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Testing Machine User Workshop Session 1

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds stretch return to initial

d F
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic Non-Linearelastic

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Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear p lanes still sheared 3. Unload

d elastic + plastic

d plastic

F F
Plastic means permanent! linear elastic linear elastic

dplastic

d
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Tensile stress, s:

Engineering Stresst: Shear stress,

Ft Ft
Area, A

F
Fs

Area, A

Ft Ft lb f N = 2 or s= m2 A o in
original area before loading

Fs Fs t= Ao
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb /in2
f 4

Ft

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Simple tension: cable

Common States of Stress

F

F
A o = cross sectional area (when unloaded)

s=

F Ao

s
Ski lift
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac
M

Fs

Ao
F t = s Ao

2R

Note: t = M/AcR here.

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Simple compression:

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

s=

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Ao

Note: compressive structure member (s < 0 here).

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Bi-axial tension:

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)

Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

>0 sz > 0

sh< 0
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Tensile strain:

Engineering Strain Lateral strain:

d /2

e = d Lo
Shear strain: d /2

wo
L

Lo

-d eL = L wo

q
x

g = x/y = tan q
90 - q
Strain is always dimensionless.
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90
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e.

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Typical tensile test machine

Stress-Strain Testing

Typical tensile specimen

extensometer

specimen

Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 7e.

gauge length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E: (also known as Young's modulus) Hooke's Law:

s=Ee

s E
Linearelastic

e
simple tension test
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Poisson's ratio, n
Poisson's ratio, n:

eL

e n = - eL
metals: n ~ 0.33 ceramics: n ~ 0.25 polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units: E: [GPa] or [psi] n: dimensionless n > 0.50 n < 0.50

e -n

density increases density decreases (voids form)

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Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7, Callister 7e.

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Other Elastic Properties

Elastic Shear modulus, G:

M G g M
simple torsion test

t=Gg
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:

P V Vo K
E 3(1 - 2n)

P P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = V

P=- K

V P Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials: G

E 2(1 + n)

K =

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Youngs Moduli: Comparison

Metals Alloys
1200 10 00 8 00 6 00 4 00

Graphite Ceramics Semicond

Diamond

Polymers

Composites /fibers

E(GPa)

2 00 10 0 80 60 40

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal

<100> <111>

Carbon fibers only

C FRE(|| fibers)*
A ramid fibers only

Glass -soda Concrete

A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

G FRE(|| fibers)* GFRE* G raphite CFRE * G FRE( fibers)* C FRE( fibers) AFRE( fibers) * *

109 Pa

20 10 8 6 4 2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDP E PTF E LDPE

Epoxy only

Based on data in Table B2, Callister 7e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

Wood( grain)

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Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple tension: Simple torsion:

d = FL o d = - n Fw o L EAo EAo F
Ao d /2 Lo

a=

2ML o
4 pro G M = moment a = angle of twist
Lo

wo
d /2

2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
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Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Simple tension test:

engineering stress, s

Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

Elastic initially
permanent (plastic) after load is removed

ep

engineering strain, e plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.

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Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred. when ep = 0.002

tensile stress, s

sy

sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample e = 0.002 = z/z z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
e p = 0.002
Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e. 17

Yield Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys 2 0 00
Steel (4140) qt

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond

Polymers

Composites/ fibers

Yield strength, sy (MPa)

10 00 7 00 6 00 5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00

Hard to measure , since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr

Hard to measure,

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061) a

dry

PC Nylon 6,6 PET PVC humid PP H DPE

LDPE

10

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Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

TS
sy

Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 7e.

engineering stress

F = fracture or ultimate strength

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts as stress concentrator

strain engineering strain

Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are

aligned and about to break.

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Tensile Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys 5000 3000 2000 1000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond Polymers Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140) qt Diamond W (pure) Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) aa Steel (4140) Si nitride Cu (71500) cw Cu (71500) hr Al oxide Steel (1020) Al (6061) ag Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Al (6061) a Si crystal
<100>

(MPa)

A FRE (|| fiber) GFRE (|| fiber) C FRE (|| fiber)

Tensile strength, TS

300 200 100 40 30 20 10

Room Temp. values

Nylon 6,6 PET PC PVC PP H DPE wood(|| fiber) GFRE ( fiber) C FRE ( fiber) A FRE( fiber)

Glass-soda Concrete Graphite

L DPE

wood ( fiber)

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers.
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Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure: % EL = L
f

-L L
o

x 100

smaller %EL E ngineering tensile stress, s

Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

% RA =

Ao - Af x 100 Ao
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Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

E ngineering tensile stress, s

Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

small toughness (ceramics) large toughness (metals) very small toughness (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

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Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

ey

sde

If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to

Ur @
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister 7e.

1 sy e y 2
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Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Callister 7e. 24

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Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

True stress True Strain
eT = ln i o
sT = F Ai

True Stress & Strain

sT = s1 + e eT = ln1 + e

Adapted from Fig. 6.16, Callister 7e.

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An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.

Hardening
large hardening small hardening

sy 1 sy

e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response: s

= K

T
e

hardening exponent: n = 0.15 (some steels) to n = 0.5 (some coppers) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
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true stress (F/A)

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Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N

Design or Safety Factors

sw orking = sy N
Often N is between 1.2 and 4

Example:

Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.

sw orking =
220,000N pd 2 / 4
5

sy N

1045 plain carbon steel: sy = 310 MPa TS = 565 MPa F = 220,000N

Lo

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

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Includes Glossary of Terms

-Force, load - Displacement/ elongation - Stress - Strain - How to calculate stress, strain, elongation - Gauge Length - Units of measurement - Stress vs Strain Curve - Force vs Displacement Curve - Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus - Yield Point, Upper & Lower Yield Point, Yield Strength - Maximum Force, Stress - Break Point - Elongation At Break Point

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Specimen
Must follow the standards Crucial especially needed to calculate the stress and strain needed for stress vs strain plot. Specimen size and dimension affecting the calculation of the stress.
s=

F Ao

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Typical tensile specimen

Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 7e.

gauge length

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Load Cell and extensometer

Strain gauges

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Case study

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches sy. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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