Overview of Process Plant Piping System Maintenance and Repair

Participants Workbook

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Overview of Process Plant Piping System Maintenance and Repair

Edited by: Vincent A. Carucci Carmagen Engineering, Inc.

Copyright 1999 by

All Rights Reserved

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1: PARTICIPANT NOTES.3 Part 2: BACKGROUND MATERIAL36 I. Introduction .... 37 II. Inspection and Testing Practices ....40 III. Inspection Frequency and Extent .45 IV. Evaluation and Analysis of Inspection Data ....49 V. Repairs, Alterations, and Rerating ....55 VI. Inspection of Buried Piping .....65 VII. Summary ..68 VIII. Suggested Reading ......69

Part 1: Participant Notes

Overview of Process Plant Piping System Maintenance and Repair

Notes:

Course Outline
Introduction General Inspection and Testing Practices Inspection Frequency and Extent Evaluation and Analysis of Inspection Data Repairs, Alterations, and Rerating Inspection of Buried Piping Closure
2

Notes:

Scope of API 570

Inspection, repair, alteration, rerating of inservice metallic piping systems To be used by qualified organizations and individuals Included fluid services: process fluids, hydrocarbons, similar flammable or toxic services
3

Notes:

Scope of API 570 (Cont.)

Excluded and optional piping systems
Hazardous services below threshold limits Water, steam, steam-condensate, BFW, Category D services Systems on movable structures governed by jurisdictions Systems integral with mechanical devices Internal piping Plumbing and sewers Size NPS 1/2 Non-metallic or lined piping
4

Notes:

Definitions
Alteration - Physical change affecting pressure containing capability or flexibility - Work to restore piping system to be suitable for design conditions - Maximum permitted internal pressure for continuous operation at design temperature

Repair

MAWP

Notes:

Definitions (Cont.)
Rerate - Change in design pressure, design temperature, or both

Piping Circuit - Pipe section exposed to similar corrosivity, with similar design conditions and material

Notes:

Types of Pipe Deterioration

Injection points CUI Service-specific and localized corrosion Environmental cracking Fatigue cracking Brittle fracture
7

Deadlegs Soil-to-air interfaces Erosion and corrosion/erosion Corrosion under linings and deposits Creep cracking Freeze damage

Notes:

Typical Injection Point Circuit

O ve rh ead L in e G re ate r of 3D or 1 2" * * In jectio n p oin t * * D istilla tion T o we r In jectio n p oint pipin g cir cuit * * O ve r hea d Co nde ns e rs

* = Typical T M L

Figure 1

Notes:

Systems Susceptible to CUI

Areas exposed to:
Mist overspray from cooling water towers Deluge systems Steam vents Process spills, moisture ingress, acid vapors

CS systems operating in range 25-250F CS systems in intermittent service over 250F Deadlegs and attachments protruding from insulation
9

Notes:

Systems Susceptible to CUI (Cont.)

Austenitic stainless steels operating in range 150-400F Vibrating systems with damaged insulation jacketing Steam-traced systems with tracing leaks Systems with deteriorated coatings and/or wrappings
10

Notes:

Locations Susceptible to CUI

Penetrations/breaches in jacket Damaged/missing jacketing Hardened, separated, or missing caulking Piping low points in systems that have insulation breach Insulation plug locations
11

Insulation termination points Jacket seams on top of horizontal piping or improperly lapped/sealed jacket Bulges or staining of insulation or jacketing, or missing bands Carbon or low-alloy steel components in high-alloy systems

Notes:

Inspection Types
Internal visual Thickness measurement External visual Vibrating piping Supplemental inspection
Radiography AET
12

Thermography UT

Notes:

External Visual Inspection

Observations by non-inspectors Scheduled inspections by qualified inspector and documented Check for:

13

Leaks Vibration Corrosion Paint condition Incorrect components

Misalignment Support condition Insulation condition Unrecorded field modifications or temporary repairs

Notes:

Thickness Measurement Locations (TMLs)

Specific inspection areas along piping circuit
Nature of TML varies by location Selection considers potential for local corrosion and service-specific corrosion

Thickness monitoring at TMLs

TMLs distributed in circuit More TMLs and more frequent monitoring based on situation
14

Notes:

10

Thickness Measurement Locations (TMLs) (Cont.)

Test points - circles
Within TMLs Pipe Size NPS 10 > NPS 10 Thickness averaging Circle Diameter 2 3

Mark TMLs for follow-up measurements

15

Notes:

TML Selection
More TMLs:
Leak has high risk potential High potential for localized corrosion High CUI potential Higher corrosion rates Complex system

Fewer TMLs:
Low risk if leak Long, straight piping Relatively non-corrosive service

No TMLs:
Extremely low risk if leak Non-corrosive service
16

Notes:

11

Thickness Measurement Methods

UT for pipe over NPS 1 RT for pipe NPS 1 Use appropriate UT procedures Pit depth measurements
17

Notes:

Pressure Testing
Normally not part of routine inspections
Some jurisdictional exceptions

Done per ASME B31.3 Normally a hydrotest Special considerations for stainless steel piping
18

Notes:

12

Other Inspections
Material verification and traceability Valve inspection Weld inspection Flanged joint inspection

19

Notes:

Piping Service Classes

Class 1 Description Highest potential of immediate emergency if leak Examples:
Flammable service that may auto-refrigerate Pressurized services that may rapidly vaporize and form explosive mixture H2S in gas stream (> 3 wt. %) Anhydrous hydrogen chloride; HF Pipe over or adjacent to water; over public throughways

2 3
20

Services not in other classes Includes most process unit piping and selected off-site piping Flammable services that do not significantly vaporize when leak Services harmful to human tissue but located in remote areas

Notes:

13

Inspection Intervals
By Owner-user or inspector based on:
Corrosion rate and remaining life calculations Piping service classification Applicable jurisdictional requirements Judgment based on operating conditions, inspection history, current inspection results, conditions warranting supplemental inspections

21

Notes:

Inspection Intervals (Cont.)

Maximum thickness measurement intervals shorter of:
Half remaining life (considers corrosion rate) Maximum specified in API 570

Review/adjust intervals as needed

22

Notes:

14

Maximum Inspection Intervals

Circuit Type Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Injection points Soil-to-air interfaces
23

Thickness Measurements, years 5 10 10 3 -

Visual External, years 5 5 10 By Class By Class

Notes:

Extent of Visual External Inspection

Bare piping
Assess condition of paint and coating systems Check for external corrosion, other deterioration

Insulated piping
Assess insulation condition Additional inspection if susceptible to CUI
24

Notes:

15

CUI Inspection Considerations

Insulation damage at higher elevations may cause CUI at lower areas remote from damage RT or insulation removal and VT normally required Expand inspection as necessary CUI inspection targets specified in API 570 Systems that may be excluded
Remaining life over 10 years Adequately protected against external corrosion
25

Notes:

CUI Inspection Targets

Pipe Class Amount of Follow-up NDE or Insulation Removal Where Insulation Damaged Amount of NDE at Suspect Areas on Piping Within Susceptible Temperature Ranges

75%

50%

50%

33%

3
26

25%

10%

Notes:

16

Extent of Thickness Measurements

Obtain thickness readings on representative sampling of TMLs on each circuit Include sampling data for various components and orientations in each circuit Include TMLs with earliest renewal date based on prior inspection More TMLs more accurate prediction of next inspection date
27

Notes:

Extent of Other Inspections

Small-bore piping (SBP), NPS 2
Primary process lines and Class 1 secondary lines:
+ Per all API 570 requirements

Classes 2 and 3 SBP

+ Inspection optional + Inspect deadlegs where corrosion expected

Secondary, auxiliary SBP

Inspection optional if associated with instruments or machinery Consider classification and potential for cracking, corrosion, CUI
28

Notes:

17

Extent of Other Inspections (Cont.)

Threaded connections
Inspection based on SBP and auxiliary piping requirements Select TMLs that can be radiographed Additional considerations if potentially subject to fatigue damage

29

Notes:

Remaining Life Calculations

RL =
tact tmin CR

Where: RL = Remaining life, years tact = Minimum measured thickness, in. (May average at test point) tmin = Minimum required thickness for location, in. Per B31.3 or detailed calculations.
30

Notes:

18

Remaining Life Calculations (Cont.)

RL for circuit based on shortest calculated RL Determines
Inspection interval Repair/replacement needs

31

Notes:

Corrosion Rate Calculations

Long term and short term
Compare to determine which governs Rationalize if significantly different

CR (LT) = ( years between last and initial inspection s) CR (ST) = ( years between last and previous inspection s)
32

t initial t last

t previous t last

Notes:

19

Corrosion Rate Estimation New Systems or Changed Service Conditions

Determine using one of the following: Data from other systems of similar material in comparable service Estimated from Owner-users experience or from published data on systems in comparable service Thickness measurements
After maximum 3 months service Consider using corrosion coupons or probes to help establish measurement timing Repeat until establish CR
33

Notes:

Example 1
Pipe treq tmeas = NPS 16, tinitial = 0.375 = 0.28 = 0.36, 0.32, 0.33, 0.34, 0.32

Service = Gas with 3.5% H2S

In operation 10 years

34

Notes:

20

Example 1 (Cont.)
Service Class 1 5-year interval CR/Maximum = CA/Available
0.375 0.32 = 5.5 x 10-3 in./yr. 10

= (0.32 - 0.28) = 0.04 in. 0.04 Maximum Interval = = 3.6 years 2 x 5.5 x 10 3 < 5 years Maximum thickness measurement interval = 3.6 years

35

Notes:

MAWP Determination
Based on applicable code (ASME B31.3) MAWP of system based on weakest component (e.g., pipe, flanges, valves, fittings, etc.) Unknown material - Calculate based on lowest grade material and joint efficiency of code MAWP calculation based on:
Actual measured thickness Double estimated corrosion until next inspection Allowances needed for other loadings
36

Notes:

21

Example 2
DP = 500 psig, DT = 400F

Pipe = NPS 16, STD weight, A-106 Gr. B, OD = 16 in. S CR = 20,000 psi, = 0.01 in./yr. E = 1.0 tmeas = 0.32 in. Next planned inspection - 5 years
37

Notes:

Example 2 (Cont.)
Estimated thinning until next inspection 5 x 0.01 = 0.05 in. MAWP = 2 S Et/D = 2 x 20,000 x 1 x [0.32 - 2 x 0.05]/16 = 550 psig > 500 psig OK
38

Notes:

22

Example 3
Same system as Example 2 Change next planned inspection to 7 years Estimated thinning until next inspection 7 x 0.01 = 0.07 in. MAWP = 2 S Et/D = 2 x 20,000 x 1.0 [0.32 - 2 x 0.07]/16 = 450 psig
39

Notes:

Example 3 (Cont.)
Not acceptable. Must either:
Reduce inspection interval Confirm maximum operating pressure will not exceed 450 psig before 7th year Renew pipe before 7th year

40

Notes:

23

Minimum Required Thickness Determination

Based on:
Pressure, mechanical, structural considerations Appropriate design formulae and code allowable stress

Consider general and localized corrosion Consider increasing calculated value if high potential failure consequences
Unanticipated/unknown loads Undiscovered metal loss Resistance to normal abuse
41

Notes:

Local Thin Area Evaluation Alternatives

ASME B31.G criteria Numerical stress analysis and ASME Section VIII, Division 2, Appendix 4 criteria
Code allowable stress but < 2/3 SMYS at temperature Additional considerations if temperature in creep range

Additional considerations if corroded longitudinal weld and E < 1.0

Weld includes base metal each side of weld within greater of 1 in. or twice measured thickness

Additional considerations for corroded pipe caps

42

Notes:

24

Piping Stress Analysis

Piping to be supported and restrained to:
Safely carry weight Have sufficient flexibility for thermal movement Not vibrate excessively

Not normally part of inspection, but:

Prior analyses identify high stress locations Compare predicted thermal movements with actual Analysis often needed to solve vibration problems

New analyses may be needed if conditions change or system modified

43

Notes:

Recordkeeping Requirements
Owner-user responsibility Permanent/progressive records required To include:
Service Identification Inspection and test details and responsible individual Repairs (temporary and permanent), alterations, reratings done Maintenance and other events affecting system integrity
44

Classification Inspection interval Results of thickness measurements and other inspections and tests done Pertinent design information and piping drawings Date and results of external inspections

Notes:

25

Authorization and Approval of Repairs, Alterations, and Rerating

Authorization
Work by appropriate repair organization Authorized by inspector before starting Piping engineer must approve alterations first Inspector may designate hold points

Approval
Design, execution, materials, welding procedures, examination, testing to be approved by inspector or piping engineer Owner-user to approve on-stream welding Consult piping engineer before repairing service-induced cracks Inspector to approve all repairs/alterations at hold points and after completion
45

Notes:

Welded Repairs
Follow principles of ASME B31.3 or original construction code Temporary repairs
Full encirclement split sleeve or box-type enclosure (generally not for cracks) Fillet welded split coupling or lap patch if:
Localized deterioration SMYS < 40,000 psi Material matches base metal unless otherwise approved
46

Notes:

26

Welded Repairs (Cont.)

May be welded onstream with proper design, inspection, procedures Replace with permanent repair next opportunity
+ May extend if approved/documented by piping engineer + Owner-user establishes appropriate procedures

Defect repair
Remove defect to sound metal Deposit weld metal

47

Notes:

Welded Repairs (Cont.)

Locally corroded areas
Remove surface irregularities and contamination Deposit weld metal

Remove/replace cylindrical section Insert patch

Full-penetration weld 100% RT or UT for Class 1 or 2 systems Rounded corners, 1 in. minimum radius

NDE after welding (e.g., PT, MT, etc.)

48

Notes:

27

Typical Welded Repairs

t ts MT or PT See Detail 1 C L

See Detail 2 LEGEND: ts = Sleeve Thickness t = Pipe Thickness

1/8" Maximum Gap

Field Weld C L ts ts Backing Strip t Detail " 1 " Fillet Girth Weld Detail 2 Butt Weld for Seam

F ield Weld

Figure 2 Split Sleeve

49

Notes:

Typical Welded Repairs (Cont.)

Lifting Lugs C L Typ. Split Box and End Plates on C L Typ.

C L

New Containment Box

Typ.

C (2) 3/4" - 3000# Couplings L

End Plate, (2) Required

Typ.

Figure 3 Complete-Encirclement Box

50

Notes:

28

Typical Welded Repairs (Cont.)

Figure 4 Partial Box

51

Notes:

Typical Welded Repairs (Cont.)

See Detail 1

1/8" Maximum Gap

LEGEND: tp t p = Sleeve Thickness t = Pipe Thickness

t Detail " 1 "

Figure 5 Lap Patch

52

Notes:

29

Non-Welded Repairs
Temporary onstream repairs of locally thinned sections, circumferential linear defects, flange leaks, etc. Bolted leak clamp or box Design must consider:
Control of axial thrust load if piping may separate Effect of clamping forces on pipe component Need for and properties of leak sealing fluids
53

Notes:

Typical Non-Welded Repairs

Figure 6 Flange Clamp

54

Notes:

30

Typical Non-Welded Repairs (Cont.)

Figure 7 Bolted Box

55

Notes:

Welding and Hot Tapping Requirements

Per principles of ASME B31.3 or original construction code Procedures, qualifications, recordkeeping Hot tapping (or other onstream welding)
Per API Publication 2201 Detailed inspection, design, installation, safety procedures required

56

Notes:

31

Welding and Hot Tapping Requirements (Cont.)

Preheat
Per applicable code and welding procedure May be alternative to PWHT

PWHT
Per applicable code and welding procedure May be needed due to service Local PWHT may be possible

57

Notes:

Welding and Hot Tapping Requirements (Cont.)

Design
Full-penetration groove welds for butt joints New and replacement components per applicable code Special design considerations for fillet-welded patches

Materials NDE

58

Notes:

32

Pressure Testing
Done if practical and deemed necessary by inspector Normally required after alterations and major repairs May use NDE instead after consultation with inspector and piping engineer

59

Notes:

Pressure Testing (Cont.)

If not practical to pressure test final closure weld:
Pressure test new or replacement piping Closure weld is full-penetration butt weld between WN flange and standard pipe component, or straight pipe sections of equal diameter and thickness, axially aligned, equivalent materials. SO and SW flange alternatives identified 100% RT or UT MT or PT root pass and completed weld for buttwelds, and on completed weld for fillet welds
60

Notes:

33

Rerating
Requirements to be met: Design calculations Inspection verifies condition and CA provided Safety valves reset All system components acceptable Records updated Meet original or latest code
61

Must be pressure tested unless already done at sufficient pressure Acceptable to inspector or piping engineer Piping flexibility adequate for design temperature changes Temperature decrease justified by impact test results

Notes:

Inspection of Buried Piping

Significant external corrosion possible Inspection hindered by inaccessibility Above-grade visual surveillance for leak indications Close-interval potential survey Pipe coating holiday survey Soil resistivity Cathodic protection monitoring
62

Notes:

34

Other Requirements for Buried Pipe

Inspection Methods Intervals Extent Repair Methods

63

Notes:

Summary
Inspection, repair, alteration, rerating of inservice piping systems are normal activities Requirements and procedures are necessary to maintain piping system integrity API 570 is industry standard to be used

64

Notes:

35

Part 2: Background Material

36

I. Introduction
The structural integrity of piping systems must be maintained after they have been placed into service so that they will provide safe, reliable, long-term operation. Therefore, existing piping systems require periodic inspection to determine their current condition and permit evaluation of their structural integrity to permit future operation. Should unacceptable deterioration or flaws be identified, pipe repairs may be required. Existing piping systems might also require alterations or rerating to accommodate new operational needs (or to accommodate deterioration that cannot or will not be repaired). Process plants must adopt and follow established procedures for the inspection, repair, alteration, and rerating of piping systems after they have been placed into service. API 570, Piping Inspection Code Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems, provides the basic procedures to be followed by process plants. This course is based on API 570. Scope of API 570 API 570 was developed for the petroleum refining and chemical process industries. But since most of its requirements have broad applicability, it may be used for any piping system. It must be used by organizations that maintain or have access to an authorized inspection agency, a repair organization, and technically qualified piping engineers, inspectors, and examiners (as defined in API 570). While API 570 applies to all petroleum refineries and chemical plants, its scope defines both specific included fluid services, and excluded and optional piping systems. Thus, API 570 requirements do not necessarily have to be applied to every piping system in a refinery or chemical plant. Included Fluid Service Unless identified by API 570 as being an excluded or optional system, API 570 applies to piping systems for process fluids, hydrocarbons, and similar flammable or toxic fluid services. Examples of these are the following: Raw, intermediate, and finished petroleum or chemical products. Catalyst lines. Hydrogen, natural gas, fuel gas, and flare systems. Sour water and hazardous waste streams or chemicals above threshold limits, as defined by jurisdictional regulations.

37

Excluded and Optional Piping Systems API 570 permits the following fluid services and classes to be excluded from its specific requirements. This is done to focus attention (with associated manpower and budget expenditures) on applications that would have the most significant consequences should a pipe failure occur. However, any of these excluded systems may be included in a plants API 570 program at the option of the owner. Fluid services that are excluded or optional include the following: Hazardous fluid services below threshold limits, as defined by jurisdictional regulatories. Water (including fire protection systems), steam, steam condensate, boiler feedwater, and Category D fluid services (as defined by ASME B31.3).

Classes of piping systems that are excluded or optional are as follows: Piping systems on movable structures covered by jurisdictional regulation (e.g., piping systems on trucks, ships, barges, etc.). Piping systems that are an integral part or component of rotating or reciprocating mechanical devices (e.g., pumps, compressors, etc.) where the primary design considerations and/or stresses are derived from the functional requirements of the device. Internal piping or tubing of fired heaters or boilers. Pressure vessels, heaters, furnaces, heat exchangers, and the fluid handling or processing equipment (including internal piping and connections for external piping). Plumbing, sanitary sewers, process waste sewers, and storm sewers. Piping or tubing with an outside diameter not exceeding that of NPS Nonmetallic piping and polymeric or glass-lined piping.

API 570 permits these services and systems to be excluded from its specific requirements to focus inspection, engineering, and maintenance resources on areas that would have the largest potential effect should leakage or failure occur. However, this should not be interpreted that these excludable or optional systems should be completely ignored. Furthermore, the consequences of a failure in some of these systems could be dangerous or unacceptable in particular circumstances. Therefore, owners may wish to include some of these services or systems in their API 570 program in all respects, and different requirements and procedures may be used for other services or systems. For example:

38

The failure of a high pressure steam or boiler feedwater system could have significant personnel safety consequences. An owner might include such services in his API 570 program. The failure of an NPS vent connection in an included fluid service could have significant personnel safety and economic consequences. An owner might wish to include such systems in his API 570 program.

Definitions API 570 contains definitions of technical terms that are used in the standard. The following are several of these terms used in this course: Alteration A physical change in any component that has design implications affecting the pressure containing capability or flexibility of a piping system beyond the scope of its design. The work necessary to restore a piping system to a condition suitable for safe operation at the design conditions. The maximum internal pressure permitted in the piping system for continued operation at the most severe condition of coincident internal or external pressure and temperature (minimum or maximum) expected during service. A change in either or both the design temperature or the maximum allowable working pressure. A section of piping that has all points exposed to an environment of similar corrosivity and that is of similar design conditions and construction material.

Repair MAWP

Rerate Piping Circuit

39

II. Inspection and Testing Practices

Types of Pipe Deterioration The piping inspection techniques that are used must consider the type(s) of deterioration that might be found in particular services or locations. The following types and areas of deterioration might occur: Injection point corrosion Corrosion under insulation (CUI) Service specific and localized corrosion Environmental cracking Fatigue cracking Brittle fractures Deadleg corrosion Soil-to-air (S/A) interfaces Erosion and corrosion/erosion Corrosion beneath linings and deposits Creep cracking Freeze damage

Several of these items are briefly discussed below. Injection Points Portions of a piping system that are in the vicinity of injection points may be subject to accelerated or localized corrosion. Such regions should be treated as separate inspection circuits and be thoroughly inspected periodically. API 570 provides suggested lengths of pipe upstream and downstream of the injection point that should be included in the injection point circuit. Figure 1 illustrates a typical injection point circuit.

40

Overhead Line

Greater of 3D or 12"

* * Injection point * * * Distillation Tower Injection point piping circuit * Overhead Condensers *

* = Typical TML

Typical Injection Point Circuit Figure 1 Systems Susceptible to CUI Piping systems may be subject to external corrosion under insulation (CUI) in situations where the integrity of the insulation system has been compromised. Therefore, special inspection attention should be paid to situations where CUI might be a concern. The following highlights areas and types of piping systems that might be more prone to CUI: Areas exposed to : Mist overspray from cooling towers Deluge systems Steam vents Process spills, moisture ingress, acid vapors

Carbon steel piping operating in the range 25F to 250F. Carbon steel piping operating intermittently above 250F. Deadlegs or other attachments protruding from insulation and at a different temperature than the active line. Austenitic stainless steel piping operating between 150F and 400F. Vibrating piping that may damage insulation jacketing. 41

Steam traced piping that may have leaking tracers. Piping with deteriorated coating or wrapping.

Locations Susceptible to CUI For systems that are susceptible to CUI, inspection efforts should be focused first on the most likely locations where corrosion might be found. The following summarizes such locations: Penetrations through or breaches in the insulation jacketing. Insulation terminations at flanges and other piping components. Damaged or missing insulation jacketing. Insulation jacket seams located on the top of horizontal piping. Improperly lapped or sealed insulation jacketing. Insulation termination points in vertical pipe. Caulking that has hardened, separated, or is missing. Bulged or stained insulation or jacketing, or missing bands. Piping low points in systems that have a breach in the insulation system. Carbon or low-alloy steel flanges, bolting, or other components under insulation.

Types of Inspection The particular type of inspection that is used depends on the details of the piping system, the service, and the type(s) of deterioration expected. Internal Visual. Only applicable for large diameter piping, by using remote inspection techniques, or at local areas that are accessible at openings. Thickness Measurement. Used to determine the extent of pipe thinning and may be done with the system either in or out of service. External Visual. Done to determine the condition of the pipe exterior, insulation, paint and coating systems. Also used to check for misalignment, leakage, or vibration.

42

Vibrating Piping. Excessive piping vibration should be reported to engineering for evaluation. Excessive pipe vibration or other line movement could result in leakage at flanged joints or threaded connections, or a fatigue failure. It should be remembered, however, that some amount of pipe vibration is normal. Supplemental Inspection. Other inspection methods may also be used based on the specific situation. These include radiography, thermography, acoustic emission testing (AET), or ultrasonic thickness surveys.

Thickness Measurement Locations (TMLs) TMLs are the specific areas in a piping circuit where inspections are made. TML locations and their number are selected based on the potential for localized or service-specific corrosion and the consequences should a failure occur. Pipe wall thicknesses are measured at test points within the TMLs, and the thickness readings may be averaged to arrive at a composite thickness reading at the TML. A test point is a circle having the following maximum diameters. Pipe Size NPS 10 > NPS 10 TML Selection The number and location of the TMLs must be based on the expected types and patterns of corrosion expected in the particular service. More TMLs Leak has high potential to cause damage High potential for localized corrosion High CUI potential Fewer TMLs Low risk if leak Large, straight piping No TMLs Extremely low risk if leak Non-corrosive service Relatively non-corrosive service Complex system Higher corrosion rates Circle Diameter 2 3

43

Thickness Measurement Methods The following thickness measurement methods are normally used. UT for pipe over NPS 1 RT for pipe NPS 1 Pit depth measurements for pitted areas using pit depth gauges

In all areas, appropriate inspection procedures must be used to obtain reliable results. Pressure Testing Except where local jurisdictions require it, pressure tests are not normally done as part of a routine inspection. When pressure tests are done (e.g., after alterations) they should be based on the following: Must meet ASME B31.3 requirements. Test fluid must be water unless this would have adverse consequences (e.g., freezing, process contamination, water disposal problem). Stainless steel piping requires special attention (e.g., potable water and blown dry).

Other Inspections Other inspections may also be required. Material verification and traceability. When alterations or repairs are made on low or high-alloy piping systems, the inspector must ensure that the correct materials are used. Valve inspection. Inspect valves for any unusual corrosion patterns or thinning. Valves in high temperature cyclic service might be subject to fatigue cracking. All subsequent pressure tests should be per API 598. Weld inspection. Welds are always inspected as part of new construction, repairs, and alterations. They are also sometimes inspected for deterioration as part of the normal inspection activity if problems are suspected. Flanged joint inspection. Flanged joints should be examined for signs of leakage. The cause of any leakage found should be determined. Special attention should be paid to flanges that have been clamped and pumped with sealant to stop leaks since the bolting might corrode and/or crack with time.

44

III. Inspection Frequency and Extent

Piping Service Classes Process piping systems are categorized into different classes to help identify systems where greater inspection efforts should be made. Greater effort should be devoted to systems where there would be more significant safety or environmental impact should a leak occur. Class 1 Description Highest potential of immediate emergency if leak. Examples: - Flammable service that may auto-refrigerate - Pressurized services that may rapidly vaporize and form explosive mixture - H2S in gas stream (> 3 wt. %) - Anhydrous hydrogen chloride; HF - Pipe over or adjacent to water; over public throughways 2 3 Services not in other classes Includes most process unit piping and selected off-site piping Flammable services that do not significantly vaporize when leak Services harmful to human tissue but located in remote areas

Inspection Intervals Inspection intervals are determined based on the following: Corrosion rate and remaining life calculations Piping service classification Jurisdictional requirements Judgment of inspector and piping engineer based on experience

The maximum interval between thickness measurements should be the lower of half the remaining life or what is specified in the following table:

45

Circuit Type Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Injection Points Soil-to-Air Interfaces

Thickness Measurements, Years 5 10 10 3 -

Visual External, Years 5 5 10 By Class By Class

The inspection intervals must be reviewed and adjusted as necessary based on the results of the thickness measurements that are made. Extent of Visual External Inspection External visual inspection should also be conducted at the same maximum intervals as are used for thickness measurements. Bare piping should be checked for: The condition of paint and coating systems External corrosion Other deterioration (e.g., leakage, damaged supports, etc.)

Insulated piping should be checked for: Damaged insulation or jacketing Signs of CUI for systems that might be subject to this

CUI Inspection Considerations After external visual inspection, additional inspection must be done for systems potentially subject to CUI. The additional inspection required depends on the pipe class and whether the insulation is damaged, as specified in the following table:

46

Pipe Class 1 2 3

Amount of follow-up NDE or insulation removal where insulation is damaged 75% 50% 25%

Amount of NDE at suspect areas on piping within susceptible temperature ranges 50% 33% 10%

The inspection may be expanded as necessary based on the initial results. Systems with a remaining life of over 10 years, or that are adequately protected against external corrosion, need not be included in the CUI inspection program. However, the condition of the insulation system should be periodically checked by operating personnel to identify signs of deterioration. Extent of Thickness Measurements Each thickness measurement inspection must obtain thickness readings from a representative sampling of TMLs in each circuit. The sampling should include data from the various components in the circuit and in different orientations (i.e., horizontal and vertical). TMLs with the shortest remaining life must be included. The inspection should obtain as many measurements as necessary to accurately assess the condition of the piping system. Extent of Other Inspections Other inspections are also required to adequately assess the condition of a piping system. Small-Bore Piping (SBP) [ NPS 2] Inspect SBP per the following: Service Primary Process Piping Secondary Process Piping Deadlegs Class All 1 2&3 2&3 Inspection Requirement Inspect per all requirements of API 570 Inspect per all requirements of API 570 Inspection is optional Inspect where corrosion was experienced or is anticipated

Note that while inspection is optional for Class 2 or 3 SBP, the owner must always consider the potential consequence should a leak develop in SBP that has not been inspected.

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Secondary, Auxiliary SBP Inspection is optional for SBP associated with instruments and machinery. Consider the following in determining whether inspection will be done: Piping system classification Potential for environmental or fatigue cracking Potential for corrosion based on experience with adjacent primary systems Potential for CUI

Threaded Connections Threaded connections are inspected based on the same criteria as other SBP. TMLs for threaded connections should only include those that can be radiographed during scheduled inspections. Threaded connections that might be subject to fatigue damage (e.g., those associated with machinery systems) should be periodically assessed. Consideration may be given to using a thicker wall, adding bracing, and/or using a welded connection in situations where the potential fatigue damage is a concern.

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IV. Evaluation and Analysis of Inspection Data

Remaining Life Calculations The remaining life of piping systems must be calculated based on the corrosion rate using the following: Calculation Remaining Life, RL
t act t min corrosion rate

Equation tact = Actual minimum thickness, in inches, determined at inspection tmin = Minimum required thickness, in inches, for the limiting section or zone

Corrosion Rate, CR (LT)

t initial t last D1 t previousl t last D2

D1 = Time (years) between last and initial (nominal) inspections D2 = Time (years) between last and previous inspections

Corrosion Rate, CR (ST)

The long term and short term corrosion rates should be compared and the higher value used in the remaining life calculations. If there is a significant difference between the two corrosion rates, further evaluations should be made in an attempt to determine the cause. The remaining life of the circuit should be based on the shortest calculated remaining life.
Corrosion Rate Estimation

The expected corrosion rate must be estimated for new piping systems or for systems whose service has been changed. One of the following methods must be used to determine the probable corrosion rate. Data collected from other piping systems fabricated of similar material and in comparable service. Estimate based on the owner-users experience or from published data for similar material in comparable service. Make initial thickness measurements after no more than three months of service. Corrosion coupons or probes may be useful to help determine when thickness measurements should be made. Make additional thickness measurements as necessary until the corrosion rate is determined.

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Example 1 - Inspection Interval Determination

An NPS 16 piping system has been in operation for 10 years and has been taken out of service for its first thorough inspection. The following information is given: Pipe service - Gas with 3.5% H2S Minimum required thickness - 0.28 in. Originally installed thickness - 0.375 in. Thicknesses measured at five locations: 0.36, 0.32, 0.33, 0.34, 0.32

Based on the information provided, what maximum thickness measurement interval should be used for this system?
Solution:

The pipe service places this system into Class I. Therefore, the maximum interval cannot be more than 5 years based only on the service. Now check the remaining life criterion. CR/Maximum =
0.375 0.32 = 5.5 x 10-3 in./yr. 10

Available corrosion allowance = (0.32 - 0.28) = 0.04 in. Maximum Interval =

0.04 = 3.6 years < 5 years 2 x 5.5 x 10 3

Maximum thickness measurement interval is 3.6 years.

MAWP Determination

The MAWP of a piping system must be determined based on the requirements of the applicable piping code (i.e., ASME B31.3 in the case of process plant piping systems). The MAWP of the system is that of the weakest component within the system. Thus, in addition to the pipe itself, all other system components must be considered (e.g., flanges, valves, etc.). If the pipe material is unknown, the MAWP calculations must be based on the lowest grade (i.e., weakest) material and lowest weld joint efficiency that would be permitted by the code. The MAWP calculation is based on: The actual thicknesses determined by inspection. Double the estimated corrosion loss until the next inspection is done. Additional allowances that might be necessary in specific cases to account for applied loadings other than pressure.

The following examples illustrate calculation of the MAWP. Note that in both cases, only the pipe thickness is considered. 50

Example 2 MAWP Determination

Design Pressure Design Temperature Pipe Material Pipe Size Allowable Stress Longitudinal Weld Efficiency Thickness Measured During Inspection Observed Corrosion Rate Next Planned Inspection Estimated Thinning Until Next Inspection MAWP =
2 S Et D 2 x 20,000 x 1 x (0.32 2 x 0.05 ) 16

500 psig 400F A 106 Gr. B NPS 16 20,000 psi (from B31.3) 1.0 (A 106 Gr. B is seamless pipe) 0.32 in. 0.01 in./year 5 years 5 x 0.01 = 0.05 in. (from B31.3)

MAWP =

MAWP = 550 psig > 500 psig Since the MAWP exceeds the system design pressure, the system may remain in service at the design pressure without repairs, replacements, or rerating.

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Example 3 Check Increased Inspection Interval

For the same system as in Example 1, determine if the inspection interval can be increased to seven years. Estimated thinning until next inspection = 7 x 0.01 = 0.07 in. MAWP =
2 S Et D

(from B31.3)

MAWP =

2 x 20,000 x 1 x (0.32 2 x 0.07 ) 16

MAWP = 450 psig The MAWP is less than the design pressure. Therefore, either the inspection interval must be reduced, the operating pressure must not exceed 450 psig, or the pipe must be repaired or replaced.

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Minimum Required Thickness Determination

The minimum required thickness of a piping system (i.e., the retirement thickness) must be determined considering all applicable design loads. The design pressure of the system will normally govern the minimum required thickness. However, local loading conditions (e.g., wind or earthquake, valve weights, local thermal displacement stresses, etc.) might govern the minimum required thickness in particular situations. Both general and localized corrosion must be considered. In cases where there are significant safety or economic loss consequences should a failure occur, it is prudent to increase the minimum required thickness above the calculated value. This additional allowance is meant to account for unanticipated or unknown loads, undiscovered metal loss, tolerance in the thickness measurements, and resistance to normal abuse. In all cases, the normal code design formulas and allowable stresses must be used.
Local Thin Area Evaluation

Local areas of a pipe may have thinned much more than the surrounding region. A conservative evaluation approach for such regions is to consider the locally corroded region in isolation and determine the minimum thickness there. If this approach produces an acceptable MAWP, then there is no need to go further. However, if the resulting MAWP is not acceptable, then a more detailed evaluation approach using one of the following methods may be used. ASME B31.G criteria. This simplified approach considers the maximum depth and length of the locally thin area, the pipe diameter, and nominal thickness to determine whether the thin area is acceptable. It intrinsically accounts for the additional strength that the surrounding uncorroded pipe provides to the thin area. ASME Section VIII, Division 2, Appendix 4 criteria. This is a detailed numerical stress analysis approach that permits a more exact calculation and evaluation of the local stresses. The basic code allowable stress (rather than the Division 2 allowable stress) is used in this analysis, but not less than 2/3 of the specified minimum yield stress (SMYS). Additional considerations are required if the design temperature is in the creep range of the material. Weld joint efficiency considerations. If the pipe has a longitudinal weld seam and its joint efficiency is less than one, the proximity of a thinned area to the weld is relevant.

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If the thinned area is more than the larger of 1 inch or twice the measured thickness away from the weld, then weld joint efficiency does not need to be considered. If the thinned area is closer to the weld, then weld joint efficiency must be considered.

If a pipe cap is corroded, the location of the corrosion is relevant (i.e., in the knuckle region or central portion). The knuckle region of a cap requires a larger minimum thickness than the central portion.

Piping Stress Analysis

Performing a piping stress analysis is not normally a part of inspection and maintenance. However, stress analysis considerations must still be kept in mind. The pipe must be adequately supported to carry its weight. Locations where supports have become damaged or are otherwise ineffective should be identified for further evaluation or repair. Adequate flexibility to accommodate thermal displacements must be provided. Identify situations where thermal expansion might be restricted (e.g., due to interference by adjacent items). The pipe must not vibrate excessively, since this could cause leakage at flanged joints and threaded connections, or cause a fatigue failure. A new stress analysis may be required if the design conditions are changed (e.g., due to equipment rerate) or if the system is modified (e.g., adding a new equipment item with associated piping to the system).

Recordkeeping Requirements

The owner-user is responsible for maintaining permanent and progressive records for all piping systems covered by API 570. These records form the basis for developing a cost-effective inspection and maintenance program. The records must include the following information: Service Identification Inspection and test details and responsible individual Repairs (temporary and permanent), alterations, reratings done Maintenance activities and other events affecting system integrity 54 Classification Inspection interval Results of thickness measurements and other inspections and tests done Pertinent design information and piping drawings Date and results of external inspection

V. Repairs, Alterations, and Rerating

In all cases, repairs and alterations must meet ASME B31.3 requirements.
Authorization and Approval

All repairs and alternations must be done by a qualified repair organization (defined in API 570) and must be authorized by the inspector before beginning. Alterations must also be approved by a qualified piping engineer. The inspector may designate hold points during repairs and alterations to permit sufficient time for inspection. Additional approvals are required as follows: The inspector or piping engineer must approve the design, execution, materials, welding procedures, examination, and testing. The owner-user must approve all on-stream welding. The piping engineer should be consulted prior to weld repair of any cracks that occurred in-service. The purpose of this is to attempt to identify the cause of the crack and correct it. The inspector must approve all repairs and alterations at the designated hold points and at completion of the work.

Welded Repairs

Welded repairs are preferably done while the piping system is out of service. However, it may be possible to make weld repairs while the piping system is in operation in particular situations provided appropriate inspections, precautions, and hot work permit procedures are used. API 570 does not distinguish between shut down and on-stream repairs with respect to the specified requirements, and the owner must develop appropriate on-stream repair procedures. API 570 recognizes that it may be necessary to temporarily repair a piping system to permit its continued operation as fast as possible. Thus, a distinction is made between temporary and permanent repairs.

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Temporary Repairs

A full encirclement welded split sleeve or a box-type enclosure may be installed over the damaged or corroded area (See Figures 2 through 4). The sleeve or box must be welded to the pipe at locations that are thick enough to remain intact during welding. A piping engineer must design these repairs. This method will typically not be used to repair longitudinal cracks in the pipe wall unless the piping engineer is convinced that the crack will not propagate from under the repair. A fillet-welded split coupling or a lap patch may be used to repair localized deterioration (e.g., pitting or pinholes) if the SMYS 40,000 psi (See Figure 5).

Temporary repairs should be removed and replaced with permanent repairs at the next available maintenance opportunity. However, temporary repairs may remain longer if the piping engineer approves this and documents it. In most situations, temporary repairs should generally be designed as if they will remain installed for a long time.

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ts MT or PT See Detail 1

C L

See Detail 2 LEGEND: ts = Sleeve Thickness t = Pipe Thickness

1/8" Maximum Gap

Field Weld C L ts ts Backing Strip t Detail " 1 " Fillet Girth Weld Detail 2 Butt Weld for Seam

Field Weld

Welded Split Sleeve Figure 2

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Lifting Lugs C L Typ. Split Box and End Plates on C L

Typ.

C L

New Containment Box

Typ.

C (2) 3/4" - 3000# Couplings L

End Plate, (2) Required

Typ.

Complete-Encirclement Box Figure 3

Partial Box Figure 4

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See Detail 1

1/8" Maximum Gap

LEGEND: tp tp = Sleeve Thickness t = Pipe Thickness

t Detail " 1 "

Lap Patch Figure 5 Permanent Repairs

A relatively small defect may be repaired by completely removing it and then filling the resulting groove with weld metal. Locally corroded areas may be repaired by first removing any surface irregularities and contamination, and then restoring the thickness with weld metal. This approach is only practical for relatively small areas. If the system can be taken out of service, a cylindrical section of pipe that contains the defective area can be removed and replaced.

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An insert patch (i.e., flush patch) may be used as a repair if: Full penetration groove welds are used. The welds are 100% radiographed or ultrasonically examined for Class 1 or 2 piping systems. The patches have rounded corners with a 1 inch minimum radius.

Care must be taken to ensure that insert patches conform to the pipe curvature to avoid local geometric discontinuities that could act as stress concentration points. In all cases, appropriate NDE should be done of the final welds to ensure that they are high quality. Butt welds will typically be 100% radiographically (RT) or ultrasonically (UT) examined, along with either liquid penetrant (PT) or magnetic particle (MT) examination. Other welds will typically be PT or MT examined.

Non-Welded Repairs

Non-welded repairs may be used to temporarily repair a locally damaged portion of a pipe or piping component while the system remains on-stream (or possibly depressured but not gas-freed and cleaned). This approach may be used for locally thinned sections or linear defects (either partially or completely through the pipe thickness), or leaking flanges. Non-welded repairs typically employ a bolted clamp or box which encompasses the damaged component (See Figures 6 and 7). The design of the clamp or box must be adequate for the pressure thrust force from the damaged pipe if there is concern that the pipe will completely separate at the area of deterioration. The pipe must also have adequate thickness at the clamp or box attachment points to withstand the applied bolting force needed to hold the clamp in place. Bolted clamps or boxes will often require injection of a leak sealing fluid to provide a tight seal at the pipe or component interface. The sealant must be compatible with the service fluid and design conditions.

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Bolted Flange Clamp Figure 6

Courtesy of Plidco International, Inc.

Bolted Pipe Box Figure 7

Courtesy of Plidco International, Inc.

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Welding and Hot Tapping Requirements

All welding must be done in accordance with ASME B31.3 or the original piping construction code using qualified procedures and welders. Any welding that is done while the system is in operation (e.g., hot tapping) must meet the requirements of API Publication 2201. All local design, inspection, testing, and hot work permit procedures developed by the owner must also be followed.
Preheat and Postweld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

Preheat and PWHT requirements must be per the applicable code (i.e., ASME B31.3). Preheating to at least 300F may be used as an alternative to PWHT if the system was originally given PWHT as a code requirement (i.e., based only on material type and thickness), provided: The pipe is P-1 steel. Mn-Mo steels are operated at a high enough temperature to provide adequate fracture toughness and there is no hazard associated with pressure testing, startup, and shutdown. The minimum preheat temperature is measured and maintained, and the joint is covered with insulation immediately after welding to slow the cooling rate.

In situations where PWHT is required due to service considerations (e.g., caustic), then the 300F preheat alternative may not be used. PWHT is preferably done in a 360 band around the pipe that encompasses the weld area. Local PWHT may be substituted on local repairs for all materials provided: An appropriate procedure is developed by a piping engineer. The procedure considers thickness, thermal gradients, material properties, charges resulting from PWHT, the need for full penetration welds, local strains and distortions caused by local heating, and surface and volumetric NDE done after PWHT. A minimum 300F preheat is maintained while welding. The PWHT temperature is maintained for a distance of at least twice the pipe thickness from the weld. The PWHT temperature is monitored by two or more thermocouples. Controlled heat is also applied to any branch connection or other attachment located within the PWHT area.

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The PWHT is required for code compliance and not for service considerations (e.g., caustic).

Design, Materials, and NDE

All butt joints must be full-penetration groove welds. Piping components must be replaced if a repair is not likely to be adequate. Fillet welded patches must be designed by the piping engineer considering the following requirements: Appropriate weld joint efficiency The possibility of crevice corrosion - Adequate strength per criteria specified in API 570

New and replacement component materials must be per the applicable code. NDE must be per the applicable code, owner-user specifications, and API 570.

Pressure Testing

Pressure testing is normally required after alterations and major repairs, or if otherwise practical and deemed necessary by the inspector. NDE may be considered as an alternative to pressure testing only after consultation with the inspector and the piping engineer. There may be situations where it is not practical to pressure test a final closure weld in a replacement section of pipe. The following requirements must be met in these cases: The new or replacement pipe section must be pressure tested. Thus, only the final closure weld is not pressure tested. The closure weld is a full-penetration weld between a weld neck flange and a standard pipe component; or between straight pipe sections, axially aligned (not miter cut) of equal diameter, thickness, and material. Alternatives that involve slip-on and socket welded flanges are also identified in API 570. The final closure weld must be 100% RT or UT examined. MT or PT must be done on the root pass and final weld for butt welds, and on completed fillet welds.

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Rerating

The following requirements must be met to permit rerating a piping system to a new design temperature or MAWP: Design evaluations must be done by the piping engineer or inspector to verify the system for the new conditions. The rerating must meet the requirements of either the original construction code or the latest edition of that code. Current inspection data must verify that the system is adequate for the proposed conditions and has sufficient remaining corrosion allowance. The system must be pressure tested for the new conditions, unless records indicate that a previous test was done at a pressure that was greater than or equal to that required for the new conditions. The safety valves must be reset for the new design pressure and confirmed to have adequate relieving capacity. The rerating must be acceptable to the inspector or piping engineer. All components in the system (e.g., valves, flanges, bolts, gaskets, etc.) must be checked and found to be acceptable for the new design conditions. Piping flexibility is adequate for the new design temperature. New calculations may be required to confirm this. The engineering records for the system must be updated. A decrease in the minimum operating temperature is justified by impact test results (or exemptions) if required by the code.

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VI. Inspection of Buried Piping

Corrosive soil conditions may cause significant external deterioration of buried piping. Buried piping is typically protected from these soil conditions by using an external coating or wrap, or by using a cathodic protection system. Periodic inspection of a buried piping system is still required to ensure that the external protection system is effective; however, this inspection is hindered by inaccessibility.
Inspection Methods

Several methods may be used to inspect a buried piping system. A visual surveillance may be made above the area of the pipe for visible indications of leaks. These indications could include: - Surface contour change - Softening of paving asphalt - Bubbling crater puddles Soil discoloration Formation of liquid pools Odor

A close-interval electric potential survey can be conducted over the buried pipe. This survey may locate active corrosion points on the pipe surface. Corrosion cells can be located in this way since the electric potential at a corrosion area will be measurably different from that of an adjacent area. A holiday survey may be done on coated pipe to ensure that the coating is intact and free of holidays. The survey data can be used to determine the effectiveness of the coating and the rate of coating deterioration. Soil resistivity measurements may be used to determine the corrosiveness of the soils in contact with the pipe. A mixture of different soils in contact with the pipe can cause corrosion. If a cathodic protection (CP) system is used for corrosion protection, it should be periodically monitored to ensure that it is providing adequate protection. NACE RP0169 and API RP 651 provide guidance for this monitoring. Direct inspection of buried piping may be done using intelligent pigging, video cameras, or excavation.

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Inspection Frequency and Extent Method Frequency/Comment

Above-grade visual Pipe-to-soil potential survey

6 Months - 5 year interval for poorly coated pipe where CP potentials are inconsistent
- Conduct survey along pipe route if no CP or where leaks have occurred due to external corrosion

Coating holiday survey

Frequency based on indications that other corrosion control methods are ineffective 5 year interval if no CP system and over 100 ft. is buried Per NACE 0169 and API RP 651 Base on results of above-ground inspections Pigging or excavation intervals based on measured soil resistivity per Table 1 Alternative or supplement to inspection. Hydrotest at 1.1 x MAOP Interval of Table 1 if no CP Interval per Table 1 if CP
Inspection Interval, years

Soil corrosivity CP system monitoring Internal External (if no CP) Leak testing (i.e., pressure testing)

Soil Resistivity, ohm-cm

< 2000 2000 10,000 > 10,000

Table 1

5 10 15

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Repair of Buried Piping

Repairs to buried piping may involve coatings, clamps, or welding. Coating repairs must be inspected to ensure that they meet the following criteria: Sufficient adhesion to prevent underfilm migration of moisture Sufficient ductibility to resist cracking Free of voids and gaps Adequate strength to resist damage due to handling and soil stress Can support supplemental CP Tested with a high-voltage holiday detector

The location of clamp repairs must be logged in the inspection records. They are considered temporary repaired and are to be replaced with a permanent repair at the first opportunity. Welded repairs of buried piping must meet the same requirements as those for above-ground piping.

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VII. Summary
Inspection, repair, alteration, and rerating of in-service piping systems are normal activities that must be dealt with in process plants. Requirements and procedures are necessary in carrying out these activities to ensure that piping system integrity is maintained. API 570 is the industry standard that is used to form the basis for more detailed procedures that must be developed by process plant owners.

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VIII. Suggested Reading

1. API 570 2. ASME B31.3 3. ASME B31G 4. API Publication 2201 5. NACE RP0169 6. API RP651
Piping Inspection Code Process Piping Manual for Determining the Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines Procedure for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing Flammables Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems Cathodic Protection of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Tanks

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