Selecting materials for strength

SELECTING MATERIALS FOR STRENGTH

METALS
Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength, ductility, toughness, and hardness are frequently of most importance when selecting metals. However, for any given application a compromise between these and other properties is usually required. Most strength data for metals are obtained through tensile testing. Compressive strength maybe useful for some applications, but for most wrought, ductile metals, compressive strength can be considered close enough to tensile strength that it can he ignored in materials selection. In fact, compressive strength of many metals exceeds tensile strength. Because metals almost always have a crystalline structure when cooled far below the melting point, they are elastic. Many also are significantly ductile as a result of crystallographic slip. Therefore, strains well into the plastic region may be applied when determining stress-strain curves. Furthermore, strength of metals usually depends on the direction in which it is measured. The degree of this anisotropy of strength depends greatly on the manufacturing history of the particular workpiece. For example, a casting that has solidified with equiaxed grains has random grain orientation; its strength is independent of the direction from which it is measured. The same part manufactures as a forging, however, displays strength that may vary greatly depending upon the direction in which it is measured. In the case of magnesium, the strength of annealed sheet can he up to five times more than that of a sand-cast product. Perspective on strength levels A metal's strength may be viewed in either absolute terms or as an indication o! the degree of development of the alloy concerned. A material with a yield strength of 150,000 psi (1035 MPa) would he considered high strength in any commercial engineering context. Table 1 presents generally accepted absolute values for strength levels. But strength can also take on a different meaning as relevant to the material and degree to which it has been developed. For example, a strength of 75,000 psi (517 MPa) would he low for a heat treated steel, yet high for an aluminum alloy. So strength can he viewed as a measure of metallurgical complexity or degree of alloy development. Thus, because heat treated steels require little processing to achieve strengths of 75,000 psi and higher, they are relatively inexpensive and extremely reliable.

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Curves reveal material's behavior Stress/strain behavior of various metals. Clockwise, from, top left: impure iron, mediumcarbon steel, hard brass, and gray cast iron. The straight portion of the curve represents stress levels that do not produce plastic deformation. The slope of this line (stress/strain) is the modulus of elasticity. The greater this line's slope, the stiffer the material. For example, metals are usually stiffer than plastics, which have moduli ranging from 100,000 to 1,500,000 psi (690 to 10,340 MPa). Metals, on the other hand, generally have moduli ranging from 2,000,000 to 60,000,000 psi (13,800 to 413,700 MPa). Traditionally, various points from a metal's stress-strain curve have been used as a measurement of its strength. Curves for impure iron and a medium-carbon steel show discontinuities at the lower yield stress and yield point, respectively. These points are clear measures of the materials' strengths. The curve for hard brass shows a smooth transition from the fully elastic to the elasticplastic region, which makes defining a general yield point difficult. To overcome this problem, offset yield stress is often used. This offset yield point occurs where a line parallel to the elastic region intersects the stressstrain curve. The distance (offset) between the original line and the new line is often 0.2 or 0. I % of the modulus of elasticity. A third common stress-strain curve, that of gray cast iron, shows no apparent linear (elastic) portion. This material is brittle, and its stress-strain behavior is governed by the particular phase of graphite present. Total elongation at fracture of this material may be only 0.5%. Tensile strength for this material is often derived by dividing the fracture load by the testpiece's original cross-sectional area. On the other hand, for an aluminum alloy to achieve a strength of 75,000 psi, it must be highly developed, and therefore metallurgically complex. Often, a complex metallurgy means the alloys are difficult to form, machine, or join not to mention their high relative cost. Consequently, these complex alloys would not he chosen if high strength were the only requirement of the application. Low strength Strength of most pure metals is low and depends greatly on the metal's purity. For example. 99.99% pure aluminum has a tensile yield strength of only 1700 psi (12 MPa). Aluminum that's 99.0% pure, however, has a tensile yield strength of 5700 psi (39 MPa). Most metals, with the possible exceptions of tin and lead, can be alloyed to produce strengths into the upper two-thirds of the low strength range. There are two reasons for using metals at such low levels of developed strength. The first is because, as mentioned above, these materials are often economical and easy to process. Perhaps a more popular reason is the need to meet application requirements other than strength. Properties such as formability, corrosion resistance, or finished weight may be more important to an application than high strength. Therefore, the low strength alloy is chosen primarily for a property other than strength. Medium strength Most metals must be alloyed to achieve strengths at this level. Exceptions are annealed, commercial-purity titanium and work-hardened copper. Strain-hardened, commercial-purity aluminum and aluminum's solid-solution alloys does not qualify as a medium-strength metal. Heat treatable aluminum alloys in the Aluminum Associations 2000 and 7000 series, however, do penetrate midway into the medium strength range. The 2000 series has aluminum alloyed with copper and magnesium while the 7000 series also adds zinc. Although alloys in the 7000 series have the highest strength of all aluminum alloys, they have undergone extensive metallurgical development to compete with alloys in the 2000 series. Both alloy families are used in aerospace applications. Copper-base alloys cover a wide range of low and medium strengths. At the low end of the medium strength level is strain hardened copper-tellurium with a 38,000 psi (265 MPa) yield strength. Fully precipitation hardened copper-nickel-silicon alloy tops off the copper alloys at 70,000 psi (480 MPa). There is an enormous diversity of medium and high-strength steels having yield strengths ranging from 29,000 to 145,000 psi (200 to 1000 MPa). Strength varies according to alloy content and treatments undergone. The low-end members of this group mainly are strengthened by microalloying with columbium. The higher-strength steels may he lean alloyed and sometimes achieve strength through heat treating and controlled cooling. At the top end of medium-strength steels are engineering/automotive bar steels. These range from steels containing 0.40% carbon with manganese, to low-alloy steels such as manganese molybdenum grades.

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Stainless steels are used for applications requiring medium strength combined with corrosion resistance or resistance to oxidation. Simple chromium-nickel stainlesses are austenitic in structure, and are not heat treatable. Yield strength of annealed material approaches 30,000 psi (207 MPa). However, strength can be increased to nearly 95,000 psi (655 MPa) by simple strain hardening. If plastic deformation causes a steel's austenite microstructure to transform to martensite as with AISI 301 (UNS S30100) the material may graduate to the ultra-high strength level. But strain hardened austenitic stainlesses are difficult to join and very difficult to form. High strength These materials are highly specialized. As a result, they are produced in much lower quantities than for medium-strength materials. This is especially true of materials like controlled transformation stainlesses that are not only highly alloyed, but also subjected to complex treatments to develop their properties.

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Alloying and processing determine metals strength Yield strength, 103 psi (MPa) ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH Cobalt and its alloys 26-290 (180-2000) Low alloy hardening steels6,1 76-288 (525-1985) Stainless steels, martensitic6,2 60-275 (415-1895) Ultra-high strength steels6,2 170-270 (1170-1860) Nickel and its alloys 10-230 (70-1585) HIGH STRENGTH Tungsten 220 (1515) Molybdenum and its alloys 82-210 (565-1450) Titanium and its alloys 27-191 (185-1315) Carbon steels6,3,1 58-188 (400-1295) Nickel base superalloys 40-172 (275-1185) Alloy steels, cast 112-170 (770-1170) Tantalum and its alloys 48-168 (330-1090) Stainless steel, cast 31-165 (215-1140) Ductile (nodular) irons, cast 40-150 (275-1035) Copper casting alloys* 9-140 (60-965) Columbium and its alloys 35-135 (240-930) Iron base superalloys, cast6 40-134 (275-925) Cobalt base superalloys6 35-116 (240-800) Bronzes6* 14-114 (95-785) Low alloy constructional steels6,2 90-110 (620-760) High copper alloys6 9-110 (60-760) MEDIUM STRENGTH Cobalt base superalloys, cast 75-100 (515-690) Hafnium6 32-96 (220-660) Brasses6 10-92.5 (70-640) Aluminum alloys, 7000 series 14-91 (95-625) Coppers-nickel-zincs6,* 18-90 (125-620) Copper nickels6,* 13-85 (90-585) Stainless steels, ferritic6,4 45-80 (310-550) High strength, low alloy steels6 42-80 (290-550) Carbon steels, carburized6,1 46-77 (315-530) Coppers6,* 10-72 (70-495) Aluminum alloys, 2000 series 10-66 (70-455) Ductile irons, austenitic, cast 28-65 (195-450) Aluminum alloys, 5000 series 6-59 (40-405) Carbon steels, cast5 48-55 (330-380) Aluminum alloys, 6000 series 7-55 (50-380) Zirconium and its alloys 15-53 (105-365) Zinc die castings 52 (360) Depleted uranium 35-50 (240-345) Aluminum alloys, 4000 series 46 (315) Magnesium alloys6 13-44 (90-305) Silver 8-44 (55-303) Carbon steels, cast3 38-42 (260-290) Beryllium and its alloys 5-40 (35-275) Aluminum alloys, 3000 series 6-36 (40-250) LOW STRENGTH Gold 30 (205) Magnesium alloys, cats 12-30 (85-205) Platinum 2-27 (15-185) Aluminum alloys, 1000 series 4-24 (30-165) Lead and its alloys* 1.6-8 (10-55) Tin and its alloys 1.3-6.6 (5-45) Relative strengths of metals and alloys listed reveal how alloying elements, as well as manufacturing processes, determine a metals strength. Values are approximate, for relative comparison only. They should not be considered absolute or for design purposes. * At 0.5% offset. 1 Quenched and tempered. 2 Heat treated. 3 Normalized. 4 Cold worked. 5 Normalized and tempered. 6 Wrought. 7 Annealed. Metal or alloy

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Few nonferrous alloys occupy the high-strength level. Only precipitation hardened copper-2% beryllium alloy and most of the titanium alloys enter this category. Most titanium alloys can develop strengths near or exceeding 115,000 psi (795 MPa). The strongest tops out at around 180,000 psi (1240 MPa). Titanium alloys, offer an advantage over high strength steels mainly due to their density titanium's density is about 60%,that of steel. At the low end of the high-strength level are numerous medium-carbon, low-alloy steels, which are quenched and tempered after heat treating. The higher carbon content - typically around 0.4% imparts high strength to the steel, but introduces problems associated with poor weldability and low toughness. For good weldability, carbon content generally should be held well below 0.3 0%. As an alternative to raising carbon content, steels are often more heavily alloyed to achieve strength of medium carbon steels. This avoids the 'brittleness and poor weldability associated with higher carbon content. Common metals used in alloying include nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium. Result: yield strengths of about 145,000 psi with excellent toughness - and with, a carbon content of less than 0.10% for good weldability. Ultra-high strength Probably the most widely used ultra-high strength steel is ASTM A579 Grade 32 (UNS K44220), a 2Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel containing 1.6% Si. This steel requires double melting and double tempering to achieve a 0.2% offset yield strength of 225,000 psi (1550 MPa). Originally used for hotworking dies, 5Cr-Mo-V steels achieve similar strength, and have been used occasionally for structural applications. However, their high alloy content make's them too costly for widespread use. The main disadvantage of these steels is that they're difficult to machine after heat treating. However, an other grade maraging steels - can he heat treated after final machining. Maraging steels can also achieve higher strengths than the other steels mentioned above. Although their high nickel content makes them initially expensive, maraging steels may he less costly in the long run due to lower machining costs. They can also be welded without subsequent heat treatment.

POLYMERS
Not long ago, plastics were considered only as inexpensive, nonload bearing replacements for metals. Today, however, that picture has changed dramatically. High-strength plastics, ranging from short-glass-fiber reinforced thermoplastics for injection molding up to 70% continuous-carbon-fiberreinforced advanced composites, are the materials of choice for aircraft structural components, auto body panels, appliances, and a plethora of other industrial and consumer products. Although generally not as strong or rigid as metals, plastics and composites offer not only unique design flexibility, but also the ability to put the strength right where it's needed. Exceptions to the rule are advanced composite structures, which on a specific basis, exceed metals in both strength and rigidity. With the variety of polymer matrices, types of reinforcement, and fabrication methods now available, plastics are now at the forefront of new materials developments. More versatile, but more complex As with metals, properties indicative of high strength include tensile, flexural, shear and compressive strengths as well as moduli. However, because of plastics' viscoelastic nature, behavior under stress is significantly different and much more complex., Both time and temperature, for example, can significantly affect property values. In contrast to metals, unreinforced plastics are usually characterized by nonlinear stress-strain curves up to the yield point, while glass-fiber- reinforced plastics are practically linear up to approximately 0.3% strain. Plastics also exhibit much higher creep than metals, which means that a property, for instance, ultimate tensile strength of a plastic under load, decreases with time. The latter makes such properties as creep rupture, creep modulus and creep strain, important considerations in design. Therefore, designs for plastic components under constant load should be designed to the creep strength rather than the yield strength. Similarly, stress relaxation - how stress decreases as a function of time at a given strain - can be equally important in some applications. Not to be ignored are environmental conditions, such as moisture and humidity, and exposure to ultraviolet light (outdoor applications), chemicals, solvents, and moisture. While these factors are often of little consequence where metals are concerned, they can unexpectedly reduce mechanical and physical property values of plastics. The use of additives in plastics and composites also deserves attention. Although often necessary for flame retardancy, easier processing, color or another required characteristic, chemical additives can adversely affect the strength of a polymer, resulting in properties much lower than those of an unmodified plastic. How strong are plastics?

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Unreinforced engineering thermoplastics - so-called because of considerably higher properties than commodity plastics - typically have tensile strengths that range from 8,000 to 15,000 psi. The workhorse of engineering resins, unreinforced nylon 616 has a tensile strength of about 12,000 psi and a tensile modulus of about 5 million psi. However, unlike metals, "stiffness" in the plastics industry refers to flexural modulus. The terminology for stiffness came about because values of compressive and tensile strengths, as well as moduli, are often significantly different in many thermoplastics. Flexural properties, derived from testing a beam in flexure, subject a plastic to both tensile and compressive forces. In applications involving low strain, tensile and flexural moduli are close to being identical for design purposes. However, when a component will undergo high strain, the appropriate rnodulus - tension, compression or shear - should be used in design.

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Properties of selected glass-fiber-reinforced composites1 Reinf., Specifi Ten. Ten. Comp. Flex Flex weight c str., mod., str., str., mod., % gravit 1000 million 1000 1000 million y psi psi psi psi psi 22 1.82 6.0 1.75 20 12.8 1.58 22 50 30 20 55 80 13 1.82 2.0 1.85 1.78 1.69 2.08 1.07 4.86 23.0 12.0 5.3 30.0 80.0 2.8 1.53 2.27 1.7 1.7 2.5 4.0 32.0 24.0 23.0 30.0 45.0 12.65 45.0 26.0 16.0 30.0 100.0 1.44 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.6 5.0 . 037-.05 3 0.15 0.75

Material description Comp. molded polyester BMC2 Inj. Molded polyester BMC2 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Polyester pultrusions Filament-wound epoxy Milled glass PUR RRIM4

Elon g., % 0.5 0.5 1.7 1.0 0.4 140

Impact, Izod, Ftlb/in.12 4.26 2.89 19.4 16.0 8.2 25.0 45.0 -

Flake-glass PUR RRIM4 23 1.17 4.41 38.9 2.1 Polyester, spray30 1.37 12.5 1.0 22.0 28.0 1.3 13-15 up/lay-up Polyester, woven 50 1.64 37.0 2.25 27.0 46.0 2.25 1.6 33.0 roving (lay-up) Cold-rolled HSLA steel5 7.75 65.0 30.0 65.0 22.0 Cold-rolled, low carbon 7.86 48.0 30.0 48.0 37.0 6 steel Stainless steel7 8.03 80.0 28.0 80.0 40.0 Wrought aluminum8 2.74 49.0 10.2 49.0 23.0 9 Die-cast aluminum 2.82 48.0 10.3 48.0 2.5 Die-cast magnesium10 1.83 33.0 65.0 33.0 3.0 Die-cast zinc11 6.59 41.0 10.9 41.0 10.0 1 Property data, courtesy of Owens-Cornig Fiberglas Corp. 2Bulk molding compound. 3Sheet molding compound. 4 Reaction-injection-molded polyurethane. 5ASTM A-606. 6SAE 1008. 7TA 2036. 9ASTM B 85. 10ASTM AZ91B. 11ASTM AG40A. 12Notched. Material Description Boron/epoxy Boron/polyi mide Sglass/epoxy Highmodulus graphite/ep oxy Highmodulus graphite/pol yimide Highstrength graphite/ep oxy2 Aramid/epox y3 Highstrength graphite/ep oxy4 1 Data, courtesy 2 Union Carbide parentheses Properties Compressive Reinf. , vol, % 50 49 72 45 Densi ty, lb/in.3 0.073 0.072 0.077 0.056 Properties Ten. str., 1000 psi 199 (8.1) 151 (1.6) 187 (6.7) 122 (6.1) 117 (2.2) 218 (5.8) 172 (1.6) 220 (8.0) of unidirectional advanced composites1 Ten. Comp. Shear Intralami mod., str., mod., nar million 1000 millon shear psi psi psi str., psi 29.2 232 0.78 9100 (3.2) (17.9) 32.1 158 1.11 3750 (2.1) (9.1) 8.8 119 1.74 6500 (3.6) (23.5) 27.5 128 0.9 8900 (1.0) (28.5) 31.3 (0.72) 21.0 (1.5) 12.2 (0.70) 16.0 (2.2) 94.5 (10.2) 247 (35.7) 42 (9.4) 180 (36.0) 0.65 3150 Poisso ns ratio5 0.17 (0.02) 0.16 (0.02) 0.23 (0.09) 0.10 (--) 0.25 (0.02) 0.28 (0.01) 0.32 (0.02) 0.25 (0.034 Moist. coeff. 10-2 in. 0.003 (0.168) 0.003 (0.168) 0.014 (0.128) 0.003 (0.129) 0.003 (0.129) 0.006 (0.129) 0.008 (0.151) 0.006 (0.129) CTE, 10-6 In./in./ F 3.4 (16.9) 2.7 (15.8) 2.1 (9.3) -(18.5) 0.0 (14.1) 0.01 (12.5) -1.60 (31.3) 0.40 (16.4)

45

0.056

70

0.058

1.0

9800

54 60

0.049 0.057

0.41 0.72

4000 10000

NASA Lewis Research Center. Property values shown are longitudinal; transverse, in parentheses. Thornel 300 fibers. 3Du Pont Kevlar 49. 4Hercules AS fibers. 5Major Poissons ratio; minor in Standard ASTM tests for determining strength of plastics and composites Test Description D 695 To determine compressive strength and modulus (most common), deformation, strain, slenderness ratio, crushing load, etc. of rigid plastics.

Guide to Engineered Materials

Selecting materials for strength

Creep Flexural D 2990 D 790 Tensile, compressive and flexural creep; creep rupture of plastics for determination of creep modulus, strain, and creep rupture strength. To determine how a material resists bending (a combination of compression and tension). Flex strength and modulus used to indicate the stiffness of rigid/semirigid plastics. For advanced composites, 3-point method recommended for ultimate flex strength and flex modulus. At elevated temperature, 4-point method minimized specimen crushing. To determine flexural properties of electrical insulating materials (rigid sheet and plate) at and above room temp. To determine short-beam shear strength (interlaminar shear strength) at failure of reinforced plastics. Variety of failure modes possible. To determine ILSS of structural reinforced plastics at elevated temperatures. To determine shear strength of a material. Most Applicable to film and sheet. For unidirectional reinforced plastics, details methods for determining ultimate shear strength and stress-strain properties of in-plane shear. Torsion test determines stiffness properties of plastics as a function of temperature. Measures apparent modulus of rigidity (apparent shear modulus of elasticity). To determine time-dependent stress reduction at constant deformation. To determine tensile strength at yield or break, modulus of elasticity, and per cent elongation at yield or break. To determine tensile properties of oriented fiber composites. Includes procedures for determining Poissons ratio Preparation and tensile testing of filament-wound pressure vessels. To determine apparent tensile strength of ring or tubular high-modulus composites (extruded or molded) by the split disk method.

Flexural Interlaminar shear strength Interlaminar shear strength Shear Shear Stiffness Stress relaxation Tensile Tensile Tensile Tensile

D 229 D 2344 D 2733 D 732 D 3518 D 1043 D 2991 D 638 D 3039 D 2585 D 2290

Incorporating reinforcements in thermoplastics and thermosets dramatically increases strength. Short glass fibers at a 30% loading (by weight) boosts tensile strength of engineering plastics by about a factor of two; carbon fibers, even further. On the high end of the composite materials spectrum are advanced composites, most commonly graphite/epoxy laminates, consisting of 60% by volume of continuous reinforcing fibers. Reinforced with a high-modulus graphite fiber, a unidirectional laminate typically has about a tensile modulus of 29 million psi and 165,000 psi tensile strength; a high-strength graphite fiber, a modulus of 20 million psi and a tensile strength of 225,000 psi. In addition to graphite and carbon, other reinforcing fibers for advanced composites include boron, S-glass, aramid, and hybrids of these. Made up of multiple plies or layers, advanced composites can be fully characterized in terms of strength properties by tensile strength and modulus, shear strength and modulus, and compressive strength of a unidirectional laminate. In between advanced composites and reinforced thermoplastics lie a whole range of composites. Depending on the process, the reinforcement can be in the form of prepreg tow or tape, random mat, woven or knitted fabrics. It's obvious that the highest loadings and strongest fibers will produce the strongest composites whether they are fabricated by lay- up, filament winding, pultrusion, or other means. Refer to table for typical reinforcement loadings, properties, and matrices used in various RP processes. It's no secret that advanced composites have higher strength-to- weight ratios and higher specific stiffness than metals. However, the ability to selectively place fibers results in tremendous design versatility. Varying fiber orientation, concentration, and even generic fiber type permits stiffness and strength to he tailored to a specific application. Depending on where the most strength is needed, a Gr/epoxy structural component can be laid-up of prepreg tape (graphite fibers impregnated with epoxy resin) into unidirectional, bidirectional, quasi-isotropic, and other configurations. A quasi-isotropic laminate consists of 0, 45, 90, 45, and 0 degree plies, and provides essentially isotropic properties, while minimizing warpage. For this configuration, tensile properties are roughly 1/3 those of unidirectional laminates. For complex structures and where strength is also needed in the "z" direction, braiding and weaving of reinforcements has been successfully used to produce stronger components. Developing higher strength Recent developments in materials, reinforcing fibers and processes are giving new meaning to "high strength." On the materials side, liquid crystal polymers (LCPS) are now commercially available from at least two domestic sources, with others expected to follow. When injection molded "neat" or without reinforcing fibers, these aromatic polyester thermoplastics typically provide strengths equivalent to 30% fiber-reinforced engineering thermoplastics. Hence, the term "self-reinforcing" is applied to this class of materials. In the melt, these unique materials orient themselves, producing a fibril- like structure upon solidification that resembles wood. For advanced composite applications, carbon-fiber fabric prepreg

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Selecting materials for strength

has been made and is being evaluated for potencial use in aerospace, aircraft, electronic and other components. New fibers are stronger than ever Improvements in manufacturing have led to graphite fibers with strengths up to 800,000 psi and a modulus of 45 million psi, which corresponds to higher-strength composites. Ultimate limit on strength is projected to be 1 million psi. New inorganic fibers like 2% strain carbon/graphite are not the only types helping composites perform better. Recently developed fibers like oriented polyethylene are now broadening the choice of reinforcements for both woven structures for ballistic applications and advanced composites. 'Faster' composites via thermoplastics Because of their inherent faster processing - no time-consuming curing or autoclaving thermoplastic matrix composites will, without doubt, replace conventional thermoset composites. The only question is when. Most industry experts see thermoplastic-matrix advanced composites outpacing established epoxy and other thermoset types sometime in the 1990s. In the aircraft/aerospace sector, current development work, based on thermoplastics is showing promising results. Not only for typical laminated structures, but for filament winding and pultrusion as well. Thermoplastics, such as polyphenylene sulfide, polyetheretherketone, and polyamide-imide, are now available in prepreg tapes and/or roving for use in filament winding and pultrusion, as well as layup. Unfortunately, developments in pultrusion equipment for thermoplastics are lagging behind materials developments. Sheet prepregs, too, have been unveiled: up to 4 x 6 ft in carbon/PEEK and eventually up to 4 x 8 ft in PPS. Thermoforming, hot stamping of consolidated sheet and roll forming are potencial processes. Aircraft applications for carbon/PEEK include an F-16 access panel and reinforcing ribs for the made for B-1 bomber wing. Also suited for pultrusion and filament winding, prepreg rovings and tapes now available (E-glass) or in development (aramid and carbon fibers), are based on thermoplastic polyimides, thermoplastic polyesters and nylons. One materials supplier has come up with what it calls a "thermoplastic BMC," a bulk molding compound that incorporates 2-in. long fibers in engineering thermoplastic resins. Molding is carried out on modified thermoset compression molding equipment. Recently refined manufacturing has resulted in perfecting long-fiber reinforced nylon 6/6 and other thermoplastics for injection molding. They provide increased mechanical properties over choppedglass versions, thanks to 10 x longer glass reinforcement. Developments have not stopped with thermosets, either. For reaction injection molding, nonurethane materials are also getting stronger. Acrylamates, reinforced with glass roving, are already commercial as spare-tire well coyers in GM cars, and are predicted to spread to structural applications with 55% reinforcement and a flexural modulus over 2 million psi. Similarly, 60 to 70% glass-mat reinforced dicyclopentadiene materials are being evaluated in resin transfer molding for potencial use as truck hoods and fenders.

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Selecting materials for strength

Specific strength and specific stiffness (strength or stiffness divided by density) shows the advantages gained by composites over other structural materials. Source: Hercules.

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Selecting materials for strength

Applications: now and on the horizon Advanced composites have progressed from secondary to primary structures in aircraft/aerospace components. With pulformed leaf springs and filament wound driveshafts already a reality in automobiles - not to mention the plastic-bodied Fiero - composites are looking toward new developments on the horizon. One consumer area now being developed is major appliances. With flexural moduli in the 2 million psi range, composites, whether they be reinforced thermoplastics or SMC (sheet molding compound) are expected to make in-roads here. Introduced on 1986 models, is a dishwasher inner door, compression molded of a 20% glass-reinforced polyester TMC (thick molding compound). A myriad of tests for composites Tests for measuring the strength of plastics - whether it be tensile, flexural, shear, or compressive have been standardized over the years (see accompanying table for ASTM tests for plastics). Unfortunately, in the case of advanced composites, everyone is always looking for a better test. Although stress-strain testing is pretty straight forward, shear testing is not. There are at least 13 tests available, none of which is ideal, either because of hard-to-fabricate test specimens or because a pure shear mode is not introduced. Interlaminar shear strength, for example, has been widely accepted as a means of measuring fiber-to-matrix bonding. Of the many tests available, here are the top four that give more accurate prediction of shear strength. losipescu, 10-degree off-axis tensile, 45-degree tensile, and 3-rail shear. Why testing doesn't correlate with service Depending on the gating, part configuration, and other processing parameters, strength can vary significantly throughout a part. With a glass reinforced, injection molded component, for example, the flow of the material during molding results in the orientation of the fibers primarily in the flow direction. This results in higher strengths in the flow direction vs. the transverse or cross-flow direction. Similarly, knitlines - the areas where two flow fronts of material meet in the mold - are often the weakest area of a molded part.

CERAMICS
Ceramics tend to be weak in tension, but strong in compression. For a metal, the compressive strength is near that of the tensile strength, while for a ceramic, the compressive strength may he 10 times the tensile strength. Alumina, for example, has a tensile strength of 20,000 psi (138 MPa), while the compressive strength is 350,000 psi (2400 MPa). Strength of ceramics Compressi Property Flexural ve tensile strength, psi strength, strength, psi psi 85 235,000 18,000 42,500 Alumina 90 350,000 20,000 46,000 300,000 25,000 45,000 95 350,000 28,000 49,000 99 375,000 30,000 50,000 Alumina silicate 40,000 2,500 9,000 ZrO2-Al2O3 350,000 3% O3 PSZ* 430,000 170,000 TIZ** 255,000 51,000 92,000 9% MgO PSZ* 270,000 100,000 Cast Si3N4 20,000 3,500 10,000 Reaction bonded SiC 100,000 20,000 37,000 Pressureless sintered 560,000 25,000 80,000 SiC Sintered SiC with free 150,000 24,000 47,000 silicon Sintered SiC with 60,000 5,000 8,000 graphite Reaction-bonded Si2N4 112,000 30,000 Hot-pressed Si3N4 500,000 125,000 *Partially-stabilized zirconia. **Transformation-toughened zirconia. Data is from a variety of commercial sources.

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The discrepancy between tensile and compressive strengths is in part due to the brittle nature of ceramics. When subjected to a tensile load, ceramics, unlike metals, are unable to yield and relieve the stress. Another important factor is the presence of internal flaws from which cracks can propagate in tension, but not in compression. More important than the quantity of flaws is the flaw size. According to the Griffith relationship for brittle materials: the strength; = (EM/C)1/2 (where E is the elastic modulus, M is the fracture surface energy, and C is the length of the hole or flaw). Thus, as the flaw size increases, the strength decreases. Ceramics containing a single phase are usually stronger than those with several phases. When a part cools after sintering, the different phases contract unequal amounts causing localized stresses in the material. And unlike metals, ceramics are unable to relieve the localized stress. Grain size also affects ceramics strength. Increasing the average grain size weakens the ceramic. This weakening may occur because larger grain sizes usually bring larger flaws. Machining can introduce flaws into a part. Sintering to net shape not only saves time and labor, it produces stronger parts. Air can he entrapped during processing. Isostatic pressing under high pressure forces out the trapped air particles, which would weaken the part. Materials and methods Single-crystal sapphire can be grown relatively free from internal flaws. After flame polishing to create a flaw-free surface, the sapphire's flexural strength may exceed 1,450,000 psi (1O,OOO MPa), more than 20 times that of steel. A more common and less expensive material than sapphire is cement. Ordinary cement consists mainly of calcium silicate with a small quantity of calcium aluminate. Due to entrapment of air and incomplete packing of particles, cement is weak in tension and bending. Another calcium-based ceramic, mother of pearl (CaCO3), has a flexural strength ten times that of ordinary cement, and a fracture energy in excess of 5.5 in.Ib/in2. (1000 J/m2), 50 times greater than cement. Sapphire and mother of pearl are strong, but not practical structural materials. By using two different sizes of cement powder to give greater packing, and adding polyacrylamide gel to prevent the entrapment of air, macro-defect-free (MDF) cement is produced: The flexural strength of MDF cement is 14,000 psi (100 MPa) compared to only 2500 psi (17 MPa) for ordinary cement. Cement, sand, stones, and water are mixed together to form concrete. The range of aggregate sizes, from fine sand particles to small to larger stones, allows denser packing and minimal air entrapment leading to greater strength. The water/cement ratio also is important; more water weakens the concrete. A water/cement ratio of 0.7 produces a concrete with a compressive strength of 4100 psi (28 MPa), while a water/cement ratio of 0.4 results in a concrete with over twice the strength, 8800 psi (60.5 MPa). However, less water makes the concrete less workable, so low-water concrete requires mechanical compacting or vibration equipment. To improve the tensile strength of concrete, steel rods can be added. The steel carries tensile loads. Unfortunately, as the steel stretches, the brittle concrete is pulled with it, fracturing well before the steel does. Prestressing the concrete allows greater tensile loading before failure. Steel rods are initially placed in tension, then released, exerting a compressive force on the concrete. When the concrete is then subjected to a tensile load in service, the effect is unload the precompression. The idea of prestressing to improve subsequent tensile and flexural properties applies to other ceramics. Quenching alumina in silicone oil increases the flexural strength. The average strength after quenching is 128,000 psi (880 MPa) compared to 85,000 psi (590 MPa) for the unquenched control. Quenching causes a compressive surface layer to form on the alumina. Another method of prestressing is ion implantation. At the surface of a ceramic, one set of ions, such as potassium, is substituted for another set of ions, such as sodium. The larger potassium ions crowd the surface, placing it in compression. The precompressed ceramic can better withstand tensile loading. Glass fibers are very strong in tension, with tensile strengths up to 624,000 psi (4300 MPa), compared to only 58,000 psi (400 MPa) for ordinary steel. The glass fibers commonly reinforce polymer-matrix composites. They also can give tensile strength to ceramic-matrix composites. Unlike metals, which are most often tested in tension, ceramics are usually tested in compression. When tensile tests for ceramics are desired, care must be taken to align the grips accurately and apply the load axially to avoid an additional bending or torsional stress. Due to the brittle nature of ceramics, a small bending or torsional stress could significantly alter the results.

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Typical high-strength applications

Many aircraft, both commercial and military, rely on ultra-high strength steels in landing gear. One grade often used in commercial aircraft is 4340M, which features an ultimate tensile strength of 270,000-300,000 psi (1860-2070 MPa). Photo, courtesy Boeing Commercial Airplane Co., Seattle.

High-strength steel first made multi-level building construction possible during the late 1800s. Because of its many advantages, steel remains the backbone of commercial and industrial building construction today. This particular 16floor high-rise uses 4200 tons (3810 tonne) of ASTM A572 grade 50 and ASTM A36. Photo, courtesy Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehem, Pa.

The body panels of the Corvette Indy are a glassfiber-reinforced polyester. Glass fibers have a tensile strength of more than 300,000 psi, several times greater than steel. Courtesy, Chevrolet.

Parts made of new higher-strength steels can have thinner cross sections, which reduces component weight without sacrificing over-all strength or rigidity. This shipping pallet, made of an ultra-high strength steel, is stronger than wood, aluminum, or plastic units of equal size. Its also 15-20 lb (6.8-9.1 kg) lighter than a wood pallet of equal size and it won't rot, warp or

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Selecting materials for strength

shrink. Photo, courtesy Inland Steel Corp., East Chicago, Ind.

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