GUIA DEL ANALISIS DE CASOS En la mayora de los cursos de administracin estratgica, los estudiantes se valen de casos de compaas reales

para obtener alguna experiencia en la elaboracin y prctica del anlisis estratgico. Un caso plantea, a travs de los hechos, los eventos y circunstancias de la organizacin que rodean una situacin administrativa particular, pone a los lectores en la escena de la accin y los familiariza con todas las circunstancias pertinentes. Un caso de administracin estratgica puede relacionarse con todo un sector, con una sola organizacin o alguna parte de ella; tal organizacin puede ser lucrativa o sin fines de lucro. La esencia de la funcin del estudiante en el anlisis de casos es analizar y diagnosticar el estado de la situacin descrita en el caso, para luego recomendar los pasos de accin apropiados. Por qu recurrir a casos para practicar la administracin estratgica? Un estudiante de negocios muy aprovechado Absorbi muchas respuestas que no conoca, Y ya en la prctica pregunt, con gran melancola: Y cmo, ahora, la respuesta ajusto al hecho? El profesor Charles Gragg utiliz hace algunos aos la cuarteta precedente para representar el aprieto en que se ven los estudiantes de negocios que no han tenido acceso a los casos. (1) La verdad es que el mero acto de asistir a la exposicin del tema en clases y escuchar consejos sensatos acerca de la administracin hace poco por las habilidades administrativas del estudioso. La sabidura administrativa acumulada NO SE PUEDE TRANSMITIR DE MANERA EFICAZ SLO POR MEDIO DE EXPLICACIONES Y LECTURAS ASIGNADAS. Si algo se ha aprendido acerca de la prctica de la administracin es que no existe un almacn de respuestas hechas en los libros de texto. Cada situacin administrativa tiene aspectos nicos que requieren su propio diagnstico, juicio y acciones confeccionadas a su medida. Los casos proveen a los administradores en ciernes una valiosa forma de practicar el enfrentamiento con problemas reales de administradores reales en compaas reales. El mtodo de los casos para el anlisis estratgico es, primero y sobre todo, un ejercicio de aprender haciendo. Puesto que los casos proporcionan informacin detallada acerca de condiciones y problemas de un sector econmico y de compaas diferentes, su tarea al analizar una compaa tras otra y una situacin tras otra tienen el doble beneficio de impulsar sus habilidades analticas y de mostrarle las formas en que las empresas y los administradores hacen realmente las cosas. La mayora de los estudiantes universitarios tienen limitadas bases administrativas y slo un conocimiento fragmentario acerca de las empresas y las situaciones estratgicas de la vida real. Los casos ayudan a sustituir la experiencia que se adquiere en el trabajo 1) al darle a usted un contacto ms amplio con diversas industrias, organizaciones y problemas estratgicos; 2) a forzarle a asumir una funcin administrativa (en oposicin a la de ser slo un espectador); 3) al proveerle una prueba de cmo aplicar las herramientas y tcnicas de administracin estratgica, y 4) al pedirle que proponga planes programticos de accin administrativa para tratar los asuntos que se enfrentan.

Objetivos del anlisis de casos El recurso de los casos para aprender la prctica de la administracin estratgica es una poderosa herramienta para que logre usted cinco competencias: 1. Aumentar su comprensin de lo que los administradores deben y no deben hacer para llevar una empresa al xito. 2. Desarrollar habilidades para juzgar las fortalezas y debilidades de los recursos de una empresa y para efectuar el anlisis estratgico en diversos sectores y situaciones competitivas. 3. Adquirir valiosa prctica para identificar problemas estratgicos que hay que atender, para evaluar alternativas estratgicas y para formular planes de accin viables. 4. Afinar su juicio empresarial, contrario a la aceptacin sin crtica del soporte autoritario del profesor o de las respuestas al final del libro. 5. Conseguir un contacto a fondo con diferentes tipos de industrias y empresas, adquiriendo con ello algo cercano a la experiencia real de los negocios. Si usted entiende que stos son los objetivos del anlisis de casos, es menos probable que lo consuma la curiosidad por conocer la respuesta del caso. Los estudiantes que se han acomodado y habituado a las declaraciones y observaciones terminantes del libro de texto suelen sentirse frustrados cuando las discusiones acerca de un caso no producen respuestas concretas. Por lo comn, las discusiones de casos producen ms de un buen curso de accin. Casi siempre hay diferencias de opinin; en consecuencia, si un anlisis en clase concluye sin un firme inequvoco consenso sobre lo que hay que hacer, no refunfue mucho cuando se le diga cul es la respuesta o qu hizo realmente la compaa, slo recuerde que en el mundo de los negocios las respuestas no vienen en trminos concluyentes de que esto es blanco y esto otro es negro; casi siempre hay varias formas de accin y enfoque viables, cada uno de los cuales puede funcionar satisfactoriamente, ms an, en el mundo de los negocios. Cuando uno elige una ruta de accin particular, no hay modo de echar una mirada al final del libro para ver si se eligi lo mejor que haba que hacer, ni hay a quin volverse en busca de una respuesta correcta demostrable. La nica prueba vlida de la accin de la administracin son los resultados. Si los resultados de una accin son buenos, puede suponerse que la decisin de emprender esa accin fue correcta; si no hubo buen resultado, la accin elegida fue incorrecta en el sentido de que no funcion; por consiguiente, lo importante que debe entender un estudiante en el anlisis de casos es que los ejercicios administrativos de la identificacin, el diagnstico y la recomendacin son los que desarrollan sus habilidades; descubrir la respuesta correcta o averiguar qu sucedi realmente no es ms que el decorado del pastel; aun cuando usted indagara qu fue lo que la compaa hizo, no podra concluir que fuera necesariamente algo correcto o lo mejor; lo ms que puede decirse es: Eso fue lo que ellos hicieron El asunto es ste: el propsito de ponerle a usted una tarea de anlisis de un caso no es hacerle correr a la biblioteca o ponerlo a recorrer Internet para averiguar qu es lo que hizo realmente la compaa, sino desarrollar sus capacidades de estimacin de situaciones y formar su juicio administrativo acerca de lo que es necesario hacer y cmo hay que hacerlo. La finalidad del anlisis de casos es lograr su activa participacin en el diagnstico de asuntos crticos de los 2

negocios y problemas administrativos planteados en el caso, que proponga soluciones practicables y que explique y defienda sus evaluaciones. As es como los casos le proporcionan una valiosa prctica del ejercicio de la administracin. Preparacin de un caso para analizarlo en clase Si sta es su primera experiencia con el mtodo de casos, tal vez tenga que reorientar sus hbitos de estudio. A diferencia de los cursos de exposicin del tema a los que asiste sin prepararse intensamente para cada clase y en los que dispone de un margen holgado de tarea con lecturas asignadas y repaso de apuntes de lo explicado en su programa. Una asignacin de caso requiere una concienzuda preparacin para la clase. No obtendr gran provecho de escuchar la discusin en clase de un caso que no la ledo, y ciertamente no podr contribuir en nada al anlisis y debate. Para preparar el anlisis en clase de un caso, tiene que estudiar ste, reflexionar cuidadosamente sobre la situacin que se presenta y concebir algunas ideas razonadas; su meta debe consistir en presentar un anlisis firme, bien sostenido de la situacin y un conjunto correcto y defendible de recomendaciones. El paquete de software Case Tutor le ayudar en la preparacin de sus casos; contienen un conjunto de preguntas de estudio para cada caso y ayudas paso a paso que le asistirn en proceso de analizar y concretar recomendaciones razonables. (El Case TUTOR es un complemento en ingls disponible para maestros. Consulte trminos y condiciones con su representante de McGraw-Hill local.) Para preparar un caso para la discusin en clase le sugerimos el mtodo siguiente: 1. Haga una lectura general rpida del caso para tener un panorama de la situacin que presenta. Esta rpida vista de conjunto debe darle las caractersticas generales de la situacin e indicarle las clases de asuntos crticos y problemas con que tendr que enfrentarse, si su maestro le ha proporcionado preguntas de estudio para el caso, ste es el momento de leerlas con cuidado. 2. Lea el caso a conciencia para organizar los hechos y circunstancias. En esta lectura, trate de lograr el dominio completo de la situacin que se presenta en el caso. Empiece a preparar algunas respuestas tentativas a las preguntas de estudio de su instructor o del paquete de software Case TUTOR, el cual puede descargar del sitio web del libro. Si su instructor decidi no darle preguntas de tarea o no le ha recomendado el uso regular del Case TUTOR, empiece a formarse su propio cuadro de la situacin general que se describe. 3. Revise cuidadosamente toda la informacin presentada en documentos. Con frecuencia hay una historia importante en los nmeros contenidos en la documentacin y los materiales. Espere que la informacin de los documentos del caso sea lo bastante crucial para afectar materialmente a su diagnstico de la situacin. 4. Determine cules son los temas estratgicos. Mientras no identifique los temas y problemas estratgicos del caso, no sabr qu analizar, qu herramientas y tcnicas analticas se requieren, ni cmo proceder. A veces, los temas estratgicos son claros; se declaran directamente en el caso y se infieren de ste con facilidad: en otras ocasiones, tendrn que desenterrar los temas de entre toda la informacin dada; si es esto ltimo, las preguntas de estudio y los ejercicios de preparacin de caso proporcionados en el 3

software Case Tutor le guiarn. 5. Empiece su anlisis de los temas con algn trabajo de nmeros. La gran mayora de los casos de estrategia piden alguna clase de faena matemtica, clculo de un surtido de razones matemticas financieras para verificar el estado y desempeo reciente financiero de la empresa, clculo de tasas de crecimiento de ventas o de utilidades de ganancia maquillaje de la estructura de costos, as como comprensin de cualesquiera relaciones que existan entre ingresos, costos y ganancias. Examine la tabla 1 para ver un resumen de razones matemticas clave de finanzas, aprender cmo se calculan y entender qu es lo que revelan. Si usted est usando Case Tutor, una parte de la tarea de matemticas ya se ha computarizado, y esto le permitir dedicar ms tiempo a interpretar las tasas de crecimiento, las razones matemticas financieras y otros clculos que ya se le dan hechos. 6. Aplique los conceptos y tcnicas de anlisis estratgico que ha estado estudiando. El anlisis estratgico no es slo un cmulo de opiniones; ms bien se trata de aplicar los conceptos y herramientas analticas descritas en los captulos 1 a 13 para cortar bajo la superficie, captar imgenes profundas y ntidas, y entender. Cada caso asignado es una estrategia relacionada que le presenta una oportunidad de practicar tilmente lo aprendido. Su instructor est procurando que usted demuestre que sabe cmo y cundo utilizar el material que se proporciona en los captulos del texto. Las guas de preparacin de casos en Case Tutor le sealarn las herramientas analticas apropiadas que necesita para analizar cada situacin. 7. Revise las opiniones opuestas y haga algunos juicios sobre la validez de todos los datos e informacin que se proporcionan. En muchas ocasiones, los casos reportan oposicin de puntos de vista y opiniones (despus de todo, la gente no siempre concuerda en las casos, y diferentes personas ven las mismas cosas de modos diferentes). Verse forzado a evaluar los datos e informacin que se le presentan en el caso le sirve para desarrollar sus facultades de inferencia y juicio. Resolver informacin en conflicto es propio de toda esta actividad porque muchas situaciones administrativas comprenden puntos de vista y tendencias opuestas e informacin superficial. 8. Respalde sus diagnsticos y opiniones con razones y evidencias. Lo ms importante es preparar sus respuestas a la pregunta Por qu? Por ejemplo, si despus de estudiar el caso su opinin es que los administradores de la empresa estn haciendo un mal trabajo, entonces su respuesta a la pregunta Por qu lo cree as? es la que establece qu tan bueno es su anlisis de la situacin. Si su instructor le proporcion preguntas de estudio especficas para el caso, o si est utilizando las guas de preparacin de casos del Case TUTOR, es imprescindible que elabore respuestas que incluyan todas las razones y evidencia analtica matemtica que pueda reunir en apoyo de su diagnstico. Resuelva los ejercicios de preparacin de casos de Case TUTOR a conciencia o, si est utilizando preguntas de estudio que le haya dado el maestro, escriba por lo menos dos pginas de notas! 9. Prepare un plan de accin y un conjunto de recomendaciones apropiados. El diagnstico separado de la accin correctiva es estril. La prueba de un administrador es 4

siempre convertir el anlisis correcto en acciones correctas; acciones que producirn los resultados deseados; de este modo, el paso definitivo ay ms efectivo en la preparacin de un caso es crear una agenda de accin para la administracin que siente un conjunto de recomendaciones especficas. Tenga en cuenta que proponer soluciones realistas, practicables, es con mucho preferible a sugerir casualmente lo primero que se le ocurre a uno. Est preparado para explicar por qu sus recomendaciones son ms atractivas que otros caminos de accin que se encuentran abiertos. Para dar este paso tambin le sern tiles las guas de preparacin de casos del Case TUTOR. Siempre que prepare concienzudamente su anlisis y recomendaciones, y rena amplias razones, pruebas y argumentos en apoyo de sus puntos de vista, no debe preocuparse de si lo que ha preparado es la respuesta acertada al caso. En anlisis de casos, rara vez hay slo un enfoque o conjunto de recomendaciones que sea el correcto. Administrar una compaa, concebir y ejecutar estrategias no son ciencias tan exactas que slo exista un anlisis demostrablemente correcto y un plan de accin nico para cada situacin estratgica. Desde luego, algunos anlisis y planes de accin son mejores que otros; pero, en verdad, casi siempre hay ms de una buena forma de analizar una situacin y ms de un buen plan de accin. As que, si usted prepar con todo cuidado el caso ya se utilizando las guas de preparacin de Case TUTOR o las preguntas de asignacin de su maestro no pierda la confianza en lo correcto de su trabajo y de su juicio. Participacin en el anlisis de un caso en clase Discusiones de casos en el aula son marcadamente diferentes de las clases de exposicin del tema. En la clase de anlisis o discusin de caso, la voz parlante corre a cargo principalmente de los estudiantes. La funcin del instructor es solicitar la participacin del estudiante, mantener la discusin dentro de su cauce, preguntar a menudo Por qu?, ofrecer alternativas de puntos de vista, representar al abogado del diablo (si no hay estudiantes que planteen opiniones opuestas), o dirigir la discusin de alguna otra forma. Los estudiantes en el aula cargan con la tarea de analizar la situacin y de estar preparados para presentar y defender sus diagnsticos y recomendaciones. Espere, pues, un ambiente de aula en el que se pida su estimacin de la situacin, su anlisis, qu acciones emprendera usted y por qu las elegira. No se desanime si, al tiempo que discurre el anlisis de clase, sus compaeros dicen algunas cosas perspicaces que a usted no se lo ocurrieron. Es normal que los puntos de vista y los anlisis difieran y que los comentarios de otros en clase amplen su propio pensamiento de acerca del caso. Como dice el viejo proverbio: Dos cabezas piensan mejor que una. As que es de esperarse que la clase, como un todo, haga un trabajo ms penetrante e inquisitivo de anlisis de caso que el que hara cualquiera trabajando solo. Este es el poder del esfuerzo de grupo y tiene la virtud de que le ayudar a ver ms aplicaciones analticas, le permitir probar sus anlisis y juicios contra los de sus coetneos, y le obligar a lidiar con las diferencias de opinin y enfoque. Para orientarle en el ambiente del aula los das en que est programada una discusin de caso compilamos la siguiente lista de cosas a esperar:

1. Espere que el instructor asuma la funcin de interrogador y escucha en sentido amplio. 2. Espere que los estudiantes sean los que hablen la mayor parte del tiempo. El mtodo de caso entraa un mximo de participacin individual en la discusin de clase. (Por esto, espere que una porcin de su calificacin se base en su propia participacin en el Anlisis de los casos.) 3. Est preparado para que el instructor sondee en busca de razones y anlisis de apoyo. 4. Espere y tolere impugnaciones a los puntos de vista que exprese. Todos los estudiantes deben estar dispuestos a someter sus conclusiones a escrutinio y rplica. Cada estudiante necesita aprender a declarar su punto de vista sin temor a la desaprobacin. As mismo, tiene que vencer la vacilacin y atreverse a hablar. Aprender a respetar el punto de vista y enfoques de otros es parte de los ejercicios de anlisis de casos. Pero hay ocasiones en que est bien nadar contra la corriente de la opinin de la mayora. En la prctica de la administracin siempre hay espacio para la originalidad y los mtodos que se apartan de lo ortodoxo. As pues, mientras que la discusin de un caso es un proceso de grupo, tampoco se le fuerza a usted ni a nadie a dejar de ofrecer resistencia y a plegarse a las opiniones y el consenso del grupo. 5. No se sorprenda si cambia de parecer sobre algunas cosas a medida que se desenvuelve la discusin. Est alerta a la forma en que estos cambios afectan a su anlisis y a sus recomendaciones (en caso de que se le pida hablar). 6.Espere aprender mucho en la clase a medida que progrese la discusin de un caso; ms an, descubrir que los casos se erigen uno sobre otro: lo que aprenda en un caso le ayuda a prepararse para el anlisis siguiente. Hay varias cosas que puede hacer por su parte para tener una buena y destacada participacin en la discusiones de clase (Vea recuadro de la siguiente pgina). Aun cuando debe hacer su propio trabajo y reflexin independientes, no dude, antes (y despus) de clase en discutir el caso con otros estudiantes. En la vida real, los administradores suelen hablar de los problemas y situacin de la compaa con tras personas para refinar su propio pensamiento. Preparacin de un anlisis de caso escrito La preparacin de un anlisis de caso escrito es muy similar a la del caso para la discusin en clase, salvo que su anlisis tiene que ser ms completo y ha de presentarlo como un informe. Sin embargo, no hay por desgracia un procedimiento de molde para hacer el anlisis escrito. Todo lo que podemos ofrecer son algunas pautas y consejos sensatos; esto es porque las situaciones y problemas de administracin de las compaas son tan diversos que no hay manera mecnica de hacer una tarea escrita de asignacin de caso que siempre de buen resultado. 6

Su instructor puede y sea asignarle un tema especfico en torno al cual prepare su reporte escrito, pedirle que escriba un amplio anlisis de caso, en el que la expectativa es que usted: 1) identifique todas las cuestiones pertinentes que la administracin necesita atender, 2) realice cualquier anlisis o evaluacin que sea apropiado, y 3) proponga un plan de accin y un conjunto de recomendaciones enfocados a los problemas que usted ha identificado. Al realizar el ejercicio de identificar, evaluar y recomendar, tenga en mente los consejos siguientes. Identificacin Es esencial que desde el principio de su escrito proporcione usted un diagnstico claro de los temas estratgicos y los problemas clave, e igualmente, demuestre que tiene comprensin cabal de la actual situacin de la empresa. Asegrese de que puede identificar la estrategia de la compaa (utilice los conceptos y herramientas de los captulos 1 a 10 como auxiliares de diagnstico) y de que puede sealar cualesquiera temas de ejecucin de la estrategia que existan (consulte el material de los captulos 11 a 13 para la ayuda de diagnstico). Vea los puntos clave que hemos proporcionado al final de cada captulo como sugerencias adicionales de diagnstico. Revise las preguntas de estudio del caso en Case Tutor. Considere la idea de comenzar su reporte con un panorama de la situacin de la compaa, su estrategia y los problemas y asuntos importantes que enfrenta la administracin. Declare tanto los problemas como los asuntos importantes tan clara y precisamente como pueda. A menos que sea necesario hacerlo as por razones de nfasis, evite la repeticin de los hechos e historia de la firma (bsese en el supuesto de que su maestro ha ledo el caso y est familiarizado con la organizacin). Anlisis y evaluacin Esta suele ser la parte ms difcil del reporte. El anlisis es trabajo arduo! Verifique las razones matemticas financieras de la compaa, sus mrgenes de utilidad y tasas de ingresos, junto con su estructura de capital para determinar su fuerza financiera. Remtase a la tabla 1, que contiene un resumen de diversas razones financieras y de la forma de calcularlas. Utilcela para ayudarse en su diagnstico financiero. De igual manera, examine el marketing, la produccin, la aptitud administrativa y otros factores subyacentes en el fondo de los xitos y fracasos estratgicos de la organizacin. Determine si la empresa tiene fortalezas y aptitudes valiosas como recursos y, en caso afirmativo, si las est aprovechando. Recomendaciones La seccin final del anlisis de case escrito debe consistir en un conjunto de recomendaciones y un plan de accin definidos. Su conjunto de recomendaciones debe atender a todos los problemas y asuntos crticos que usted identific y analiz. Si las recomendaciones surgen como una sorpresa o no se siguen lgicamente del anlisis, el efecto ser el de que se debiliten mucho las sugerencias que usted haga. Obviamente, sus recomendaciones de accin deben ofrecer una razonable perspectiva de xito. Las recomendaciones de alto riesgo, de poner en juego la existencia de la empresa, deben hacerse con cautela. Enuncie la forma en que sus recomendaciones resolvern los problemas que usted identific. Asegrese de que la firma tiene la capacidad financiera de llevar a cabo lo que usted recomienda; compruebe tambin si su recomendaciones son factibles en trminos de la aceptacin de las personas comprendidas en el plan, de la aptitud e la organizacin para llevarlas a cabo, del mercado predominante 7

y de las restricciones ambientales. Trate de no eludir o amilanarse de acciones que crea deben emprenderse. Sobre todo, declare sus recomendaciones con detalle suficiente para que tengan sentido; descienda a algunos detalles prcticos especficos. Evite declaraciones intiles como La organizacin deber hacer ms planeacin o L Empresa debe actuar con ms audacia y determinacin en el marketing de su producto. Por ejemplo, no diga simplemente, La compaa debe mejorar su posicin de mercado, sino establezca claramente cmo cree que debe hacerse esto. Ofrezca una agenda definida de accin en la que estipule un calendario y una secuencia para iniciar acciones, indique prioridades y sugiera quin debe asumir la responsabilidad de hacer qu. Al proponer un plan de accin, recuerde que hay una gran diferencia entre, por un lado, ser responsable de una decisin que puede ser costosa si resulta errada y, por otra parte, sugerir de modo informal cursos de accin que pudieran tomarse sin que usted tenga que cargar con la responsabilidad de sus consecuencias. Una buena regla a seguir para hacer sus recomendaciones es: evite recomendar algo que usted no estara dispuesto a hacer si estuviera en los zapatos del administrador. La importancia de aprender a desarrollar buen juicio administrativo lo indica el hecho de que, aun cuando la misma informacin y los mismos datos de operacin pueden estar disponibles para cada administrador y ejecutivo de una organizacin, la calidad de los juicios acerca de lo que significa la informacin y qu acciones hay que emprender vara de una persona a otra. Su reporte debe estar bien organizado y bien escrito. Las grandes ideas cuenta poco a menos de que otros puedan convencerse de sus mritos, esto requiere una lgica rigurosa, la presentacin de pruebas convincentes y la elaboracin de argumentos escritos en forma persuasiva. Preparacin de una presentacin oral En el curso de su carrera empresarial es que muy probable que se le pida ms de una vez que prepare y haga presentaciones verbales. Por esta razn, es comn en cursos de esta naturaleza asignar casos para presentacin oral a la clase entera. Tales tareas le dan a usted oportunidad de afinar sus habilidades de presentacin. La preparacin de la presentacin oral tiene mucho en comn con la de un anlisis de caso escrito. Ambas requieren la identificacin de los problemas y asuntos importantes estratgicos que enfrenta la compaa, el anlisis de las condiciones del sector y la situacin de la compaa, as como la elaboracin de un plan de accin concienzudo y bien pensado. Tanto la sustancia de su anlisis como la calidad de sus recomendaciones en una presentacin oral no deben ser diferentes de las de un reporte escrito. Como la tarea escrita, usted necesita demostrar su dominio de los conceptos y herramientas estratgicos pertinentes de anlisis, adems de que sus recomendaciones deben tener el detalle suficiente para proporcionar una direccin clara a la administracin. La diferencia principal entre una presentacin verbal y un caso escrito est en el formato de entrega. Las presentaciones orales se apoyan principalmente en la verbalizacin de su diagnstico, anlisis y recomendaciones, y complementan visualmente su discusin oral con 8

diapositivas vvidas y coloridas (creadas por lo comn con software Powerpoint de Microsoft.) Tpicamente, las presentaciones orales implican tareas de grupo. Su maestro le proporcionar los detalles de la asignacin: la forma en que el trabajo debe delegarse entre los miembros del grupo y en que debe llevarse a cabo la presentacin. Algunos instructores prefieren que las presentaciones comiencen con la identificacin del asunto, seguida del anlisis del sector y el de la situacin de la compaa, y que concluyan con un plan de accin recomendado para mejorar el desempeo de sta; otros prefieren que los presentadores den por sentado que la clase entiende bien el ambiente externo del sector y la posicin competitiva de la firma, esperando que la presentacin se concentre intensamente en el plan de accin recomendado del grupo y en los anlisis y argumentos de apoyo. Este ltimo enfoque requiere ir directamente al meollo del caso y apoyar cada recomendacin con anlisis detallado y razonamiento persuasivo. No obstante, habr otros instructores que le den un margen holgado para que estructure su presentacin como quiera que usted y los miembros de su grupo lo consideren adecuado. Independientemente del estilo preferido de su instructor, usted debe tener gran cuidado en la preparacin de su presentacin. Para una presentacin de primera categora es esencial un buen conjunto de diapositivas con buen contenido y atractivo visual. Procure que el diseo de la diapositiva, tamao de fuente y estilo tipogrficos, as como el esquema de color sean atractivos. Le sugerimos incluir diapositivas que abarquen cada una de las reas que se muestran en el recuadro inferior. Usted y los miembros de su equipo deben planear y ensayar cuidadosamente su sesin de diapositivas para maximizar el impacto y minimizar las distracciones. La sesin de diapositivas debe tener todo el atractivo necesario para captar la atencin del auditorio, pero no tanto que lo distraiga del contenido que los miembros del grupo le estn diciendo a la clase. Recuerde que la funcin de las diapositivas es ayudarle a comunicar sus argumentos al auditorio. Demasiados elementos grficos, imgenes, colores y transiciones pueden distraer la atencin del auditorio de lo que se dice o alterar el flujo de la presentacin. Tenga en cuenta que las dispositivas espectaculares rara vez le ocultan a un auditorio perceptivo un anlisis de caso superficial o alguna otra deficiencia. La mayora de los instructores le dirn que las diapositivas de primera categora definitivamente realzarn una presentacin bien hecha, pero que los auxiliares visuales impresionantes que acompaan a un anlisis dbil y a una comunicacin verbal pobre, equivalen a una presentacin por debajo de la norma. Investigacin de empresas y sectores por medio de internet y de servicios de datos en lnea Muy probablemente, habr ocasiones en que necesite obtener informacin adicional acerca de algunos casos asignados, tal vez porque su instructor le ha pedido que investigue ms sobre el sector o la empresa o tan sencillo como que tiene usted curiosidad acerca de lo que haya sucedido con la compaa desde que se escribi lo relativo al caso. En estos das es relativamente fcil rastrear los acontecimientos recientes del ramo e indagar si la situacin estratgica y financiera de una compaa ha mejorado, se ha deteriorado o ha cambiado poco desde la conclusin del anlisis del caso. La cantidad de informacin acerca de compaas y ramos disponible por internet y por los servicios de datos en lnea es formidable y crece con rapidez.

Es cosa bastante sencilla ir a los sitios web de una compaa, hacer clic en las ofertas de informacin a inversionistas y en los archivos de comunicados de prensa, y obtener rpidamente informacin til. La mayora de los sitios web de las empresas estn conectados con bases de datos que contienen los reportes trimestrales y anuales de esas firmas, y archivos 10K y 10Q con la Comisin de Valores y Bolsas (Securities and Exchange Commission). Con frecuencia hallar declaraciones de valores, cdigos de tica e informacin de estrategia, as como grficas del precio de las acciones de la firma. Los comunicados de prensa recientes de la compaa suelen contener informacin confiable de todo lo interesante que ha estado ocurriendo: nuevas introducciones de productos, alianzas y convenios de asociacin recientes, nuevas adquisiciones, y otros acontecimientos de ltimo momento en la empresa. Algunas pginas web empresariales incluyen tambin vnculos con las pginas base de asociaciones gremiales del ramo en las que se puede encontrar informacin acerca del tamao del sector, su crecimiento, las noticias recientes del mismo, sus tendencias estadsticas y su perspectiva futura. De tal suerte, uno de los primeros pasos en la bsqueda de una compaa en internet es siempre el de ir a su sitio web y ver qu hay disponible en ste. Servicio de datos en lnea Lexis-Nexis, Bloomberg, Financial News Services y otros servicios en lnea de suscripcin disponibles en muchas bibliotecas universitarias proveen acceso a un amplio despliegue de material de referencia empresarial y de negocios. Por ejemplo, Lexis-Nexis Academic Service, basado en la web contienen artculos noticiosos de negocios de fuentes generales y publicaciones tanto de negocios como de comercio industrial. Tambin se dispone, a travs de Lexis-Nexis, de transcripciones radiofnicas de programas de noticias financieras, as como los materiales de puro texto 10K, 10Q. Los reportes anuales y los perfiles de compaas de ms 11 000 empresas estadounidenses e internacionales. Es probable que su bibliotecario de negocios pueda dirigirle a los recursos disponibles por medio de su biblioteca que le sirvan en su investigacin. Sitios web pblicos y de suscripcin con buena informacin Adems de los servicios de pginas web y en lnea de la compaa, que le proporcione su biblioteca universitaria, casi toda publicacin importante de negocios tiene un sitio de suscripcin disponible en internet. The Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition no slo contiene la misma informacin que aparece diariamente en su versin impresa del peridico, sino que tambin mantiene una base de datos en la cual se pueden buscar todos los artculos publicados en los ltimos aos. Los siguientes sitios web son lugares particularmente buenos para obtener informacin de compaas y sectores: http://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/srch-edgar http://money.cnn.com http://ww.hoovers.com http://www.businessweek.com http://www.fortune.com http://www.moneycentral.msn.com 10

http://www.finance.yahoo.com Aprender es rpido. Con una modesta inversin de tiempo, aprender a usar las fuentes y motores de bsqueda de internet para reunir informacin de compaas y sectores rpida y eficientemente, habilidad que le ser de utilidad en el futuro. Una vez que se familiarice con los datos disponibles en los diferentes sitios web mencionados antes y con uno o ms motores de bsqueda, sabr dnde buscar la informacin particular que desea. Los motores de bsqueda casi siempre le ponen enfrente demasiadas fuentes de informacin que concuerdan con su bsqueda, en lugar de demasiado pocas; el truco est en concentrarse en las que son ms pertinentes para lo que est usted buscando. Como en la mayora de las cosas, una vez que adquiera un poco de experiencia sobre cmo hacer investigacin de la compaa y del sector en internet ver que puede encontrar fcilmente la informacin que necesita. Los diez mandamientos del anlisis de casos Como una forma de resumir sus sugerencias acerca de cmo hay que enfocar la tarea del anlisis de casos, hemos compilado lo que nos gusta llamar Los diez mandamientos del anlisis de casos, los cuales se presentan en la tabla 2. Si observa todos o incluso la mayora de estos mandamientos fielmente al preparar un caso para su discusin en clase o como reporte escrito, mejorarn mucho sus probabilidades de hacer un buen trabajo en los casos asignados. Persevere, haga su mejor esfuerzo y disfrute de la exploracin de todo lo que es el mundo real de la administracin estratgica. Tabla 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Estos mandamientos se deben seguir en los reportes escritos y en las presentaciones orales, y mientras se participa en un anlisis en clase. 1. Revise el caso dos veces: una para tener una rpida idea de qu trata y otra para tener un conocimiento completo de los hechos; despus ponga atencin en analizar la informacin en cada ilustracin. 2. Elabore una lista completa de los problemas y hechos que la administracin de la compaa necesita atender. 3. Realice un anlisis de la situacin de la empresa (ya sea a travs de un ejercicio de preparacin del caso en Case Tutor o escriba una o dos pginas de notas en las que detalle su diagnstico). 4. Busque oportunidades de aplicar los conceptos o las herramientas analticas expuestos en los captulos. Todos los casos del libro estn vinculados con el material estudiado en uno o ms captulos del libro. 5. Realice suficientes clculos para desentraar la historia que presentan los datos del caso. (Apyese en la tabla 1 de esta seccin para guiarse en la comprobacin de las condiciones y el desempeo financiero de la empresa.) 6. Sustituya todas y cada una de sus opiniones infundadas con argumentos y evidencia numrica. No descanse hasta que haya eliminado los pienso y creo de sus afirmaciones, y en cambio, pueda declarar mi anlisis demuestra. 7. Priorice sus recomendaciones y asegrese de que se puedan llevar a cabo en un plazo 11

razonable con los recursos disponibles. 8. Fundamente cada recomendacin con argumentos persuasivos y razonamientos significativos de por qu stos mejorarn el desempeo de la empresa. 9. Revise su plan de accin recomendado para verificar si ha considerado todos los problemas y sucesos que identific. Cualquier conjunto de recomendaciones que no dan respuesta a todos los problemas y hechos que identific est incompleto y es insuficiente. 10. Evite recomendar cualquier curso de accin que pidiera traer consecuencias desastrosas en caso de que no funcione como lo plane; en cambio, reduzca riesgos en sus recomendaciones al prever riesgos potenciales. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Analysis Frameworks Because the process of learning through case analysis may be new to you, we will devote much of this discussion to providing you with a framework to use in analyzing the cases found in your textbook. Such a framework is useful not only in analyzing cases in textbooks, but also in considering business situations described in publications such as The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, Fortune, and Forbes. In reality, most articles about companies in magazines and newspapers are mini-cases. The cases in your text tell stories, including facts, opinions, projections, results, expectations, plans, policies, and programs. As readers, we need some way to structure the information presented in a way that makes it more useable. Analysis frameworks provide a means to accomplish this end. There are several benefits in having a framework to use for analyzing situations. The first is that a framework provides comprehensive coverage of the topics and issues involved. Without a framework, the analyst may overlook some issues. For example, a person might not consider the various effects of the economic environment facing the organization at a given point in time. Recommendations made without this consideration may not be appropriate, and they may even lead to the failure of the organization. Another benefit of a framework is ease of communication. When everyone uses a similar framework to analyze cases, the terms each person uses person have similar meanings. This is a huge advantage in discussing cases in and outside of class. A final benefit is consistency of analysis. A framework provides a blueprint to approach situations consistently every time. This is a great aid in getting started and conducting the analysis effectively and efficiently. Using the framework repeatedly will make you very proficient with it. In fact, experience shows that students continue to use this framework in their jobs long after graduation. They continue to get these benefits, and in times of crisis, the framework gives them something to rely on in dealing with difficult situations. The framework presented in the remainder of this discussion is certainly not the only one that is useful in analyzing cases. We also cannot claim that it is the best framework. Your professor may provide his or her own framework, and if so, you should follow it. In all probability, it will be some modification of the one outlined here. As long as the framework provides you with the benefits outlined above, you feel it suits your needs, and you use it consistently, the case analysis process will be made more manageable and valuable. The Seven-Step Case Analysis Framework The seven-step framework presented here is a synthesis of the frameworks used by your books authors in their many years of combined experience in teaching marketing. It has been improved over the years through discussions with other marketing professors who use case analysis in their courses. It is straightforward to use, and provides the benefits of comprehensiveness, communication, and consistency. It will not, however, serve as a substitute for carefully reading (usually three or more times) and considering the cases. It will provide a solid structure to organize the diverse information presented in a case. 35

As you work your way through this framework, or a similar approach to case analysis, we offer the following hints to increase your probability of success: 1. No one can analyze a case after reading it only one time, or even worse, doing the analysis during the first reading of the case. You should read through the case once just to get an understanding of the nature of the case. During the second reading, you can begin to structure and classify the issues as they appear. A truly comprehensive case analysis will probably require at least three readings. 2. Dont get trapped into thinking the answer to the case is hidden somewhere in the case text. There is never a single answer to a case just as there is never a single marketing strategy that is appropriate for all situations. Each case is unique. Looking for tricks or shortcuts is not appropriate. 3. Make an effort to put yourself in the shoes of the decision maker in the case. The use of roleplaying as part of the analysis can be very useful. It helps you gain some feeling for the perspective of the key parties at the time the case took place. After you have done several analyses, you will likely come up with your own additional procedures or guidelines that assist you with this process. Step 1: Situation Analysis The material presented in a case is much like the communications we have in our daily lives. Usually our conversations involve the selection of a topic and then the discussion of that topic, and so it is with cases. The problem is that we end up with bits and pieces of information that by themselves are not very useful, but once organized, can be quite valuable in our assessment of the situation. The first step in the framework helps you organize the pieces of information into more useful topic blocks. The process of assessing a situation is widely accomplished through the use of SWOT Analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats). The issues and procedures involved in SWOT Analysis are fully explored in Chapter 4 of your text. Our role here is simply to reinforce the issues covered in SWOT and to emphasize its role in the case analysis framework. Looking at an organizations strengths and weaknesses is the first half of Step 1. This involves looking at the organizations internal environment. Strengths are those aspects of the internal environment that can help the firm address a present problem, issue, or opportunity, while weaknesses are negative factors or deficiencies that do not allow the firm to reach its full potential. One topic that should be addressed is the content and appropriateness of the current marketing plan. Is the marketing plan current? Do the key parties understand and utilize it? Was it developed with input from all levels of the organization? The organizations financial condition may also present strengths and weaknesses. Is it in a solid position, and does it have, or can it acquire, needed funds at a reasonable cost of capital? Other possible strengths and weaknesses might include managerial expertise, human resources, product reputation and customer loyalty, patents and trademarks, age and capacity of production facilities, channel 36

relationships, and promotional programs (sales force, advertising program, publicity, and sales promotion efforts). These are all issues that we want to consider in terms of both the present state of the firm and identifiable trends. Students assessing a case situation see the importance of considering the organizations internal environment fairly naturally. The aspect of SWOT analysis that gives students the most difficulty is the external environment where all opportunities and threats reside. These are issues that exist outside the boundaries of the firm. All opportunities and threats will exist at their present levels even if the organization in question does not exist. Technology, competition, the macroeconomic environment, regulation, and social and cultural trends are all issues that affect the success of an organizations strategies, but the organization has only limited influence on them. Because the power to affect the external environment significantly is usually absent, management must view the factors and forces present in the external environment as issues to be considered, but not usually controlled. Managers should take steps to minimize the exposure to threats and to take full advantage of the opportunities. You might think of opportunities and threats as currents in a river. It is much easier to find a river whose currents will help take you where you are going than to try to make headway going against the force of the river. You may get hung up on several points when conducting a SWOT analysis. First, while a factor will usually fall into only one of the four categories, this is not always the case. A factor can be both a strength and a weakness, or an opportunity and a threat. For example, excess capacity in a factory would be a weakness from a production efficiency standpoint. But, it could be a strength if the firm is looking to introduce a new product because it will not have to build a new factory. The second and more serious issue is the difficulty in identifying opportunities. There is a tendency to confuse opportunities with possibilities. Something the company might do, such as franchise its operations in an effort to expand, is not an opportunity. The mention of the organizations name in the opportunity is a clear indication that it is not an issue from the external environment. Both threats and opportunities would be present even if the organization did not exist. Third, if your professor asks you to update the case material, you must be sure to get an explanation of what it means to update a case. To some professors, updating a case means locating additional information about the case situation at the time the situation actually took place. Thus, if a case situation took place in late 2003, updating that case would involve gathering information that was published in 2003 or earlier. Using more recent information sources can bias your strategy recommendations and conclusions. However, many professors will prefer that you use recent sources of information to bring a case into the present day. We personally do not recommend this approach because it usually changes the focus of the case. What the organization did is not a key issue because there is no one right recommendation for any case. Even if the company was successful with its subsequent strategy, it does not make that strategy the only good option. Finally, you are accustomed to the material in a textbook containing accurate information that should be believed and remembered. However, in some cases, you will find statements of 37

opinion that are often biased by a persons motives and position in a firm. The organizations CEO who has just recently given approval to the firms strategic plan might say, This is an excellent mission statement that will effectively direct our firms efforts for the next decade. Is this really true? It might be, but it will be up to you to determine what is fact as opposed to someones opinion. Opinions will need to be assessed in your case analysis to determine their accuracy. Step 2: Assumptions and Missing Information As with life, it is neither possible nor realistic for cases to contain all the information a decision maker might wish to have available. Usually a decision maker has only bits and pieces of information. He or she must either fill in the gaps, or make the decision that the information is not critical, fairly predictable, or simply too costly and time-consuming to justify collecting for the decision at hand. A marketing manager might want to know the history of competitive reactions to price cuts by his firm. This information may be present in company files. It also might be available from trade sources or other noncompetitive channel members. Following the seven-step framework, in step two you will list important information not contained in the case, why that information might be useful, and how you might go about acquiring it. This is more than just a wish list. The items included here should considered thoroughly. The list should contain pieces of information that would help shore up or fill gaps in your SWOT analysis. Some of the materials may be available from secondary sources, such as U.S. Department of Commerce reports, the Bureau of the Census, or trade publications such as Sales & Marketing Management Magazine. Internal records will contain much of the needed strength/weakness information, such as employee turnover or historical sales levels. Some of the information that is not available can be addressed through assumptions. One might assume that if information about the firms advertising budget is not available, it would be equal to industry averages. The same assumptions might be made for other costs and revenues. It is critical that these assumptions be realistic and clearly identified before and during the case analysis. This list should contain only those items that will be truly useful in enhancing the quality of the decisions made. It should not be a list of things that would be interesting to know. The quality of your analysis will depend on your coverage of the framework, the depth of your analysis, and the degree to which you can defend your recommendations. Step 3: Statement of The Problem(s) The identification and clear presentation of the problem(s) or issue(s) facing the company is the most critical part of the analysis framework. Only a problem properly defined can be addressed. Define the problem too narrowly, or miss the key problem all together, and all subsequent framework steps will be off the mark. Getting a clear picture of the problem is one major benefit derived from SWOT analysis. The process of identifying problems is similar to the one people go through with their doctors. A nurse or assistant comes in to conduct a strength and weakness assessment on you. Your vital signs are taken and you are asked about any symptoms you may be experiencing. Symptoms are 38

observable manifestations or indications that a problem may be present. Symptoms are not the problem themselves. If you have a temperature of 103 degrees, that is a symptom. If the medical staff were to pack you in ice for several minutes, that reading would probably approach 98.6 degrees. Would that make you well? It might make your condition worse! The doctor uses the information collected from you, with knowledge of the viruses and diseases that are present in the external environment, to identify what has led to your high fever. The doctor will attempt to diagnose the real problem, then prescribe treatment from a set of feasible alternatives (make recommendations about what steps will help solve the problem) and provide you with a prognosis (an indication of the things you can expect to occur as you are recovering). The case analysis process is similar to the doctors analysis and treatment of a patient in several basic ways. First, symptoms are the most observable indication that a problem exists. Many students are very quick to start treating the symptoms found in a case, as opposed to digging deeper to find the underlying problem(s). A symptom may be that sales are down from previous periods. If this is how you define the problem, your answer might be to cut the price. This might be an appropriate step, but not based on the analysis to this point. Sales might pick up, but will this reaction make the company healthier? This is a clear case of prescription without adequate diagnosis. The most important question in the identification of any problem is Why? The Why question should always be asked after a potential problem has been proposed. To illustrate, pinpointing the problem associated with the sales decline in our previous example might progress like this: The problem is that sales have declined. Why have sales declined? Sales have declined because there are too many sales territories that are not assigned to a salesperson. Why are so many sales territories unassigned? Sales territories are unassigned because sales force turnover has doubled in the past year. Why has sales force turnover doubled? Turnover began to increase over a year ago when the sales force compensation plan was altered in order to reduced variable expenses. When you can no longer devise a meaningful response to the Why? question, you have probably found the problem. In this instance, the problem statement might read: The current sales force compensation plan at XYZ Company is inadequate to retain an acceptable percentage of the firms salespeople, resulting in lost customers and decreased sales. The problem statement should be briefalmost always one or two sentences. It should be to the point, and it should provide a clear indication as to what must be addressed to improve the performance of the organization.

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Given this problem statement, our first reaction, to work on the symptom of reduced sales by cutting prices, would clearly not solve the problem. When we work on symptoms, the symptom may go away, but the problem will always manifest itself again with the same symptom, or a related one. Cutting prices would enhance sales, but would it be profitable? And, with an understaffed sales force, could the firm serve customers at a level that would keep them satisfied? It is often said, and very true: a problem well defined is a problem half solved. This is certainly the situation when performing case analyses. Step 4: Development of Alternatives Once we have the problem clearly and succinctly defined, we are in a position to develop a set of strategic alternatives that have a reasonable potential to solve the problem. A key problem students face in this step is that they generate a laundry list of a dozen fairly detail-oriented items. These items have a lot more to do with the tactics of implementing a strategy than with presenting alternative strategies from which we will make our selections. Going back to the sales force example above, the list may include ideas such as: Take candidates through a more rigorous interview process Lengthen the training program Give every salesperson a company car Offer both individual and regional bonuses Increase company contribution to the retirement program for each year of employment Conduct an employee-evaluation training program for the firms sales managers

While these may all be good ideas, they are not strategic alternatives. The term alternative suggests an either/or situation. From the list above, you might include several items in your recommendation section. Strategic alternatives should identify basic directions the firm might go with the sales force support of its product. One alternative is always the status quo. You must understand that this is not a means of avoiding a decision. If recommended as the next step, it is a conscious decision, based on a careful evaluation, that the present strategy in use, perhaps with some tactical modifications, is the best course of action in the current situation. Besides the status quo, you should use creative thinking to come up with several truly strategic alternatives. For our present example, one option might be to eliminate the external sales force and start using a manufacturers representative network to sell to the firms customers. Another alternative would be to use direct marketing, with an inside sales force to market the product. Another possible option is to reemphasize the sales force with a more effective sales management program, including better selection, compensation, evaluation, and recognition of the sales force. Frequently, the underlying problem facing the organization is the failure to have a current, widely used, well-developed marketing plan. If the analysis indicates this to be the case, conducting a 40

comprehensive strategic market planning process should be one of the alternatives listed. This is one of the few options that might be selected in combination with some other alternative. Step 5: Evaluation of Alternatives & Recommendations Once you have developed a set of realistic alternatives, it is time to do a thorough evaluation of each of the options. Three major criteria should be used in this evaluation process. First, how well does the alternative address the problem or issue as stated in Step 3? Closely related to the first criterion is the consistency of the alternative with the organizations mission statement, as well as its ability to assist in achieving the plans stated goals and objectives. These issues are addressed in Chapter 2 of your textbook. Clearly, for an organization whose mission includes providing the most innovative health care products to doctors, nurses, and patients, a low cost/price competitive organization model would be inappropriate. This does not mean alternatives that are not consistent with the present plan should never be selected. It does indicate that part of the evaluation for such alternatives must address the complete modification of the organizations strategic plan. Likewise, an objective of increasing profit margins from 15% to 25% is not consistent with the alternative of becoming a low-price provider. The deletion, or at the very least modification, of this aspect of the plan must be considered in evaluating this alternative. For each alternative, you should make an effort to estimate and evaluate the cost and revenue implications of the option. Probable income statements, under corresponding stated assumptions, should be included for each alternative. Exhibit 1 provides an example of just such an assessment. Costs are certainly easier to calculate than revenue projections, but an effort must be made to do both. To conclude simply that developing a new innovative product line for the organization, without any discussion of the costs and benefits involved, or in what year each is likely to occur, is an incomplete and unrealistic approach to case analysis. You should use what you have learned from your accounting and finance courses when you conduct case analyses. Look at any financial information you are given in the case, or that you can acquire, as a key resource in conducting your analysis. <Insert Exhibit 1 Here (see end of file)> The final criterion is an important one that relates to the feasibility and probable success of each alternative: How well do the alternatives coincide with the key findings from the SWOT Analysis you conducted in Step 1? In other words, how well does each alternative match up with the internal and external environments of the organization? Does the organization have, or can it realistically acquire, the human and financial resources required by each alternative? Building additional capacity to increase volume as the low-price provider is probably not a reasonable alternative for an organization in great financial difficulty. Conversely, for a firm with limited history and investment in research and development, becoming the innovative leader in the industry will not be possible in the near term. The external environment, in terms of the economy, competition, regulation, and cultural trends, will have a major impact on the pro forma revenue projections you make in this step. Any 41

alternative that adds pollution to the environment will not be well received today. Often, alternative analyses assume the competition is an inanimate object. Thinking that competitors will stand still while you steal their customers with a new marketing strategy is not at all realistic. Part of the evaluation of alternatives, and making projections about their potential success, is to use the assessment of the external environment to make assumptions about what key competitors will do. You must remember that as one company is setting a course for the future, most of its effective competitors are doing likewise. The recommendation portion of this step is often included as a separate phase in the case analysis framework. We include evaluation with recommendation because, if the former is done well, the latter should be a natural continuation of the process. The alternative chosen is the one that stands up best in terms of all three criteria: consistency with mission, goals and objectives as stated or as modified, strongest probable financial performance, and harmony with the internal and external environments of the organization. With a thorough evaluation, the recommended alternative should be a natural move. This does not mean that two alternatives will never be close in terms of their attractiveness, but usually one will be a better match for the organization as a whole. One more note: Become accustomed to making recommendations in the face of unknown economic or competitive conditions. While you will be able to know some things for certain (such as gross domestic product or consumer spending), no one can possibly predict all future events. As long as your evaluation is thorough, and your assumptions are clearly stated and reasonable, your recommendations will be justified. Step 6: Implementation This step has historically been omitted from the strategic planning process. However, in modern strategic planning, implementation has become so critical that we devoted all of Chapter 11 in your textbook to its discussion. Implementation includes actions to be taken, the sequencing of marketing activities, and a time frame for their completion. A timeline, like the one shown in Exhibit 2, can be a very useful tool in directing the implementation discussion. Students are often very optimistic in terms of the time needed to carry out certain tasks. However, small things, like the development of a questionnaire and the collection and analysis of data, can take several weeks, if not months. Be careful to provide reasonable amounts of time for each step. <Insert Exhibit 2 Here (see end of file)> It is frequently noted that Americans are great innovators, while the Japanese are great implementers. In U.S. organizations, the selection of the alternative to be pursued is often made on a majority-rules basis. If ten people are on the decision-making team, and six speak in favor of introducing a new product line and four speak against it, a decision to introduce the new line is the likely result. Under this system, six people leave the room with their reputation on the line to make the decision work, but what about the other four? Will they be committed to the project? This can cause serious problems in implementing the selected alternative. Contrast this process with the traditional decision-making process in Japanese organizations, where an alternative is not chosen until everyone agrees that it is the appropriate course of action. The selection process 42

is much more time consuming, and often requires compromises that can make the selected alternative less distinctive. On the plus side, everyone leaves the process agreeing that the selected course of action is best. With everyone working together, implementation becomes a much easier process. This aspect of the decision-making process makes internal marketing a critical issue that you must address in your discussion of the implementation phase. Who will be the critical players in carrying out the plan? Are they likely to be naturally in favor of the selected alternative? What can be done to get them on board? Giving more people, particularly frontline personnel, more input during the decision-making process will be a plus here. Top-down planning often creates resistance in the implementation phase. Part of the problem with some strategic plans is that the frontline employees, those people who are most likely to come in contact with suppliers and customers, feel that the plan handed down is not realistic given what they know about the dayto-day working environment. They may feel that management is out of touch. Getting their input early and late in the planning process can go a long way toward easing the implementation of the selected alternative. In all instances, it is very difficult for employees to market the firm and its products as planned until the plan has been marketed to them. Internal marketing plays a major role in determining the success of the plan. If employees can be shown they will get things they value by helping the firm carry out this plan, the process has an excellent chance for success. Many managers feel that they would rather have a mediocre plan vigorously implemented, than an excellent plan implemented in a mediocre fashion. Step 7: Evaluation and Control As the firm is implementing the selected alternative, it must constantly monitor the results achieved. What do you expect this chosen alternative to accomplish, and by when? This is a major concern, as the firm must determine if the selected strategy is working as anticipated. Clear objectives must be set. A 20% increase in awareness and a 10% increase in sales within six months are possible examples of the benchmarks that might be used to determine if the selected alternative is on course. If objectives are not being met by the targeted dates, a tough decision must be made. Is it a poorly devised strategy, poor implementation, or an unfavorable environment that is leading to these results? The answer to this question will dictate how the organization will respond. As we said earlier, planning cannot assume an inanimate set of competitors. If your recommendation is to cut price and expand distribution, can you reasonably assume that competitors will do nothing and let you take their business away without a fight? This is seldom the case. The competitive situation will almost always change, sometimes significantly. Other external environmental factors, such as the economy or technology, may also not remain constant or turn out as planned. Such changes that result in outcomes that do not meet expectations point to the need for the development of contingency plans. Contingency plans are not centered on the most preferred alternative under the present conditions, but are a fall-back position in case things do not work out as planned for the selected alternative. For example, more expensive, upscale products might 43

have been recommended for the firm. If the competition slashes prices at the same time the economy weakens, the firm might need to respond by implementing a contingency plan. To blindly carry out a strategy that no longer matches the environment is an almost certain route to failure. In this instance, a contingency plan of heavy sales promotion might need to be implemented. Firms can try to predict what future environments will be like, but they cannot guarantee the future external environment with much certainty. Conclusion We conclude with one final piece of advice: Like anything else, the learning benefits of case analysis are dependent on the amount of effort you put into the analysis. Learning to think critically and see the big picture are important lessons to be learned in a case course. Likewise, learning how business activities (not just marketing activities) can be strategically integrated to achieve superior results is the ultimate goal.

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Exhibit 1 Hypothetical Pro Forma Assessment

Unfavorable Environment
Sales Dollars Units ($5 per unit) Costs Product development Production costs Advertising Sales commission (10%) Other selling expenses Earnings before taxes $250,000 $1,200,000 ($3 per unit) $300,000 $200,000 $100,000 $ -50,000 $2,000,000 400,000

Neutral Environment

Favorable Environment

$3,500,000 750,000

$7,000,000 1,400,000

$250,000 $2,062,500 ($2.75 per unit) $300,000 $350,000 $135,000 $402,500

$250,000 $3,500,000 ($2.50 per unit) $300,000 $700,000 $200,000 $2,050,000

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Exhibit 2 A Hypothetical Implementation Timeline

Weeks Conduct customer surveys

10

Collect media information

Analyze data and present results

Develop point-of-purchase materials

Develop sales force training program

Conduct sales force training program

Develop and send promotional materials to dealers

Roll out program in selected regions with both personal and mass promotion

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Writing some ten years after Professor Dewing, Charles L. Gragg, who had sat in Professor Dewing's classroom as a student, con tributed what is today generally regarded as the classic exposition of the relationship which the case method requires of teachers and students. His emphasis on the active participation of the student in the educational process sets the criterion by which the genuine case method can be distinguished from the spurious. Because Wisdom Can't Be Told CHARLES I. GRAGG So he had grown rich at last, and thought to transmit to his only son all the cut-and-dried experience which he himself had purchased at the price of his lost illusions; a noble last illusion of age. . . . --BALZAC It can be said flatly that the mere act of listening to wise statements and sound advice does little for anyone. In the process of learning, the learner's dynamic cooperation is required. Such cooperation from students does not arise automatically, however. It has to be provided for and continually encouraged. Thus, the key to an understanding of the Business School case plan of teaching is to be found in the fact that this plan dignifies and dramatizes student life by opening the way for students to make positive contributions to thought and, by so doing, to prepare themselves for action. Indeed, independent, constructive thinking on the part of stu dents is essential to the sound operation of the plan. This result is achieved in two ways. In the first place, students are provided with materials which make it possible for them to think purposefully. For the benefit of those unfamiliar with Business School cases, it is merely necessary to explain that, as now used, a case typically is a record of a business issue which actually has been faced by business executives, together with surrounding facts, opinions, and prejudices upon which executive decisions had to depend. These real and particularized cases are presented to students for considered analysis, open discussion, and final decision as to the type of action which should be taken. Day by day the number of individual business situations thus brought before the students grows and forms a backlog for observing coherent patterns and drawing out general principles. In other words, students are not given general theories or hypotheses to criticize. Rather, they are given specific facts,

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the raw materials, out of which decisions have to be reached in life and from which they can realistically and usefully draw conclusions. This opportunity for students to make significant contributions is enhanced by the very nature of business management. Business management is not a technical but a human matter. It turns upon an understanding of how people--producers, bankers, investors, sellers, consumers--will respond to specific business actions, and the behavior of such groups always is changing, rapidly or slowly. Students, consequently, being people, and also being in the very stream of sociological trends, are in a particularly good position to anticipate and interpret popular reactions. In the second place, the desired result of student participation is achieved by the opening of free channels of communication between students and students, and between students and teachers. The confidence the student can be given under the case system that he can, and is expected to, make contributions to the understanding of the group is a powerful encouragement to effort. The corollary fact that all members of the group are in the same situation provides the student with exercise in receiving as well as in giving out ideas. In short, true intercommunication is established. In these facts lies the answer to the unique values of the case system, and from these facts also arise certain difficulties encountered in its use. It is not easy for students to accept the challenge of responsible activity in the face of realistic situations. Nor is it always easy for teachers to preserve the needed open-mindedness toward their students' contribution. Nevertheless, the very existence of the assumption, implicit in the case system, that students are in a position to and will exert themselves to think with a lively independence toward a useful end in itself provides a real stimulus. By the same token, the stage is so set as to simplify the teacher's task of encouraging students to participate actively in the process of learning. The students are given the raw materials and are expected to use them. The teacher, for his part, has every opportunity and reason to demonstrate an encouraging receptivity as well as to inform and guide. Thinking out original answers to new problems or giving new interpretations to old problems is assumed in much undergraduate instruction to be an adult function and, as such, one properly denied to students. The task of the student commonly is taken to be one chiefly of familiarizing himself with accepted thoughts and accepted techniques, these to be actively used at some later time. The instruction period, in other words, often is regarded both by students and by teachers as a time for absorption. -748

Thus many students entering graduate schools have become habituated to the role of the receiver. The time inevitably arrives, however, when young people must engage in practical action on their own responsibility. Students at professional school have a little time, at the [ Harvard] Graduate School of Business [Administration] two years, to achieve the transition from what may be described as a childlike dependence on parents and teachers to a state of what may be called dependable self-reliance. If the hearts of the young men entering a graduate school of business administration could be clearly read, it is likely there would be found in many a cherished hope that upon graduation they would find positions of authority and power awaiting them. This is a carefully guarded hope, because for some reason there is a general feeling that it is an unseemly one for young men to harbor. Yet, although the students who possess this hope may be said to be unrealistic under conditions as they exist, they cannot be said to be other than logical. For if a young man more or less permanently is to occupy a humble position in the business hierarchy, he can make better use of two years of his time than spending it at a school of business administration. The apprentice system is open to the young man who wishes to enter business in a fuller way than it is to the young man who seeks to work in the field of law or of medicine, for example. Except in a few instances, such as the plumbing and electrical trades, there are no restrictions similar to those imposed by bar or medical examinations as to who can start in business. And, if a young man who is to spend his life as a salesman, floorwalker, clerk, or minor official has several years to devote to acquiring background, he is likely to find that study of sonnets, or operas, or fishing, or philosophy will be more sustaining to his soul than a broad knowledge of business operations. The work of a graduate school of business consequently must be aimed at fitting students for administrative positions of importance. The qualities needed by businessmen in such positions are ability to see vividly the potential meanings and relationships of facts, both those facts having to do with persons and those having to do with things, capacity to make sound judgments on the basis of these perceptions, and skill in communicating their judgments to others so as to produce the desired results in the field of action. Business education, then, must be directed to developing in students these qualities of understanding, judgment, and communication leading to action. Furthermore, since young men who contemplate entering a graduate business school customarily have an alternative opportunity to enter business immediately, the business school must be able to do more -849

for its students than could be accomplished in a corresponding period of actual business experience. Formal professional education necessarily postpones the time of responsible action. Yet a principal object of professional education is to accelerate the student's ability to act in mature fashion under conditions of responsibility. A young man who completes a professional course is expected to demonstrate a more mature judgment, or to demonstrate mature judgment at an earlier period, than the young man who enters upon a career of action without benefit of formal training. The presumption in this situation obviously must be that it is possible to arrange programs of training in such a way as to do more than offset the effect of prolonging the student's period of ostensible immaturity. It would be easy to accept the unanalyzed assumption that by passing on, by lectures and readings, to young men of intelligence the accumulated experience and wisdom of those who have made business their study, the desired results could be achieved. Surely, if more or less carefully selected young men were to begin their business careers with the advantage of having been provided with information and general principles which it has taken others a lifetime to acquire and develop, they might be expected to have a decided head start over their less informed contemporaries. This assumption, however, rests on another, decidedly questionable one: namely, the assumption that it is possible by a simple process of telling to pass on knowledge in a useful form. This is the great delusion of the ages. If the learning process is to be effective, something dynamic must take place in the learner. The truth of this statement becomes more and more apparent as the learner approaches the inevitable time when he must go into action. We are all familiar with the popular belief that it is possible to learn how to act wisely only by experience--in the school of hard knocks. But everyone knows that, from a practical point of view, strict adherence to the literal meaning of this belief would have a decidedly limiting effect upon the extent of our learning. Time is all against it. So we all try to tell others what we know or what we think we know. A great part of our educational system, perhaps necessarily, rests on this basis. It is the simple, obvious way of passing the torch of culture from hand to hand. Entirely aside from the seemingly sound logic of this course, there exists a natural and strong tendency for people to tell others what is what--how to think, or feel, or act. Often this tendency seems, to the one having it, like an urge to duty. A friend of ours, for example, may remark that he is worried because he doesn't seem to be getting anywhere 50

with the president of the company. "He doesn't seem to know I'm around," our friend explains. Ah ha! We know the answer to that one and will tell our friend how to solve his problem. "Look here, old boy, the trouble with you is you are too shy. Just speak up, loudly and firmly. Tell him what's what. The old buzzard won't ignore you then!" It is possible that our desire to pass on our knowledge springs in part from the fact that such activity places us, for the time being, in the superior position. From our earliest beginnings there have been people around to tell us what to do, to pass on to us their experience and wisdom. There is no little gratification in turning the tables. For a while we will be the parents and someone else can be the child. It is only necessary to listen to a six-year-old lecturing a three-year-old to see vividly the strength of this urge. Teachers, since it is their avowed objective to extend the knowledge boundaries of others, are particularly beset by the temptation to tell what they know--to point out right paths of thought and action. The areas in which their help is called for are ones they have penetrated many times. They have reflected, presumably, upon their subjects from all angles. They feel that they know the answers and, with unselfish abandon, they are willing to tell all. Their students thus will be saved all the time and effort it would have taken them to work things out for themselves, even granted they ever could work out such excellent answers. Yet no amount of information, whether of theory or fact, in itself improves insight and judgment or increases ability to act wisely under conditions of responsibility. The same statistical tables covering all aspects of a business may be available to every officer of the organization. Nevertheless, it does not follow that it makes no difference to the business which officer makes the decisions. Likewise, the whole body of generally accepted business theory may be equally familiar to all executives, yet the decisions reached by the various individuals are unlikely to be the same or to have equal merit. We cannot effectively use the insight and knowledge of others; it must be our own knowledge and insight that we use. If our friend, acting solely on our advice, undertakes to tell the president what is what, the chances are he will make himself conspicuous but not impressive. For him to use our words effectively, granted our diagnosis of the situation is sound, they must become his own through a process of active thought and feeling on his part. Then, if he agrees with us, he will be 51

able to act as we suggest, not on our advice, but from his own heart. The outstanding virtue of the case system is that it is suited to inspiring activity, under realistic conditions, on the part of the students; it takes them out of the role of passive absorbers and makes them partners in the joint processes of learning and of furthering learning. The case plan of instruction may be described as democratic in distinction to the telling method, which is in effect dictatorial or patriarchal. With the case method, all members of the academic group, teacher and students, are in possession of the same basic materials in the light of which analyses are to be made and decisions arrived at. Each, therefore, has an identical opportunity to make a contribution to the body of principles governing business practice and policy. Business is not, at least not yet, an exact science. There is no single, demonstrably right answer to a business problem. For the student or businessman it cannot be a matter of peeking in the back of a book to see if he has arrived at the right solution. In every business situation, there is always a reasonable possibility that the best answer has not yet been found--even by teachers. Exercise of mature judgment obviously is inconsistent with a program of blindly carrying out someone else's instructions. Moreover, no matter how worthy those instructions may be, they cannot cover every exigency. Tommy's mother says: "On your way home from school never cross the street until the policeman tells you to and, when he does tell you to, run." Perhaps one day no policeman is there. Is Tommy to wait forever? Or, perhaps a driver fails to observe the policeman's signals. Is Tommy to dash under the speeding wheels? So far as responsible activity in the business world is concerned, it is clear that a fund of ready-made answers can be of little avail. Each situation is a new situation, requiring imaginative understanding as a prelude to sound judgment and action. The following sad limerick, aimed at describing what might happen to business students without benefit of cases, has been contributed by a friend who prefers to remain anonymous. A student of business with tact Absorbed many answers he lacked. But acquiring a job, He said with a sob, "How does one fit answer to fact?" A significant aspect of democracy in the classroom is that it provides a new axis for personal relationships. No longer is the situation that of the teacher on the one hand and a body of students on the other. The students find their attention transferred from the teacher to each other. 52

It is not a question of dealing more or less en masse with an elder; it is a question of dealing with a rather large number of equals and contemporaries whose criticisms must be faced and whose contributions need to be comprehended and used. Everyone is on a par and everyone is in competition. The basis is provided for strong give and take both inside and outside the classroom. The valuable art of exchanging ideas is cultivated, with the object of building up some mutually satisfactory and superior notion. Such an exchange stimulates thought, provides a lesson in how to learn from others, and also gives experience in effective transmission of one's own ideas. Under the case system, the instructor's role is to assign the cases for discussion, to act as a responsible member of the group delegated to provoke argumentative thinking, to guide discussion by his own contributions and questions toward points of major importance, and, if he chooses, to take a final position on the viewpoints which have been threshed out before him. The more powerful are the student arguments, the heavier is the burden on the instructor; he must understand and evaluate each contribution, many of which are new to him, regardless of how thoroughly he has studied the cases or how many times he has used them with previous classes. To the instructor, every class meeting is a new problem and a new opportunity both to learn and to help others to learn. The important question under these circumstances is not whether the student pleases the instructor but whether he can either support his views against the counterattacks and disagreements of others in the group or, failing to do so, can accept cooperatively the merits of his antagonists' reasoning. For both teachers and students, the disciplines of the case method of learning are severe. Sometimes the shock is devastating to young men who previously have been dominated by patriarchal instructors and thus have been faced merely with the relatively simple task of more or less passive reception and verbatim repetition of facts and ideas. Not all students can bear the strain of thinking actively, of making independent judgments which may be challenged vigorously by their contemporaries. Many people will always prefer to have answers handed to them. Teachers, for their part, particularly those unused to the system, sometimes find it straining to leave the safe haven of dogmatism and meet their students on a democratic plane. The inherently dramatic and challenging character of the case system, however, although it may produce anxiety and confusion for the newcomer, also arouses his deep interest and leads him to make the effort required for adjustment. In making the adjustment to the democratic disciplines of the case system, students typically pass through at least three objectively 53

discernible phases. The first phase is that of discovering the inability of the individual to think of everything that his fellow students can think of. In many instances, to be sure, the challenge to original thought is pleasing from the first. Yet perhaps more often confusion and a feeling of helplessness set in: "But it's so discouraging to prepare a case as well as I can and then listen for an hour in class to other students bringing out all sorts of interpretations and arguments that I had never thought of." The second phase is that of accepting easily and naturally the need for cooperative help. During the last half of the first year and the first half of the second year, students learn to draw more and more fully upon each other's ideas in the working out of problems. Competition for high academic standing grows more keen, to be sure, but the mutual giving and taking of assistance ceases to be a matter of secret anguish. The young men are making common cause and thereby learning the pleasure of group pooling of intellectual efforts. The third and final phase in the march toward maturity usually comes well on in the second year with the recognition that the instructors do not always or necessarily know the "best" answers and, even when they do seem to know them, that each student is free to present and hold to his own views. When this phase is reached, the student is ready to make independent progress and to break new ground on his own account. He is operating as a responsible member of the community, taking help, to be sure, from both contemporaries and elders, but making his own decisions without fear of disapproval or search for an authoritative crutch to lean upon. An outstanding effect of the case system, in other words, is to put upon students the burden of independent thinking. No method is foolproof. A badly handled case system cannot but be an academic horror. Improperly handled, a case is merely an elaborate means for confusing and boring students. If, moreover, the teacher insists on being a patriarch--if he is sure he has the right and only answers and visualizes his task as one of forcing the students, the case facts, and his answers into an affectionate rapport--it will be found that the out-and-out lecture system is infinitely less costly and less straining to everyone concerned. Such authoritarian use of cases perverts the unique characteristics of the system. The opportunity which this system provides the students of reaching responsible judgments on the basis of an original analysis of the facts is sacrificed. In addition to the possibility that the case system will be misused, and so become merely a wasteful way of telling the students what the teacher thinks, it must be recognized that the case does not provide a perfect replica of a business situation. In the properly conducted class 54

using business cases, the students are put in the position of the executives who must arrive at definite conclusions to be followed by specific actions whose merits will be tested by resulting developments. Yet there is no escaping the fact that the students' decisions are not tested in this way. As Winston Churchill is reported to have remarked on one occasion, there is a great deal of difference between being responsible for an order which may lose several valuable ships and expressing an opinion without such responsibility. It is too much to expect that anything except experience can be exactly like experience. Nevertheless, a training period which allows students this relative irresponsibility has great advantages. The serious student gets the essential background for responsible decisions without the risks to himself and to his firm which are inseparable from amateurish action. He is led to active consideration of a tremendous number of diverse and related real situations, which it would take him at least a lifetime of experience to encounter, and he is thus given a basis for comparison and analysis when he enters upon his career of business action. The case system, properly used, initiates students into the ways of independent thought and responsible judgment. It confronts them with situations which are not hypothetical but real. It places them in the active role, open to criticism from all sides. It puts the burden of understanding and judgment upon them. It provides them the occasion to deal constructively with their contemporaries and their elders. And, at least in the area of business, it gives them the stimulating opportunity to make contributions to learning. In short, the student, if he wishes, can act as an adult member of a democratic community. As for the teacher, the case method of instruction provides him richly with the basic means of research. Not only does the existence of a stream of recorded business experiences enable him to keep in touch with business life and to make continuous necessary modifications in his inductions and general conclusions. In addition, the relations which the case system sets up between himself and his students give the teacher the continual benefit of fresh, imaginative points of view which always hold the possibility of true advance. ___________________
This paper was first published in the Harvard Alumni Bulletin for Oct. 19,1940, and is here reprinted, in slightly condensed form, by permission of the author and the editor of the Bulletin. Publication Information: Book Title: The Case Method at the Harvard Business School: Papers by Present and Past Members of the Faculty and Staff. Contributors: Malcolm P. McNair - editor. Publisher: McGraw-Hill. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1954. Page Number: 6.

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