Module-19 Irrigation & Drainage Part-I

19.1 Introduction
Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for raising crops. It is a science of planning and designing an efficient, low-cost, economic irrigation system tailored to fit natural conditions. It is the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water, by the construction of dams and reservoirs, canals and headworks, and finally distributing the water to the agricultural fields. Irrigation engineering includes the study and design of works in connection with river control drainage of water-logged areas, and generation of hydroelectric power.

19.2 Necessity
India is basically an agricultural country, and all its resources depend on the agricultural output. Water is evidently the most vital element in plant life. Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains. However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water, and to maintain correct timing of water. This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system-by collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and when it is needed. Thus, the necessity of irrigation can be summarised in the following points: 1. Less Rainfall: When the total rainfall is less than needed for the crop, artificial supply is necessary. In such a case, irrigation works may be constructed at a place where more water is available, and then to convey the water to the area where there is deficiency of water. 2. Non-Uniform Rainfall:

The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform over the crop period. During the early periods of the crop, rains may be there, but no rain water may be available at the end, with the result that either the yield may be less, or the crop may die altogether. 3. Growing a number of crops during a year The rainfall in an area may be sufficient to raise only one type of crop during the rainy season (i.e., Kharif crops), for which no irrigation may be required. Owever, with the provision of irrigation facilities in that area, crops can be raised in other season also. (i.e., rabi crops) 4. Growing perennial crops Perennial crops, such as sugar cane etc, which need water throughout the year, can be raised only through the provision of irrigation facilities in the area. 5. Commercial crops with additional water The rainfall in a particular area may be sufficient to raise the usual crops, but more water may be necessary for raising commercial and cash crops. 6. Controlled water supply By the construction of proper distribution system, the yield of the crop may be increased because of controlled supply of water.

19.3 Scope of the irrigation Science

The scope of irrigation is not limited to the application of water to the soil. It deals with all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural farms. It deals with design and construction of all works such as dams, weirs, head regulators etc. in connection with the storage or diversion of water, as well as the problems of subsoil drainage, soil reclamation and water-soil crop relationships. An irrigation engineer is also required to have the knowledge of cultivation of various crops, their maturing and protection from pests. Briefly speaking, the scope of irrigation can be divided into two heads: (a) Engineering aspect (b) Agricultural aspect Engineering Aspect: 1. Storage, Diversion, or Lifting of Water

This is the first phase of irrigation engineering. By the construction of a dam across the river, a suitable reservoir can be created and water can be stored. 2. Conveyance of water to the agricultural fields The stored or diverted water is conveyed to the agricultural fields through some suitable distribution system. If the project is big, the distribution system will consist of two or more main canals and a number of distributaries, and minors. 3. Application of water to agricultural fields The water is applied to the crop by flooding, furrows, corrugations, subsoil irrigation or by sprinkling. 4. Drainage and Relieving water-logging Proper disposition of excess water by suitable drainage methods is very important. Due to the conveyance losses, and excess application of water to the crop, the sub-soil water level is raised, and sometimes the soil is water-logged and becomes useless from production point of view. Hence the design of surface and sub-surface drainage system is of vital importance in maintaining the high productivity of irrigated lands. 5. Development of water power Most of the irrigation projects are associated with the generation of the hydroelectric power either at the dam site or at canal falls Agricultural aspect: The agricultural aspect deals with the thorough study of the following points: 1. Proper depths of water necessary in single application of water for various crops. 2. Distribution of water uniformly and periodically. 3. Capacities of different soils for irrigation water, and the flow of water in soils. 4. Reclamation of waste and alkaline lands, where this can be carried out through the agency of water.

19.4 Benefits of irrigation

With the introduction of irrigation, there have been many advantages, as compared to the total dependence on rainfall. These may be enumerated as under:

1. Increase in crop yield: The production of almost all types of crops can be increased by providing the right amount of later at the right time, depending on its shape of growth. Such a controlled supply of water is possible only through irrigation. 2. Protection from famine: The availability of irrigation facilities in any region ensures protection against failure of crops or famine due to drought. In regions without irrigation, farmers have to depend only on rains for growing crops and since the rains may not provide enough rainfall required for crop growing every year, the farmers are always faced with a risk. 3. Cultivation of superior crops: With assured supply of water for irrigation, farmers may think of cultivating superior variety of crops or even other crops which yield high return. Production of these crops in rain-fed areas is not possible because even with the slight unavailability of timely water, these crops would die and all the money invested would be wasted. 4. Elimination of mixed cropping: In rain-fed areas, farmers have a tendency to cultivate more than one type of crop in the same field such that even if one dies without the required amount of water, at least he would get the yield of the other. However, this reduces the overall production of the field. With assured water by irrigation, the farmer would go for only a single variety of crop in one field at anytime, which would increase the yield. 5. Economic development: With assured irrigation, the farmers get higher returns by way of crop production throughout the year , the government in turn, benefits from the tax collected from the farmers in bas e of the irrigation facilities extended. 6. Hydro power generation: Usually, in canal system of irrigation, there are drops or differences in elevation of canal bed level at certain pl aces. Although the drop may not be very high, this difference in elevation can be used successfully to generate electricity. Such small hydro electric generation projects, using bulb-turbines have been established in many canals, like Ganga canal, Sarada canal, Yamuna canal etc. 7. Domestic and industrial water supply: Some water from the irrigation canals may be utilized for domestic and industrial water supply for nearby areas. Compared to the irrigation water need, the water requirement for domestic and industrial uses is rather small and does not affect the total flow much. For example, t he town of Siliguri in the

Darjeeling district of West Bengal, supplies its residents with the water from Teesta Mahananda link canal.

19.5 Ill-effects of irrigation

Excess irrigation and unscientific use of irrigation water may give rise to the following ill effects: 1. Breeding places for Mosquitoes: Due to excess application of water, and due to leakage of water, ponds and depressions get filled up with water and create breeding places for mosquitoes. Also, if the canal is leaky, mosquitoes breed all along the canal and spread material conditions 2. Water-logging: If the water table is near the ground surface, over-irrigation may raise the water table. This saturates the crop root-zone completely, causes efflorescence and the whole area becomes waterlogged. 3. Damp Climate: The areas which are already damp and cold, become damper and colder due to irrigation.

19.6 Classification of irrigation schemes

The classification of the irrigation systems can also be based on the way the water is applied to the agricultural land as: 1. Flow irrigation system: where the irrigation water is conveyed by flowing to the irrigated land. This may again be classified into the following.

Direct irrigation: Where the irrigation water is obtained directly from the river,
without any intermediate storage. This type of irrigation is possible by constructing a weir or a barrage across a river to raise the level of the river water and thus divert some portion of the river flow through an adjacent canal, where the flow takes place by gravity.

Reservoir/tank/storage irrigation: The irrigation water is obtained from a river,

where storage has been created by construction an obstruction across the river, like a dam. This ensures that even when there is no inflow into the river from the

catchment, there is enough stored water which can continue to irrigate fields through a system of canals. 2. Lift irrigation system: Where the irrigation water is available at a level lower than that of the land to be irrigated and hence the water is lifted up by pumps or by other mechanical devices for lifting water and conveyed to the agricultural land through channels flowing under gravity. Groundwater Extraction ! Classification of irrigation systems may also be made on the basis of duration of the applied water, like: 1. Inundation/flooding type irrigation system: In which large quantities of water flowing in a river during floods is allowed to inundate the land to be cultivated, thereby saturating the soil. The excess water is then drained off and the land is used for cultivation. This type of irrigation uses the flood water of rivers and therefore is limited to a certain time of the year. It is also common in the areas near river deltas, where the slope of the river and land is small. Unfortunately, many of the rivers, which were earlier used for flood inundation along their banks, have been embanked in the past century and thus this practice of irrigation has dwindled. 2. Perennial irrigation system: In which irrigation water is supplied according to the crop water requirement at regular intervals, throughout the life cycle of the crop. The water for such irrigation may be obtained from rivers or from wells. Hence, the source may be either surface or ground water and the application of water may be by flow or lift irrigation systems.

19.7 Modes or methods of applying water to crops

Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by three basic methods: (1) Surface irrigation method, (2) Sprinkler irrigation method, and (3) Sub-surface irrigation method. The surface irrigation method can further be sub-divided into various methods as indicated below:

Every irrigation method has both advantages and disadvantages. Before selecting a particular method, the irrigation engineer (or agricultural engineer) must evaluate all the factors, and choose that method which is best suited to the local conditions. The basic requirements for adaptation of any irrigation method or mode of application of water are as follow: 1. The method should be such that uniform water distribution with as small as 6 cm water depth applications can be made for light irrigation. 2. At the same time, it should afford heavy uniform application of 15 to 20 cm water depth. 3. It should allow the use of large concentrated water flows for reduction of conveyance losses, and labour cost. 4. It should be suitable for the use with economic conveyance structure. 5. It should be such that mechanized farming is facilitated. Good irrigation method results in increased yield and conservation of resources with soil productivity maintained and water utilized economically. Over irrigation results in soil erosion, leached fertilizers, drainage troubles and salt accumulation.

Figure 19.1: Irrigation methods

19.7.1 Surface Irrigation:In all the surface methods of irrigation, water is either ponded on the soil or allowed to flow continuously over the soil surface for the duration of irrigation. Although surface irrigation is the oldest and most common method of irrigation, it does not result in high levels of performance. This is mainly because of uncertain infiltration rates which are affected by year-to-year changes in the cropping pattern, cultivation practices, climatic factors, and many other factors. As a result, correct estimation of irrigation efficiency of surface irrigation is difficult. Application efficiencies for surface methods may range from about 40 to 80 per cent. (a) Uncontrolled or Wild flooding In this method, water is spread or flooded on a rather smooth flat land, without much control or prior preparation. This method is generally used in the inundation irrigation system in which water is forced to spread over vast tracts during the season of high stream flow. It is wasteful use of water, and is practiced largely where irrigation water is abundant and inexpensive. (b) Free flooding or flooding from field channels In the controlled flooding, water is spread over the land, with proper methods to control the depth of application. Controlled flooding can be achieved by free flooding, contour laterals, border strips or by check flooding. Free flooding method consists of dividing the entire land to be irrigated small strips by a number of field channels, known as laterals. These laterals may be either at right angles to the sides of the field, or at right angles to the contour lines, as shown in figure 19.2 (a) and (b) respectively. When the laterals are aligned at right angles to the sides of the field, irrigation is possible only to one side of the lateral. However, when the laterals are aligned at right angles to the contours, irrigation done to both the sides of the lateral (Fig.19.2 b). The field channels receive water from the supply channel and discharge excess water in the waste channel. Water is applied to the strip of a land through feeding points provided at some interval along the laterals. This method of water application can be used both for flat lands as well as for relatively steep lands. The alignment and spacing of the laterals depends upon the type of soil and topography of the land.

Figure 19.2: Free flooding method Normally the spacing of the laterals may vary from 10 to 50 metres. However, the method is more suited for irrigation fields containing medium type soil and having slopes ranging from 1 in 100 to 1 in 300. (c) Flooding by contour laterals :

Figure 19.3: Contour laterals

This is a special case of flooding (or flooding from field channels) in which the field channels or laterals are aligned approximately along the contour lines. This method is applicable for steeper terrain. The field is cut by relatively dense network of small contour laterals, the spacing of which depends upon the prominent grade of the field between two adjacent ditches or laterals, the uniformity of slope and soil type. (d) Border strip flooding method: In the border strip flooding method, the farm is divided into a series of strips 10 to 20 metres wide and 100 to 300 metres long. These strips are separated by low levees or borders (low flat dikes) and run down the predominant or any other desired slope.

Figure 19.4: Border Strip method To irrigate water is turned from the supply ditch onto the head of the border. Water advance confined and guided by two borders in a thin sheet towards the lower end of the strip. The

surface is essentially level between two borders so that the advancing sheet of water covers the entire width of the strip. The lengthwise slope varies from 0.2 to 0.8%. This method is essentially suited to forage crops, its advantage being that for a relatively low investment a system can be developed which can afford the highest irrigation efficiency and lowest labour requirements. (e) Check flooding:Check flooding is similar to free flooding except that the water is controlled by surrounding the check area with low, flat levees surrounding each check while in free flooding no such levees are provided and the strips are divided by field channels.

Figure 19.5: Check flooding or irrigation by plots It is the most common method of irrigation used in India as well as in many other countries. The method is also known as irrigation by plots since the entire area is divided into several plots obtained by subdividing the entire area by levees. Each plot is practically level. The size of the levee depends upon the depth of water to be applied as well as the stability of the soil when it is wet. Water is conveyed to the land by a system of supply channels (known as main ditch) as well as laterals (known as field channels). Usually, there is one field channel for every two rows of

plots as shown in figure 19.5. Water is admitted to those plots at the higher end the supply is cutoff as soon as the lower part of the plot has received the sufficient depth of water. (f) Ring basin flooding:The ring basin flooding is a special form of check basin flooding adapted to orchard. Ring basins are formed for each tree; in some cases one ring basin may be formed for two or more trees. Water is supplied to these basins through a supply ditch. In some cases, a number of ring basins are inter-connected. Portable pipes or large hoses may also be used in place of ditches.

Figure 19.6: Ring basin flooding

(g) The zigzag method:It is special method of flooding where water takes circuitous route before reaching the dead end of each plot (Fig. 19.7). The whole area is divided into a number of square or rectangular plots; each plot is then subdivided with the help of low bunds or levees. This method is suitable for relatively level plots. It is, however, highly unsuitable for farming operations with modern farm machinery.

Figure 19.7: Zigzag method (h) Furrow method :The furrow method of irrigation is very much used for row crops like maize, jowar, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes etc. in other irrigation methods described so far, almost the entire land surface is wetted, but in this method only one half to one-fifth of the surface is wetted, and thus evaporation losses are very much reduced. A furrow consists of a

narrow ditch between rows of plants. The length of furrows varies from 3.0 m or less for gardens to as much as 500 m for field crops, the common length being 100 to 200 m. Furrows are made with various cultivating tools depending on the type of crop to be grown. Large furrows are normally made with a double mould board plough or lister. A wooden plough with furrower attachment can also be used in place of listers. Disc-Drum corrugators furrower is very useful to make small size furrows in sandy soils.

Figure 19.8: Furrow method Furrows necessitate the wetting of only about half to one-fifth of the field surface. This reduces the evaporation loss considerably. Besides, puddling of heavy soils is also lessened and it is possible to start cultivation soon after irrigation. Furrows provide better on-farm water management capabilities for most of the surface irrigation conditions, and variable and severe topographical conditions. For example, with the change in supply conditions, number of simultaneously supplied furrows can be easily changed. In this manner, very high irrigation efficiency can be achieved.

(i) Contour farming Contour farming is practiced in hilly areas having steep slopes with quickly falling contour. Contour farming is the practice of conducting field operations, such as ploughing, planting and cultivating land, across the slope rather than plains and downhill. The area is divided into longitudinal curved plots, the bunds of the plots following contours. The irrigation water, stored in some depression higher up, flows between the bunds. Before staring contour farming on land which is not terraced, contour guide lines are established first. The design of contour bunds involves the selection of the vertical and horizontal interval and determining dimensions of the bund cross section.

Figure 19.9: Contour farming

19.7.2 Sub-Surface irrigation:Subsurface irrigation (or simply sub-irrigation) is the practice of applying water to soils directly under the surface. Moisture reaches the plant roots through capillary action. The conditions which favor sub-irrigation are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Impervious subsoil at a depth of 2 metres or more, A very permeable subsoil, A permeable loam or sandy loam surface soil, Uniform topographic conditions, and Moderate ground slopes.

In natural subirrigation, water is distributed in a series of ditches about 0.6 to 0.9 metre deep and 0.3 metre wide having vertical sides. These ditches are spaced 45 to 90 metres apart. Sometimes, when soil conditions are favourable for the production of cash crops (i.e., high-priced crops) on small areas, a pipe distribution system is placed in the soil well below the surface. This method of applying water is known as artificial subirrigation. Soils which permit free lateral movement of water, rapid capillary movement in the root-zone soil, and very slow downward movement of water in the subsoil are very suitable for artificial subirrigation. The cost of such methods is very high. However, the water consumption is as low as one-third of the surface irrigation methods. The yield also improves. Application efficiency generally varies between 30 and 80 per cent.

19.7.2.1 Drip Irrigation:

Drip irrigation (also known as Trickle irrigation) system comprises main line (37.5 mm to 70 mm diameter pipe), submains (25 mm to 37.5 mm diameter pipe), laterals (6 mm to 8 mm diameter pipe), valves (to control the flow), drippers or emitters (to supply water to the plants), pressure gauges, water meters, filters (to remove all debris, sand and clay to reduce clogging of the emitters), pumps, fertiliser tanks, vacuum breakers, and pressure regulators. The drippers are designed to supply water at the desired rate (1 to 10 litres per hour) directly to the soil. Low pressure heads at the emitters are considered adequate as the soil capillary forces cause the emitted water to spread laterally and vertically. Flow is controlled manually or set to

automatically either ( i) deliver desired amount of water for a predetermined time, or ( ii ) supply water whenever soil moisture decreases to a predetermined amount.

Figure 19.10: Line sketch of a typical drip irrigation system A line sketch of a typical drip irrigation system is shown in Figure 19.10. Drip irrigation has several advantages. It saves water, enhances plant growth and crop yield, saves labour and energy, controls weed growth, causes no erosion of soil, does not require land preparation, and also improves fertilizer application efficiency. However, this method of irrigation does have some economic and technical limitations as it requires high skill in design, installation, and subsequent operation.

19.7.3 Sprinkler Irrigation:Sprinkling is the method of applying water to the soil surface in the form of a spray which is somewhat similar to rain. In this method, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the soil surface in a uniform pattern at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil. This method started in the beginning of this century and was initially limited to nurseries and orchards. In the beginning, it was used in humid regions as a supplemental method of irrigation. This method is popular in the developed countries and is gaining popularity in the developing countries too. Rotating sprinkler-head systems are commonly used for sprinkler irrigation. Each rotating sprinkler head applies water to a given area, size of which is governed by the nozzle size

and the water pressure. Alternatively, perforated pipe can be used to deliver water through very small holes which are drilled at close intervals along a segment of the circumference of a pipe. The trajectories of these jets provide fairly uniform application of water over a strip of cropland along both sides of the pipe. Figure shows a typical layout of sprinkler irrigation system.

Figure 19.11: The sprinkler irrigation system Sprinklers have been used on all types of soils on lands of different topography and slopes, and for many crops. The following conditions are favorable for sprinkler irrigation: (i) Very pervious soils which do not permit good distribution of water by surface methods, (ii) (iii) Lands which have steep slopes and easily erodible soils, Irrigation channels which are too small to distribute water efficiently by surface Irrigation, and (iv) Lands with shallow soils and undulating lands which prevent proper levelling required for surface methods of irrigation.

Besides, the sprinkler system has several features. For example, small amounts of water can be applied easily and frequently by the sprinkler system. Light and frequent irrigations are very useful during the germination of new plants, for shallow-rooted crops and to control soil temperature. Measurement of quantity of water is easier. It causes less interference in cultivation and other farming operations. While sprinkler irrigation reduces percolation losses, it increases evaporation losses. The frequency and intensity of the wind will affect the efficiency of any sprinkler system. Sprinkler application efficiencies should always be more than 75 percent so that the system is economically viable. The sprinkler method is replacing the surface/gravity irrigation methods in all developed countries due to its higher water application/use efficiency, less labour requirements, adaptability to hilly terrain, and ability to apply fertilizers in solution. In India too, the gross area under sprinkler irrigation has increased from 3 lakh hectares in 1985 to 5.80 lakh hectares in 1989. The total number of sprinkler sets in India now exceeds one lakh.