PRODUCTS SOLUTIONS PURCHASE SUPPORT COMPAN OUR SITES SEARCH

EACH MAHEMAICA 8 DOCMENAION

Documentation Signals and Sstems
5 Mathematical Transforms
Signals and Systems implements a variety oI standard mathematical linear transIorms Irequently used in signal processing. While many oI these transIorms are also implemented in the standard
right-sided transIorms (in which the range oI integration or summation runs Irom -Infinity to Infinity, -Infinity to 0, or 0 to Infinity, respectively), while Ior Laplace transIorms,
track regions oI convergence Ior Laplace and Z transIorms, an option allowing you to speciIy abstract transIorm pairs, and the implementation oI some nonseparable multidimensional transIorms.
All oI the transIorms in Signals and Systems perIorm symbolic computation, including the discrete Fourier transIorm. This allows transIorms to be perIormed on signals expressed symbolically, rather than as explicitly speciIied sequences oI data.
5.1 Transforms of Continuous Signals
The Laplace Transform
The Laplace transIorm is a staple operation Irom the analysis oI continuous systems. The transIorm and its inverse are used primarily in transient analysis. At its core, Signals and Systems uses the standard deIinition given in many texts.
The region oI convergence is a strip in the plane. Signals and Systems provides the convergence inIormation to the user by placing the result in a special data type. The inverse transIorm is deIined as
(The constant is appropriately chosen based on convergence oI the integrand.)
The actual algorithm used by the application involves a combination oI table lookup and rules based on transIorm properties. You can speciIy that the standard Mahemaica integration routines be attempted as well, based on the preceding deIinition. For more details on the algorithm, see, Ior instance, Evans (1992).
The Lapl ace transform and i ts i nverse.
The Laplace transIorm uses the same syntax as the standard Mahemaica Iunction LaplaceTransform. It has several extensions, however. One modiIication is a nonevaluating operator Iorm Ior use in manipulation oI systems. All oI the transIorms provided with Signals and Systems have this alternate syntax.
First, make the signal processing Iunctions available.
In[1]:=Needs["SignalProcessing`"]
Here is a basic Laplace transIorm.
In[2]:=LaplaceTransform[Exp[-Abs[t]], t, s]
Out[2]=
Another major diIIerence between the standard Mahemaica version and the version here is immediately apparent. Now, LaplaceTransform returns by deIault the special data type LaplaceTransformData
HI I DOCMENAION FO AN OBOLEE PODC.
Here is an example oI a two-dimensional transIorm. This Iunction is nonseparable, and represents an impulse oI changing magnitude along the line , where and are greater than zero.
In[3]:=LaplaceTransform[
Exp[a t1] *
DiracDelta[t1 - t2] UnitStep[{t1, t2],
{t1, t2, {s1, s2
]
Out[3]=
Like the Iorward transIorm, the inverse transIorms have rule bases that implement many properties oI the transIorm.
Here is the inverse transIorm oI a rational Iunction.
In[4]:=InverseLaplaceTransform[s/(1 + s^2), s, t]
Out[4]=
The rule base knows that multiplication oI the Iunction by an exponential term is equivalent to a shiIt oI the inverse transIorm.
In[5]:=InverseLaplaceTransform[
Exp[-a s] s / ( 1 + s^2 ),
s, t
]
Out[5]=
Opti ons for LaplaceTransform.
A variety oI options can be employed to enhance the behavior oI LaplaceTransform. The option named TransformDirection speciIies whether the transIorm is to be bilateral (TwoSided
all oI the transIorm Iunctions simultaneously.
A leIt-sided transIorm is equivalent to the bilateral transIorm oI the Iunction multiplied by a UnitStep running in the negative direction.
In[6]:=LaplaceTransform[Exp[-Abs[t]], t, s,
TransformDirection -> LeftSided]
Out[6]=
The Justification option can be employed to display the steps involved in perIorming the transIorm. It takes the values All, Automatic, or None, where All provides all inIormation available,
Here is a transIorm displaying the procedures used in the computation.
In[7]:=LaplaceTransform[Exp[-Abs[t]], t, s,
In[7]:=LaplaceTransform[Exp[-Abs[t]], t, s,
Justification -> All]
Out[7]=
By allowing you to speciIy your own transIorm pairs, the TransformPairs option lets you extend the transIorm rule bases Ior unknown Iunctions. These may be Iunctions that have not been entered into the rule base, or may be abstract transIorm pairs speciIic to a particular computation. The option accepts a list oI
can be given by writing the rule's target in the Iorm oI a list, . Note that the target Iunction must be in the same variable as the entire expression being transIormed, while the transIorm oI the target must be in terms oI the transIorm variable.
LaplaceTransform does not know how to handle the Sign Iunction by deIault, but a user-deIined rule can be speciIied to perIorm the transIormation. Note that standard properties (e.g., shiIt, scaling) are handled automatically.
In[8]:=LaplaceTransform[
Sign[3 t - 2] + UnitStep[t] Cos[omega t],
t, s, TransformPairs -> {Sign[t] :> 2/s
]
Out[8]=
Many transIorms cannot be determined in closed Iorm, but Ior transIorms oI continuous Iunctions, we can compute an approximation based on the series expansion oI the Iunction. The SeriesTerms
Here, a transIorm is attempted without perIorming a series expansion. The attempt Iails; there are no rules Ior this Iunction in the rule base.
In[9]:=LaplaceTransform[Tan[t], t, s,
SeriesTerms -> None
]
Out[9]=
This tries expanding the Iunction to eight terms beIore giving up. In this case, the series expansion was successIul, and an approximation to the transIorm could be returned.
In[10]:=LaplaceTransform[Tan[t], t, s,
SeriesTerms -> 8
]
Out[10]=
Out[10]=
The StandardFormula option allows the transIorm Iunction to attempt to directly perIorm the integral iI the transIorm cannot be Iound by use oI the rule bases. It takes the values True or
The transIorm oI this Iunction is not known by the transIorm rule base, although a series approximation can be generated. The series representation is not useIul to us in this example, so we suppress it via the
In[11]:=LaplaceTransform[
Sin[x] ContinuousPulse[3, x],
x, s,
SeriesTerms -> None
]
Out[11]=
However, Mahemaica can directly integrate this transIorm. Because the StandardFormula option is applied beIore the SeriesTerms option, we don't need to suppress the series expansion.
In[12]:=LaplaceTransform[
Sin[x] ContinuousPulse[3, x],
x, s,
StandardFormula -> True
]
Out[12]=
Also available is the SimplifyOutput option, which indicates whether automatic simpliIication will be attempted during the computation. SimpliIication oI algebraic expressions is a computationally intensive task, but it can in some cases signiIicantly improve the Iorm oI output. Note that simpliIication is perIormed by the
expression that is easier to manipulate. The SimplifyOutput option can take the values None, Automatic, or All. II set to All, the simpliIication will assume that symbols that must be real-valued Ior the transIorm to complete are real-valued Ior simpliIication purposes; this is slower but less thorough than the setting
Opti on speci fi c to the i nverse Lapl ace transform.
The inverse Laplace transIorm has one option not available Ior the Iorward transIorm. The option called DecompositionPrecision controls the behavior oI partial Iraction decomposition in the inverse transIorm. When partial Iraction decomposition must be used to determine the transIorm, an exact technique is usually employed to Iind the roots oI the denominator. However, Ior polynomials oI higher order, this may be
inIeasible. Setting this option to an integer precision less than Infinity allows a purely numeric technique to be employed. (For quick computation, it is usually best to set it to $MachinePrecision
None.
Here is a transIorm perIormed with the (deIault) exact partial Iraction decomposition.
In[13]:=InverseLaplaceTransform[
(s + 3)/(s^2 + 2 s + 3), s, t,
DecompositionPrecision -> Infinity
]
Out[13]=
The transIorm can be perIormed much more quickly by speciIying a Iinite precision, but at the cost oI returning numeric output.
In[14]:=InverseLaplaceTransform[
(s + 3)/(s^2 + 2 s + 3), s, t,
DecompositionPrecision -> $MachinePrecision
]
Out[14]=
You can disable the attempt at partial Iraction decomposition. In this case, other rules take over to compute the transIorm.
In[15]:=InverseLaplaceTransform[
(s + 3)/(s^2 + 2 s + 3), s, t,
DecompositionPrecision -> None
]
Out[15]=
The Fourier Transform
The Fourier transIorm can sometimes be considered a special case oI the Laplace transIorm, evaluated where the real part oI the transIorm variable is zero. It is oIten used Ior Irequency analysis oI signals. Signals and Systems uses the standard deIinition
The inverse transIorm is deIined as
Note that the nonsymmetric Iorm is used, which parallels the Laplace transIorm. The actual algorithm depends on table lookup and transIormation rules that apply the properties oI the transIorm. The Fourier transIorm applies to continuous signals. The discrete equivalents are the discrete-time Fourier transIorm and the discrete Fourier transIorm, documented in the next section.
The Fouri er transform and i ts i nverse.
Here is a Fourier transIorm.
In[16]:=FourierTransform[
Cos[t] Exp[-t] UnitStep[t],
t, w
]
Out[16]=
Here is a plot oI the transIormed result.
In[17]:=SignalPlot[%, {w, -2, 2]
Out[17]=
As with LaplaceTransform, a special data type is returned, identiIying the transIorm used in the computation. FourierTransform accepts all oI the options oI LaplaceTransform
Here is a transIorm using the TransformDirection option. This perIorms a leIt-sided transIorm (Irom -Infinity to 0).
In[18]:=FourierTransform[
Exp[t^2],
t, w,
TransformDirection -> LeftSided
]
Out[18]=
A rectangular pulse centered on the origin is separable, and easily transIormed in any number oI dimensions.
In[19]:=FourierTransform[
ContinuousPulse[{1, 1, 1,
{t1 + 1/2, t2 + 1/2, t3 + 1/2],
{t1, t2, t3,{w1, w2, w3
]
Out[19]= Out[19]=
The inverse transIorm employs all oI the same options as the Iorward transIorm. It is used in much the same way as the Iorward transIorm, but does not return a special data type.
This symbolic inverse Fourier transIorm demonstrates that the rule base "knows" the modulation theorem, which in this case causes the transIorm oI the modulated signal to be a pulse oI width
In[20]:=InverseFourierTransform[
1/2 (ContinuousPulse[a, w + a/2 - w0] +
ContinuousPulse[a, w + a/2 + w0]),
w, t
]
Out[20]=
Here is an inverse transIorm that cannot be perIormed in closed Iorm. However, a series approximation can be made to give us an inexact result in terms oI derivatives oI Dirac delta Iunctions.
In[21]:=InverseFourierTransform[
Tan[w],
w, t,
SeriesTerms -> 8
]
Out[21]=
5.2 Transforms of Discrete Signals
The Z Transform
The Z transIorm is essentially the discrete equivalent oI the Laplace transIorm. It produces a continuous Iunction Irom a sequence via the Iollowing Iormula
The region oI convergence is an annulus (whose interior radius can be zero and exterior radius inIinite). The inverse transIorm is
where is a counterclockwise contour encircling the origin. As with the continuous transIorms, Signals and Systems primarily uses table lookup and application oI the properties oI the transIorm to perIorm the computation.
The Z transform and i ts i nverse.
The syntax oI the discrete transIorms is essentially like that oI the continuous transIorms and the transIorms that come with Mahemaica. Like the continuous transIorms provided with Signals and Systems, a nonevaluating operator Iorm oI the transIorm is provided Ior manipulation oI cascaded systems.
This is the Z transIorm oI the sum oI two exponentials.
In[22]:=ZTransform[
((1/2)^n + (-1/3)^n) DiscreteStep[n],
n, z
]
Out[22]=
We can visualize the poles, zeros, and region oI convergence oI a rational transIorm.
In[23]:=PoleZeroPlot[%]
Out[23]=
Opti ons for ZTransform.
The Z transIorm has most oI the options oI the Laplace transIorm. The TransformDirection option controls whether the transIorm is leIt-sided, right-sided, or bilateral. The Justification
base Iails to compute the transIorm, the option StandardFormula allows the transIorm Iunction to attempt to use the deIintion given by the summation. SimplifyOutput allows additional simpliIication oI the results to be attempted automatically. It can be set to
The TransformPairs option can be used to speciIy abstract transIormations, as in the transIormation oI this system equation, where x[n] is the input signal and y[n] is the output signal. Note that
In[24]:=Normal[ZTransform[
y[n] == x[n] - (1/4) y[n - 2],
n, z,
TransformPairs -> {y[n] :> Y[z], x[n] :> X[z]
]]
Out[24]=
The system transIer Iunction can be determined by solving the above system Ior Y[z] and dividing by X[z].
In[25]:=(Y[z]/.First[Solve[%, Y[z]]])/X[z]
Out[25]=
Taking the inverse transIorm oI the system transIer Iunction gives us the impulse response.
In[26]:=InverseZTransform[%, z, n]
Out[26]=
This is the impulse response oI the system we are working with.
In[27]:=DiscreteSignalPlot[%, {n, -5, 15]
Out[27]=
Without region oI convergence inIormation, a Z transIorm is not unique. II you wish to perIorm an inverse transIorm that requires speciIication oI the region oI convergence, you must enter the transIorm object directly.
Here is a multidimensional separable Z transIorm. Note the region oI convergence.
In[28]:=ZTransform[
a^n1 b^n2 DiscreteStep[{n1, n2],
{n1, n2, {z1, z2
]
Out[28]=
Here is an inverse transIorm where we take the Iunction that results Irom the previous computation, but change the region oI convergence. Note how the result varies compared to the input to the preceding example.
In[29]:=InverseZTransform[
ZTransformData[Normal[%],
RegionOfConvergence[
{0, Abs[b],
{Abs[a], Infinity
],
TransformVariables[{z1, z2]
],
{z1, z2, {n1, n2
]
Out[29]=
Opti ons for i nverse Z transform.
Since the inverse Z transIorm is transIorming a continuous Iunction, it accepts the SeriesTerms option. This will attempt a series expansion oI the Iunction to be transIormed to a speciIied number oI terms iI no transIorm can be Iound. Note that
decomposition, the option should be set to Infinity.
Here is an inverse Z transIorm perIormed by the SeriesTerms option. The result is only an approximation to what the actual transIorm would be. Expand is used here to arrange the terms in a more attractive Iorm.
In[30]:=Expand[InverseZTransform[
BesselJ[1, z],
z, n,
SeriesTerms -> 8
]]
Out[30]=
The StandardFormula option is not available Ior inverse Z transIorms, as standard integration technology is not able to handle most oI the contour integrals Irom transIorms that cannot be computed by the standard Z transIorm rule base.
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
The discrete-time Fourier transIorm is related to the Z transIorm, and can under certain circumstances be viewed as a special case oI the Z transIorm, with convergence inside the unit circle. Like the Z transIorm, it accepts a discrete Iunction as input and returns a continuous Iunction. The standard Iormula is
and Ior the inverse transIorm
Because oI the similarities between this transIorm and the Z transIorm, the implementation in Signals and Systems simply adds rules Ior those cases where the discrete-time Fourier transIorm is diIIerent, then call the Z transIorm with the appropriate variable substitution Ior all other cases.
The di screte-ti me Fouri er transform and i ts i nverse.
The syntax oI the discrete-time Fourier transIorm is much like that oI the Z transIorm.
All the transIorm Iunctions, including the discrete-time Fourier transIorm, accept symbolic input.
In[31]:=DiscreteTimeFourierTransform[
a^n DiscreteStep[n - 4],
n, w
]
Out[31]=
This is the two-dimensional discrete-time Fourier transIorm oI a particular pattern oI samples around the origin.
In[32]:=DiscreteTimeFourierTransform[
(1/6) DiscreteImpulse[n1 - 1, n2 - 1] +
(1/6) DiscreteImpulse[n1 + 1, n2 - 1] +
(1/6) DiscreteImpulse[n1 - 1, n2 + 1] +
(1/6) DiscreteImpulse[n1 + 1, n2 + 1] +
(1/3) DiscreteImpulse[n1, n2],
{n1, n2, {w1, w2
]
Out[32]=
This is the magnitude oI the transIorm, plotted. Note that to perIorm mathematical computations with a transIorm result, it must be extracted Irom the data structure that the transIorm returns.
In[33]:=SignalPlot3D[Abs[First[%]],
{w1, -Pi, Pi, {w2, -Pi, Pi
]
Out[33]=
DiscreteTimeFourierTransform accepts the same options as ZTransform, with the same meanings. Similarly, the inverse transIorm uses the same options as the inverse Z transIorm.
Here is a simple example oI an abstract transIorm pair. Note that the TransformPairs option will only be eIIective iI the standard properties oI the transIorm can be applied to simpliIy the input to the point that the user-speciIied transIorm pair can be applied.
In[34]:=DiscreteTimeFourierTransform[
x[n + 3],
n, w, TransformPairs -> {x[n] :> X[w]
]
Out[34]=
The inverse transIorm can also make use oI the TransformPairs option. The inverse transIorm can also make use oI the TransformPairs option.
In[35]:=InverseDiscreteTimeFourierTransform[%,
w, n,
TransformPairs -> {X[w] :> x[n]
]
Out[35]=
The Discrete Fourier Transform
Given a Iinite sequence oI length , the Fourier transIorm can be represented by uniIormly distributed samples oI the discrete-time Fourier transIorm. This is known as a discrete Fourier transIorm.
The inverse transIorm is written as
Unlike the built-in Mahemaica Iunction Fourier which computes numeric discrete Fourier transIorms, the Signals and Systems Iunction DiscreteFourierTransform computes symbolic transIorms.
The di screte Fouri er transform and i ts i nverse.
Because oI the symbolic nature oI the discrete Fourier transIorm as implemented in Signals and Systems, you can speciIy a Iormula and the number oI samples N over which the transIorm is to be applied. The sequence to be transIormed is assumed to run Irom
Here is a simple transIorm demonstrating the symbolic aspects oI the DiscreteFourierTransform Iunction. Here, the sequence has a length oI .
In[36]:=DiscreteFourierTransform[Sin[n], 10, n, k]
Out[36]=
An inverse transIorm is computed in a similar Iashion.
In[37]:=InverseDiscreteFourierTransform[Sin[k], 10, k, n]
Out[37]=
Opti ons for DiscreteFourierTransform and InverseDiscreteFourierTransform.
The DiscreteFourierTransform and its inverse use some oI the Z and inverse Z transIorm options. They take essentially the same meanings, but since the selection oI applicable options is diIIerent, they are listed again here. Note in particular that the
When Justification is set to Automatic, not as much additional inIormation is generated. This tells us that the transIorm is computed by way oI the discrete-time Fourier transIorm.
In[38]:=DiscreteFourierTransform[
DigitalFIRFilter[
{h[0], h[1], h[2], h[3], h[4],
n
],
5, n, w,
Justification -> Automatic
]
Out[38]=
Speci al syntax for transformi ng a numeri c vector.
For convenience, the Iorward and inverse discrete Fourier transIorms have a syntax that allows a numeric vector to be passed directly to the transIorm Iunction, generating a vector output. The behavior is similar to that oI the built-in Iunction
The same degree oI rigor used by the primary algorithm is also not employed, as the output is presented simply as a vector rather than a periodic signal. However, Ior certain computations (such as Iilter design), it is sometimes useIul to reIer to a vector oI data that is implicitly assumed to start at 0, with the output implicitly assumed to be periodic (assumptions made explicit when using
numeric when this syntax is employed.
Here is a numeric transIorm oI a vector oI data.
In[39]:=DiscreteFourierTransform[
Table[2^(-n), {n, 0, 10]//N
]
Out[39]=
This inverse transIorm might represent the impulse response oI a sampled ideal Iilter Irequency response.
In[40]:=InverseDiscreteFourierTransform[
{1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0//N
]
Out[40]=
5.3 Information from Transforms
Each returned transIorm object contains a variety oI useIul components. In addition, other Iunctions can extract inIormation such as the stability oI a transIorm Irom the object.
Stabilit
For the Laplace and Z transIorms, the stability oI the signal or system under consideration can be derived Irom the region oI convergence oI the transIorm. In the case oI the Z transIorm, the system is stable only iI the unit circle is included in the region oI convergence, while Ior the Laplace transIorm, the imaginary axis must be in the region oI convergence.
Determi ni ng stabi l i ty from a transform obj ect.
The SignalStability Iunction examines the region oI convergence inIormation in a transIorm data object Ior the stability criteria described above. II the stability can deIinitely be determined, the Iunction returns
oI a logical conjunction.
Here is a Z transIorm.
In[41]:=ZTransform[
(1/5)^n Exp[n]/20 DiscreteStep[n],
n, z
]
Out[41]=
From the region oI convergence, we conclude that this is stable.
In[42]:=SignalStability[%]
Out[42]=
This multidimensional transIorm Irom earlier in the chapter is stable when the conditions returned in this example are met.
In[43]:=SignalStability[
ZTransform[
-a^n1 b^n2 DiscreteStep[{-n1 - 1, n2],
{n1, n2, {z1, z2
]
]
Out[43]=
Assumptions
Some transIorms can only be perIormed iI certain conditions are met on parameters or variables involved in the transIorm. Signals and Systems currently maintains this inIormation as part oI the command history, via the Iunction
Assumpti ons made by transforms duri ng a computati on.
During a computation, the transIorm Iunctions associate any required assumptions with a history mechanism kept in TransformAssumptions oI the current value oI $Line. You can retrieve the assumptions by calling
assumptions are met by current criteria placed on parameters, or no assumptions were necessary. Otherwise, the assumptions will be returned in the Iorm oI a logical conjunction.
Here is a Laplace transIorm.
In[44]:=LaplaceTransform[
ExpIntegralEi[n t] UnitStep[t],
t, s
]
Out[44]=
This retrieves the assumptions made during the previous input.
In[45]:=TransformAssumptions[-1]
Out[45]=
This syntax allows a more Iamiliar notation to be used. Note, however, that the %% is not actually evaluated; instead, the -2 is retrieved Irom the Out[-2] which %% represents.
In[46]:=TransformAssumptions[%%]
Out[46]=
Transform Object Parts
The Iorward transIorms return a data object that contains important inIormation about the transIorm, such as the region oI convergence. The most important inIormation (the Iunction that results Irom the transIormation) is quite visible to the user, but, Ior programmatic manipulation, it is best to extract the parts oI the data object using special Iunctions. This is because the data type is subject to change, as additional inIormation
about the transIorm is retained.
Functi ons for extracti ng parts of transform obj ects.
As per the usual Mahemaica convention Ior converting data objects, Normal can also be used to extract the Iunction resulting Irom the transIorm.
Here is a Laplace transIorm.
In[47]:=trans = LaplaceTransform[
Exp[t] UnitStep[t],
t, s
]
Out[47]=
This is the Iunction resulting Irom the transIorm.
In[48]:=TransformFunction[trans]
Out[48]=
Laplace and Z transIorms retain inIormation about the region oI convergence oI the transIorm in the transIorm variable. It is not necessary that this inIormation be retained Ior the other provided transIorms. The upper and lower bounds represent diIIerent things Ior each oI these tranIorms. For the Laplace transIorm, the region oI convergence is a strip in the complex plane bounded by constant real numbers. The upper and lower
bounds are these real values. The Z transIorm, on the other hand, converges in an annulus in the complex plane, and the upper and lower bounds represent the absolute value oI the points on the boundary. In the multidimensional case, these take the Iorm
The region oI convergence is extracted in a similar Iashion. The lower bounds are in the Iirst argument, while upper bounds are in the second argument.
In[49]:=RegionOfConvergence[trans]
Out[49]=
Now we extract the variables that the Iunction was transIormed to. This is necessary to distinguish variables Irom parameters in the transIorm object.
In[50]:=TransformVariables[trans]
Out[50]=
Data obj ects resul ti ng from forward transforms.
Because the contents oI a transIorm data object are in principle not Iixed, it is better to access the parts oI such an object by the Iunctions listed previously, not by using Part and depending on the components to be in particular locations.
5.4 Solving Differential and Recurrence Equations
Mathematical transIorms play a wide variety oI roles in signal processing. For instance, they can be used to solve diIIerential and recurrence equations. As a demonstration oI this utility, Signals and Systems includes the Iunctions
These equations can also be handled by the standard Mahemaica Iunctions DSolve and RSolve. However, the standard Iunctions employ a variety oI techniques. II you speciIically want to apply a transIorm technique, then these supplementary Iunctions provided by Signals and Systems can be useIul.
traditional right-sided transIorms permit.
The transform-based equati on sol vers.
The syntax oI these equation solvers mimics the standard DSolve and RSolve notations. The main diIIerences are in the class oI equations that can be solved and in the allowed boundary conditions. The equations are limited to linear constant coeIIicient terms, with only the driving term allowed to be dependent on the variable (that is, the equation can be nonhomogenous). Systems oI equations cannot currently be handled.
II initial conditions are not given, they are assumed to be zero Ior ZRSolve. LaplaceDSolve assumes that they are symbolic constants C[1], C[2], and so on, with constant C[n] corresponding to the derivative oI order
Here is the solution to a second-order diIIerence equation, with an initial point speciIied.
In[51]:=ZRSolve[
{y[n-2] + 1/2 y[n-1] + 1/4 y[n] == 0,
y[1] == 1,
y[n], n
]
Out[51]=
Here is a second-order diIIerential equation. Initial values Ior the Iunction are speciIied.
In[52]:=LaplaceDSolve[
{y''[t] + 3/2 y'[t] + 1/2 y[t] ==
Exp[a t] UnitStep[t],
y[0] == 4, y'[0] == 0,
y[t], t
]
Out[52]=
Opti ons for the sol vi ng functi ons.
The use oI the bilateral transIorm allows both causal and anticausal sequences to be handled by ZRSolve. The TransformDirection option can be speciIied with either solver; it is passed along to the corresponding transIorm Iunction.
The Justification option is much like that used elsewhere. When set to None, no additional inIormation is provided; when Automatic, some inIormation about the steps taken is printed; and when
Here is a diIIerence equation solved with the Justification option activated. More inIormation can be generated by setting the option to All.
In[53]:=ZRSolve[
{y[n-2] + 1/2 y[n-1] + 1/4 y[n] == 0,
y[0] == 1, y[1] == 0,
y[n], n, Justification -> Automatic
]
Out[53]=
Newsl etter
Out[53]=
2012 About Wol fram Wol fram Bl og Wol fram|Al pha Terms Pri vacy Si te Map Contact