Advanced English Communication Skills Lab

Objectives
To develop good English To improve fluency in English To communicate ideas relevantly and coherently in writing.

Course Content: Functional English:

Starting a conversation Responding appropriately and relevantly Body Language Role play in different situations Synonyms & Antonyms Word Roots One word substitutes Prefixes & Suffixes Study of word origin Idioms and Phrases Analogy Dynamics of Group Discussion Intervention and Summarizing Modulation of Voice and Body Language Relevance, Fluency and Coherence Concept and Process Pre interview planning Opening strategies Answering strategies Interview through tele and Video conferencing

Vocabulary

Group Discussion

Interview Skills

Resume Writing
Structure and Presentation Planning and defining the career objective Projecting ones strengths and skill sets Summary Formats and Styles Letter writing

Reading Comprehension
Reading for facts, Guessing Meaning from contexts Scanning, Skimming Critical reading

Technical Report Writing

Types of Formats, styles and subject matter Organization, clarity, coherence and style Planning, data collection Tools and analysis.

Functional English Introduction on Speaking and Listening Listening: Skill of Listening Listening is accepted as one of the most effective modes of learning. In the words of Brown, Listening ability lies at the very heart of all growth, from birth through the years of formal education. Listening is the ability to understand what others speak of say. In the process of communication, we find both the speaker and the listener. The two skills listening and speaking are interdependent. There cannot be any listening without someone speaking. When someone speaks, those around him listen. The listener understands the message of the speaker and grasps the stress, pause, intonation and the pattern of pronunciation in his speech. This in turn helps the listener acquire the habit of speaking the language meaningfully. Listening and Hearing: There is a clear distinction between listening and hearing. We pay conscious attention when we listen. A good listener learns a language more effectively and efficiently. But when we hear we do not pay much attention. We may hear any sound consciously or unconsciously and forget it soon. Listening with a purpose results in better comprehension and retention. There is no communication without listening. Hence, listening is said to be a basic skill in the process of learning a language. Sub Skills of Listening: Understand the meanings of words, phrases and sentences. Follow directions commands given by the speaker. Understand intonation patterns, stress, pauses in speech etc which provide clues to understand the speakers tone and intentions. Understand simple descriptions and narrations. Understand the meaning of inverted statements. Understand questions and respond to them suitably. Recognize cohesive devices like such as, in addition to, in fact, in tune with etc., used by the speaker. Types of Listening:

Superficial Listening: In this type of listening the listener has little awareness of the content of what is being said. The output in this type of listening is zero because the listener tends to ignore the message, and is not able to concentrate on the theme, main points, and supporting details of the message. Appreciative Listening: The main purpose of appreciative listening is to get enjoyment and pleasure. Examples include listening to recordings of songs, entertaining stories, jokes, anecdotes, and so on. The output may be taking part in the entertainment process. For example, a music lover may listen to the latest hit, pick up the chorus and tune, and try to sing alone. Focused listening: It involves listening for specific information. The main purpose is to get some specific information that might be used to take a decision. This is the most common type of listening that we practice in non-formal oral communicative situations. Examples include listening to the radio, watching and listening to television programmes, listening to railway and airport announcements and so on. Evaluative Listening: It involves evaluation of the oral message and commentary and developing a line of thought. The listener interprets and analyze what he or she listens to in order to understand both the explicit as well as implicit meaning of the oral message. It may also involve matching topics against ones own interests, and making mental notes of the important points. Thus, the main purpose of evaluative listening is to evaluate the content of the oral message to select appropriate information. The output could be an oral response, or summarizing and recalling information at a later stage. Examples include listening to structured talks, classroom lectures, workshops, seminars. Attentive Listening: It demands the complete attention of the listener. It is basically active and intelligent listening in situations such as group discussions, meetings, job interviews, and so on. The listener pays attention to all parts of the message that is the central idea main points, supporting details, examples and illustrations. There is no selective dismissal of any part of the oral message. As attentive listening is interactive and productive, facilitating proper interaction and more effective listener speaker relationships. It requires conscious effort on the part of the listener and demands concentration, involvement, and responsibility. Examples of attentive listening include listening to administrative instructions, formal conversational interaction, suggestions, requests, important telephone calls, and so on. Empathetic Listening: It is listening not only to what the speaker is saying but also to how she is saying that is his/her feelings, emotions, and state of mind. The listener has to understand and respond to the affective signals that the speaker might make, and has to be alert to the speakers implied meaning, intention, and attitude. Moreover, listener has to understand and interpret non-verbal clues and the body language of the speaker. Purpose of Listening:

Get an introductory idea of an oral message Understand the main points of a lecture Discover the speakers ideas during a conversation Understand differing view points in order to contribute to a discussion Aim a broad understanding of the subject matter of a seminar Obtain specific information Understand new changes and developments in a particular field Broaden ones outlook and understanding Seek evidence for ones own points of view.

Ten Thumb Rules for Good Listening: Stop Talking: Do not talk while listening. One cannot be a speaker and a listener at the same time. The listener should accept his/her role and allow the speaker to talk. He/she should forget about the response to the listener and concentrate on the speakers words. Stop Thinking: It is not enough for the listener to keep his mouth shut while he/she is listening. He/she has to stop thinking too. He/she cannot listen effectively while thinking. He/she will not be able to focus 100 per cent on what the speaker is telling. Remove Distractions: In order to focus 100 per cent on the person speaking, the listener should avoid all kinds of distractions. He/she should not create any distractions for him/her and should not allow others to interrupt. Do Not Let Your Mind Wander: One of the main causes of listening inefficiency is slowness of speech. We can listen faster than the speaker can speak. This lag time may make the listeners mind wander or daydream. This can be avoided by concentrating on each word spoken by the speaker. Put Speaker at Ease: A conducive environment should be provided to the speaker in order to enable him/her to be at ease. If the speaker is not comfortable, he/she will not be able to speak clearly. Do not Pre-judge: Give the speaker a chance to complete what he/she has to say. Pre judgment closes the mind and does not allow you to perceive the speaker impartially. You can make proper judgment only after you have fully comprehended the information. Be Patient: The speaker should be allowed sufficient time and not interrupted until he/she takes a pause and invites and listener to do so. Patience is the key to good listening. The listener may be in a hurry as he/she has to go somewhere or to do something, but good listening demands patience. Do not be Angry: The listener should control his/her temper while listening. He/she may not like what the speaker is telling, or may completely disagree with

his/her point of view but good listening demands that he/she listens to him/her calmly without making any fuss. Empathize with the Speaker: In order to understand the speakers perspective and appreciate his/her point of view, the listener should try to push him/her in the speakers position Take Notes: The listeners hold take notes if he/she wants to keep a record of what was said, and wants to use it at a later stage. Listening to Structured Talks: 1. Determining the Purpose: The most important aspect of pre-listening analysis is determining what needs to be achieved by listening to the speaker. Does the listener want to listen to the speaker to get a broad understanding of a topic, does he intend to obtain specific information, and does he want to understand specific information. 2. Knowing Your Speaker: The second essential aspect in pre-listening analysis is analyzing the speaker. If the listener knows the speaker well, he will be able to make appropriate adaptations for better understand. 3. predicting: Predicting is a listening strategy for lecture comprehension. It is the process of guessing the information that one expects to receive during a lecture or talk. The listener should be able to think ahead, hypothesize and predict. 4. Using Background Knowledge: Once the listener has guessed the information that he/she is likely to receive, he may recall related information. A familiar topic will make more interested in the talk and will actively listen to it resulting in total comprehension. Barriers to Listening: 1. Physical Barriers: Physical distractions and disturbances can easily disrupt the process of listening. Barriers to listening could be noise, physical discomfort, or any physical factor. Physical noise refers to any sound that disrupts the listening process. 2. Psychological Barriers: As listening is a purposeful activity, any psychological or emotional turbulence or disturbance can prove to be a barrier to effective listening because it leads to lack of interest and concentration. Feelings of anger, frustration, sadness, anxiety, or fear influence our reception and receptivity to others. Thus one must ensure normal state of mind. 3. Linguistic Barriers: Improper message decoding during listening is the recurrent barrier in the process of oral communication. Since the message is decode incorrectly by the listener, it may lead to confusion and misunderstanding. Wile decoding an oral message, the listener should concentrate on the linguistic code for which the conformation of under stability of the listener pertaining to the language. The listener should feel free for clarifications. 4. Cultural Barriers: Sharing of ideas will become difficult if the speaker and listener are from different cultural backgrounds. The interpretation of meanings can create misunderstandings during intercultural communication due to differences in

norms and values. In order to avoid this during listening, a listener should be sensitive to this sort of difference and confusion.

Speaking Skills: The Speech Process: 1. The Message: The speech process begins with the selection of message. The message includes everything that he wants to convey verbally and non-verbally. The speaker should be clear about what message he/she wants to get across. The speaker should be clear about what message wants to get across. 2. The Audience: To be an effective speaker, familiarity with ones audience is necessary. The more formal the speaking situation, the more important it is for he speaker to know his/her listeners in order to decide how to present ideas. The listeners background, educational levels, purpose of listening and expectations has to be thoroughly referred. 3. The Speech Style: It is the manner in which the content of the speech is presented. It is the manner of speaking. It could be very formal, as in a technical seminar or very informal, as in a casual conversation. A person discussing an academic topic with his class teacher would like to be polite and formal. On the other hand, he can afford to be informal if he is going to discuss the same topic with his friends. 4. Encoding: It involves in selecting a language, an appropriate oral form, and positive non-verbal signals. Verbal message need a common language code, which the listener may easily decode. 5. Feedback: It is the process through which the speaker receives information about how his/her message has been received by the listeners, and his/her response to those cues. The feedback process is not complete until the speaker has responded to the listener. Difference between formal and informal conversation Formal Conversation Informal Conversation Formal Content Personal and emotional content Always factual May be emotional or factual Formal words and expressions Colloquial words and expressions Accepted rules and customs No accepted rules Fixed norms of behaviour associated with No fixed norms the conduct of official matters. Structured transitions and turns Abrupt transitions Always formal in style Both formal and informal in style Always formal in style Both formal and informal in style Objective Approach Both objective and subjective Logically organized and structured Not always structured

Strategies for Good Conversation: 1. Be an Active Listener: One should learn to be an active and efficient listener. A person can never be an effective conversationalist without being an effective listener. When you talk to someone, whether in a formal or informal oral situation, you must listen to the person carefully and attentively. You cannot respond to the person unless you listen and understand. You should not interrupt the person while he or she is speaking. 2. Be a Subtle Speaker: One should be careful about what one tells and how it is told. A speaker should not just speak whatever comes to his/her mind and he/she should never tell things that he/she is not supposed to. A speaker should be pragmatic and always think in terms of the results of what he/she is telling. He should use an appropriate style of speaking because the way he/she speaks creates an image in the listeners mind. 3. Speak with Clarity: The speaker should be clear and effective, and should use effective speaking techniques. He/she should take care of articulation and pronunciation and speak distinctly, focusing attention on his/her message, while taking care of his/her voice quality, accent, and intonation. 4. Be Simple: It pays be simple during a conversation during a conversation. One cannot impress others by being difficult, vague, and abstract, you should in fact, use simple and familiar language while talking to people. you may use informal vocabulary during an informal and casual conversation but use only formal vocabulary during a formal situation. 5. Use Appropriate Pauses: Speaking too quickly may result in lack of comprehension on the part of the listener. This will result in confusion. There is a general feeling that Indians speak too fast, and there is some truth in this perception. So, it is essential to speak slowly with appropriate pauses. 6. Be Polite: Politeness is the key to good conversation. Someone rightly said that good conversation is good manners. Never be rude and impolite. Be courteous and use polite expressions and phrases during oral interaction. 7. Be Friendly: It is easy to talk to friendly people. If you are dogmatic and unfriendly during a conversation, the other person talking to you might find it difficult to continue the conversation. By the way, no one likes to talk to unfriendly people. So, be friendly. Be cheerful and smile. Make the other person comfortable. Avoid making a remark that might hurt the other person. It is important to understand the point of view of the other person. Do not jump to conclusions. 8. Be Positive: We should express positive feelings during a conversation and avoid criticizing others. It is important to learn to appreciate the good and positive qualities of other people and express our appreciation. 9. Be Flexible: It is essential to be flexible during a conversation. A good conversationalist is always flexible in approach, attitude and style. Rigidity goes against the spirit of good conversation. 10. Be Tactful: It is necessary to be very tactful during conversation, especially when talking to ones teacher, boss, senior colleague. It is better to think before speaking than to suffer afterwards.

11. Do not Argue: Most people argue for arguments sake. A good conversationalist never argues during a conversation. We may disagree with the person we are talking to but there is no need to impose our point of view on the other person. Improving Fluency and Self Expression: Fluency is the most important characteristics of effective speech. What does this term mean? What is fluency?. Fluency is the natural flow of words without any unnecessary pauses and repetition. This natural flow of words or smoothness of expression can come form the ability to compose and speak meaningful utterances by using appropriate vocabulary and grammar skills. Fluency and expressive speech normally depends on the range of vocabulary appropriately used, as poor vocabulary will cause lack of fluency. Body Language: As non-verbal communication expresses individual emotions, social attitudes and feelings, it can convey more meaning than spoken words. When we are not able to find an exact word for something we want to say, we may use some kind of facial or physical gestures to convey our meaning. Eye Contact: Maintain eye contact while listening to someone. This will indicate that your are paying attention to what the person is speaking Use eye contact to show sincerity and confidence. Do not speak while looking at your feet. This will either mean that you are too shy or that you are telling a lie Learn the cultural patterns of eye contact in order to understand the differences so that misunderstandings can be avoided If there is more than one listener, as in the case of a meeting, group discussion, and oral presentation, the speaker should look at all the listeners giving each of them equal importance If there is more than one listener, as in the case of a meeting, group discussion, and oral presentation, the speaker should look at all the listeners giving each of them equal importance If someone is avoiding eye contact, the speaker should not try to look continuously at the person and embarrass him/her. The speaker should not look at a person the way a doubtful police officer would look at a convict or a doctor looks at a patient. You should adopt a relaxed and confident approach rather than one of mistrust or worry.

Facial Expression: Facial expressions must be kept quite natural

 Positive facial expressions should be used. A good smile gives very positive signals and helps to make the atmosphere friendly. Moreover, it indicates good will and shows that the speaker is a positive and pleasant person. Facial expression should be consistent with the verbal message, that is, facial expression and content should match The speaker should be his/her natural self and not try to hide his/her feelings It is important to learn the cultural patterns of facial expression so that misunderstandings can be avoided Gestures: Gestures should be natural Avoid using gestures to express negative feelings. Such feeling should be expressed verbally. Such negative gestures could be very annoying for some people Avoid confusing gestures or body movements Use positive gestures Do not reflect nervous mannerisms Do not use fingers too often Use hands and arms very carefully and effectively While using gestures, be sure that they are consistent with the verbal message and there is no contradiction Learn the cultural patterns of physical gestures to avoid cross cultural misunderstandings Posture and Body Movements: Posture should be examined and corrected if it is not appropriate Posture should be natural, standing, sitting and bowing in a natural way Use appropriate body postures Avoid making funny or confusing postures or body movements While using body movements, ensure that they are consistent with the verbal message Learn the cultural patterns of posture and body movements to avoid cross cultural misunderstandings

Informal Requests: Do you mind calling from your cell phone? Whats the matter, please? Will you please come as soon as you can? Can you please take care of this work till then Do you mind waiting a little more? Can you please give us any more information?

Formal Requests: Could you please come immediately? Would you mind taking him to park please? Could you please let us go? Would you please come to the police station tomorrow morning? Could you possibly help us with this mans body? We wonder if you would kind enough to let us go Would you kindly take him to park please?

Formal invitations: Id like to have the pleasure of your company at dinner on this Saturday I would like to invite you and Mrs. Tiwari to dinner on this Sunday I d like you to join us at dinner on this evening I am calling you to invite you and Mr. Saxena to dinner on 25th of this month

Informal Invitation: Were going to have a few friends over on Saturday, wed love if you could come it would be great if you could come How about coming to a magic show tonight? Lets go to our place for a drink

At the Post Office George: P.O. Clerk: George: P.O. Clerk: George: Good morning! Good morning. Can I help you? Yes, please. Can I have three aerogramme and four inland letter forms? Three aerogramme and four inland? Here you are! Anything else? Yes. I would like to send a greeting card to the UK by book post. How much is it for book post to the UK? P.O. Clerk: Seventy rupees. George: Please give me stamps for seven rupees and also ten stamps of rupee one each. P.O. Clerk: This is for seventy rupees and these are ten one rupee one each. George: Could I have an airmail label, please? P.O. Clerk: Here you are! George: How much is it altogether? P.O. Clerk: Thirty nine rupees and fifty paise. George: Have you got change for a hundred rupee note? P.O. Clerk: I think so. (pays the change) George: Thank you. Could you please tell me which is the registration counter? P.O. Clerk: Counter No.3. George: Thank you., (Leaves the counter George: (At the registration counter) Could you please weigh this letter and tell me the value of postage stamps I have to affix on it to send it by registered post to Malaysia? P.O. Clerk: Fifteen rupees fifty paise. George: Have you got stamps at this counter? P.o. Clerk: Yes, I have them. Here you are. George: Do I write By Registered Post on the envelope or is there any label for it? P.O. Clerk: You can write it on the envelope in capital letters and give it to me. George: Please register it for me. P.O. Clerk: Here is your receipt. George: Excuse me, what tiem is the first clearance from the box? P.O. Clerk: The first one was at 9.00 AM. The next one is at 10. if you have any letters to post, you can post them in the box. They will be cleared in five minutes. George: Thank you. P.O. Clerk: You are welcome. George: Oh, hello Manoj! Manoj: Hello, George. George: Who are you waiting for? Manoj: Im waiting for Rajesh.

George: Have you been waiting long? Manoj: Ive been waiting for ten minutes. He said he would be here at 9. if he doesnt come in the next five minutes, Ill leave. George: Well, I must be off Bye! Manoj: Bye, George!

GROUP DISCUSSION The basic objective of Group Discussion is to exchange and share the views about the subject, issue and problem. Group Discussion is a communication process that involves one-to-one and one-tomany interactions. After familiarizing the participants about the subject to discuss, they are made to sit face to face for the sake of expressing and sharing of views about the given subject and ensure optimum participation. Group Discussion and Debate: Debate differs from Group Discussion in its scope, approach and procedure. Group Discussion is meant for a positive exchange of views, unlike Debate is competitive in nature which is intended to advocate and specify a particular point of view. Group Discussion is a significant concept which plays an effective role in problem solving, assessment of personality and for the sake of attaining refined decision making. The normal way of conducting group discussion states that a group of eight to ten (at times in odd numbers) is made to sit in a circle to discuss about the given topic/issue and arrive to an utmost refined and major acclaimed solution. A congenial, cordial atmosphere and cool temper makes the participant try to draw effectiveness in the process of finding a solution or exchanging his views with his fellow participants.

 An appropriate dress sense will certainly enhance the confidence of the participants and help them gain a primary attention in the session. The monitors asses the qualities of the participant in taking the initiative and starting the discussion. The stage wise presence of the participant is essential which helps him in taking the rest of the group along with him. The participants knowledge about the subject and his ability of analyzing the existing situation and his clear thought process will become the looks for from the monitor side. Participants Role: Exhibiting confidence about the ability owned, being friendly and acceptable to the other member views are the essential characteristics that are to be displayed primarily by the participant. Present each span of agreement in a prcised, relevant and interesting way. Avoiding long and repetitive sentences use simple and familiar words with a n appropriate pronunciation. Spare and allow other to express their point of view.

Donts

A counter argument with no positive contribution is the utmost ill factor in Group Discussion. Remember that Group Discussion is a group process on the process is not a rational process. Keep in tact your non-verbal communication. Consistency in your speech help others understand your views correctly.

 Take all the necessary precautions to keep your emotions in check. An emotional outburst will destroy the temper and affect the sequence of our thought and expression. Every individual is blessed with certain unique quality so he must realize and project the same as and when the opportunity knocks him.

INTERVIEW SKILLS. Objective: Interviewing process is a means of gathering relevant data about a candidate for a particular job position, or promotion. It could be either a face-to-face meeting or a formal conversation through video conferencing or telephonic interview between the candidate and the members of selection committee. Type of interview questions: 1.Open Questions: The main objective is to make the candidate talk about something in a broad manner to engage him in micro level thinking. Example: Tell us something about yourself? Talk about your interests and hobbies What is your opinion about the impact on Multi National Companies on Indian Economy? 2. Close Questions: It limits the response to provide specific information or facts. Ex: When did you complete your graduation? Do you know data processing? 3. Probing questions: It seeks an explanation or clarification of a statement made just. It gives the candidate enough scope to speak in detail about a topic or subject.

Ex: I believe that the lower-level management should be allowed in decision making. 4. Reflective: It asks a confirmation on the statement stated by the candidate and the interviewer will gain a re confirmation about the candidates opinions. Ex: Does that mean that you support a total ban on pubs in order to protect our culture and tradition? 5. Loaded Questions: It assess the candidates ability in handling a sensitive issue or a situation not bothering about the appropriateness involved in the response. Ex: Do you think Ram temple should be constructed at the sight of Babri Masjid? 6. Hypothetical: It is asked to test the reactions of the candidate on a particular instance. Ex: What would you do if you face a group of angry employees to harm company vehicles because one of the workers has been hurt by a company lorry? 7. Leading: This sort of questions generally suggest a specific point of view on the part of the interviewer and invite for an acceptance with a yes answer. Ex: Dont you think multi national companies have boosted the Indian economy? How to equip yourself for a commonly faced challenge: A checklist about the candidates achievements (scholastic, academic, interests and hobbies), skills (linguistic, fine arts etc), strengths (qualities, abilities, flexibility), weakness (punctuality, overtime etc) should be thoroughly prepared for the sake of driving out the interview inferiorities. Dress Code: As your attire gains the initial attention a special core has to be taken for your grooming part. For Men a dark and light combination with an apt tie and

polished shoes grooms them impressive. A dignified look for women candidates can be generated by wearing sari, blouse and sandals avoiding high-heeled shoes which give them a needless attention with its tapping sound. Initial detection of the self: Like about your hobbies, personal likes and dislikes and your interest to mingle with friends should be known clearly. You should assess yourself in the aspects of tackling physical and mental stress and the levels of flexibility, spontaneity in handling unforeseen situations. You should also be specific and clear about your personal aims, objectives and goals. It even becomes your minimum responsibility to know about the organizational goals, objectives. Practice even makes a man successful: Sitting before the mirror and drawing concentration and seriousness in answer to the questions raised earlier is the initial procedure that has to be adapted by the candidate. A trusted friend and a close peer is also a definite benefit to feed you back. You cannot put your fingers crossed at your career doorstep: As you enter the committee room wish the interviewer with a pleasant greeting and with a graceful smile. The candidate must take their seat when offered, avoiding dragging the chair. A clear and audible addressal will project your confidence but definitely not a shout. Mind your manners by avoiding laughing loudly, arguing disrespectfully or tuning your blazer button. Sighs of frigidity should be thoroughly avoided like biting nails or looking at the watch. A request for repetition can be avoided with your effective listening. Project your logical thinking and behave with confidence by looking at each member while speaking. Avoid projecting your left foot or hand and sit with their right foot a little forward.

 Avoid demanding a particular amount as salary and the best is to quote our expected salary will become courteous if you quote at least or not less than your previous jobs. Before you leave convey thank you and without pushing the chair walk out politely.

Interview Myths: The Best person for the job gets it: Dont automatically pull out of applying for a job if you know someone better suited for the job is applying. If you happen to know that you are the best person for the job, avoid taking the interview for granted. Behave as though you are competing against formidable rivals. Interviews are like school exams, the more you say, the better you will do: The important aspect in an interview is an interview is to justify your actions and talk about your achievements in a confident manner. Interviews know what they are doing sure signs of a bad interviewer are: They do most of the talking They sound as though they have made up their mind about you in the first five minutes. They seem to pluck their questions randomly out of the topic Their phone keeps ringing and they answer it. Sure signs of a good interviewer They have their questions carefully prepared in advance. They want to know what you have done and how you have done it. They let you do most of the talking. They may want to interview you more than once.

 They will try to make you feel at ease. Never say I dont know: A great interview is one which you can answer all the questions. Factually, if you dont know the answer to something, it is better to admit to it rather than pretend to know and start waffling. Most interviewers can pick waffling a mile away and they dont like it for a couple of important reasons. They are:

It is likely to make you sound dishonest. It will make you sound considerably less than intelligent.

Example: 4

Letter Writing. A careful planning makes you enable to co pose the letter in a logical order and ensure that all information and ideas are included correctly. Planning involves about why you want about why you want to communicate (the purpose), to whom the message is to be sent (receiver) and also involves about the anticipated response by the receiver. The common structure of a letter contains Opening/ introduction. Giving the required information Action/Response from the writer/recipient Conclusion. The first point takes one or two sentences the second one forms the main context. The third and fourth can be combined as they form the ending of the letter. Always put the readers interests first by thinking about the convenience of him. Composing the letter: Maximum attention should be on the language and style. A good writer plans his communication depending upon the readers familiarity with the subject that is dealt and should aim at conveying the usefulness involved in it.

Opening and closing a letter: As it is considered that the first and last paragraphs are very important a maximum effect and concentration should be imposed on them. Avoid using the subject line or end line as it makes the statement flat and useless. An opening sentence establishes a sense of cordial feeling and should draw a favourable response from the reader. We are glad to say that we can deliver your television a week earlier as you requested in your letter of the 11th of September. We are extremely sorry to learn form your letter dtd. 23rd September that you were not able to receiver your order in time. A readers attention can be grabbed if his needs are projected primarily. Opening sentence should not be repeated.

Ending sentence: Clarity, goodwill, courtesy, self respect are the most important elements of last Para. To tell about the further action to be taken, goodwill message if no further action to be taken are the primary functions of the last sentence. We wish you all the success. We sincerely regret the inconvenience. We shall be happy to give you any assistance which you may require from us any time. We do hope shall have occasion to be working together again.

Asking for action: We can frame requests or imperatives depending upon the cause behind your writing.

 Please make us the payment before the due date. Inform us immediately if the assignment is damaged. We request you to allow us an extension of time. I request you to limit your purchase to cash. Will you inform us as soon as you received the goods? May we expect your reply in a week? Handling Negatives: People respond to positive ideas than to negative ones. So successful letter writing focus on positive wording. A positive approach is reflected in the choice of words and in the choice of details mentioned. Stress what you CAN rather what you CANNOT. Negative Nuggets: We cannot dispatch your goods since you have not informed about the place of delivery. Our office closes at 5.30 PM. I cannot send the letter till Friday. Positively Pleasing: We shall dispatch your goods as soon as you inform us where they are to be delivered. Our office is open till 5.30 PM We shall be careful to ensure prompt delivery. I can send you the letter on Friday. Saying No and yet winning the readers goodwill is one of the challenges of skillful writing.

Active voice is more direct and influencing than a passive voice statement. Active voice sentence emphasize the doer of the action and passive emphasizes the receiver of action. Parts of a Letter: 1. Heading, 2. Ref No., 3. Inside Address, 4. Attn. line, 5. Sub line, 6. Salutation, 7. Review, 8. Complimentary close, 9. Signature.

Post Script: is a bit of writing not more than 03 lines added to the letter after signature and after enclosures t is signed again without the complimentary close by the same person. It is used for conveying a small bit of information which is not a part of the message of the letter after written in hand at the time of signing the letter.

Styles of Letter Writing. Indented Form: This is the oldest style and is now outdated. In this form, the inside address is in indented style as shown earlier, and every paragraph begins three to five spaces away from the left margin. The indention causes the letter to look uneven at the left margin. Besides, it takes more time to type because of the indenting. This style is not used today. 06 July, 2009 Excellent Typing Institute, 14, Green Avenue, Mumbai 4000 053. Dear Sir, This is indented form which is considered old fashioned now. The inside address indented, i.e.. each subsequent l,ine is indented 2 spaces from the previous line, each line is followed bya comma, and the last line bya full stop. Each paragraph bdgins five spaces away from the margin.

This form was used in the days before the typewriter when all letters were hand written. Today even hand-written letters are not written in this style. The appearance of this style is not very neat, besides, it wastes typing time because of the indentions. Yours faithfully, Office Superintendent Full Block Form: This is the most modern style. There is no indention from the left margin at all, every line, including the date and the complimentary close, begins at the left margin. The address has no punctuation at the end of the line. The salutation and the complimentary close do not have a comma at the end. There is double line space between the parts and between the paragraphs. Typists have an advantage in this form, it takes less time to type because it requires no change of margin and has less punctuation. Some companies do not like this form because it looks heavy on the left, and rather blank on the right. A clear disadvantage of this form is that, after the letter has been filed, the date and the signature cannot be seen unless the file is fully opened. The date of a letter is an important item and is often referred to for many purposes. Quick reference to date and to signature is not possible in this form. 2 June, 2003 Windsor Stationery Mart 45, Main Avenue, Santa Cruz Mumbai 4000 054. Sir, This letter is in Full-Block form. Every part of the letter, including the date and complimentary close, begins at the left hand margin. The inside address has no end-of-lined punctuation and there is no punctuation mark after the salutation or after the ocmplimenary close. As there is absolutely no indention, this form takes the shortest time to type, and is very useful in a firm which sends out a large number of letters. It is the latest in styles of layout, but it has already become quite popular and is used in a number of firms. The drawback of this form is that it looks rather blank on the right side and heavy on the left. Besides, when the letter is filed, it is difficult to refer to the date and the signature without taking out the file and opening it fully.

Yours faithfully Supervisor

Modified Block Form: This style is a modification of the full block form. It eliminates the shortcomings of the full block style by keeping the date and the complimentary close on the right in their usual position. The inside address is in block form. The salutation and the complimentary close are followed by a comma. All the paragraphs begin at the left margin, and there is double space between the paragraphs. This is the most popular form, as it has many of the advantages of the full block form without its disadvantages. Its appearance is balance and neat. 12 September, 2005 Pinto Commercial Institute 34, Rampart Row Mumbai- 4000 001 Dear Sir, This the Modified Block Form, and is in most common use today. Most companies adopt this form as the most convenient and also the most attractive. The date and the complimentary close are at the right. The address is in block form, that is, all lines begin at the margin and there are no punctuation marks at the end of any line. The paragraphs begin at the left margin and are separated only by double spacing. As most of the lines begin at the left margin, this form saves the time of the typist. This form is neat and balanced in appearance. It is a modification of the ultra modern Full Block Form. Yours truly Supervisor Semi-indented Form: This form is also called Semi-block form. It has the inside address in block form but the beginning of every paragraph is indented. The date and the complimentary close are on the right side. The salutation and the complimentary close are followed by a comma as in the traditional style. 15 July 2009 Swift Typists 23, Sardar Patel Road Secundrabad 5000 001

Sir, The Semi-Block form combines the indented and blocks forms. Some of its features are taken from the old style and some from the new style. The date and the complimentary close are on the right. The address is in block form and the paragraphs are indented five spaces away from the margin. Many firms use this form although it ideas not look so streamlined as the modified block form. This form will probably fall out of use for typewritten letters and will be used only for handwritten letters. Yours faithfully Hanging Indention Form: In this style, the inside address is in block form. The date and complimentary close are on the right. The beginning of every paragraph is at the left margin but the subsequent lines of every paragraph are indented three to five spaces. The margins for the first line and subsequent lines can be set on a computer, but it takes more time to type on a manual typewriter. This style is adopted for sales letters, brouchers and other documents in which striking appearance is useful. The opening line of every paragraph hangs out, and can be used for high-lighting important points. If this style is used, the opening words of every paragraph should be important and worth high-lighting. 14 June , 2004 Expert Advisory Srevice Beach View Warden Road Hyderabad 4000 0012 Sir, This is the Hanging indention form. It has the address in block form, every paragraph Starting at the margin, and subsequent lines of every paragraph indented a few spaces From the margin. As the first line of every paragraph hangs out, it attracts attention. Sales and stunt Collection letters are written in this style in order to catch the eye. The opening words Of every paragraph must be striking and the drafting must be done carefully. Typing time is wasted in this form, because of the large number of indentions. It is not Used for routine letters. Yours faithfully Manager

NOMA Form: This is the most recent experiment in layout style. It is recommended by National Office Management Association of America (the name NOMA is an acronym). It has been accepted in the UK by the Institute of Office Management. It has most of the features of Full Block form all lines begins at the left margin, and the inside address is in block form. The special features of this form are: 1. It has no salutation and no complimentary close, 2. The subject line is in capitals three lines below the inside address, 3. Numbered items of a list begin at the left margin, but if there is no number, the items are indented five spaces, there are no full stops at the end of items, 4. The writers name and title are typed in capitals in one line below the space for signature, 5. The typists initials are in the left bottom corner. This style is not popular as it is too far removed from the familiar, conventional styles. Some people feel that this style saves time and sensibly omits meaningless salutation and close, but most people feel that this omission makes it impersonal, distant, and lacking in feeling. 11 April 2003 Expert Advisory Services Lake View Secundrabad NOMA LETTER LAYOUT STYLE The name NOMA is an acronym of National Office Management Association. This American organization has recommended this style. It has been accepted in Britain with some modifications. This style has the following special features: a. Salutation and complimentary close are omitted b. Subject is in capitals three lines below the inside address. c. Enumerated item lists, like this one, begin at the left margin. Lists of items without number/letter are indented five spaces d. There is no full stop at the end of the items in the list e. The writers name and title are typed in capital letter in one line at the left margin at the end of the letter, leaving space for the signature f. The typists initials are at the bottom left corner some people like this form as it eliminates the needless salutation and complimentary close but it is impersonal, distant and too far removed from the familiar conventional styles. Kamal Manager

mmr

Technical Report Writing. Catch hold of the specific objective behind Report writing. You will find four principal reasons for writing Reports. They are: 1. To obtain agreement to a cause of action-Persuasive. 2. To explain specific events-Explanatory. 3. As a basis for discussion-Discussive. 4. To inform-Informative. 1. Persuasive Reports: are written to persuade the reader to a particular point of view. For this, a clear and concise way of presenting the arguments is quite essential, so that, the reader fully understands the writers thought and his recommendations. Apt summarization of information will win the applause from the reader. 2. Explanatory Reports: This type of reports calls for an approach which clearly sets out the facts and can be seen by the reader to be unbiased, fully explaining the even under review. 3. Discussive Reports: Discussions can be significantly improved if there is a written basis for the discussion. Reports for discussion purposes are often reformed to as papers.

4. Informative Report: It increases the readers knowledge by telling them something they did not or places an interpretation on known facts which they had not considered. Before starting work on report one should ask himself the following three questions. 1. Why am I writing this report? 2. Which type of report should it be? 3. What are the specific he hopes to achieve?

The Report writing process should be starting after knowing about the: 1. Audience: The language that you use, the format and style of the work, avoidance of jargon and understandability of the reader should be primarily come under your consideration. 2. Context: Unfortunately many people do not give the attention it deserves. The basic rules of Report writing. 3. Brevity: Thin reports are attractive, easy to handle cheap to reproduce, easy to amend and much more readable. 4. Simplicity: A Report is a means of communication and it is not the platform to prove our technical or language abilities. 5. Purpose: It is all too easy to get lost in writing. Review your writings not as writers but as readers. Highlight the purpose of writing and do not hide the message amongst too many words. 6. Begin: A meaningful beginning is which gives the reason and a clear introduction to the reader about the subject. 7. End: Ending should summarize by stating how the objectives has been achieved. Then, the audience will clearly understand that they have reached the end. 8. Contents: Make sure that the main content of the report is readable with points of interests well spaced throughout the report.

9. Title: Give the report a meaningful name. 10. Author: Always name the writer or writers. 11. Date: Always date the report. Persuasive Reports: Guidelines: 1. Title page containing the date, the subject matter and the distribution of the report. 2. An introduction to the subject matter. 3. A summary of recommendations. 4. A summary of the present position. 5. Scope of the survey. 6. Observation and recommendations. 7. Conclusions 8. Appendices. Example: Effective use of microfilm techniques and equipment 1. Introduction 1.1 The use of microfilm techniques is an extremely effective means of reducing clerical costs in the areas of filing and access to information. The principal values of using these techniques are: 1.1.1 Reduction in stationery costs 1.1.2 Speed of access to copy 1.1.3 Saving of space and handling 1.1.4 Improved file security. 2. Summary of recommendations 2.1 That the use of microfilming techniques be extended by the purchase of up-todate equipment. 2.2 That the films so produced are used as basic reference files, rather than filing originals for immediate reference and films for long-tem reference.

2.3 That the equipment be located in the user departments where it can be used on a regular, systematic basis. 3. Present position 3.1 At the present time there are two cameras and a reader-printer situated at Head Office,. These are used as follows: 3.1.1 Purchase invoices for three divisions 3.1.2 Remittance advices for all divisions 3.1.3 Sales invoices for four divisions 3.1.4 Statements for four divisions 3.1.5 Conveyance notes for two divisions 3.2 The films produced form a backup, filed centrally, to the copy files located in the departments concerned. 3.3 In order to provided the films for storage the following procedures are followed: 3.3.1 Purchase invoices: Originals filed in purchase department are removed from the file, filmed and then replaced on file. Files are retained for p to two years and the films are infrequently referenced. 3.3.2 Remittance advices: Top copy is de-collated, burst and dispatched to the supplier. The second copy is filmed in continuous form, then burst and filed. 3.3.3 Sales invoices: Top copy is de-collated, burst and dispatched to the customer. The second copy is filmed in continuous form then burst and filed. 3.3.4 Statements: Top copy is de-collated, burst and dispatched to the customer. The second copy is filmed in continuous form then burst and filed. 3.3.5 Conveyance notes: When the computer has finished with the tickets they are filmed batch and then sent to he appropriate office. 3.4 The approximate number of documents filmed per annum is as follows: Purchase invoices Remittances Sales invoices Statements Conveyance notes 1,50,000 60,000 3,50,000 1,80,000 6,00,000 takes 60 rolls film takes 25 rolls film takes 140 rolls film takes 72 rolls film takes 150 rolls films.

3.5 The methods of filing the documents are shown below:

Purchase invoices Remittances Sales invoices Conveyance notes 4. Scope of survey:

Numerically within month within depots Alphabetically Numerically within division/region Numerically within day within depots.

4.1 The present use of microfilm, and the continuing use of hard copy files, does not appear to offer any benefits, especially as referencing is done principally to the files rather than film. In addition, the use of files demands production of copies to fill them and the associated handling. 4.2 The equipment used at present was examined in the light of up-to-date equipment and the most effective means of using microfilm. The costs of existing stationery and films can be considerably reduce by concentration on one or the other, but not both. 5. Observations on recommendations: 5.1 Systems approach to microfilming, depends on the use of the right equipment in the right place at the right time. This approach applied to the following documents can create significant savings. 5.1.1 Purchase invoices: To be filmed in Purchase Department using existing camera, with facilities for reading, using reader/printer. One months invoices on file, the rest filmed. 5.1.2 Remittance advices: Filmed from continuous stationery, processed and filed in Purchase Department, where suppliers queries are checked using existing reader/printer. 5.1.3 Sales invoices: Filmed from continuous stationery, processed and sent to Area Sales Offices where customers queries will be checked using new reader/printer. 5.1.4 Conveyance notes: Filmed singly in customer queries section using new camera, and processed and filmed in customer queries section. Any queries from customers or depots will be answered by reference to film using reader/printer.

5.1.5 Statements: Filmed from continuous stationery and then dispatched to Customer Queries for processing, filing and reference. 5.2 Equipment costs and location Equipment Costs Film Processor Portable camera Reader 6. Conclusion:

6.1 The recommendations in section 2 form the basis for a more efficient service to customers, suppliers and depots, and will considerably improve the existing methods of handling paperwork at Head Office. Explanatory Reports: Title, author and date. Introduction Persons/Department involved Sequence of events Action taken Cause and effect Conclusion Example Collington Terminal A report on the reasons for the loss incurred on the contract 1. Introduction 1.1 This report has been prepared to explain the circumstances which led to the completion of the Collington Terminal contract at a loss of Rs. 250,000. the report has been prepared by an investigating team headed by Trevor Bentley, a senior executive with the company and a Chartered Management Accountant. 1.2 This report is intended to provide a complete picture of the events leading up to, during and upon completion of the contract. To do this effectively the team were given authority to interview any persons they wished and to examine any documents they considered relavant to the subject under scrutiny. This report is the outcome of the teams investigations. 2. Persons Involved: 2.1 In order to avoid confusion, all persons and departments involved will be referred to by titles. In certain cases the title has been abbreviated, as shown below in brackets: Contract manager Chief Estimator Area Accountant

Central Buyer Client Architect Structural Steel and Foundation Contractors (SSC) Plant Manager Site Foreman Site Planning and Control Engineer (SPCE) Construction Director 3. Sequence of events: 3.1 The company was first approached by the client in January 1985. At this time, the idea for a Collington Terminal was a vague one. The client had not fully considered the problems concerned. The client commissioned the company to examine the feasibility of such a terminal and to produce initial plans suitable for submission for outline planning permission. 3.2 The sequence of events from this report to the client accepting the company tender were as follows: Date Event 12 Jan 1985 Company employed an architect to produce a basic proposal. 23 Feb 1985 Company received the basic proposal. 3 March 1985 Proposal was discussed at board meeting. 6 March 1985 Amendments submitted to Architect. 18 April 1985 Architect submitted 4 May 1985 Company accepted draft plans. 2 June 1985 Company produced a project proposal (Appendix A) for the client. 16 July 1985 Clients accepted the proposal subject to a number of amendments are requested that the company submit a tender (Appendix B). 24 October 1985: Company submitted a complete tender. 19 Nov 1985: Client accepted the tender and signed the contract. 3.3 During the above sequence of events, full and detailed investigations were carried out on the site by the companys normal contractors for structural and foundation work. The

report from SSC indicated a need for deep foundations requiring pile driving. This had been allowed for in the contract price. 3.4 ON 25 November 1986 the company appointed a contract manager and a meeting was held to discuss the contract. This was attended by: Contract Manager Architect Chief Estimator Area Accountant Site Planning and Control Engineer (SPCE). 3.5 The meeting agreed the approach that should be taken to the contract and asked the SPCE to produce detailed plans and schedules of material requirements. The minutes of the meeting are attached as Appendix C. 3.6 On 4 January 1986 a second meeting was held comprising the same people with the addition of SSC. At this meeting the contract schedule (Appendix D) was approved. 3.7 On the day following the meeting the client was sent a copy of the schedule with a proposal that work should commence on 1 April 1986. 3.8 The contract started on the due date and continued without any problems until 29 August 1986 when the monthly progress report was produced (Appendix E). this showed that expenditure on structural steel, concrete and plant hire, all concerned with foundations, was higher than original plan. 3.9 The contract manager called a meeting on 4 September 1986 attended by: Area Accountant SSC Architect Chief Estimator Central Buyer SPCE. 3.10 The meeting resolved that due to geological problems the contract would need to be extended by two months and that the client should be approached with a view to obtaining an increased price.

3.11 The contract manager and architect approached the client on 10 September 1986. the extension to the contract was agreed but no further price increase was accepted. 3.12 The project continued until 3 December 1986 when the site foreman reported a crack in one of the main pillars. The fault was investigated the same day and the contract manager authorized a reinforcement of the foundations. 3.13 The contract proceeded without further problem until the following April when a progress report was received by the construction director. This showed a significant increase in the cost of structural steel supplies. 3.14 On 28 April 1987 the construction director held a meeting with the contract manager and SSC. At this meeting the causes for the increased costs were discussed and the construction director sanctioned the final supplies required to complete the contract. 3.15 On 4 May 1987 the contract manager was formally reprimanded by the construction director and moved on to a different contract. On the same day the construction director wrote to SSC indicating that on completion of the contract SSC would not be working for the company again. 3.16 The contract was completed on 23 June 1987. 3.17 The final contract accounts produced on 11 August 1987 indicated a loss of 2,50,000. 3.18 At the board meeting on 5 September 1987 it was decided to carry out an investigation into the Collington Terminal contract. 3.19 On 12 October 1987 this report was presented to the construction director. 4. Action taken 4.1 There were several key actions which contributed to he loss on the Collington Terminal. These were (the reference in brackets is the paragraph number of the sequence of events section.) 4.1.1 Preparation of project proposal (3.2) 4.1.2 Structural Steel and Foundation Contractors report (3.3) 4.1.3 Submission of the tender (3.2) 4.14 Preparation of the control plan and materials schedule (3.5) 4.1.6 Meeting on 4 September 1986 (3.9) 4.1.7 Site foremans report on 3 December 1986 (3.12)

4.1.8 April 1987 progress report (3.13) 4.1.9 Meeting on 28 April 1987 (3.14) 4.2 Each of these key factors is analysed below. No conclusions have been drawn by the investigating team. Where the words are those spoken by the person concerned they appear in square brackets i.e. [ ], otherwise the following comments are reported on the basis of the teams interpretation. 4.3 Project Proposal (Appendix A): This was prepared by the contract manager, the architect and SSC. It was a broad proposal which gave an indication of the project timescale, an outline of the structural approach, an artists impression of the finished job and a statement of main constraints. One of the constraints was the need for special foundations if the terminal was to be built on the clients site. 4.4 Report of SSC. The team has been unable to trace any forma of written report other than a letter from SSC stating that it would need to have some special pile driving equipment for the contract. Any other information had been given verbally. The chief engineer at SSC had stated quite categorically that he discussed the difficulties of the foundations with the chief estimator and the architect at the time when the tender was being prepared. Though both of these men recall the meeting neither of them remembers the specific details and are in one accord that the SSC engineer had started that {the job would be a cake walk}. 4.5 The tender was prepared by the chief estimator. He was given full details of the structural steel concrete and plant hire from SSC who only quoted for labour. The company was therefore responsible for obtaining prices on these items. The chief estimator stated that due to the pressure to complete the tender he had used the latest prices for steel and concrete given to him by the central buyer and then he {added a contingency allowance of 10% for inflation and quality variations}. The plant hire had been arrived at by {inspired guesswork} as it was unusual plant that the company had never used before. These three major items, together with site clearance and preparation, made up 52% of the contract cost. 4.6 Contract plan and material Schedule: (Appendix D): The detailed plan and material schedule was prepared and used as a basis for forward ordering of materials. By reference to the orders it was clear that the price of steel at the time of ordering was 15% higher

than that used in the tender. This was either not checked or was overlooked as no one we interviewed had noticed the fact. The planning and control engineer had recognized a discrepancy in the quantities which he pointed out to the contract manager. When they checked, it appeared that the figures given by SSC were 20% short of those required. To ensure the quantities agreed with the schedule the contract manager reduced the pile depth by 20%. 4.7 August progress report (Appendix E): The progress report was prepared by the area accountant and showed that more had been spent on structural steel and concrete than was allowed fro in the whole contract and 80% of the plant hire allowance had been spent. The work done statement indicated that the main site work was only 70% complete and that a further 80,000 would be need for further supplies of steel and concrete to complete. The area accountant had discussed the report with the contract manager and SPCE. 4.8 Meeting on 4 September 1986: Contrary to general procedure no minutes were kept of this meeting. All those who attended were interviewed and it appears that the main discussion centered on the problems with the foundations. An argument developed between the contract manager and the SSC engineer. This covered the reduction of piling depths which occurred when the material schedules were being examined (see 4.6 ) Each man blamed the other for the fault. It was decided to put the problem right and seek further money from the client. The client refused to pay any more. 4.9 Site foremans report: On 3 December 1986 the site foreman reported (verbally) a crack in a main pillar. The contract manager examined the crack with SSC engineer who blamed the contract manager with the comment (if you hadnt reduced the pile depth this would not have happened). The contract manager authorized the strengthening of the foundations which required more materials. 4.10 April 1987 progress report: The progress report produced in April 1987 showed a further increase in material costs. This had not shown up earlier because the invoices had been delayed somewhere in the paperwork chain. Nobody would admit to sitting on the documents. The construction director arranged a meeting sitting on the documents. the construction director arranged a meeting for the 28 April 1987 prior to which he had a detailed discussion with the contract manager. In this discussion, the construction director

made it quite clear that he held the contract manager responsible for ht loss. Subsequent to the meeting the contract manager was formally reprimanded and downgraded to the small works department. 5. Cause and effect: 5.1 From the information gathered it would seem that there were three principal causes for the loss on Collington terminal. These were: 1. The price quoted to the client was not adequate to cover all the costs of structural steel, concrete and plant hire. 2.The lack of a formal report on the foundation requirements to the analysis of material requirements being far lower than required. 3. The change of pile depths in order to the voer-expenditure on the materials concerned although a subsequent measure carried out by the investigating team indicated a discrepancy in materials used and records of receipts on the site to a value 40,000. No satisfactory answer has been obtained as to the cause of the discrepancy. 6. Conclusion: 6.1 This report highlights the importance of the full examination of site conditions before tendering as well as the need for careful evaluation of tender prices. The disciplinary action of the construction director may have been desirable but flaws in the overall supervision of the contract allowed major over-expenditure to occur until it was far too late to correct the problems. It is suggested that the company reviews its contract cost control procedures at the earliest opportunity. Discussive Reports: Title, author and date Introduction Scope of the subject Discussion points Possible actions Conclusion

Example Systems proposal for reward contractors 1. Introduction 1.1 This report has been prepared as a basis for discussion on the development of systems in Reward Contractors. In addition to dealing with the specific requirements of Reward Contractors the principles of systems development within the group as a whole will be outlined. 1.2 The preparation of this report is the result of visits made by systems personnel to all areas of Reward Contractors in addition to two recent visits to the North East and Scotland when the principles embodied in the suggestions were discussed with the local managers. 2. Scope of systems requirements 2.1 Reward Contractors existing systems revolve around the accounting control procedures operated at the Regional Offices and at the Head office. The accounting systems have been designed to ensure accurate financial control and to provide information to management. The systems do provide accurate financial control and do provide a degree of management information. In respect of management information, however, the needs of local management particularly regarding operating control are not fully catered for. This is highlighted by the different operating systems and the extraction from local records of other information thought to be of value. 2.2 It is suggested that the existing systems are: a. too slow b. lacking in operational control data c. too financially oriented. It is not implied that the existing financial control should be reduced but that the detailed level of control be examined to reduce clerical effort and improve the value of the information produced by the systems. 2.3 In short, it is suggested that the system should be based on providing management information with financial controls rather than financial control systems with management information. 2.4 The implications of these suggestions for the future system development is threefold:

a. a change of emphasis on the basis of the system framework b. a change of methods to utilize modern facilities c. a development towards computerization to speed up data flow and reduce peak working. 3. Suggested approach 3.1 Systems development in the group is based on the following principles. a. All systems must be designed by management with specialist help and advice. b. Systems must be designed to provide maximum flexibility at the user end, whilst using standard computer based methods and controls. Where computer facilities are required these can be obtained in two ways. i. Using the group computer center ii. using outside computer resources d. Systems projects should be approved by the management concerned and the benefits being sought should be clearly stated in financial terms. 3.3 The operating systems should be the basis of the control systems and should be provide a data flow, from which detailed data is used locally for operational control. It is then summarized and cross checked within the system to provide financial control information leading to the production of final accounts. 3.4 There are instances whre the benefit of being in the group and using similar systems can be clearly seen. One particular interaction is on the buying of materials. It is possible for the supplying division to provide the following information form the central computer files: a. Up-to-date prices for every material currently being delivered to every reward contractors site, separated by cost centre and contract. This would enable the accurate preparation of invoices without delay and allow accurate material costs to be posted to the contract cost records. b. Detailed schedule of materials purchased by Reward contractors replacing supplies division invoices and avoiding to a large extent detailed checking of invoices 3.5 Since these points were raised with managers in the North East and Scotland steps have been taken to ensure these facilities can be made available if required. This could be done in a matter of two or three months.

3.6 In order to ensure that management is fully involved with the project it is suggested that a Project Team is formed comprising the following a. Group systems Project Controller b. Systems Accountant c. an Estimator d. a contract Manager e. a Regional Manager. 3.7 The Project Team should be chaired by the Regional Manager and would be a working team. Each member would be given specific tasks to perform and would therefore need to give up some time, particularly in the initial and would therefore need to give up some time, particularly in the initial design stage. When the agreed system requirements are handed over to the Systems Development Section at HQ for analysis and programming the Systems Accountant could act as the coordinator. In addition, he should also act as secretary to the team. This method of operation has been found to work very well. 3.8 It will be necessary for the Project Team to investigate the following areas of activity in detail, and to collect data relevant to the subsequent design of systems. a. estimating b. contact set up and scheduling. c. contract administration and reporting. d. contract costing and control e. measuring and invoicing. f. sales ledger and credit control g. purchase ledger h. accounting procedures and controls i. management reporting requirements. 3.9 Other activities, namely manufacturing will be included and recommendations made on how these activities can be linked into the main systems. 4. Contract control system

4.1 It is believed that regular information for contract monitoring and control is fundamental to improved profits. Though other systems, namely sales ledger, have benefits, it is considered vital that development is based on a contract control system. 4.2 The proposed system includes a weekly contract report, which would show the actual costs for the week and the accumulated costs for the week and the accumulated costs for the life of the contract. It would compare these with the estimated cost of the work done to date. This would be the contract managers main control report. 4.3 The above is only an outline, but it can be seen that the ability of the system to calculate and compare progress in this way is an important step forward I providing management information. 4.4 Cost increase formulae could be incorporated, as could latest material prices, but these sophistications would need to be examined in detail to determine their value. 4.5 The control information would be used in the accounting procedures and the goods received report would provide a basis for checking invoices. 4.6 The system would be used by local management to monitor progress and to determine at an early stage that actual events are deviating form the plan allowed for in the estimate. The information of measures and up to date prices should enable more rapid invoicing although it is appreciated that there is no substitute for the on site measure. 4.7 The advantages of the system are: a. rapid information b. comparison with estimate for corrective action c. it is based on current practice d. reduced effort e. virtual elimination of peak working conditions in regional offices f. potential cost benefits are considerable 4.8 Disadvantages a. Improvement in daily reporting techniques could mean some extra work for foreman and supervisors. b. Additional work for estimating in providing the contract file data.

c. The change of approach which will require new documentation, new equipment and new styles of report. 4.9 The contract monitoring and control system being the hub of the system wheel will need to be linked to the following systems. a. sales ledger b. purchase ledger c. payroll d. plant e. accounts These systems may or may not be using compatible software and so it will be necessary to provide the flexibility to cope with system integration. 5. Resources 5.1 It is not felt that additional staff will be required in Regional offices. It is too early to make specific forecasts. 5.2 A systems development team of one analyst and two programmers will be required for the equivalent of one person year. This can be one of the existing teams or a new team depending upon the priority and the timing. 5.3 It is believed that a network of computers cable of a. data input b. data transmission c. data output d. data storage will be required in each Regional Office and at Head Office. 5.4 It is also considered necessary for these to be able to communicate with the computer center to either a. the existing computer, possibly extended to cater for the additional systems or b. a new computer server dedicated solely to this task 5.5 The anticipated cost of the above requirements is a. systems development team- three men for one year 95,000 b. terminals at each of Regional and Head office as 2000 to 12000 c. central and network facilities 20,000

d. annual maintenance costs for equipment 2200 these costs are only estimated 6. courses of action 6.1 The stages in providing the benefits outlined are: a. approval of this report b. formation of the project team c.initial plan of resources d. formulate the overall programme e. detailed investigation f. preparation of systems requirements g. selection of equipment h. ordering of equipment i. detailed analysis and programming j. testing k. testing I implementation m. review and evaluation 7. Conclusion 7.1 This report is aimed at obtaining approval to the further investigation into the form of the systems required by Reward Contractors. It is not intended to specify precisely what the system should be but rather the direction in which we should go to improve the information available to management and thereby increase the overall profitability of the company.

Informative Reports: Title, author and date Introduction Plan Body of the Report Conclusion.

1. Definition: Define the purpose of the report and determine which type it is 2. Analysis: Analyze the subject to determine the main features which will need to be examined. 3. Collection: Collect the data necessary to study each feature of the subject. 4. Arrangement: Sort the information. 5. Examination: Examine the information, draw conclusions, making appropriate suggestions. 6. Preparation: Prepare the information for presentation. 7. Writing: Assemble the information and write the report.

Form: The form of report depends upon three factors: 1. Logical: Report is written in sequence, taking the reader from a specified starting point (introduction) to a definite end (conclusion) in a series of steps, each of which leads directly from the preceding one. The advantages of the logical report stem from the ability to take the reader step by step through the subject, so that by the time the conclusion reached the report has achieved its aim. The reason for confusion is in handling the content of the report, which can often require a good deal of background tracking and cross reference. 2. Sectional: It overcomes the problem of the logical report by dealing with each feature of the subject. The sections are drawn into a meaningful whole by the introduction and the conclusion. The advantages for the reader are the opportunity to read each section without the need to refer to other sections and to draw conclusion in stages. 3. Creative: This report is really a combination of the preceding forms. The basis of the creative report is the use of the content to convince the reader and most persuasive reports shared of this type. When properly written, the creative report can be more effective than one written in an apparently logical sequence.

Reading Comprehension Reading is an active process that involves continuous interaction with the text. Fetching some knowledge related to the text through the process of reading is technically referred as Schemata. A good reader is one who knows the purpose of reading. A good reader does not stop reading when (s) he comes across unfamiliar words, guesses their meanings with the help of the grammatical, logical and general knowledge. The reader attempts to guess what the writers actual intention is in using a particular construction. The reader guesses what is going to come next in the paragraph/ passage and decides whether to read it or not. A good reader adjusts the speed of reading depending on the purpose of reader. According to Richards, a good reader is slow (200-300 words per min) when a text is difficult and needs more attention. An average speed of reading ( 250-500 words per min) when she is reading everyday reading material like newspapers, and magazines. A good reader also changes the style of reading according to the purpose. When he wants to know what a text is about he skims through a text. The reader scans the text while looking for a specific piece of information.

A good Reader avoids:

Pointing at the words with a finger or a pencil or some other object. Moving the head from one side to another instead of using eye movement. Mouthing the words audibly using lip movements. Pronouncing the words mentally (but words are not audible). Perceiving only one word at a time. Having backward eye movement on a line. A good reader not only understands a text but also goes beyond the text. Contextual clues: When we come across an unfamiliar word, we can often look at the context to help us figure out an approximate meaning for that word. Experience Clues: The meaning of an unfamiliar word can be guessed simply because a similar experience to the one described in the sentence or paragraph has occurred in our lines. Definition or Paraphrase Clues: When writers use a new word, either define or paraphrase it in the text or in a footnote. This will be referred as a definition or paraphrase clues. Example Clues: Writers provide us with examples of the unfamiliar word that help the reader in knowing its meaning. An example clue is often indicated by parenthesis, commas or hypen. Skimming: Is quickly running our eyes over the text in order to get the gist of the passage. Scanning: Is quickly running your eyes through the text in order to locate particular piece of information.