SMPS:- Switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simplyswitcher) is an electronic power

supply that incorporates a switching regulator in order to be highly efficient in the conversion of electrical power. Like other types of power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (such as apersonal computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions (which minimizes wasted energy). Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight. Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated, their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.

A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collector emitter region of a pass transistor in its active mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage-out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted. In contrast, a switched-mode power supply regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors andcapacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed" and carry no current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat).

For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform measured across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the DC source. This is because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the source voltage while the switch is open. If a diode-and-capacitor combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost converter acts like a step-up transformer for DC signals. A buckboost converter works in a similar manner, but yields an output voltage which is opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck circuits exist to boost the average output current with a reduction of voltage. In an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. Typically, the spectral density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching transients, like ripple, introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with small LC filters. AT-Style vs. ATX-Style :-

 1. 2.

There are two basic differences between AT and ATX power supplies: The connectors The soft switch. On older AT power supplies, the Power-on switch wire from the front of the computer is connected directly to the power supply. On newer ATX power supplies, the power switch on the front of the computer goes to the motherboard over a connector labeled something like; PS ON, Power SW, SW Power, etc

AT Power Connector :-

Two main power connectors (P8 and P9, also called P1 and P2), each with six pins that attach the power supply to the motherboard. These are rated at 5A per pin, at up to 250V. P8 and P9 connectors have them installed end to end so that the two black wires on both power cables are next to each other. ATX Main Power Connector :-

The industry-standard ATX power supply-to-motherboard main connector is the Molex Mini-Fit, Jr. connector number 39-29-9202 (20 pins ATX connector). Molex rates each pin to handle 6A, at up to 600V. ATX Auxiliary Power Connector :-

In particular, chipsets and DIMMs were designed to run on 3.3V, increasing the current demand at that voltage. This type of connector are rated for 5A per pin at up to 250V. The connector is normally keyed to prevent a misaligned connection. The additional +5V wire allows a total of 29A of +5V to be available to the motherboard, and the additional two +3.3V wires allow a total of 28A of +3.3V power to be available to the motherboard.

Load Regulation :- Load regulation is the capability to maintain a constant voltage (or current) level on the output channel
of a power supply despite changes in the resistor's load.

Definitions
Load Regulation can be defined as a percentage by the equation :
[3]

Where: circuit) is the load that draws the least current (is the highest specified load resistance - possibly open circuit for some types of linear supplies, usually limited by pass transistor minimum bias levels) is the typical specified operating load is the load that draws the greatest current (is the lowest specified load resistance - never short

For switching power supplies, the primary source of regulation error is switching ripple rather than control loop inefficiency. In such cases Load Regulation is defined without normalizing to Voltage at Nominal Load and then has the units of volts.

A simple way to manually measure load regulation is to connect three parallel load resistors to the power supply where two of the resistors, R2 and R3 are connected through switches while the other resistor, R1 is connected directly. The values of the resistors are selected such that R1 gives the minimum load resistance, R1||R2 gives the nominal load resistance and either R1||R2||R3 or R2||R3 (depending on how you choose to switch) gives the full load resistance. A voltmeter is then connected in parallel as well and the measured values of resistance for each switch state give the inputs to the load regulation equation. Line Regulation :- Line regulation is the capability to maintain a constant output voltage level on the output channel of a power supply despite changes to the input voltage level. Line regulation is expressed as percent of change in the output [1] voltage relative to the change in the input line voltage. This measurement is normally taken under conditions of low power dissipation to reduce the effect of average chip temperature and is typically represented as a percentage of the output voltage. Ripple :- The most common meaning of ripple in electrical science is the small unwanted residual periodic variation of the direct current (dc) output of a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current (ac) source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the alternatingwaveform within the power supply.

As well as this time-varying phenomenon, there is a frequency domain ripple that arises in some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In this case the periodic variation is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against increasing frequency. The variation may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning also, ripple is usually to be considered an unwanted effect, its existence being a compromise between the amount of ripple and other design parameters.

Effects of ripple
Ripple is undesirable in many electronic applications for a variety of reasons: The ripple frequency and its harmonics are within the audio band and will therefore be audible on equipment such as radio receivers, equipment for playing recordings and professional studio equipment. The ripple frequency is within television video bandwidth. Analogue TV receivers will exhibit a pattern of moving wavy [7] lines if too much ripple is present. The presence of ripple can reduce the resolution of electronic test and measurement instruments. On an oscilloscope it will manifest itself as a visible pattern on screen.

Efficiency :- The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and electrical engineering is
defined as useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed (a fractional expression), typically denoted by the Greek letter small Eta ().

Efficiency is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion device and the input.*For example, if your computer uses 300W, but pulls 400W from the wall, then the efficiency is 300W/400W, or 75%. Computer power supplies are typically 75% efficient, especially those units included with computer chassis or units made more than a couple of years ago before power supply efficiency was made such a priority

Rated Wattage :- The rated watt generally refers to the peak output of the wind generator. But wind generators dont spend a lot of time humming along at peak output. So focusing on the peak as a selling point or comparative measure is rather like shopping for a car based on its top speed.What you should be more concerned about is the total energy output (KWH per month). But there is no standardized testing o f sm a l l t u r b i n e s , s o w e a r e a t t h e m e r c y o f t h e manufacturers marketing departments. For now, the easiest way to compare wind turbines is not by
their rated output at all, but by the swept area of their rotors. T h e r o t o r i s t h e c o l l e c t o r, t h e e n g i n e t h a t d r i v e s t h e generator. Though there are some variations in efficiency,rotor diameter is the simplest and best comparative measure for output, whether youre talking about tiny turbines for sailboats, or gigantic, utility-scale machines. Comparing the outputs of the three generating technologies is treacherous. A rated watt of PV has little relation to a rated watt of wind power. I can say that I have a 1,000 watt wind turbine and an 800 watt PV array, but I havent told you much about their relative usefulness in my system at my specific site. It depends on the number of sun hours I have, and how much wind goes through my turbines rotor