsin Amylase breakdown polysaccharides/carbohydrates into disaccharides/maltose and monosaccharides Lipase breakdown of emulsified fat into fatty acids and glycerols Maltase breakdown maltose to glucose.

Absorption in the small Intestine Most absorption occurs via blood or lymph in the duodenum and jejunum Nutrients follow 2 routes from intestines to blood or lymph for transport to other parts of the body: Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed into the hepatic portal vein and are transported directly to the liver. Fats and non-water-soluble nutrients are absorbed into the lymphatic vessels and then into the blood. At the end of the ileum all that remains is some water, indigestible food, and large amounts of bacteria (good bacteria that aid digestive processes) The small intestine has 3 adaptations to increase surface area and therefore increase absorption rate. Circular folds, formed from series of mucosa and submucosa Villi fingerlike projections from the mucosa Microvilli cytoplasmic extensions of mucosal cells The diameter of these structures decrease in the jejunum and ileum.

Large Intestine

The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal. The cecum connects the small and large intestines. The mucosal lining of the colon contains tubular glands (called crypts) that contain mucus-producing goblet cells. These help to lubricate the large intestine for food movement. The rectum is a straight tube that carries waste outside the body. Anal Canal thick, involuntary smooth muscle forms the internal anal sphincter, which moves waste from the rectum into the anal canal, while the external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the canal is formed from voluntary skeletal muscle. Function of the large intestine No enzymes are produced within the large intestine; therefore it carries no role in digestion. Water, along with vitamins and minerals are absorbed. This results in the drying out of waste materials. Waste is stored in the large intestine before release (defecation) Resident bacteria synthesis vitamin K (blood clotting) and vitamin B complexes (important co-enzymes in metabolic pathways) Microbes ferment some waste residues. As a by-product, some bacteria product hydrogen sulphide gas and others methane gas.

Accessory Organs
Pancreas The pancreas produces: Bicarbonate neutralises the acidity of chime Pancreatic amalyse continues starch (polysaccharides) digestion started in oral cavity to maltose (disaccharides) and then to glucose (monosaccharides) Trypsin, chymotrypsin digest polypeptides to peptides

 Liver

Carboxypeptidase digest peptides to amino acids Panceratic lipases digest emulsified fat into fatty acids and glycerols Nucleases enzymes which reduce DNA and RNA to component nucleotides. Secretes to bile to aid digestion in small intestine, stored in gall bladder

Bile salt emulsify: break large globules into small droplets, which can be effectively digested into enzymes

Control of Pancreatic and Gallbladder Secretions: 2 hormones released into small intestine Acid stimulated production of secretin(causes bicarbonate t release from pancreas to neutralise chime and bile secretion from liver) Fat stimulates production of cholecystokinin (CCK) releases enzymes from pancreas and bile from gallbladder. Bile contains the excretory products liek chlestrol and fat

Functions of Liver 1. Assocates with processing nutrients Producing bile Store glucose from blood Helps maintain blood glucose Under control of pancreatic hormones insulin and glucagon

2. Detoxfies blood 3. Function associated with blood Makes blood proteins Breaks down old rbc and excretes blood pigments in bile

Metabolism
Energy
Metabolism Total of all chemical reactions that occur in the body ATP(energy) requiring process(ATP breakdown to ADP and Pi) There is the formation of new cell, maintenance and production of new molecules Catabolism ATP (energy) releasing process ( ATP production from ADP and Pi) Digestion and cellular metabolism, i.e. use of glucose as energy source This energy can be used to drive anabolic reactions Anabolism

Cellular Metabolism break down carbohydrates, lipids, proteins to release energy

Regulation of Metabolism
About 40% of energy in food goes to ATP ( rest is lost as heat) Production of ATP occurs via biochemical pathways involving enzyme acitivy Enzyme activity regulated by: Protein synthesis Receptors Product control of enzyme activity( feedback regulation)

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Monosaccharides (glucose) converted to glycogen, short term storage 1% and long terms fat storage 99%. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvic acid, ATP and NADH Pyruvic acid is used in aerobic or anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic and Aerobic Metabolism

Glycolysis converts pyruvic acid, ATP and NADH Anaerobic respiration- one glucose yields 2 ATP and 2 Lactic acid( later converted to glucose) Whilst aerobic yields 38 ATP- 2 ATP from glycolysis, 2 citric acid cycle and 34 from electron transport chain.

Lipid Metabolism (Fatty Acids)

Metablised in mitochondria 2 C atoms removed from end of fatty acid acetyl-CoA (this is used in cyctric cycle) In liver, 2 acetyl-CoA form ketones transported in blood to cells converted back to acetyl-CoA for use in citric cycle.

Protein Metablolism (Amino Acids)

Products of protein digestion Used in synthesis of prtein Not good energy source but can be converted to energy

Metabolic State

Absorptive state, lasts about 4 hrs after meal and excess glucose is deposted as glycogen and fat in adipose tissue Post- absorptive state, energy(glucose) sourced from glycogen and fat stores

Metabolic rate: Total amount of energy produced + used by body per unit of time Basic Metabolic rate: Energy required keeping body functional at rest Total metabolic rate: Basic metabolic rate (30%) + energy for physical activity (30%) + specific dynamic action (energy used for digestion) (10%) Our body is at 37 degrees (homotherms), this is necessary to maintain normal enzyme function

Nutrition
Provide energy and building block Essential (what is required) and non essential( can be synthesized but not essential) 6 categories: water, macronutrients like carbohydrates/fat/protein and micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. RDI( recommended dietary intake) EAR (estimated average requirements) AI (adequate intake)

Water
50-80% of body weight is water

Functions: fills space between cells, digestion, absorption, transportation, dissolving nutrients, eliminates waste Adequate intake 2.8- 3.4L (food and fluid) or 2.1-2.6L fluid only

Energy
Sources: carbohydrates, fat, protein Calories- amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1 degree. Joule: energy used when 1kg is moved by a force of 1N. ( 1 kcal= 4.184 kJ)

Carbohydrates
Largest source of energy Glucose is essential fuel for brain Carbohydrates made of chains of monosaccharide Simple include fruit, veggies, honey, milk, sweet Complex include cereals, potatoes, bread No RDI or EAR but suggested 45-65 of energy. Digestion 1. Small intestine digestion Alpha amylase from saliva and pancreatic juice Disaccharaidases Monosaccharides 2. Blood Vessel, circulation Blood glucose increases Stimulates insulin secretion from beta cells of the pancreas Glucose 3. Tissues, energy or fuel storage Sources of energy in all tissues Storage (glycogen) in liver and muscle.

Lipids
Types: triglycerides/ phospholipids/ sterols Get it from animal tissue, diary, plant oils, egg and fish Triglycerides- make up 95% of dietary lipids, made up of 3 fatty acids to a glycerol backbone(3 carbons)

Digestion and absorption: emulsification, digestion by lipases, diffusion into small intestine, packaged into chylomicrons and chylomicrons enter blood steam and pick up lipoproteins

Uses- production of eicosanoids( important for reproduction, blood pressure and inflammation) No RDI or EAR for this but suggestion of 20-35%.

Proteins
Sources come from animal and plant Made up of 20 amino acids 8 essential and 12 non essential amino acids Digestion and absorption of proteins by mucosa, free amino acids are absorbed into the portal system circulation and used by tissues. It is not typically used for energy by rather structure and function. Has an EAR: 0.60-0.68g and RDI: 0.84-0.75g Average 15% Protein is the most satiating macronutrient which explains why a high protein diet assists in weight loss and weight maintenance.

Vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins include A, D E,K Water soluble: B and C Vitamin toxicity include of vitamin A which can cause bone, muscle pain, skin disorder, hair loss and increased liver size/ vitamin D which can lead to deposition of calcium in the kidneys, heart and blood vessels.

Minerals
Make up 4% of body Functions include: resting membrane potential, action potential, strength to bone and teeth, coenzymes. Mineral deficiency includes iron where loss o energy is seen due to poor oxygen transportation/ iodine where gotre and reduced metabolism are seen/ calcium with reduced skeletal mass seen.

Circulatory System
2 divisions: Structural division: Arterial system (arteries take blood from the heart) Venous System veins return blood from tissues) Capillary bedsaction centre of exchange of nutrients and respiration Lymphatic ( lymph nodes take up fluid and fat/soluble subjects) Systemic- pumps oxygenated blood into body besides lungs Pulmonary- blood flows through lungs Function division: (

# Half of blood vessel red/blue- blue = deoxygenated blood and red = oxygenated blood

Functions of Circulatory System

Supply of material to body tissue: nutrients, oxygen and hormones Removal of waste products of metabolism: ammonia and urea from protein, toxins and carbon dioxide. # a person right is the left side on a picture i.e. the right atrium etc.

Movement of blood through the heart

Left ventricle has thicker wall as its a stronger muscle and thus high blood pressure pumps through the Blood from the body enters heart via Superior and Inferior Vena Cava R atrium Tricuspid valve R ventricle Pulmonary semilunar valve pulmonary trunk/arteries Lungs Pulmonary veins L atrium Bicuspid valve L ventricle Aortic semilunar valve Aorta

Movement of blood through the circulatory system

# gives off CO2 and picks up O2

Arteries: carry blood away from heart Arterioles: connect arteries to capillaries Capillaries: site of nutrient and gas exchange Venules: connect capillaries to veins Veins: return blood to heart

Artery vs. Vein

THUS Arteries carry blood away from the heart, whereas veins carry blood towards the heart irrespective of the state of oxygenation of the blood.

How does blood move through circulatory system

1. Pumping action of the heart Series of coordinated contraction (cardiac cycle) Systole ( heart contracts) and diastole ( heart relaxes) Resting adult pumps about 5L blood per minute During exercise this can increase to 20-30L Elastic walls stretch during systole to accommodate blood, and then recoil during diastole to maintain pressure and keep blood moving. 3. Veins Pumping effect of heart is lost by the time blood reaches veins Blood moves through due to massaging effect of skeletal muscle Backflow prevented by series of valves.(only vessel that has valves)

2. Elastic recoil of arteries

Capillaries
Form a network(reticulated) between arterial and venous circulations

Site of exchange between blood and tissues Short and thin Capillary wall is like a filter allowing different molecules to pass across Flow through capillaries need to be slow to enable good exchange of molecules Achieved through the large cross sectional area of capillaries into which the arterioles feed. # How can you tell which is the arterial and which is the venous end of the capillary bed? At the arterial end the blood flow is pulsing and the blood flows from the arterioles into the capillaries. At the venous end the blood flow is smooth and the blood flows from the capillaries into the venules.

Movement of Molecules between Capillaries and the Tissues

Nutrients and waste move across in opposite directions Follow a concentration gradient moving from region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration

Movement of Fluid between Capillaries and the Tissues

Moves in and out of capillaries under 2 influences:

Pressure gradient: blood pressure is higher in capillary than pressure in tissue so hydrostatic forces drive water out Osmotic gradient: water moves along concentration gradient to region of

highest osmotic pressure

Pumping of Heart
1. Action potential originate at SA and travel to AV node- stimulate muscle contraction 2. Action potentials pass through AV node into interventicular septum

3. AV bundle divides and descends to apex 4. Action potentials carries to ventricular walls

Timing of contractions

Contract at same time

Regulation of Heart Function

Cardiac output: is the volume of blood pumped out by left ventricle per minute Stroke volume: is the volume of blood pumped per ventricle each time the heart contracts.

be intrinsic or extrinsic -

Regulation can Intrinsic refers to the mechanism contained within the heart Starlings law of the heart, relationship between preload (degree to which ventricular alls are stretched out at end of diastole or relaxation) and stroke volume. Contraction of cardiac muscle is related to degree of stretch of cardiac muscle / amount of blood in ventricles also determines how far cardiac muscles stretch. Venous return (amount of blood returned to heart), if this increases the heart is filled more and thus cardiac muscle is stretched. Increasing the amount of blood ejected from heart and increasing stroke volume.

Beneficial during exercise, muscle supply a greater venous return and they receive a greater load of oxygen.

Extrinsic refers to the mechanisms contained outside the heart/ nervous influences Cardioregulatory centers in medulla of brain monitor various inputs and nervous influences carried through the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation of heart causes heart rate and stroke volume to increase e.g. During exercise, raised temperature, anger, stress Parasympathetic stimulation of heart causes heart rate to decrease e.g. Depression

Blood pressure is a hydrostatic pressure that is a function of blood flow and vascular pressure.

Control of blood pressure through changes in peripheral resistance and changed in blood volume (excreting more water across kidney reduce blood volume and blood pressure)- also controlled by nerves and hormones. Baroreceptor reflex- detect stretch in large arteries (i.e. BP) and send a message to vasomotor and cardioregulatory centers. Hormonal mechanisms: Fall in MAP controlled by epinephrine, renin and antidiuretic hormone Increase in MAP atrial natriuretic hormone.

Blood
Functions of Blood
Transport material around the body- O2, products of digestion, hormones and waste products Homeostasis- pH of body (constant 7.4), body temperature, water content Protection- fight disease as blood contains many of bodys defense cells and transports them to site of infection as carries substances for blood clotting when there is a blood loss. Composed of 55% plasma and 45% formed elements.

Plasma
Albumins- maintain osmotic pressure within capillaries so excess fluid isnt lost to tissues and acts as carries transporting material bound to them. Globulins- defense and transport Fibrinogen involved in blood clotting

Formed Elements
White blood cells (leukocytes) Larger than RBC

Contain a single nucleus and round shape Mobile and squeeze out of smaller blood vessels into connective tissue where they carry out defense function- protecting body from disease

Platelets Small fragments derived from large cells (megakaryocytes) that live in bone marrow Help repair blood vessels and secrete clotting factors as well as attracting WBC to sites of inflammation.

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

Most numerous type of blood cell Atypical that is they dont have a nucleus nor can they divide and are red because of the hemoglobin. Its shape is biconcave, cell membrane collapses inwards as they have no nucleus, this shape is ideal for gas exchange as surface area to volume ratio is large. Also soft and elastic allowing them to squeeze through small blood vessels Transport oxygen via hemoglobin and assist in transportation of carbon dioxide Erythropoiesis Occurs in red bone marrow Large nucleated cells are constantly undergoing mitotic divisions After several divisions, each daughter cell gets smaller, synthesizes hemoglobin and finally loses its nucleus giving a RBC. Regulation Decrease in RBC numbers decrease O2 capacity slight tissue hypoxia Kidney releases the hormone erythropoietin(EPO) into blood Stimulates RBC production in the red bone marrow producing more RBC

Anemia
Blood disease in which red cell count is low Can be from decrease in hemoglobin content (iron storages), decrease in the number of RBC(decrease rate of production in bone marrow) or production of abnormal RBC

Stopping Blood Loss

When blood vessel is damaged there is a platelet plug formation and formation of blood clot for larger tears, cuts to blood vessel. Platelet Plug Vascular spasm: platelets release chemicals which cause spasms in smooth muscle and this shuts off smaller vessels completely and narrows large blood vessels to decrease blood flow. Platelet adhesion: Broken vessels expose rough surfaces of collagen which these platelets are attracted to and form a plug and stick to damaged place, also releasing chemical to attract more platelets. Blood Clotting Platelets at site of damage release prothrombin activators Prothrombin activators convert prothrombin to thrombin in presence of calcium ion and vitamin k. Thrombin is an enzyme that converts the plasma protein fibrinogen to fibrin; this is an insoluble protein that forms a mesh around the wound. The mass of fibrin, platelets and blood cells seals off wound and is called a clot.

Blood Groups
Surfaces of RBC have molecules called antigens and plasma proteins have proteins called antibodies. Antibodies are specific and bind to certain antigens. When antibodies bind with red cell antigens they form bridges joining red cells and forming agglutination or clumping of red cells. Specific blood type antigens (agglutinogens) are found in the cell membrane of RBC which determine individual blood group. Blood group A has A antigens and B antibodies, B B and A antibodies, AB has both and no antibodies and O has none antigens and AB antibodies.

Respiratory System
There are 5 distinct events leading to O2 intake and CO2 removal from the body: 1. Ventilation or breathing- movement of gases in and out of lungs 2. External respiration- exchange of gas between atmosphere and blood

3. Internal respiration- exchange of gases between blood and tissue 4. Respiratory gas transport 5. Cellular respiration-production of ATP occurs in cells Upper respiratory tract: bring in air and condition air Lower respiratory tract: tubing and lungs/ conduct air and gases exchange Upper and lower separated by pharynx.

Alveoli is in the lung tissue which are small air sacs. Actual site of external respiration i.e. gas exchange between air and blood Large surface area and alveolar lining one cell think, important for gas exchange as there is optimum gas diffusion with large surface area and small volume

Surround by many capillaries from pulmonary circulation. Inside alveoli there is an immune system called macrophage Surfactant moistens and separates alveoli membrane which allows alveoli to stay cell thick.

- Ventilation or Breathing

At rest we breathe 12 times/min this is known as respiration rate Volume of air entering and leaving = 500mL Approx 350mL of its reaches alveoli and is involved in gas exchange and rest remains in airways Lungs contained in thoracic cavity( a closed chamber) Thoracic cavity included the diaphragm, ribs, vertebral column, sternum, intercostals muscles. Ventilation is facilitated by volume changes of the lungs, which change the pressure of gases enclosed by the lungs. These pressure changes then provide the motivating force to move gases into and out of the lungs.

Pleura - Connective tissue surrounding lungs and inside of thoracic cavity. - Thin filament of liquid between pleura allow 2 surfaces to stick together by surface tension - Thus volume changes by thoracic cavity reflected by volume changes in lungs

Boyles law = changes in volume result in changes of pressure- inversely proportional And air moves from high pressure to low pressure.

Inspiration
Increase thoracic volume causes air to go into lungs Result in increase lung volume and reduced pressures in alveoli causes air to runs into lungs

Diaphragm contract

Expiration
After inspiration (reduce thoracic volume): diaphragm relaxes and intercostals muscle relax causing ribs to come down There is a decrease in thoracic volume and thus increase pressure inside alveoli and thus air moves out of lungs. a Di phragm relaxes a ssive process requires no ATP P

TIDAL VOLUME (C) - air moved in and out of the lungs while at rest. VITAL CAPACITY (B+C+D) - amount of air expelled during a maximal expiration after a maximal inspiration. RESIDUAL VOLUME (A) - amount of air in the lungs after a maximal expiration. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (D) - amount of air taken into the lungs following a maximal inspiration. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (B) - amount of air expelled from the lungs following a maximal expiration.

Gas exchange (follow high to low pressure for external and internal)

For external respiration (passive no ATP but conc. gradient) between alveoli and blood: Air pCO2 is 0.3 and pO2 is 160 For blood entering alveolar capillaries pCO2 is high and pO2 is low Thus CO2 moves from blood to air and O2 moves from air to blood.

For internal respiration (passive no ATP but conc. gradient) between blood and tissue (cellular respiration): Tissues pCO2 is high and pO2 is low Blood pCO2 is low and pO2 is high Thus CO2 moves from tissue to blood and O2 moves from tissue to blood.

Homeostasis of blood gas levels

There are 3 ways Co2 is transported in blood:
1.7% dissolved in plasma

# remaining 93% is transported in the RBC

2. CO2 enters RBC and 23% combines with globin part of hemoglobin

3. Remaining 70% combines with water in the RBC to form carbonic acid catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the RBC.

This equation can be reversed- at the lungs bicarbonate re enter the RBC and the process reverses

How O2 transported in blood:

There are 2 mechanisms: 1. 1.5% dissolved in plasma 2. 98.5% transported in hemoglobin (Hb) - Hb= heme + globin - Each iron in heme binds to one O2 - Hb that has lost one or more O2 is called a deoxyhemoglobin - Hb with 4 O2 molecules (fully saturated) is called oxyhemoglobin

O2 loading at rest and during exercise:

At rest pO2 (venous end capillary) 40mmHg only 25% of O2 bound to Hb is of loaded at the tissues. During exercise pO2 (tissue) lower than at rest therefore more efficientloading of O2 from Hb. The greater the demand for O2 the better then unloading

 Factors influencing O2 release from oxyhemoglobin

Control of respiration- homeostasis of blood gas levels

Respiratory centre- medulla oblongata Chemical receptors in brain detect decrease in pH (more acidic) Rate and depeth of breathing due to change in CO2 and H+

Below and Above Sea Level As you descend, reduced volume of lungs, increase danger of lungs tearing away from chest wall As you ascend, pressure decrease, lung volume increase, danger of bursting alveoli, lung damage- EMBOLISM (air bubbles in blood)

Nervous System
The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. Both these structures contain nerve fibres

The brain:
The central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes. Postcentral gyrus receives sensory information from muscles and skin then transfers this to the precentral gyrus, which houses the primary motor control of muscles. (The precentral gyrus will send information to motor neurones to effect organs) 3 sections: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe The longitudinal fissure separates the brain into the left and right hemispheres. The corpus callosum is white matter than connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. It sits within the longitudinal fissure.

Thalamus
-

Middleman station where nerves from body transfer messages to higher centres of the brain, located in 3rd ventricle. Hence, the thalamus is the gateway to the cerebrum.

The thalamus mediates sensation, motor activates, emotion and learning.

Hypothalamus Controls organ function via the pituitary gland.

Cerebellum Controls fine motor skills

Cranial Nerves Run from the brain through the head and to the spinal cord to the organs of the body.

The brain is bathed/nourished in fluid CFS (cerebrospinal fluid) which extends to the spinal cord and secreted in the 3rd ventricle. Medulla connects to the spinal cord.

Automatic Nervous System Involuntary nervous activity. Parasympathetic action Controlled by acetylcholine: decreases heart rate and blood pressure but increase digestive tract activity Sympathetic action Controlled by adrenalin: increase heart rate and blood pressure but decreases digestive tract activity. Diverts energy to where it is needed.

Structure of a Nerve Cell

A nerve is a bundle of neurons (nerve cells) bound together with a connective tissue surrounding. It also houses blood vessels providing a blood supply) A neuron is a nerve cell. It consists of: A cell body containing nucleus Dendrites (conduct nerve impulses towards cell body) An Axon (conduct nerve impulses away cell body) Presynaptic terminals Node of Ranvier (small space between each Schwann cell)

Schwann cells wrap the axon around many times, and insulates with myelin (a form of fat). This prevents Na+ rushing into the axon when depolarisation occurs. The nodes of Ranvier allows current to flow easily between the extracellular fluid and the axon, thereby allowing action potentials to develop. Myelin is white in colour; therefore white nerve matter consists of myelinated neurons and conducts signals (action potentials) well. Grey matter consists of un-myelinated neurons and does not conduct signals (action potentials) well.

Functions of Nerve Cells

-

A nerve signal (action potential) can be detected as a change in voltage across the membrane of a nerve. The impulse is transmitted as a wave of electrical changes that travel along the cell membrane of the neuron by changes in the permeability of the neuron membrane to ions (specifically sodium Na+ and potassium K+)

Resting potential occurs between different charges inside (more negative) than outside (more positive), called polarized. Higher concentration of Na+ ions outside cell membrane than there is K+ ions inside + the large molecules inside the cell which are negatively charged. About 70V.

Action Potentials
-

The channels responsible for the action potential are voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels. When the plasma membrane is at rest, the voltage-gated channels are closed. When a stimulus is applied to the neuron, Na+ channels open very briefly. Due to the greater concentration of Na+ outside the cell compared to the inside concentration, Na+ ions diffuse into the cell very quickly. This movement of Na+ causes the inside of the cell membrane to become more positive than at resting potential and is termed depolarisation. If this depolarisation is not strong enough, the Na+ channels close again, and the local potential will not be conducted along the nerve cell membrane. Alternatively, if the depolarisation is large enough, Na+ enter the cell so that the local potential reaches a threshold value.

As Na+ moves into the neuron, it creates an electrical signal opening the next Na+ channel along the membrane and the process of depolarisation will continue along the nerve The K+ voltage gated channels also begin to open, but K+ does not move into the cell due to the high concentration already inside. As Na+ continues to diffuse into the cell, depolarisation continues until a reversal of charges across the membrane occurs. That is, until the inside of the cell gains a positive charge relative to the outside of the cell, because of the inward movement of Na+. The charge reversal causes Na+ voltage gated channels to close, and more K+ gated channels to open. K+ diffuses out of the cell and this repolarization begins to restore the cell to its resting membrane potential. At the end of repolarization, the charge on the cell membrane briefly becomes more negative than at resting potential and this is called hyperpolarization. This is due to K+ having moved out of the cell through the voltage-gated channels and Na+ having been removed out through the sodium-potassium pump.

The synapse
The synapse is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron (or an effector organ muscle or gland). Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic terminal (axon).
-

As an action potential is conducted along the axon, and approaches the presynaptic terminal, this stimulates voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open. The influx of Ca2+ causes the release of neurotransmitters from their synaptic vesicles within the presynaptic terminal. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors causing them to either open or close, depending on the type of neurotransmitter (Na+, K+ or Cl- ) The opening of Na+ channels causes an outflow of Na+ and the postsynaptic cell to become depolarized. This conducts an action potential across the synapse, into the next neuron or effector organ. Alternatively, if K+ or Cl- channels are opened, then the postsynaptic cell will become depolarized and an action potential will be inhibited.

Reflex Arc
Stimulus Receptor Sensory neuron Association neuron (inside spinal cord) Motor neuron Effector Response. Sensory neurons attach to the Spinal Cord through the back (dorsal) and motor neurons attach to the Spinal Cord at the front (ventral) Therefore a stimulus is received dorsally and an effector signal is transmitted ventrally. Nb: Dorsal = posterior and Ventral = anterior.

Senses

Eye Controlling muscles: Rectus muscle which pull straight

Oblique (superior and inferior) circumduction pulling Optic nerve information from ganglion Outside of the eye, the white of the eye Connective tissue Cornea is transparent section, has a lot of proteins Regulates lens Smooth Muscle Connects by ligament Cilary muscle in Cilary body contract, tension low on suspensory ligaments, thus contract (NEAR VISION)

Sclera

Cilary Body and Accommodation

Cilary muscles in Cilary body relaxes, tension high (muscle bigger), lens flattens/thins (DISTANT VISION)

Rods and Cones (inferior drawn, if superior would be upside down) Light travels past ganglion cell and bipolar cells to each the receptors Sensory cells have inherent depolarization( spontaneously), Light hitting those cells stops the depolarization , blocks the ion channels Optic chiasma allows messages from eyes to both sides of brain, travels through the thalamus. Depth and contrast comes from lateral geniculate body of thalamus. Middle/ Inner Ear

Malleus, incus, stapes, cochlea Organ of Corti stero-cilia, hair cells, fibres of cochlear nerve, to vestibulocochlear.

Balance- hair cells in semicircular canals Message conveyed by the vestibulocochlear nerve

Human Hotel- Microbes

Microbes are everywhere (including the human body) Microbes require very little energy for growth and development Microbes multiply rapidly Microbes compete, and so have specific habitats

Microbes are not: Always pathogenic. Many are beneficial to humans

Found alone in nature. They are found in mixed communities where they have effective communication and protection Easy to differentiate based on shape or form. Microbes have remarkable biochemical differences and these differences may change in an individual.

Viruses are absolute parasites, requiring a living cell for nutrition and reproduction Prions are infectious proteins. They are altered constituents of the plasma membrane, and are produced by the cell. Both viruses and prions are not living, and are not organisms.

Microbe reproduction is rapid. Ideal conditions are: Presence of H2O, energy, oxygen (for aerobic cells), optimal temperature, osmotic potential and pH. Conditions: Available water. Pure water has a water activity (Aw) of 1. DNA disintegrates at a water activity of around 0.65. The most tolerate bacteria live to 0.99. Most animal and bacterial cells are dead at 0.99. Some fungi can grow at 0.7. Removal of moisture slows the reproduction of most microbes. Removal of energy is difficult as a microbe can live on so little. Death within a colony will release nutrients and be taken up by other microbes. Fungi can transfer nutrients within itself. Removal of food is impractical as a means to control microbial communities. Oxygen is found in almost all places where microbes occur. Anaerobic microbes are found in the absence of oxygen. Microbes require very little oxygen to occur and some microbes can switch to anaerobic forms when oxygen is depleted. Management of oxygen is an impractical means to regulate microbial communities.

Secondary Metabolites Are compounds produced from metabolic pathways that are not required for the primary function of the organism

Include a group of molecules broadly called antibiotics, that range in effect from broadly active toxins to highly specific regulators of cell function

Consequences for humans The presence of microbes is normal and should always be expected. Humans are a highly nutritious environment. Diverse communities occur, many communities are specific to one location on the body (eg: Mouth, GIT, skin) through some are found widely. Few microbes cause problem, though when they do the effects be catastrophic. The body has an array of mechanisms that reduce the impact of deleterious microbes especially fungi. (eg microbial diversity that suppressed pathogenic microbes). Disease arrises when antibiotics interrupt this suppression. Bacteria cause most common problems in healthy people. Loss of immune function will result in serious disease. Immune function can be suppressed by: drugs (both recreational and prescribed), pathogens (HIV/AIDS), age and pregnancy. Fungi are more common pathogens among immuno-compromised individuals.

Immune System: Non Specific Immunity

Lymphatic System
Functions of the lymphatic system Fluid balance - Return excess tissue fluid to the blood Fat absorption - Transport fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the intestines Defence - Contains cells that are part of the immune system

Vessels of the lymphatic system -

Lymph fluid the fluid that enters the lymph capillaries from tissue. Lymphatic capillaries < vessels < ducts Lymphatic vessels contain one way bi-cuspid valves to prevent backflow. Lacteals (lymphatic vessels in intestinal villus; aid absorption of lipids) The lymph nodes, found all throughout the lymphatic system, play an important role in the bodys defence system. In the lymph nodes waste particles are filtered out of the lymph, and any foreign particles are destroyed by macrophages through phagocytosis

Circulation in the lymphatic system Top right quadrant of the body drains into the right subclavian vein via right lymphatic duct Rest of body drains into the left subclavian vein via thoracic duct. The Cisternae Chyli is point where the fluid from the of the body drains before entering thoracic duct. The lymph fluid is pushed by following fluid the lymph rest to the

pressure-flow mechanism, as well as muscle contraction around lymph vessels.

Primary lymphatic organs Bone Marrow produces immature lymphocytes where T cells mature in the bone marrow. Thymus T-cells mature in the thymus o Mature cells become immunocompetent able to detect different antigens. o Once mature the B and T cells move into lymph nodes. Secondary lymphatic organs Tonsils and cervical nodes

Non-specific immunity refers to defence systems that recognise all infections as the same, and occur regardlessly. They provide innate immunity. It consists of the first and second lines of defence.

The First Line of Defence:

Try to prevent the entry of foreign organisms into the body by use of barriers Skin:
-

Forms a tough outer layer (epidermis) containing Keratin forming a physical barrier that prevents penetration by microbes

Is fairly dry which helps to prevent the growth of pathogens

Sweat and Sebaceous secretions: Oil (Sebaceous) and sweat glands in the skin produce antibacterial and antifungal substances that inhibit the growth of invading pathogens Mucous Membranes:

Cilia: -

Mucous membranes act to prevent microbes attaching to plasma membranes of body cells and infiltrating. The pathogens are held in the mucous until they are removed by processes such as coughing and sneezing They mucous can also contain an antibody that acts against bacteria and viruses

Cilia are tiny hairs that line the respiratory surfaces of the trachea and bronchial tubes They are constantly beating in an upwards direction to move mucous containing trapped pathogens towards the throat where they are removed by coughing or sneezing

Tears and Saliva: Tears contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of some bacteria. As tears are produces and the eyelid blinks, the surface of the eye is cleaned and the pathogens are washed away Saliva also contains lysozymes and washed micro-organisms from the teeth and the lining of the mouth Acidic Urine: Urine is sterile and slightly acidic and flushes and cleans the ureters, balder and urethra and helps to prevent the growth of microorganisms Gastic Acid: - HCl within the stomach creates an environment that is unsuitable for pathogens to survive, thereby preventing infection Normal microflora and microbiota: - The skin contains a population of harmless bacteria that help to stop the invading microbes from multiplying

Second line of Defence

The second line of defence acts to destroy colonising pathogens that have infiltrated the body. It does this through a range of adaptive features.

1. Phagocytosis: - Phagocytosis is the process by which phagocytes change their shape so they can surround a foreign particle, engulf it within their cell and release enzymes to destroy the foreign material. - Phagocytes form a vesicle from their plasma membrane around the microbial cell, merge the vesicle with a lysosome (vesicle containing digestive enzymes) forcing digestion and destruction of the microbe, then release the microbial debris into the extracellular environment. - Phagocytes are specialised white blood cells (leucocytes) - There are two types of phagocytes: o Neutrophils Have a multilobed nucleus and free floating by circulating in blood. Are the first to be released into the site of an infection They are short-acting and then self-destruct after a few days Macrophages Are mononuclear cells derived from monocytes, tissue resident or free floating within the blood Are secondary phagocytes and are released into the site of an infection if it is long term After the macrophage has destroyed a foreign particle, parts of the antigen from that particle are displayed on the surface of the macrophage 2. Complements Complements are plasma proteins that are found within the blood. Complements can be activated by forming complexes with antibodies or antigens. Once activated, complements form a series of reactions known as a cascade reaction, in which the next complement protein is activated.

Certain types of complement proteins, once activated, promote inflammation and phagocytosis and can directly lyse (rupture) bacterial cells.

Examples: o C3 most abundant complement. C3 coat the microbe and act as a signal or phagocytosis tis is called OPSONISATION. complement coats the forms a complex with the microbe, acting as a signal for phagocytosis o C5-C9 complements lyse the microbe directly by forming pores in the plasma membrane, thereby allowing fluids and salts into the microbe until it ruptures.

3. Cytokines A cytokine is a chemical message used by all cells in the body to communicate with each other. Example: Interferons Antiviral agent release by virus infected cells Suppress mRNA translation in surrounding cells, therefore killing the cells and containing the pathogen.

Inflammatory response
Neutrophils and Macrophages, and Mast cells are located in the tissue, and circulate through the lymphatic and circulatory systems Inflammation response is a non-specific defence mechanism and occurs at the site of infection When the cells are infected or injured in some way they release chemical alarm signals. Neutrophils and macrophages secrete cytokines and Mast cells secrete histamines o This has two functions: They cause the blood vessels to dilate They cause the blood vessels to become more permeable As the blood vessels dilate, there is an increase in blood flow to the site of infection or injury bring with it increased fluid and heat causing

the area to become hot, red and swollen. Swelling stimulates free nerve endings causing pain. Chemicals that increase the temperature may be released; this further inhibits the growth rate of pathogens and inactivates some enzymes and toxins made by the pathogens Excess fluid and plasma proteins form the blood clot over the skin breach Due to increased permeability of blood vessels, there is an increase in the movement of macrophages and neutrophils from the blood into the tissues so they can attack the invading pathogens. Due to increased dilation (causing extra blood flow) and permeability increased levels of plasma move into the tissues bringing more phagocytes and producing swelling in the area of the infection. This swelling increased pressure forcing tissue fluid into the lymph taking debris and pathogens with it for further immune defence. Histamine secretion reduced and cytokine production changes as pathogen is removed.

Immune System: Specific Immunity

An antigen is: - Any molecule the body recognises as foreign and that triggers the immune response - It recognises and remembers specific antigens and hence microbes - B cells produce antibodies and T cells interact with microbe or infected cell directly. Antibody-mediated immunity - Immunoglobin- soluble plasma protein - Functions: neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, signal complement Antibodies consist of: 4 polypeptide chains o 2 long chains (heavy chains) o 2 short chains (light chains) - Each chain has regions of o Constant amino acid sequence C. This determines the antibody class. o Variable amino acid sequence V - 3D structure o This allows recognition of specific antigens based on shape. Each chain contains a variable region, which determines what kind of antigen is recognised, and a hypervariable region, which is the actual binding site of antigen-antibody complex

Antibody formation:
Clonal selection theory states that the body contains antibodies that correspond to every possible antigen. A precursor cell within the bone marrow differentiates into one of

millions of types of non-activated B cells. Each B cell is specific for one antigen. As a B cell recognises its corresponding antigen, the surface antibody binds to the antigen thus activating the B cell, stimulating mitotic division to clonally reproduce. The daughter B cells then differentiate into plasma cells (secrete antibodies) and memory B cells (which prime the body for future antigen recognition acquired immunity) The plasma cells secrete free-floating antibodies. They contain many rough endoplasmic reticulum facilitating for large antibody production. However, they have a short life expectancy due to their excessive specialisation, which lacks the basic cellular functions. Cell Mediated Immunity T lymphocytes: Helper T cells and cytotoxic cells operate against infected cells and direct phagocytic cells and cytotoxic T cells. Both need cell-cell contact and cytokines Antigens are recognised by: - B cells recognise specific antigen directly via the surface antibodies - T cells recognise specific antigen present on surface of infected cell

T Lymphocytes
Helper T Cells (Th Cells) - Contain a receptor protein that will recognise only one type of antigenantigen presenting cells (APC) eg. Macrophages and B cells - When activated by the presence of a particular antigen it releases a cytokine chemical that activates the cytotoxic T cells and B cells specific for this antigen - Also releases cytokine chemicals that stimulate macrophage activity Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc Cells) - Stimulated by cytokines and specific antigen recognition. Produce many copies (clones) of themselves when activated by the Helper T Cell

or when they detect cells that are displaying antigens on their surface which match their own surface receptor protein - Cytotoxic T cells move to the site of infection, bind with infected cells and release chemicals (perforin) that destroy the infected cell Memory T Cells - These are produced at the same time as the Cytotoxic T Cells and remain in the body so that the body can respond more quickly to future invasions by the same antigen - Memory T cells create acquired immunity Suppressor T Cells - These cells are responsible for stopping the immune response when the infection has been defeated

Mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes

To help B and T cells interact successfully there is a system that allows these cells to identify that they both belonging to the body, and this prevents them from attacking one another - On the surface of cells there is a glycoprotein molecule called a MHC molecule. This allows the recognition of cells from the body, and prevents attack upon self cells. - MHC molecules also allow the identification of cells that are foreign, because they will have a different MHC molecule on their surface - There are two types of MHC molecules: o MHCI these are present on all cells that have a nucleus and are involved in the recognition of antigens by T cells. An infected cell presents an antigen on its MCHI molecule on the surface of the cells so that the cytotoxic T cell can identify it and destroy it o MCHII molecules are present only on B cells and macrophages, and are used in the recognition of antigens on macrophages by Helper T cells, and the recognition of antigens by B cells. The macrophage holds the antigen on its MCHII surface molecule and is recognised by the helper T cell that has the same antigen receptor.

- Interaction between B and T cells is also helped by close proximity to each other, and regulation of their activates by secretion of signaling/communication chemicals called cytokines by Helper T cells

Interactions between B and T lymphocytes:

When a macrophage engulfs and destroys a foreign particle, its presents part of the antigen on its surface The macrophage then becomes an antigen-presenting cell The macrophage then presents this antigen to the Helper T cell that contains the T cell receptor that corresponds to that antigen, and by doing so alerts the body to the presence of the given antigen

The Helper T cell can also be stimulated by the corresponding B cell, which has bonded its surface antibodies to the antigen. The B Cell then presents this to the T cell which has the T cell receptor which corresponds to the antigen

The Helper T cell then releases the cytokine chemicals, to activate more of the same Helper T cells and macrophages and interlukin-2 to activate the production of clones of the B cell and cytotoxic T cells specific to the present antigen

The B cells differentiate into memory B cells and Plasma B cells. The plasma B cells secrete antibodies to destroy the antigen The cytotoxic T cells join onto infected cells by using surface antigen receptors to bond to the antigen on the surface of the infected cell and secretes chemicals to destroy the antigen

When the immune response is successful the suppressor T cells are responsible for suppressing the activity of B and cytotoxic T cells.

Vaccination

Vaccination (or immunisation) is the process of making people resistant to infection caused by a pathogen. 2 Types: (1)Active acquired immunity - Involves the transmission/introduction of a vaccine into a person to stimulate an immune response to develop the necessary memory T and memory B cells specific to an antigen
-

Vaccines may be: living but weakened strains of pathogens, dead

pathogens or modified toxins. - Vaccines are harmless to the body and will not cause the disease that they are specified for, but still contain the antigens to which the body will register and activate an immune response against - Thus the body will produce the Memory T and Memory B cells against a specific antigen contained within a vaccine
-

This allows the body to activate a secondary response (this is a much

faster response) if the pathogen is registered again in the future - Active acquired immunity is long-lasting (usually lifetime) because of the Memory T and Memory B cells which have been developed (2)Passive acquired immunity This involves the introduction of antibodies developed from another organism to prevent the contraction of a disease - These antibodies will readily fight an antigen should it be present within the body - This immunity will only last for a few months since no memory cells are produced

Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of:

Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Pineal Body, Thyroid and parathyroid glands, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes

Endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the blood/circulatory system or interstitial fluid.

Hormones may also be called ligands.

A hormone is a chemical messenger between cells. Hormones are secreted from an endocrine gland directly into the blood/circulatory system or interstitial fluid. The hormone travels to the target tissue and binds to a receptor molecule (protein or glycoprotein with carbohydrate attached) to produce a response. The binding site is known as the receptor site, and is structured such that only a specific hormone is able to bind to it. A single cell will have many different receptors and receptor sites for different hormones The response a hormone generates is dependant on its type (protein or steroid) and where its receptor (membrane bound or intercellular). But there are generally two responses to hormone recognition: o Gene activation o Protein synthesis and release

2 Types of receptor molecules that respond to intercellular chemical signals:

1. Membrane bound receptors Extend through the plasma membrane, with the receptor site on the outer surface. Bind to water-soluble or large molecular weight hormones When a hormone binds to the receptor site the internal part of the receptor produces a response Responses: Receptors that activate G proteins

The inactive G protein complex consists of alpha (), beta () and gamma () subunits bound together. The alpha, beta and gamma subunit complex is bound to the intercellular section of a membrane bound receptor.

A guanosine diphosphate (GDP) molecule is bound to the alpha subunit. The beta and gamma subunits are present to inactivate alpha subunit. As a hormone binds to receptor site, the alpha subunit separates from the beta and gamma subunits. the

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) then replaces GDP on the alpha subunit. This is the activated form of the G protein complex.

The alpha subunit with GTP bound then binds to and activates an adenylate cyclase enzyme. The adenylate cyclase catalyses the formation of cAMP( cyclic adenosine monophosphate).

cAMP activate protein kinase enzymes, which phosphorylates (add a phosphate atom) specific enzymes, activating them to break down glycogen and release glucose, causing a response.

2. Intracellular receptors Are located in the cytoplasm or the nucleus of the cell Bind to lipid soluble hormones Responses- stimulate protein synthesis Steroid hormones may bind to an intracellular receptor in the cytoplasm, that then passes through the nuclear membrane and binds to DNA. This increases or decreases the synthesis of mRNA molecules.

The mRNA molecule passes through the nuclear membrane to ribosomes in the rough ER in the cytoplasm. The ribosomes then synthesise proteins.

Compare and Contrast Protein and Steroid Hormones

Structure o Protein hormones are amino-acid derivatives o Steroid hormones are cholesterol derivatives Solubility o Protein hormones are hydrophilic, and water soluble o Steroid hormones are hydrophobic, and lipid soluble Receptor binding o Protein hormones are unable to pass through plasma membrane, therefore bind to membrane-bound receptors o Steroid hormones are able to pass through the plasma membrane, therefore able to bind to intracellular receptors

Release involving anterior pituitary gland.

Stimulus reaches the hypothalamus Hypothalamic neurones secrete hormones into the blood, which is carried along the hypothalamo portal system to the anterior pituitary. The releasing hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary hormone secretions, which are then secreted into a vein. The circulatory system then carries the hormone to the target tissue or another endocrine gland

Release involving the posterior pituitary gland.

Stimulus reaches the hypothalamus

Hypothalamic neurones carry the action potential by axons of nerve cells to the posterior pituitary. The axons of nerve cells store hormones in the posterior pituitary.

The action potentials cause the release of hormones from the axons into the circulatory system from the posterior pituitary. The hormones pass through into the circulatory system to the target tissue or another endocrine gland.

Hormones in Anterior Pituitary

GH Growth Hormone Stimulates growth of bones, muscles and other organs by increasing gene expression ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol Stimulates ovaries to produce follicles and testes to produce sperm Causes ovulation of oocytes and the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries MSH Melanocyte-stimulating hormone Binds to melanocytes and causes them to secrete melanin (a pigment in skin) TSH Thyroid stimulating hormone Stimulates the thyroid glands to secrete thyroid hormone FSH Follicle stimulating hormone LH Luteinizing hormone

Hormones in Posterior Pituitary

ADH Antidiuretic hormone Increases permeability of nephron tubules to H2O Secreted from the hypothalamus and sent to the anterior pituitary, causing the release of ACTH anterior pituitary. from ACTH- Stimulating hormone

Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid T3, T4

Thyroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors in cells and regulate the rate of metabolism in the body. Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by the hormone TSH from the anterior pituitary gland- released from thyroglobulin. Excess TSH causes the thyroid gland to enlarge a condition called goiter

Adrenal Glands
When stressed the adrenal glands secrete protein hormones and cortisol (a steroid hormone) Inner part adrenal medulla and outside part adrenal cortex Principle hormone released from medulla is epinephrine o Increases in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver, release of glucose into the blood and release of fatty acids from fat cells. These act as energy sources to maintain the bodys increased metabolism o These hormones are known as fight-or-flight hormones due to their role in preparing the body for vigorous physical activity 3 classes of steroid hormone released in cortex. o In response to stress or low blood pressure ACTH releasing hormones passes from hypothalamus hypothalamic- pituitary portal system. ACTH is secreted ad released into general circulation. o ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol o Glucorticoids help regulate blood nutrient level- major hormone is cortisol (increases break down of protein and fat and increase conversion to forms that can be used for energy.) o Cortisol also has antiinflammatory effects. o Cortisol acts on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to decrease ACTH secretion.

Blood Sugar Levels Two hormones, insulin and glucagon, secreted from the pancreas, regulate blood sugar control. Insulin is secreted by beta cells Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells Insulin binds to membrane bound receptors and increase the rate of glucose and amino acid uptake in these tissues. Glucose is converted to glycogen or fat, and the amino acids are used to synthesise protein, thereby removing glucose from the blood. Insulin acts to decrease blood glucose levels. Glucagon binds to membrane-bound receptors causing rapid increases in glycogen breakdown into glucose and release of glucose into the blood. Also increase formation of glucose from amino acids and fats. Glycogen acts to increase blood glucose levels. Glycogen is secreted in response to low blood glucose levels.

Insulin is secreted in response to elevated blood glucose levels.

Excretory System
Types of wastes:
Undigested food. Produced in the large intestines and excreted as faeces through the rectum and anus. Excess ions and water. Produced from intake of food and excreted in urine through the kidneys Bilirubin-e (breakdown of haemoglobin). Excreted through the kidney in the form of urine Metabolic wastes: o Cellular respiration water, heat, CO2. o Breakdown of amino acids nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia.

Liver combines NH3 with CO2 to form urea. Better for storage and excretion in a concentrated form. Urea is excreted through the kidney as part of urine

Sites of excretion -

Lungs CO2, H2O and heat Skin Heat, water, some salts and nitrogenous wastes Liver o Bilirubin o Converse nitrogenous wastes into less toxic forms. NH3 + CO2 Urea

Kidney nitrogenous wastes, water, ions (vitamins and minerals) Digestive system solid wastes, pigments (bilirubin), heat, water and ions.

Kidneys
The kidneys act to remove wastes from the fluid component of the body (blood) through absorbing substances from the blood, and excreting those constituted as waste. The kidney has many functions: Excretion o Urine contains, nitrogenous wastes, water, ions and salts, drugs and poisons Homeostasis o Determines water level and therefore blood pressure and volume. Controlled by ADH and aldosterone o Electrolyte levels in tissue fluid and blood o pH of blood through removal of H+ and NH4+ o Regulating numbers of red blood cells entering the circulation by secreting erythropoietin Body contains 5 of blood- passes though both kidney 350 times per day Kidneys filter 180 of fluid from blood 99% reabsorbed and 1% forms urine to be excreted

The medulla of the kidney is concentrated with nephrons. The renal pelvis is a cavity within the kidneys that filters to the ureter.

Nephron

A kidney is made up of around a million nephrons. It is within the nephrons that the processes of filtration, reabsorption and secretion occur Structure of a Nephron: It is a long twisted tubule made up of sections: A Bowmans capsule containing the Glomerulus (small-intertwined group of capillaries) The Bowmans capsule then leads to a proximal tubule This leads to the descending limb of the loop of Henle The ascending limb of the loop of Henle connects up to the distal convoluted tubule This all joins to the collecting tubule (duct), which leads to renal pyramid and renal pelvis, draining into the ureter, which takes waste (urine) to the bladder. Nephrons are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries (this is to provide a large surface area for excretion) Basic Functions of Kidney(nephrons) Filtration: - Within the Bowmans capsule is the glomerulus, a dense clump of capillaries. The blood pressure here is so high that fluid and substances are forced out of the blood through the glomerulus and into the Bowmans capsule, and form a fluid called the glomerular filtrate. It flows into the nephron and contains: Substances the body can reuse: Glucose, water, amino acids, etc. Wastes: Urea and poisons Reabsorption: The substances the body can reuse are reabsorbed into the capillaries surrounding the nephron. Eg, vitamins and hormones. This is active transport and requires energy. Some other substances passively re-enter the blood. Eg, water by osmosis and salts by diffusion (as water moves into blood the salt

concentration lowers forming a concentration gradient allowing the salts to diffuse across). This occurs in the proximal and distal tubules and in the loop of Henle (discussed in detail later). Secretion: This is the process where the body actively transports substances from the blood into the nephron. Some toxins, such as urea, tend to diffuse back into the blood, so it must be secreted back into the nephron. It is also done to regulate salt and water levels again, or to remove additional toxins. This is active transport.

Areas of Nephron
Blood supply to the nephron: Renal artery branches into arterioles Afferent arteriole leads into glomerulus, bringing blood and waste products. Glomerular capillary bed Efferent arteriole leads out of glomerulus. This is narrower in diameter than the afferent arteriole, causing a build-up of pressure within the glomerulus, therefore movement of filtrate from high to low pressure within the glomerulus to the bowmans capsule. Peritubular capillaries Arterial end goes down the ascending loop of Henle and the venous ends goes up the descending loop of Henle. This creates a concentration gradient, allowing maximum reabsorption of nonwaste products. Bowmans Capsule and Glomerulus: High pressure forces blood substances out of the blood and into the glomerulus This filters substances out of the blood, and is non-selective. However blood cells and proteins remain in glomerulus, as these are too large to pass through pores. Some important substances are removed and need to be reabsorbed into the blood

Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsorption of important filtrate substances back into the blood. Na+, amino acids, vitamins and all glucose are reabsorbed into the blood through active transport Water and 65% of solutes are reabsorbed by passive transport (osmosis and diffusion) Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries from the Proximal Tubule while hydrogen ions are secreted into the Proximal Tubule. This maintains the pH of the blood. Regulation of salts and ions also occurs here. Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed and chlorine ions follow passively. Potassium ions are also reabsorbed The Loop of Henle (descending): Glomerular filtrate becomes concentrated (65% of water already reabsorbed into blood in the PCT) The walls of the thin segment of the descending loop of Henle are permeable to water, and to some extent solutes. Therefore, 15% more water passes out of the nephron and into the capillaries by osmosis The interstitial nephron tissue is highly concentrated with solutes, therefore some solutes move back into the tubule by diffusion in the descending loop of Henle. The reabsorbed filtrate enters the vasa recta

The Loop of Henle (ascending): Filtrate is diluted in the ascending loop of Henle, by removing solutes. The thin segment of the ascending loop of Henle is permeant to solutes but not water; therefore solutes are reabsorbed into the blood by diffusion. In the thick segment of the ascending loop of Henle, salts are actively transported into the capillaries as the concentration gradient reaches equilibrium

There is a counter current of fluid (blood and filtrate) direction, producing maximum exposure of system and allows maximum transfer of solutes.

The Distal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsoroption of: Water. 19% by osmosis Solutes by active transport Controlled by aldosterone. Triggered by a lower [Na+] Increases active sodium reabsorption and water follows by osmosis. Controlled by ADH. Triggered by a low BP (due to a low blood volume) Increases water reabsorption by increasing permeability of DCT and collecting ducts The Collecting Duct: This is the end of the nephron, and connects to the ureters. The walls are permeable to water only, and water is transported out accordingly to the needs of the body The final filtrate is urine.

Role of hormones in the regulation of urine volume and blood pressure

Aldosterone Secreted by adrenal gland when low plasma [Na+]. This stimulates the distal convoluted tubule to increase Na+ active reabsorption. This increases the blood plasma [Na+] and water follows by osmosis. ADH- Anti Diuretic Hormone Secreted by pituitary gland when low plasma water concentration. Increase permeability of DCT and collecting ducts to H20, therefore increased reabsorption of water and increase volume and pressure.

Increase in blood pressure= negative feedback reduces ADH secretion Alcohol and caffeine interfere with ADH.

Male Reproduction
Functions: Production and storage of sperm cells/gametes Transfer of sperm cells to female Production of male sex hormones

Spermatogenesis
The process by which male gametes are

produced is called spermatogenesis Male gametes develop stepwise through a number of stages. Complete the flow chart to show, in order, the names of the various stages of male gamete development. Spermatogonium primary spermatocyte secondary spermatocyte spermatid sperm. Capacitation occurs after the ejaculation of semen into the vagina, prior to fertilization.

Hormones
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is produced by the hypothalamus and targets the anterior pituitary gland, stimulating the secretion of luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). LH targets the interstitial cells of the testes and stimulates synthesis and secretion of testosterone. FSH targets the seminiferous tubules (Sertoli cells) of the testes and supports spermatogenesis and inhibin secretion. Inhibin is produced by Sertoli cells and targets the anterior pituitary, inhibiting FSH secretion through negative feedback. Testosterone is produced by the interstitial cells of the testes and targets the testes and other body tissues. It has multiple roles: development and maintenance of reproductive organs; support of spermatogenesis; development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics.

Testosterone targets the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus, inhibiting GnRH, LH, and FSH secretion through negative feedback.

Parts of brain produce

hormones for male reproductive system

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the secretion of FSH / follicle stimulating hormone and LH/ luteinising hormone Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is partially responsible for inducing spermatogenesis it stimulates the epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the secretion of testosterone by the testes.

Female Reproduction
Functions: Production of gametes Reception of sperm cells Nurture and nourishment developing offspring Production of female sex hormones

The process by which female gametes are produced is called oogenesis.

Female gametes also develop stepwise through a number of stages. Complete the flow chart to show, in order, the names of the various stages of female gamete development.

Oogonium primary oocyte secondary oocyte ovum and polar bodies. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the secretion of FSH / follicle stimulating hormone and LH / luteinising hormone. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicular maturation and the secretion of oestrogen. Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates final maturation of follicle, release of the ovum, and then the conversion of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum, with the subsequent production of progesterone.

Oestrogen plays a part in the development of female reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics. Oestrogen also acts to maintain the hormone cycle and to stimulate proliferation in the endometrium.

Progesterone stimulates maturation of uterine glands and maintains the endometrium in pregnancy-ready state. Ovulation is controlled through a negative feedback mechanism involving LH, FSH and the levels of oestrogen and progesterone acting on the follicles.

The signal for menstruation to occur is a decline in progesterone and oestrogen levels caused by the degeneration of the corpus luteum. Progesterone and some oestrogen are produced by the corpus luteum. The trigger is low progesterone.

Menstrual Cycle
The first day of menses is considered to be 1 of the menstrual cycle. Ovulation occurs on about day 14. The time between menses ending and ovulation is called the proliferative stage when the follicles mature in the ovary and secrete oestrogen, which causes the endometrium to thicken. day

Oestrogen secretion stimulates the production of GnRH, which triggers FSH and LH production. FSH stimulates oestrogen so that a positive feedback loop produces increasing surges of FSH and LH.

Ovulation occurs in response to the peak in LH. The corpus luteum develops from the ruptured follicle and secretes progesterone and oestrogen. These hormones inhibit GnRH, LH and FSH secretion.

The secretory phase is after ovulation and before the next menses. The lining of the uterus is prepared for implantation.

If fertilization occurs, the zygote develops into the blastocyst and reaches the uterus 7 to 8 days after ovulation, when implantation occurs.

If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum decreases the production of progesterone, causing the endometrium to slough away resulting in menses. The decline in progesterone stimulates the production of FSH and the cycle begins again.

Development
Contraception

The pill: stops ovulation by reducing LH and FSH release from the anterior pituitary, it is 99% effective, but will be ineffective if not taken daily and can be inactivated by some antibiotics. There is an added risk of heart attack or stroke in females using oral contraceptives who smoke or who have a history of hypertension or coagulation problems.

The diaphragm: is a flexible plastic or rubber dome that is placed over the cervix within the vagina and prevents sperm travelling through the cervical canal to the uterus. A spermicide should also be used with it. It is only 85% effective because it can shift. It is reusable, needs to be cleaned and needs to be carried if sex is anticipated.

Coitus interruptus: is removal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. It is extremely unreliable because it relies on removal of the penis at the right time and ignores the possibility of sperm being present in pre-ejaculatory fluids emissions.

Stages Of Pregnancy: Conceptus first 2 weeks Embryo week 3 to 8 Foetus week 9 to birth Fertilisation is the fusion of sperm and occyte to form zygote Monosperm preventing entry of any more sperm ( one sperm can fertilise the egg)

1. morula- solid mass of cells (after 2-3 days of fertilisation, multiple cells division produce a solid mass. 2. Blastocyst forms when a cavity appears within the mass of cells. 3. Trophoblast cells (remainder of blastocyst) - forms the placenta (linked to foetus via umbilical cord)

Embryonic Disk Ectoderm- tissue becomes skin Endoderm- tissue becomes digestive tract (also lungs, kidney, thyroid gland, tonsils) Mesoderm- becomes everything else(organs, muscle and bone) Implantation the blastocyst implants in the uterine cavity wall.

Cells differentitate into Cytotrphoblast (closest to baby) Syncytiotrophoblast Cells secrete hCG corpus luteum oestrogen and progesterone (both these essential of maintenance of

endometrium, inner most layer of uterus, for first 3 months) Barrier between mums and babies blood separated by major tissue- epithelium Placenta Trophoblasts now called chorion form embryonic portion of placenta. Maternal blood filed in the lacuna

Mature placenta embryonic blood supply separated from maternal blood supply however nutrients and waste products cross this semi-permeable barrier.

Initially embryo attached to placenta by connecting stalk which matures into the umbilical cord.

Neural tube and neural crest formation- after 18 days of fertilization- neutral plate form consisting of neutral folds and a neutral groove. Begin to fuse together into a tube; cells of tube are called neuroectoderm. This becomes the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the peripheral nervous system. Arms and legs appear about 28 days (approx 6 weeks) after fertilization. Heart develops from 2 blood vessels, lying side by side in early embryo- which fuse together at 21 days after fertilization major chambers of heart atrium and ventricle expand rapidly interventicular septum divides into 2 chambers, interatrial septum forms to separate atria opening in interatrial septum connects 2 atria and allows blood glow. Ultrasound Bones and muscles reflect sound waves and show up white Soft or hollow areas dont reflect sounds waves and appear dark Stress of fetus triggers hormone ACTH ACTH stimulates fetal adrenal gland to secrete hormones from adrenal cortex Decreases progesterone and increase estrogen increase prostaglandin production by placenta, which stimulates uterine contractions. During parturition oxytocin is released from posterior pituitary gland, stretching cervix and also helping contractions. Labour: 1. Dilation stage 2. Expulsion stage

Time for Birth:

3. Placental stage Lactation- is the production of milk by the mammary gland