SUMMER TRAINING AT GRANZOR ENGINEERINGS PVT.

LIMITED

Submitted by Ishu Jain 0803021403 Branch-EN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the very outset, I extend my gratefulness to my honourable HOD for his guidance, inspiration and affectionate encouragement. I m deeply obliged to Mr. Devraj Singh (General Manager) and Granzor Engineerings Pvt. Ltd. for giving me this golden chance to undergo summer training in this prestigious organisation at Mayur Vihar,Delhi. I am heartily thankful to them for their valuable guidance, admirable morale support and for giving me their precious time. Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge the respondents who spared some of their prestigious time to answer my queries, the employees of Granzor, my family members and my friends for their admirable moral support, co-operation and patience which helped me a lot in this endeavour. (ISHU JAIN) B.TECH (EN), 7TH SEMESTER IPEC,GHAZIABAD

Date:

Place:

CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2. Renewable Energy 3.Energy Efficiency 4.Solar Panel Construction Mounting System 5.Battery Construction Operation 6.Lead acid battery 7.Maximum power point tracking 8.Sizing an inverter battery bank

Introduction
Granzr provides wide range of products, turnkey solutions and services in the segment of Renewable energy, Energy efficiency. The solutions provided by Granzr are highly customized and as per latest technology available in the world. The demand for high quality products and services at a lower price is on the rise and Granzr aims at meeting the challenge with innovative and Quality products with costsaving capabilities. We are pioneer in manufacturing and supply of products, services and solutions impacting the Efficiency without compromising the Reliability. Our culture of continuous innovation in our products and solutions has been able to generate huge value for our customers so far in terms of reduction in OPEX, CAPEX and SPACE resulting positively on the bottom-line. The business practices at Granzr lead to the triple bottom line ("TBL" or "3BL", and also known as "people, planet and profit" or "the three pillars"),which capture an expanded spectrum of values and criteria for measuring organizational (and societal) success viz. economic, ecological and social. As a result, this leads to high level of innovation, enhanced- value, minimal waste, increased safety, reduced environmental impact, high profitability and continuous investment in our manpower.

Companys vision
To be known globally for our commitment to Quality, Innovation and Engineering in the areas of our operations by providing world class solutions to the customers and growth for the employees.

Companys mission
To uphold our commitment, to provide cost-effective, safe, reliable quality products and services including technology development, planning and management, start-up and commissioning, EPC services, as an Integrated Service Provider

Renewable energy
Solar standalone A standalone solar PV system is not connected with the power grid and is designed to charge your battery bank via MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) charge controller, and supply power for various appliances and systems. Standalone Solar Power

Solutionare recommended for various sites where grid or DG sets are unavailable / Unattainable / Unreliable. This Solution is widely appreciated in rural areas and also where the ARPUs are needed to be higher. Our technical objective has been to develop and design systems that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are fully compliant with operational specifications. Realize major reduction of fuel consumption. Provide maximum cost effective approaches. Ensure 24/7 highly reliable quality power including redundancy. Fast response service and support.

Energy effiency
Energy Audits / ESCO Granzr renders services in the field of energy efficient technologies and energy consulting i.e., development of individual solutions for energy costs reduction, modernization of existing energy supply systems, management of energy resources and energy audit). Implementation of the full range of energy inspections of organizations and enterprises, with the aim to reduce energy costs upto 50% and to increase efficiency of resources usage:

Instrument energy inspection of the company; Energy inspections (energy audit) of the company for all forms of ownership; Recommendations to increase effectiveness of energy resource usage; Recommendations on modernization of working equipment;

Pay-back period, calculation of prospective economic effect and risks of resource saving technologies implementation;

Conversion of solar energy to electrical energy

Solar panel
A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells . The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, many installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and interconnection wiring. Construction Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals.The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels. Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way. Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges.[2] This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.

Modules
Rigid thin-film modules

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+ucSi tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 612%.
Flexible thin-film modules

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar). So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized. The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.

Mounting system
Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground based mounting supports.Ground based mounting supports includes Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete. Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings ,Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar panel system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no ground excavation.

Roof mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames attached to roof based mounting supports. Roof based mounting supports includes Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for attaching the panel racking or frames. Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.

A ground mounted solar panel system installation using precast concrete

A roof mounted solar panel system installed using flat roof

Battery
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.

Principle of operation
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One halfcell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes. Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has

negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed. As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbonzinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Two half cells seperated by a salt bridge seperator

Categories of batteries
Batteries are classified into two broad categories, they are: Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low

current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition. Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers. The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

Battery capacity and discharging

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can store. The more electrolyte and electrode material there is in the cell the greater the capacity of the cell. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, and they develop the same open-circuit voltage. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. The available capacity of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged. If a battery is discharged at a relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected. The battery capacity that battery manufacturers print on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the maximum constant current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a predetermined terminal voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 Ah will deliver 5 A over a 20 hour period at room temperature. However, if it is instead discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower apparent capacity. The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law:

QP is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp. I is the current drawn from battery (A). t is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain. k is a constant around 1.3.
For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included. In practical batteries, internal energy losses, and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte, cause the efficiency of a battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates, but if the rate is too low, it will self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its efficiency. Installing batteries with different Ah ratings will not affect the operation of a device rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are exceeded. High-drain loads like digital cameras can result in lower actual energy, such as for alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh would not sustain a current of 1 A for the full two hours, if it had been rated at a 10-hour or 20-hour discharge.

Leadacid battery Electrochemistry

In the charged state, each cell contains anodes of elemental lead (Pb) and cathodes of lead(IV) oxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of approximately 33.5% v/v (4.2 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the discharged state both the anodes and cathodes become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. Due to the freezing-point depression of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather.

Discharge

Fully Discharged: Two identical lead sulfate plates

During discharge, both plates return to lead sulfate. The process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the cathode back into the cell at the anode.
Anode Reaction: Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e Cathode Reaction: PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Recharging

Fully Charged: Lead and Lead Oxide plates

Subsequent charging places the battery back in its charged state, changing the lead sulfates into lead and lead oxides. The process is driven by the forcible removal of electrons from the anode and the forcible introduction of them to the cathode.
Anode Reaction: PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) Cathode Reaction: PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e

Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell. Periodic maintenance of lead acid batteries requires inspection of the electrolyte level and replacement of any water that has been lost.

Maximum power point tracking

Current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell at a particular light level, and in darkness. The area of the yellow rectangle gives the output power. Pmax denotes the maximum power point Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid tie inverters, solar battery chargers and similar devices use to get the maximum possible power from the PV array. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and apply a resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions. Essentially, this defines the current that the inverter should draw from the PV in order to get the maximum possible power (since power equals voltage times current).

I-V Curve
Photovoltaic cells have a complex relationship between their operating environment and the maximum power they can produce. The fill factor, more commonly known by its abbreviation FF, is a parameter which characterizes the non-linear electrical behavior of the solar cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc, and in tabulated data it is often used to estimate the power that a cell can provide with an optimal load under given conditions, P=FF*Voc*Isc. For most purposes, FF, Voc, and Isc are enough information to give a useful approximate model of the electrical behavior of a photovoltaic cell under typical conditions.

Solar cell I-V curves where a line intersects the knee of the curves where the maximum power point is located For any given set of operational conditions, cells usually have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's Law. The power P is given by P=V*I. A photovoltaic cell has an approximately exponential relationship between current and voltage (taking all the device physics into account, the model can become substantially more complicated though). As is well known from basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is optimized where the derivative (graphically, the slope) dI/dV of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V ratio (where dP/dV=0). This is known as the maximum power point (MPP) and corresponds to the "knee" of the curve. A load with resistance R=V/I equal to the reciprocal of this value is the load which draws maximum power from the device, and this is sometimes called the characteristic resistance of the cell. Note however that this is a dynamic quantity which changes depending on the level of illumination, as well as other factors such as temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance is lower or higher than this value, the power drawn will be less than the maximum available, and thus the cell will not be used as efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point trackers utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search for this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a cell.

Operation with batteries

At night, an off-grid PV power system uses batteries to supply its loads. Although the battery pack voltage when fully charged may be close to the PV array's peak power point, this is unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery is partially discharged. Charging may begin at a voltage considerably below the array peak power point, and a MPPT can resolve this mismatch. When the batteries in an off-grid system are full and PV production exceeds local loads, a MPPT can no longer operate the array at its peak power point as the excess power has nowhere to go. The MPPT must then shift the array operating point away from the peak power point until production exactly matches demand. (An alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to divert surplus PV power into a resistive load, allowing the array to operate continuously at its peak power point.) In a grid-tied photovoltaic system, the grid is essentially a battery with near infinite capacity. The grid can always absorb surplus PV power, and it can cover shortfalls in PV production (e.g., at night). Batteries are thus needed only for protection from grid outages. The MPPT in a grid tied PV system will always operate the array at its peak power point unless the grid fails when the batteries are full and there are insufficient local loads. It would then have to back the array away from its peak power point as in the off-grid case (which it has temporarily become).

How is Maximum Power Point Tracking achieved?

In order to understand the MPPT, lets first get to know how a conventional charge controller charges a discharged battery. When a conventional charge controller starts charging the battery, it directly connects the solar panels to the battery. Because of this the solar panels are forced to operate at the battery voltage. This voltage is not the best voltage for generating the maximum power available from the modules. Imagine that you have with you a single 75Watt solar panel along with a 12Volt Battery. And you have that solar panels power/voltage/current graph. This shows the voltage & current at Standard Test Conditions of 25C and solar insolation of 1000W / Sq Mtr. Now for our particular example the conventional charge controller simply connects the solar module directly to the battery. Thus the solar panel is forced to operate at 12Volts. Now by simply connecting the 75 Watt panel to the 12Volt battery, the conventional charger artificially reduces the power production in the range of 51 53 Watts.Instead of directly connecting the batteries to the solar panel, a Maximum Power Point Tracking enabled charge controller computes the voltage at which the modules are able to produce the most amount of power.

Thus by taking a look at the graph the maximum voltage of the module is 17 Volts. The MPPT system thus operates the solar panels at 17 Volts to obtain the full 75 Watt of power despite the present battery voltage. A highly efficient DC-DC Converter then converts the 17 Volt controller input to the necessary battery voltage at the output. If the whole system would have been 100% efficient then the battery charging current would have been calculated as per the formula below.

Battery Charging using MPPT

MPPT Calculation for Current Increase

You can now determine that the battery charge current increases by 1.85 Amperes i.e. 41.26%. This power would have been left behind by the conventional charge controller. But practically nothing is 100% efficient, so the actual charge current increase would be somewhat lower than the calculated value.

Sizing an inverter battery bank

How long will the battery last?
Unfortunately, this question cannot be answered without knowing the size of the battery bank and the load to be supported by the inverter. Usually, this question is better phrased as "How long do you want your load to run?", then specific calculations can be made to determine the proper battery bank size.

Formulas and estimation rules

1. Watts = Volts x Amps. 2. Battery capacity is expressed by how many Amps for how many hours a battery will last - Amp-Hour (A.H.) capacity. 3. For a 12-Volt inverter system, each 100 Watts of the inverter load requires approximately 10 DC Amps from the battery. 4. For a 24-Volt inverter system, each 200 Watts of the inverter load requires approximately 10 DC Amps from the battery. The first step is to estimate the total Watts (or Amps) of load, and how long the load needs to operate. This can be determined by looking at the input electrical nameplate for each appliance or piece of equipment and adding up the total requirement. Some loads are not constant, so estimations must be made. For example, a full-sized refrigerator (750-Watt compressor), running 1/3 of the time would be estimated at 250 Watts-per-hour. After the load and running time is established, the battery bank size can be calculated. The first calculation is to divide the load (in Watts) by 10 for a 12-Volt

system or by 20 for a 24-Volt system resulting in the number of Amps required from the battery bank.

Example of load calculations

Suppose you were to run a microwave oven for 10 minutes a day, which draw about 1000 Watts, despite their size. To keep it simple, think of the inverter as electrically transparent. In other words, the 1000 Watts required to run the oven come directly from the batteries as if it were a 12 VDC microwave. Taking 1000 Watts from a 12-Volt battery requires the battery to deliver approximately 84 Amps. (1000 Watts 12 Volts = 84 Amps)

A full-sized refrigerator draws about 2 Amps at 120 Volts AC. By multiplying 2 Amps x 120 Volts, you find out the refrigerator uses 240 Watts. The batteries will need to deliver 20 Amps to run the refrigerator (240 Watts/12 Volts = 20 Amps). Typically, refrigerators operate about 1/3 of the time (1/3 "duty cycle"), or 8 hours a day. Therefore, the A.H. drain will be 160 A.H. (8 hours x 20 Amps = 160 A.H.). After the load and running time is established, the battery bank size can be calculated. The first calculation is to divide the load (in Watts) by 10 for a 12-Volt system or by 20 for a 24-Volt system resulting in the number of Amps required from the battery bank.

Example of Amp-hour calculations

If the load is to operate for 3 hours: For a 12-Volt battery: 100 Amps DC x 3 hours = 300 A.H. For a 24-Volt battery: 50 Amps DC x 3 hours = 150 A.H. Now, the proper type and amount of batteries must be selected. Traction batteries, (also called deep cycle or golf cart type), should be used in order to be able to handle the repeated discharge/charge cycles that are required.

Choosing the correct number of batteries

This is a little more difficult due to the rating method used by the battery manufacturers. Also, because of the nature of the battery, the higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity of the battery. Battery capacity 100 90 87 80 Hours of discharge 20 10 8 5

70 3 60 2 50 1 Most batteries' A.H. capacity is stated for the 20-hour rate of discharge. This means that a battery has a 100 A.H. capacity if it is discharged over 20 hours, or at about 5 Ampsper-hour (100 A.H. / 20 hours = 5 Amps DC). However, this same battery would last only one hour if the discharge rate was 50 Amps-per-hour (50 Amps DC x 1 hour = 50 A.H.) because of the high rate of discharge. The chart above indicates that for 3 hours of discharge rate, the battery has only 70% capacity. Therefore, we must have 428 A.H. of battery capacity. (Figured by dividing the A.H. capacity by the percentage of loss, or 300 A.H. 0.7 (70%)). Therefore we would require 428 A.H. of batteries at a stated 20-hour rate. If the standard 12-Volt battery is 105 A.H., four batteries are needed. Finally, two more items must be considered. The more deeply the battery is discharged on each cycle, the shorter the battery life will remain. Therefore, using more batteries than the minimum will result in longer life for the battery bank. Keep in mind that batteries lose capacity as the ambient temperature lowers. If the air temperature near the battery bank is lower than 77F (25C), more batteries will be needed to maintain the required capacity.