Exam questions 1. Properties of life. Levels of organization of living things. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes . Hierarchy of Life.

The kingdoms of life. 2. Levels of organization: gene level, chromosomal level, genome level. Discovery of the genetic role of DNA. Griffiths, MacLeod, MCarty, Avery, Hershey-Chase experiments. Nucleic acids. Types of nucleic acids. Role of DNA. Role of RNA. 3. Biological rhythms. Chronobiology. The biological clocks mastermind. Clock gene. Chronomedicine. 4. Cloning. Recombnant DNA. Technology of DNA cloning. 4steps of cloning of any DNA fragment. Cloning vectors. Reproductive cloning. Therapeutic cloning. The risk of cloning. 5. DNA primary structure. Nucleotide structure. Linkage of nucleotides. DNA secondary structure. Double helical ( B-form) DNA. Complementary base pairing. 6. Organization of eukaryotic genomic DNA. Major classes of DNA ( Nonrepetitive sequences. Middle repeitive squences. Highly repetitive sequences). Further classification of repetitive DNA. ( Tandemly repeated genes. Noncoding repetitive DNA). RNA structure. Role of RNA. Major classes of RNA. Higher order ( tertiary) sructure of DNA ( Superoils. Chromatin. Nucleosomes. 30-nm fiber. Heterochromatin. Euchromatin). 7. DNA replication. Prokaryotic replication. Basic requirements for DNA synthesis ( substrates, template, primer, enzyme). Replication forks. Leading strand synthesis. Lagging strand synthesis. Okazaki fragments. Direction of synthesis. Joining of Okazaki fragments. Eukaryotic DNA replication. 8. Expression of the genetic information. Transcription. Initiation of transcription. Promoter sequences. Posttranscriptional RNA processing. Heterogenous nuclear RNA. 5 caps. Polyadenilation. Splicing. Exons. Introns. 9. Translation of mRNA: Protein synthesis.Components necessary for protein synthesis. Ribosomal structure.Charging t-RNA. Activation of amino acids: formation of aminoacyl transfer RNA. 10. Translation: Initiation steps. Elongation steps. Termination steps. Polyribosomes.Translation in Eukaryotes. Posttranslational modification. 11. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. Operon model for the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes. The Need for Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes. Levels of Regulation. Regulation of RNA Processing. Regulation of RNA longevity. Regulation of Transcription. Regulation of Translation. Enhancers, activators, coactivators, transcription factors and their role in eukaryotic gene regulation. 12. Gene mutation. Classification of mutations. Spontaneous versus induced mutations. Gametic versus somatic mutations. Base substitution. Missence, nonsence and silent mutation. Frame shift mutation. Other categories of mutations. Molecular basis of mutations. 13. Repair of DNA. Excision repair, direct repair, recombination repair. Human molecular diseases. 14. Gene technology. Medical applications. 15. The structure of Eukaryotic chromosomes. Morphology of chromosomes. Types of chromosomes. Hetero- and euchromatin. Characteristics of normal human karyotype. Chromosomal mutations. The role of chromosomal mutations in the development of human diseases and evolution. 16. Cell proliferation and its regulation . The cell cycle. Overview of the cell cycle. Phases of the cell cycle ( G1, S, G2, M ). Mitosis - the key phase of the cell cycle. Stages of mitosis. The role of mitosis. Cell cycle control. Three principal checkpoints controlling the cell cycle in eukaryotes. Conditions favoring cell division. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. The role of cytokines and growth factors. First and second messengers. Limits to cell division. The role of telomeres. Cell division and cancer. Characteristics of normal and transformed cells. The genetic basis of cancer. The role of proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in cell division control. 17. Meiosis. The role of meiosis. The essential principles underlying meiosis. The importance of meiosis in variation. Chiasmata. The unique features of meiosis. Recombination of hereditary material and evolution. Significance of recombination for medicine. Classes of genetic recombination.: gene transfers ( conjugation, transposition), reciprocal recombination ( crossing over, unequal crossing over, gene conversion, independent assortment). 18. Genome mutations and their origin. Classification of genome mutations . Importance of genome mutations and their preventing mechanisms. The role of amplification of genes, chromosomal

rearrangements, polyploidy, mobile genetic elements and horizontal gene transfer in the evolution of the genome. 19. Human genome program. Main goals. Developing genome maps - preparation for DNA sequencing. Using restriction enzymes to cut DNA. Role of plasmid. Sequencing the human genome (using dideoxy method). The main results of human genome sequencing. 20. Types of reproduction Asexual reproduction (fission, spore formation, budding, fragmentation). Parthenogenesis. Sexual reproduction. Evolutionary development of gametes. The spermatozoon. The egg cell. Evolution of reproductive methods. 21. Sexual reproduction in mammals. Gametogenesis. Fertilization and development. External and internal fertilization. Alternation of haploid and diploid stages in the life cycle. Strategies of embryonic development in vertebrates ( oviparity, ovoviviparity, viviparity). Biological aspects of human reproduction 22. History of genetics. Definition of genotype and phenotype. Genotype as a system of interacting genes. Mendel and the laws of Heredity. Mehdels experimental approach. The monohybrid cross. Conclusions from the monohybrid cross. Dominance, recessiveness, segregation. Modern genetic terminology: genes, phenotype, genotype, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous. Genes and their transmission. Mehdels analytical approach. Probability. The role of chance. Mendel`s first law. Breeding true. Test cross. Monohybrid inheritance in humans 23. Dihybrid inheritance. Mendel`s second law. Trihybrid cross. Unit factors, genes and homologous chromosomes. Explanation of Mendel`s second law. Relationship between genotype and phenotype . Trihybrid cross. 24. Modification of Mendelian ratios. Gene interaction. Incomplete dominance. Codominance.Complementary gene action. Epistasis. Polymery. Multiple alleles. The ABO blood groups. Penetrance and expresivity. 25. Chromosomes and genes. Linkage. Linkage groups and chromosomes. Linkage versus independent assortment. The linkage ratio. Incomplete linkage. Crossing Over. Explanation of crossing Over. Locating genes on chromosomes. Chromosome mapping. 26. Multiple alleles. Degrees of dominance. Lethal alleles. Sex determination. Types of sex determination. Social and ethical issues regarding sex determination. Sex linkage. Sex linkage and the chromosome. 27. Human genetics. Methods of human genetics: pedigree construction, twin-study method, cytogenetic study, biochemical method, population statistics, methods of DNA analysis (Southern blotting: gel transfer, polymerase chain reaction, DNA fingerprinting). 28. Methods of prenatal diagnosis. Medical genetic counseling. Human genetic disorders: single gene disorders, chromosomal disorders, multifactorial disorders. Other types of human genetic disorders: trinucleotide repeats, genomic impriting, mitochondrial diseases. General approaches to the therapy of human genetic diseases. 29. Genetic variation. Types of variation. Sources of genetic variation. Phenotypical variability. Characteristics of modifications. 30. Biology of development. Types of development. Ontogenesis. Periods of ontogenesis. Embryonic and post embryonic periods. Stages of development. Fertilization - the initial event in development. Penetration. Activation. Fusion. Cell cleavage patterns. The blastula. The process of gastrulation. Neurulation. Elaboration of the nervous system. 31. .Embryonic development and vertebrate evolution. The biogenic law. Extraembryonic membranes. The amnion. The chorion. The allantois. yolk sac. The placenta. Types of placenta. Groups of vertebrates: anamnia and amniota. 32. Aging as developmental process. Molecular-genetic, cellular, tissue, organ and organismal levels of aging. Theories of aging. Accumulated mutation hypothesis. Telomere depletion hypothesis. Immunological exhaustion hypothesis. Gene clock hypothesis. Death as the biological phenomenon. Social and biological components in health and mortality level of human populations. Human life span and how to increase it. 33. The main theories proposed to explain development: the theory of preformationism and epigenesis. Recent views on the mechanisms controlling development. Cellular mechanisms of development: cell proliferation, migration, contact interactions, determination, differentiation, apoptosis. Mosaic development. Genetic control of development. The importance of the nucleus. The role of the cytoplasm.

34. The fate of cells in the blastula. Speman and Mangholds experiment. Organizers. The chemical nature of organizers. The role of DNA in development. The role of the environment. Critical periods in human development. Anomalies of development and their classification. 35. Homeostasis. The meaning of internal environment. The formation of intercellular fluid. The importance of constant internal environment to the well being of cells. Cybernetical principles of homeostasis (self - adjusting mechanism, negative and positive feedback). Immunity. 36. Pre-Darwinian period of Biology. The development of Darwins ideas. The main areas, which give evidence of evolution: comparative anatomy, embryology, cell biology and palaentology. Comparative anatomy. Homologous organs. Examples of homology: the pentadactyl limb. Divergent evolution. Reconstructing an evolutionary pathway: the vertebrate heart and arterial arhes. Convergent evolution. Analogons organs. Taxonomy - the classification. Classification of chordates. Embriology. Ernst Haeckel law. Cell biology. 37. The summary of Darvin's theory. Lamark's theory. The Darvinian and Lamarcian theories compared. Variation. The causes of genetic variation. Reshuffling of genes. The role of reshuffling of genes in evolution. Mutations. Mutants. Mutation frequency. Mutagenic agents. The spread of mutations through a population. The struggle for existence. Populations and evolution. 38. The action of natural selection on genes. Natural selection as an agent of constancy as well as change. Forms of natural selection. Natural selection in action. Genetic polymorphism and variation in natural populations. Formation of adaptations, their characteristics and classification. Natural selection and population genetics. Hardy-Weinberg`s law. The effect of isolation on gene frequency. Application of the Hardy-Weinbergs principle. 39. The origin of species. The importance of isolation. Isolating mechanisms. Ecological isolation. Reproductive isolation. The emergence of new species. Definition of species. Criteria of species. Forms and modes of speciation. 40. Human populations. Genes within human populations. Human variation. Human blood groups and geography. Isolated populations and genetic drift. Reconstructing the history of human populations. 41. Natural selection in human populations. Specific features of evolutionary factors in human populations. The role of mutations and recombination in the formation of genetic variability of human populations and individual genotypes. The threats of mutagenic effects environmental pollution. 42. Gene flow within human populations. The effect of human migration on gene flow between populations. Hybrid populations. Geographic and social isolation in human populations. Genetic drift in human populations. Gene pool in isolated groups. Gene frequencies of heritable diseases in human populations. Inbreeding and nonrandom mating and their effects. 43. Natural selection in human populations. Selection against heterozygotes and homozygotes. Adaptation and balanced polymorphism. Importance of genetic polymorphism for inter- and intrapopulation variation. Genetic polymorphism in human populations and disease susceptibility. 44. Macroevolution. Interaction between macro- and microevolution. Levels of organization of living things as reflection of their interaction with environment. Forms of evolutionary process: phyletic and divergent evolution. Forms of evolution of groups: convergent evolution and parallelism, Types of evolution of groups: allogenesis and arogenesis. Morpho-physiological regress. Genetic basis of evolution of groups. 45. Human evolution. Human being in the system of nature (phylum, subphylum, class, order, family, subfamily, tribe, genus, species). Evidence of Human evolution. The earliest primates. Early hominids. Comparing apes to hominids. Origin of Homo sapiens. Factors affecting Human evolution. 46. Phylogenesis of organ systems of vertebrates: vertebrate circulatory system evolution. Onthophylogenetic basis of inborn errors of organ systems development. 47. Anthropogenesis.Human being in the system of classification of living organisms (phylum, subphylum, class, order, family, subfamily, tribe, genus, species) . Method of investigation of human evolution: comparative anatomy, radiography. Biomolecular methods. Biological basis of the progressive development of hominids. Biosocial nature of human being. Relationships of biologic and social components in the course of human development. Biologic and social heritage in human being of contemporary type. Increasing role of social heritage. Importance of biologic heritage for human health. Intraspecific differentiation of humankind. Human races. Populational conception of race. Adaptive and ecologic types of human being and their origins. 48. The subject matter of ecology. Methods of ecology. Levels of organization of living things and division of ecology: endecology, autecology, demecology, cinecology, geographic and global ecology.

Characteristics of ecological system. Levels and biologic productivity. Human being in ecological system. 49. Factors of external environment and classification, interactions .Interaction of organisms in the ecosystem and interaction of ecosystems. Biological rhythms in ecisystems. Succession of ecosystem. Historic development of ecosystems (paleoecology). Human activity and ecosystems. Ecology and biogeography. Major ecosystems. 50. Endecology. Ecosystems in internal environment of individual. The role of internal ecosystems . 51. Autecologys: subject, methods, content. Conceptions and laws of autecology ( reaction of organism, optimal conditions, biotope, adaptation. 52. Demecology: subject, methods, content. Conceptions of demecology: population, species, dynamics of populations, migration, geographic and biological races, forms of living things. Population adaptive strategies. Demecology and gene pool. 53. Sinecology : subject, methods, content. Food chains. Natural selection and forms of inerspecific interactions in sinecological systems. Significance of biodiversity. Sinecology and formation of ecological systems including human beings. Artificial ecologic systems ( agrocenosis). Biosphere. Biogeographical regions. Biomes. Habitats. Ecological niche. Physical and biotic environment. Physical environment. The main physical factors. 54. The effect of humans on ecosystems. Pollution. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants and their effect on ecosystems. Acid precipitation. Sewage. Chemical pollutants. Mercury. Lead. Smoke. Radiation. Greenhouse effect. The ozone hole. Dfestruction of tropical forests. Solving environmental problems. 55. Ecological crisis. Global warming. Acid Rain. Ozone Hole. Deforestation. 56. uman Ecology. Gender. World human population. 57. The Biosphere and the doctrine about biosphere by Vladimir Vernadsky. The cycling of matter and flow of energy in ecosystems. Conditions for the creation of the noosphere.

1. Forms of interactions between organisms. Interspecific and intraspecific associations. Types of interspecific association. Parasitism.Commensalism. Mutualism. Adjustment between parasite and host. Classification of parasites. Parasitic adaptations. Parasites and humans. 2. Parasite and host relations. Adaptations to parasitism. Effect of parasite on the host. Effect of host on the paraste. Life cycle of a parasite. Important groups of human parasites. 3. Kingdom Protista. Classification. Characteristic features of Protista. Medical importance. Kingdom Protista. Phylum Sarcodina: Entamoeba histolytica. 4. Phylum Zooflagellata: Trypanosoma gambiense, Trichomonas vaginalis, T. hominis, Lamblia intestinalis, Leishmania tropica, L. donovani 5. Phylum Sporozoa: Plasmodium vivax. Morphology. Life cycle. Laboratory diagnosis Prevention of malaria. Toxoplasma gondii. Life cycle.Ways of infection. Laboratory diagnosis. Prevention. 6. Fasciola hepatica,Opisthorhis felineus, Dicrocoelium dendriticum. Schistosoma (blood flukes). Classification. Morphology. Routes of infection Laboratory diagnosis, prevention. 7. Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, Hymenolepis nana, Echinococcus granulosus. Classification. Morphology. Routes of infection. Laboratory diagnosis, prevention. 8. Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichocephalus trichiurus, Strongiloides sterboralis,Ancylostoma duodenale. 9. Dracunculus medinensis,Wuchereria bankrofti, Brugia malayi, Onchocerca volvulus, Loa loa. Classification. Morphology. Routes of infection Laboratory diagnosis, prevention. 10. Order Ticks. Characteristic features. Medical importance. 11. Mosguitos. Flies. Lice. Classification.Characteristic features. Medical importance. 12. Theory of natural foci of transmissive diseases.