Age and the Sense of Control Author(s): John Mirowsky Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 58, No.

1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 31-43 Published by: American Sociological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2787141 . Accessed: 06/09/2011 15:36
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Social Psychology Quarterly 1995,Vol. 58, No. 1, 31-43

Age and the Sense of Control*

JOHNMIROWSKY
Twolargerandom-sample surveys adultsage 18 and overshowhigh,stablemeanlevels of in control theage range18 through followed successive ofperceived 50, by stepsdownin and progressively age groups. older Physical impairment loweducation account much for of thelowsenseofcontrol Education accounts moreofthe reported olderrespondents. by for than does impairment. More than half of the age-groupmean age-groupdifferences The do remainafteradjustment. results not changesubstantially added with differences marital adjustment othersocioeconomic for factors(race, sex, income, earnings, status, measures physical employment status)or other of aging(perceived health, malaise,aches The relative and pains, exercise, and bodyweight). that importance education of suggests in and working conditions intergenerational improvementslifetime living might account for old much theremaining association between age and low senseofcontrol. of
Ohio StateUniversity

of the lifetime feel Do olderAmericans less in control whereasthe second emphasizes adults?Current social changes between generations. their own lives thanyounger This study examines the cross-sectional do, ideas say they probably fortwo reasons. Perhapsthe mostcommonview is thatold associationbetweenage and the sense of impair- control; analysis four the has mainparts. Functional age often brings infirmity. The in ment increases latelife(MaddoxandClark firsttests the hypothesis that the average 1992) and reduces the sense of control sense of controldiffers significantly across 1990). age groups,with the lowest levels in the (Baltes, Wahl, and Schmid-Furstoss in By extension, increaseof impairment oldest age groups. The second tests the the later adulthoodmay decrease the average hypothesisthat there is an accelerating older age declinein perceived in control successive sense of controlin successively age the rise in groups (Rodin 1986a, 1986b; Rodin and groups, mirroring accelerating The thirdtests the Timko 1992; Rowe and Kahn 1987). An levels of impairment. thatpart of the associationbealternative view emphasizesthe differenceshypothesis thanchanges over tween andthesenseofcontrol between rather generations age reflects the have increaseof physicalimpairment thelifetime. Conditions lifegenerally of with age. generations Amer- The fourth thehypothesis part the of that improved successive for tests of averagelevels of educa- association reflectsthe lower educational icans. In particular, bolsters sense level of oldergenerations. the tionhave risen.Education in thuspart what of of control all age groups; seems a declinedue to aging actuallymay and of of reflect lowereducation older genera- Definition Significance the the tions (Busse and Maddeox 1985; Schaie Sense of Control 1983). Both views suggesta lower average one's own life meansexercisControlling in although ing authority senseof control olderage groups, and influenceover it by thefirst biologicalchangesover directing emphasizes and regulating oneself. People it varyas to perceived control over their own * The 1990 UnitedStatesSurveyof Work,Family, lives. Some feelthey can do anything set they and Well-Being was supported GrantSES-8916145 theirmindsto. They regardthemselves as by from NationalScience Foundation Catherine to E. the responsiblefor their own successes and Ross. The 1985 Illinois Survey of Well-Beingwas failures, andviewmisfortunes theresult as of of supported a grantfromthe University Illinois by mistakes. Others feelthatanygood personal and Research Foundation.The sampling,pretesting, luck-fortunate outcomes for by interviewing both surveyswere conducted the eventsare mostly of Research of Laboratory theUniversity Illinois. that they desire but do not design. They Survey I thank insights, believe thatpersonal E. Catherine Ross forhercomments, result problems mostly communicationsJohn to andsupport. Address Mirowsky, frombad breaks,and feel littleabilityto 300 of The Department Sociology, Ohio StateUniversity, regulate avoid thebad things happen. or that BrickerHall, 190 NorthOval Mall, Columbus,OH The senseofcontrol varies degree, 43210-1353.E-mail:mirowsky.l@osu.eduE. by ranging 31

32

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

from fatalism and a deep sense of helpless- shopping, cooking, cleaning, gardening, ness to instrumentalism a firm and sense of bathing, grooming,dressing, and eating mastery (Mirowsky Ross 1991). and (Berkman and Breslow 1983; Guralnik and The sense of personal control importantKaplan 1989). The functional is deficits coinscientifically a number reasons.Most cide with physiologicalcounterparts. for of The important, reflects real constraints it the and peak performance athletes of declines(Shepof and achieved hard 1987), as do carbohydrate opportunities one's ascribed metabolism statuses. When viewed in the aggregate (the process that fuels the muscles), lung across groups, it yields an imprintof capacity, and bone density (Rowe and Kahn structured inequality(Almond and Verba 1987). Some cognitive functions decline, also 1963;Andrisani 1978;KohnandSlomczynski particularly speed of perceptual, the motor, 1990; Mirowskyand Ross 1983, 1984, and mentalprocesses (Holzer et al. 1986; 1990). Perceptions control of conform realis- House and Robbins 1983; Rowe and Kahn to the tically objective status; senseofcontrol 1987; Schaie 1983). The incidence and increaseswitheducation, earnings, income, prevalence chronicdisease also increase of employment, occupational status, auton- with at an accelerating (Collins1988; job age rate omy, and statusof origin(Andrisani1978; Hartunian, and Smart, Thompson 1981). Kohn and Slomczynski 1990; Mirowsky and Disability and physicalimpairment probaRoss 1989, 1990; Pearlinet al. 1981; Ross blyreduce senseofcontrol. the Difficulties in and Mirowsky 1992; Wheaton 1983). It seeing,going up and down stairs,carrying declines with the frequency undesirable things, of and the like complicate walking, the events such as being laid off or fired, tasks of everyday life. People can manage divorced widowed, sickorinjured, or and and impairment more or less resourcefully, but with the intensity problems such as doingso taxes personal of resources, imposing economichardship (Pearlinet al. 1981). Net real constraints lowerthe averagesense that of income and education,minority-group personal control(Baltes et al. 1990). of members such as blacks and Mexican- Furthermore, impression the thataging and Americans less in control feel thando others physical declineare inevitable contribute may and Ross 1983, 1990). Also, a to theloss of perceived (Mirowsky control. low ornegative senseofcontrol represents the Risinglevels of physical impairment seem stateof human awareness corresponds likely explainat leastpartof thedeclining to that to a learnedhelplessness, behavioralstate of sense of controlin older age groups.The and attention actionthatinduces impairments suppressed associated with old age limit and stress biological (Gold, Goodwin, Chrou- one's range possibleactivities, presage of and sos 1988; Hiroto 1974; Seligman 1975). further declineandtheforeclosure options. of adultlifea low sense of control Underthosecircumstances lessersense of Throughout a in of control produces psychological distress theform over one's life and outcomesmight anxiousthoughts reactions depressed seemrealistic. and or moodand vitality et (e.g., Pearlin al. 1981). Some of theapparent decayin thesenseof As noted earlier,physicalimpairment control is withage actually historimayreflect one reasonwhythesense of control in maybe cal trends education.Educationincreases loweramongolderpeople. Average levelsof thesenseofpersonal so of control, theeffects in increase successively lowereducational physicalimpairment levelsamongolderAmeriolder age groups.These levels remainrela- cans may be misinterpreted an effect as of most of the adult aging(Mirowsky Ross 1989). Education tivelystable throughout and rate developseffective years,but rise at a slowlyaccelerating on capacities manylevels. to produce substantial in average decrements First, education encounters solves one and beyond 70 (Schaie 1983). The increasing problems age thatare progressively more diffiincludetrouble impairments seeing,hearing, cult, more complex,and more subtle.The walking,lifting, climbingstairs,grasping, process of learningbuilds confidence and and manipulating (Waldron 1983; Waldron self-assurance, ifthethings even learned have and Jacobs 1988), withrelateddeclinesin no practicalvalue. Those things, however, of performance daily activities such as oftenhave practicalvalue. Educationalso More Physical at Impairment OlderAges LowerEducation OlderGenerations in

AGE AND THE SENSE OF CONTROL

33

instillsthe habitof meeting problems with resultsin the literature, summarize and the attention, thought, action, andpersistence. remedies In employed thisanalysis. in addition, developsthe generalhabitsand it skills of communication analysis,plus and METHODS those which are tailoredto an occupation. Education develops the ability to solve The inconsistent contradictory and results problems all these on levels,andtheability to of previous studies suggest the need for solve problems increases control overevents special care in mapping the association and outcomes in life. Finally, education betweenage and the sense of control.To servesas an avenueto, and an element of, assurereasonable detectability, validity, and socioeconomicstatus. Thus it marks the generalizability, study this uses 1) two large social powerthathelpsprovidecontrol over samplesselected a random by to procedure 2) circumstances. represent fullrangeof adultages from the 18 Despitepublicfearsof declineor stagna- up, assessed with 3) an index designedto tion,historical showa cleartrend data toward measure perceived control withminimal age moreeducation successivegenerations bias. The use of two samplesallows crossin of Americans.To a large extent,educational validationof basic findings and permits a infrastructure determines educational opportu- two-step procedure developing modelin for a nity.The United States has developed its one sampleand testing in theother.Also, it educationalsystemprogressively over this sampling fullrangeof adultages allows the In century. 1940, 6 percent Americans of age comparisonacross age groups that were 25 through had fewerthanfiveyearsof sampled 29 and assessedbythesameprocedure. formaleducation,and only 6 percenthad Furthermore, an indexdesigned using specifcompleted yearsof college(U.S. Bureau icallyto measure senseof control four the reduces of the Census 1978). Today 1 percent have ambiguity and minimizes the impactof a fewerthanfive yearsof education, and 24 responsetendency knownto increasewith have fouryearsof college or more age. The reasons for these methodsare percent (U.S. Bureauof the Census 1993). In 1900 summarized below. in in one American 10 could notread or write; Manyinconsistencies research aboutage had to by 1978this proportion declined one in and thesense of control from mayresult the 100 (U.S. Bureauof theCensus 1978). use of truncated, noncomparable, unrepresenGiven the historical trendtowardhigher tative, or small samples (Lachman 1986; levelsofeducation theeffect education Rodin 1986; Rodinand Timko 1992). Trunand of on the sense of control,we expect that cated samples select respondents from a in differences education explainpartof the single, limitedrange of ages; limiting the differences among age groups in average rangeof ages in a samplerestricts ability the senseof control. to detect differences between people of different ages. A truncated sample may detailrelevant a specific provide to rangeof ages, butit does so at thecostof eliminating Past Research thevariance age needed detect in to age-group reasonsforexpecting Despitestrong older differences. Noncomparable samplesuse difless ferent age groups to perceive progressively methodsfor samplingdifferent age and ranges.If a study control, priorstudiesyield inconsistent compares students a the at often results. a review the collegewith elderly a nearby In of the in contradictory retirement Lachman (1986) says thatabout community, literature, the differences sampling in of one-third the studiesfindlow levels of framesand recruitment methodsmay concontrol the one-third high found the differences age with other find among elderly, in levels, and one-third find no association differences. unrepresentative An sample sebetween and thesense of control. Rodin lectsrespondents age without sampling randomly andhercolleaguesconclude that"thedatado froma defined the population; results from not provide clear evidence that perceived such a sample may reflectthat unique control as decreases a function chronolog- selectionrather of than Americanadults as a ical age" (Rodin 1986a: 1271). In the whole. Finally, a small sample decreases followingsection we discuss the possible statistical the powerand increases possibility reasons for contradictory inconsistentof an odd finding or because it increasesthe

34

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

The from current in error samplestatistics. use of numbers of telephone standard directories areasof Illinois.(The percentage a large randomU.S. sample coveringthe all other of whole range of adult ages helps to reduce unpublished phonenumbers outsidetheChiAlso, using a separate cago metropolitan these difficulties. statistical area is so small statewidepilot sample allows a two-step thatrandom-digit dialingis not necessary.) and processof exploration confirmation. The 73 percentresponserate yielded 809 in ranging age from to 85. of control respondents 18 Bias in the measures perceived for also mayaccount someoftheinconsistenstudies.Research- Variables of cies in results previous on ers sometimes to obtaininformation try The control fromdata not indexasksrespondents whether age and the sense of control designedforthatpurpose,usinganswersto they agree or disagree with each of the perse- following orderliness, aboutplanning, statements: "I amresponsible questions 1) for and achievement, the myown successes,"2) "I can do just about self-discipline, verance, I answersto anything reallyset my mindto," 3) "My like (Lachman 1986). Although the are of I such questionsreflect sense of control, misfortunes theresult mistakes have and made," 4) "I am responsible my failbeliefs,attitudes, other for theyalso reflect with ures,"5) "The really correlations habitsthatmay confound good things happen that age. For example, habits may grow more to me aremostly luck," 6) "There'sno sense and a predict- planning lot-if something more orderly, more good is goingto conventional, a it implying happen will," 7) "Mostofmyproblems necessarily able withage without are greater sense of control. Even indexes due to bad breaks," and 8) "I have little designedto measureperceivedcontrolcan controlover the bad thingsthathappento that reflect otherattributes bias correlations me" (Mirowskyand Ross 1991). The reto withage: the tendency agree withstate- sponse categoriesare "strongly disagree," for of content, exam- "disagree," "don't know," "agree," and regardless their ments with olderage and lowerlevels "strongly agree,"whichare coded -2, - 1, ple, increases for of education(Mirowskyand Ross 1991). 0, 1, and 2 respectively Questions 1 instrumental that contain mostly With indexes through4, and 2, 1, 0, -1, and -2 in respectively Questions5 through The for for 8. statements am responsible outcomes ("I my own life") such tendencies toward index averages the eight response scores. of Alphareliability .68 in theIllinoisdataand is can agreement obscurea negativeeffect on olderage or lowereducation thesenseof 60 in theU.S. data. of An balancesthenumber By balancingthe numberof statements control. indexthat statements helpsto claimingcontrolwith the numberdenying instrumental fatalistic and we theseproblems. bias control, canceltheagreement associalleviate ated with old age and low education (Mirowskyand Ross 1991: 140, fig. 3). Samples Cancellation agreement of bias reducesthe the 1990 U.S. reliability a control of The maindata come from measure eliminating by Surveyof Work, Family,and Well-Being, spuriousbut reproducible variance,but the dialing to select gain in validity which used random-digit the outweighs loss of some The households(Waksberg1978). This method reliability. reliability the index does of ensuresthe inclusionof unlistednumbers. not bias estimatesof the unstandardized the Within each household personage 18 or regression coefficients because the sense of was control older with the most recent birthday appearsas the dependent variablein in of selected respondent; thisway,a member this study.Deflatedestimates t and R2 as of the householdwas selected at random however,make significance testssomewhat and (Bohmstedt Carter (O'Rourkeand Blair 1983). The 82.3 percent conservative 1971). in a the yielded totalof 2,031 respondents Age is measured years subtracting response by from reported in 18 the yearof theinterview ranging age from to 90. year the The pilotdataused to specify shapeof of birth. is curve come fromthe 1985 Education measured asking"Whatis the age-control by Illinois Surveyof Well-Being,which used thehighest gradeor yearin school thatyou random-digit dialing in Chicago and its have completed?" Responsesare coded0 for random selection of no formal education through 16 for a and systematic suburbs,

AGE AND THE SENSE OF CONTROL

35

bachelor's degree,17 years somegraduate survivaland to eithereducationor impairfor and 0 for Femaleequals 1 forfemales school, and 18 years for a graduateor ment: professional degree. who males;Minority equals 1 for respondents seven say theyare black, Hispanic,NativeAmeriis Physical impairment assessedwith items from a set known to mediate the can, or Asian, and 0 forothers.All of the adjustforthesefixedattributes. relationship between disease and employ- regressions ment, work disability,and dependence/ living(Johnson independence community in RESULTS andWolinsky and 1993; Nagi 1976;Waldron are Jacobs1988). Respondents asked "How HI: Mean in Differences Sense of Control muchdifficulty you have 1) goingup and do acrossAge Groups down stairs?2) kneelingor stooping?3) Bothsurveys showcomparatively and high liftingor carryingobjects less than 10 in likea bag ofgroceries? usingyour stablelevels of perceived control the age 4) pounds, 50, by hands or fingers?5) seeing, even with range18 through followed successive glasses? 6) hearing? 7) walking?" The decreasesin the averagesense of control of older age groups. The crude response categories are "no difficulty,"progressively and "a great deal of meansby 10-year groupare illustrated in age "some difficulty," coded 0, 1, and 2 respectively. Figure1 forthepilotIllinoissample(on the difficulty," U.S. sample(on the the to Averaging responses the seven ques- left)and forthe larger over age 80 have the tions produces an index with an alpha right).Respondents reliability .80. The U.S. data contain lowest average sense of control in both of datado not. samples. reports impairment; Illinois of the that The results Fixed attributes ascribedstatuses are support hypothesis the the that These average sense of controldiffers do not changein a person'slifetime. across age because groups,withthe lowestlevels in the oldest attributes varyacrossage groups may survivalor other historical groups.One-wayanalysisof variance shows of differential populationtrends. Two dummyvariables thatboth the negativelineartrendand the fromlinearity statistically are represent ascribed statusesrelatedboth to deviation sig-

1985 800 Illinois Residents,

0.8 Crude Means Fit for Adjusted Sex andMinority Status

Sense ofControl

1990 2,030 U.S. Residents,

0.8 Crude Means Fit for Adjusted Sex Status andMinority

Sense ofControl

0.4

0.4

02 199 0.0 204 110 99 100 62 26

0.2 486 0.0

-

502
2

372
s?

240

229
0

154
1

47

Age

Age

in Figure1. The relationship age to senseof control Illinois(left)and U.S. national of (right) samples.The numbers a of cases are showninsidethebars.The linerepresentscubiccurvefitto theunaggregated data.

36

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

U.S. samplethanin the1985 Illinoissample, buttheregression coefficient quitesignifiis cantin bothsamples(p < .001). ColumnsA and D of Table 1 show the regression coefficients adjustingfor sex and minority status. The difference senseof control in between minority and nonminority respondents provides a reference standard the age group for H2: Accelerating Decline in effect.In the Illinois model the minority PerceivedControl status effect - .175; thepredicted is senseof The comparisonof crude means across controldeclines by an equivalentamount that senseof between 10-year groups the age suggests ages 18 and 58 (a range 40 years). of tendsto declinein successively control older It declinesby that amount againby age 68 (a age groups at an increasing rate. The age rangeof 10 years), again by age 75.8 (7.8 profileof perceivedcontrolis represented years),and againby age 81.6 (5.8 years).In clearlyby a cubic function as (illustrated a the U.S. model the minority statuseffect is darkline in Figure1) according a two-step -.154. The predicted sense of control to analysis. The exploratorystep used the declines by an equivalentamountbetween Illinois pilot data to select the single best- ages 18 and 62.6 (44.6 years),again by age fitting froma set of possibilities 74.2 (11.6 years),againby 82.3 (8.1 years), function (described below); theconfirmatory used andagainby 88.8 (6.5 years).In each sample step the U.S. data to testthe hypothesis the theminority that status effect roughly is one-third other functions notadd significantly the of a standard do to on deviation indexedsense of fit. so control, theprojected gap between young In the exploratory step we employedthe adults and the very old is more than one Illinois pilot data to compare the fit of standard deviation. functions the representing yearsof adulthood Age groupdifferences physicalimpairin or ment broadly mirrorthe differences (age - 18) raisedto thefirst, second,third, in fourthpower, a proportionality model, a perceivedcontrol. Figure 2 illustrates the ".compound growth"model, and a model average levels of difficulty using hands, in based on the loggedyearsof life remaining hearing, seeing, walking, carrying, using untila theoretical "omega" age. With the stairs,and kneeling. Each bar represents the exceptionof the linear model, all of the sumof thesevendifficulties; segment each of curvesbecomesteeper withage. The explor- a bar representsthe contribution a of atoryanalysisshowedthatthe models with particular to difficulty thesum.The items are second derivatives whichgrow increasingly stacked order prevalence, in of withthemost negativewithage fitbetter thanthose with common thebottom theleastcommon at and positive, secondderivatives; at the top. The mean levels of all seven null,or constant thisfinding an suggests accelerating decline impairments increase in successivelyolder in the sense of control successively in older age groups, particularly afterage 50. An age groups.The cube of yearssince age 18 indexaveraging of reports the seven impairbestamongthefunctions in fits tested, thatit ments increases significantly with age. A R2 has a higher and a larger t-value thanthe one-way of analysis variance showsan eta of others. .419; boththe lineartrend and thedeviation In the confirmatory using the U.S. from step are linearity significant p < .001. The at the on data,we regressed senseof control the corresponding to patterns appear be consistent cube of yearssince age 18, thenadded each with the idea that increasingimpairment function themodel.None of the accounts thedeclining to alternative for senseof control in otherterms the significantly improved fitof successively olderage groups. the regression.(Details are available on request.) H3: Impairment amongtheElderly The cubic curveis flatin earlyadulthood, Low PerceivedControl Explaining but it grows steeperat an accelerating rate withage, as illustrated Figures1 and 2. in Impairment decreases expected the senseof in The age curve is much flatter the 1990 control,as shown in Row 5 of Table 1.

nificant bothsamples(p < .001 foreach in in component bothsamples). Eta is .386 in the Illinois sample and .230 in the U.S. sample. The aggregate means are .674 and in .662 respectively theIllinoisand theU.S. samples;theaggregate standard deviations are .482 and .497.

Table 1. Regression Sense of Control Age, Education, on of and Physical Income(metric Impairment, Household coefficients w 1985Illinois:N = 800 Independent 1. (Age 18)310-6 2. Femalea 3. Minorityb 4. Educationc 5. Physical Impairmentd 6. Household Incomee (in $1Okunits) 7. IncomeNot Reportedf 8. Intercept 9. R2 10. (Age 18)3 10-6 Age < 80 onlyg 11. (Age 18)3 10-6 Age < 70 onlyh
a

1990 C -1.849*** (-.234) .015 (.016) -.119** (-.086) .038*** (.208) .046*** (.152) -.058 (-.039) .731 .241 -1.757*** (-.202) -2.115*** (-.161) D -1.738*** (-.226) -.018 (-.018) -.154*** (-.118) E -1.272*** (-.166) -.009 (-.008) -.1213*** (-.094) .050*** (.262)

A -2.726*** (-.389) -.016 (-.017) -.175*** (-.127)

B -2.067*** (-.295) .004 (.004) - .132*** (-.096) .045*** (.252)

.829 .168 _2.836*** (-.352)

-3.396***

(-.258)

.735 .221 -1.993*** (-.228) -2.291*** (-.174)

.774 .063 -1.942*** (-.208) -2.531*** (-.172)

.681 .127 - 1.473*** (-.158) -1.997*** (-.136)

Femalescoded 1; malescoded0. coded 1. coded0; others c Coded in yearsminus12, to represent number yearsshort or beyond highschooldegree. the of of a d Indexaveraging reported difficulty walking, carrying, kneeling, usingstairs, usinghands,seeing,and hearing. witha deviation 0 assigned thosewhodid notreport e Deviations from meanincome, the of to their income(11.4% of theIll f Coded I forthosewho did notreport 0 income; forothers. Reestimated thesamplerestricted persons with to under 80. age hReestimated with thesamplerestricted persons to under 70. age t p < .110; * p < .050; ** p < .0 10; *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests)
b Non-Hispanic whites

38

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY tial proportion the apparenteffectof of impairment thesenseofcontrol spurious on is because of education.As shownin Row 5, for addingthe adjustment education reduces withimpairment thecoefficient associated by 33.0 percent.Thus about one-third the of in age-groupdifferences perceivedcontrol thatseem to be attributable impairment to ........... actually reflect age-group differences in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .v....... educationthat influence both the level of impairment thesenseof control. and
.......

Difficulty
5.0
-

0L UsingHands
Hearing LIg [Seeing
-

4.0

LIIWalking
1
v

3.0

Carrying Carrying

Using Stairs

2.0

2~~~~ ~~~~i-.0
-....i

*Kneeling

H4: LowerEducation OlderGenerations of Explaining Low Perceived Control Educationdiffers across age significantly groups. A one-way analysis of variance showsan eta of .412 in theIllinoisdata and .245 in the U.S. data; boththe lineartrend and the deviation fromlinearity signifiare cantin each survey p < .001. The trend at is and basicallynegative linearafter college the years. Most of the deviation fromlinearity reflects risingaveragelevel of education the in earlyadulthood. the Restricting sampleto persons 30 or older increases the linear

1.0

0.0

1 l
e RP Ag

by Figure 2. Functionaldifficulties age in a U.S. the sample. Each bar represents sum of the each segmentof a bar seven difficulties; from -.361 to -.435 in the contribution a particular Pearson correlation of represents to difficulty the sum. Items are stackedin the Illinois data and from -. 183 to - .251 in with mostcommon the at the U.S. data. The larger order prevalence, of correlation age of thebottom. in with education theIllinois dataparallels the

withage, impairBecause of its association mentmay accountforsome of the negative associationbetweenage and the sense of for adjustment physical control. Statistically, for appearsto account morethan impairment between and age of one-fourth theassociation associThe coefficient the sense of control. smaller ated withage becomes26.9 percent by as for withadjustment impairment, shown of comparison Column D with Column E (Rows 1) of Table 1; thatis, (- 1.738 (-1. 271)) /-1 .738 = .269.1,2 This adjustoverstates role the probably ment,however, as of of impairment an explanation age-group in a differences thesenseof control: substan' Decomposition are thatwill percentages estimates varyacrosssamples.Theyshouldbe read as indexesof of to or the approximate relativecontribution a factor in differences thesenseof control. age-group 2 The regression adjusts for the linear effectof The nonlinear effect on impairment thesenseof control. a effect of ofage on impairment notimply nonlinear does on Whenadded to the impairment thesense of control. regression,terms for the square and/or cube of and are impairment notsignificant do notreducethesize of theage coefficient.

of largercorrelation age withthe sense of in control that data set. Education increases expectedsense of the as control, shownin Row 4 of Table 1. The are coefficients roughly same size in the the two samples.The sense of control increases aboutone-tenth one standard of deviation for each additional year of education.Minority must have threeto fouryears respondents moreeducation thannonminority respondents the to perceive same degreeof control the as latter. Because education associatedwithboth is it age and the sense of control, can account forsome of thenegative association between thetwo.Statistically for speaking, adjustment education appears to account for about one-fourth this association.3 of The coeffi-

3The regression adjusts for the linear effectof on education thesenseofcontrol. nonlinear The effect of does not implya nonlinear effect of age on education on education the sense of control. When added to the the term education notsignificant of is equation, squared and does notreducethesize of theage coefficient. The is cubedterm significant, adjusting thisterm but for does notreducethesize of thecoefficient age. A graph of of

AGE AND THE SENSE OF CONTROL cient associated with age becomes 24.2 for smaller with adjustment education percent in smaller dataand26.8 percent intheIllinois of theU.S. data.Some oftheeffect education occurs throughits association with low reAdjustingfor impairment impairment. for duces the coefficient educationby 8.0 in percent theU.S. data. Measuresof Incomeand Other Status Socioeconomic

39

statuses typiA number socioeconomic of cally change in old age-notably employand marital status, household ment, earnings, that analysesindicated income. Preliminary in reduction household amongthesestatuses, income may accountfor some of the low sense of controlassociated with old age. Columns C and H of Table 1 show the for withadjustments income,in regressions, In theIllinoisand theU.S. datarespectively. for reduces The Very theIllinois data,adjusting income Old as Outliers 8 by theage coefficient an additional percent The veryold constitute smallfraction a of of thevalue in ColumnA. In theU.S. data, each sample,whichmight affect results the reduces age coefficient the by thisadjustment Reanalysesexcluding the very an additional5 percentof the value in inordinately. in income old, however,show resultssimilarto those ColumnD. Differences household of appearto explain10 to 15 percent thenet forthetotalsample.Rows 10 and 11 ofTable of of on effect education the sense of control, 1 display the coefficient age for each to of model withthe samplerestricted persons and about 5 percentof the net effects The status and physical impairment.under 80 and under 70 respectively. minority unstandardized coefficient age grows of larger for status, Adding adjustment employment and does notfurther as moreof the oldestare excluded,but the status earnings, marital of pattern changes with added adjustments reducetheage coefficient. remains the essentially same. Adjusting for education reduces coefficient age by20 the of Aging MeasuresofPhysical Other to 30 percent.Adding the adjustment for impairment reduces this coefficient anby leaves intact for Adjustment impairment between association muchof thenegative age other 10 to 12 percent,so that the two together explain34 to 38 percent seemsto adjustments andthesenseofcontrol. Impairment of thecoefficient relating to thesenseof age of be a good measure physical agingon both The coefficients become Yet because control. standardized and grounds. intuitive empirical as smaller moreof theoldestareexcluded, as of its inabilityto explain more of the standardized coefficients whenever varimust associationbetweenage and the sense of variableis reduced. As be other measures might better. a ance in the explanatory control, changewithadjustment as check on the adequacyof impairment a Yet, the percentage coefficient age is of measureof physicalaging, we added five in the standardized the necessarily sameas thepercentage change to shown health measures theregression other in its unstandardized coefficient(within in Column ofTable 1: malaise(feeling H that error). is unableto get rounding feeling everything an effort, Other also important aspectsof theresults remain of basicallythesame withrestriction shows thatthe sense of control increases the function the sample. In particular,the restricted but linearly to 16 yearsofeducation does notincrease up of muchwitheducation beyond16 years. For simplicity, samples show that about one-third the of of term education. association impairment the sense of with onlythelinear Table 1 includes

going, havingtroublesleeping,and having trouble keepingyourmindon whatyou are doing)(pO,= .76); aches (pains, headaches, and weakness)(pO, = .60); perceived health evaluationsof theirown (the respondents' health very as poor,poor,satisfactory, good, or very of good); frequency vigorous exercise (in daysperweek); and theQuetelet indexof bodyweight relative height = kg/M2). to (Q Some of thesefactors, such as exercise,are more likely be consequences to than causesof a sense of control. a group,though, As they allow a roughcheckon the adequacyof the impairment index.Adding adjustment the for thesefivehealth measures notreducethe did regression coefficient associated with age. (In fact,the coefficient increased slightly.) This result suggeststhat measures of physical aging otherthan impairment would not be in moreeffective explaining age curveof the control. perceived

40

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY average sense of controlwill progressively underestimate aging and cohorteffects. the Greater selection pressures could explain also why the age slope for sense of controlis in flatter the U.S. data than in the Illinois data.In anycase, theresults reflect more than merelythe low average sense of control amongtheveryold. Impairment amongtheElderly Explaining Low PerceivedControl

is of because of the effects control spurious education thetwo outcomes.In comparion of son, only about 5 percent the effectof educationon the sense of controlvanishes withadjustment impairment. for AND DISCUSSION SUMMARY across Mean Differences Sense of Control in Age Groups

This study findsthatthe averagesense of control differs significantlyacross age in Age-group differences physicalimpairgroups,withthe lowestlevels in the oldest ment explain some, but not most, of the show a compara- differences sense of control, probably in age groups.Both surveys and in tively highaveragesenseof control 18- to explain less than age-groupdifferences in but reveal progressivesteps education.Physicalimpairment 50-year-olds, increasesat in older age groups. an accelerating withage in a pattern downward sequentially rate that in The difference average sense of control mirrors declinein perceived the control, and between under 50 andthose80 or impairment age persons decreasesthe predicted sense of older is threeto fourtimesas greatas the control. Adjustment for impairment alone between membersof minorities explains difference about26.9 percent theassociation of and of nonminorities. is on a par withthe between It age and thesense of control. About difference associatedwitha 10-year of gap in one-third theapparent of effect impairment education or a $100,000 gap in income. is spurious, however, because of education. suggestthat something Whenaddedto theregression These comparisons witheducation fromold age or common in the already adjusted, impairment resulting explains an re- additional percent thetotalassociation oldestsurviving substantially generations 7.1 of duces theaveragesenseof control. of age withthe sense of control.Although thesepercentages be or might higher lowerin another sample,they probably give a reasonDecline in PerceivedControl Accelerating ably accurateview of the contribution of The results thatthedeclinein the physical impairment the low sense of suggest to sense of controlmay acceleratein succes- controlfoundamong the old. In generalit analy- appearsthatimpairment sivelyolderage groups.Model-fitting contributes substanses selected cube of yearssinceage 18 as tially a low senseofcontrol the to the among old, function. The cubic but is not the sole explanation the single best-fitting and not the curve is flat in early adulthoodbut grows mostimportant singlefactor. at rate steeper an accelerating withadvancing age. LowerEducation Older Generations of The slope of the age curvereflects more Low PerceivedControl Explaining thanthecontrast the between oldestmembers of thesamplesand others. excludin Reanalysis Age-groupdifferences educationconof ing theoldestsegments thesamplesshow tribute to substantially the total association thatthe slopes remainnegativeand highly betweenage and the sense of control,and if to significant the samples are restricted they are the most important single factor 80 70. thoseunder or even to thoseunder In identified here. Adjustment for education slopes actuallybecome alone explains about 26.8 percentof the fact, the estimated are associationbetween age and the sense of steeper when the oldest respondents excluded. This finding At may reflectgreater control. first glancethisproportion seems in of selection pressures older segments the to be the same size as that explainedby population:those with the lowest sense of impairment. Two points, however, give control may exit the sampled population priority the effectof education. First, to at disproportionatelyadvancedages because causal analysissuggeststhateducation preor If of death,incapacity, institutionalization. cedes impairment because mostadultscomdecreasesin plete theireducationin young adulthood, thisis so, the size of measured

AGE AND THE SENSE OF CONTROL

41

betweenage and the sense of increasessubstantially. correlation If beforeimpairment the educationprecedesand influences age- controlratherthan the observed negative then forces the Selection counter main specific levelofimpairment, someofthe correlation. of trends,and simplymake conservative is an the effect impairment indirectly effect of of in Second,theregressions Table 1 estimates thosetrends. education. The causalorder therelationships of for reduces among show thatadjustment education and the sense of of by thecoefficient impairment 33.0 percent, education, impairment, In are reduces control less certain. particular, for physical whereasadjustment impairment may a of the coefficient education 7.3 percent. impairment resultfrom low sense of by as sense(Rodin These percentagescertainlywould vary control muchas itcausesthat is but acrosssamples, thedifference so great 1986;RodinandTimko1992). If impairment whichin turn thatthe relativeorderprobablywould not reducesthe sense of control, thenthe two may and impairment, change.In view of its causal priority its exacerbates low component, education producedeviation-amplifying larger independent reciprocalefwithrespectto age, contributes morethanimpairmentfects.When integrated apparently older then an effect of initial impairment on among to thelow senseofcontrol found subsequent change in sense of control, persons. combinedwithan effect initialsense of of on control subsequent changein impairment, Aspects SES of Education and Other could producea cubic cross-sectional relaIf education enhances sense of control tionship between andthesenseofcontrol. the age component thenincome, In view of thelargeunexplained objective control, by enhancing and shoulddo so as of the associationand the ambiguity about employment, earnings researchshould collect well. Why do theynot explainmoreof the causal order,future betweenage and the sense of panel data to explorethe mutualeffects of relationship is and Part education impairment the sense of controlas an control? ofthereasonis that of an accurate measure general of social status. explanation thecross-sectional curve. age of It is a core mechanism intergenerational for status thus transmission; adjusting educa- The Unexplained Component of It tionadjusts for indirectly status origin. is Most of the association of betweenage and a majordeterminant employment, occuparemains The unexplained. tion, earnings, marriage, and household thesenseofcontrol for coefficient age never below50 of fell adjusts adjusted income;thusadjusting education status.Partof percentof its unadjustedvalue, even in for indirectly muchof current of the reasonforthe importance education, exploratory analysesthatadded to theequait however, maybe that playsa specialrolein tion,all at once, marital status, employment and humanresourcefulness. measures earnings, income, health Perhaps status, developing Futurestudiesmust education trains people to exploitthetalents otherthanimpairment. and resourcesthey possess as well as to consider other possible explanations.One of acquire more. If this is so, theneducation tendsto thinkfirst aging and life-cycle future trainspeople to use other socioeconomic factorssuch as social participation, Such factors cerstatuses as tools-employing them when horizons,or dependency. are The relative when are available,substituting they not. tainly worth pursing. importanceofeducation, another however, suggests imset of possibilities-intergenerational or Consequences Cause? in provements lifetime living and working Older generations Cross-sectional analysesalways raise the conditions. may have felt of own lives at all ages. question of causal order. Where age is less in control their in littleroom is left for Were today'selderly, theirearlieryears, involved,relatively and doubt:education, impairment, the sense more subject to alienating jobs, economic of control affect onlyby influencing exploitation, can age political or social repression, or survival.In all threecases, however,the dependent inequitable relationships, prosurvivaleffects or would producecorrelations longedphases of poverty unemployment, opposite to those observed. The better- injuriesand diseases, and the like? If they and educated, unimpaired, moreinstrumental were so, theirsituation might explaintheir would survivelonger,producing positive low averagesenseof control. a

42
Conclusion

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

Disorders among Persons of Low Socioeconomic Status:Evidencefromthe Epidemiologic Catchment Journal Social Psychiaof The resultsof two large random-sample Area Surveys."American resulting from try.6(4):259-71. surveys suggest something that House, JamesS. and CynthiaRobins. 1983. "Age, old age or commonin the oldest surviving Psychosocial Stress, Health."Pp. 175-97inAging and generations substantially reducestheaverage and Society:SelectedReviewsand RecentResearch, sense of control in older age groups. editedby Maltida WhiteRiley, Beth B. Hess, and Kathleen Bond. and low Increasing physical impairment RobertJ. and Frederic Wolinsky.1993. D. The Johnson, levels of education both contribute. "The Structure HealthStatusamongOlderAdults: of important role of educationsuggeststhat Disease, Disability, Functional Limitation, and Perlifetime conditions ceivedHealth."Journal Healthand Social Behavior poorer livingand working of maycontribute to a low senseofcontrol 34:105-21. more Kohn,MelvinL. andKazimierz Slomczzynski. M. 1990. thought. amongtheold thanpreviously Social Structure and Self-Direction: Comparative A Analysis theUnited Statesand Poland. Cambridge, of UK: Blackwell. REFERENCES in Lachman,MargieE. 1986. "PersonalControl Later Life: Stability, Change, and CognitiveCorrelates." Almond, Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba. The Civic Pp. 207-36 in ThePsychology Control of and Aging, and Culture:Political Attitudes Democracyin Five editedby Margaret Baltes and Paul B. Baltes. M. Princeton Press. University Nations.Princeton: Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum. Attitudes, Andrisani, Paul J. 1978. "Internal-External and Labor MarketExperience." Maddox, George L. and Daniel 0. Clark. 1992. 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JohnMirowsky Professor Sociologyat Ohio State University Columbus. is theprincipal is of in He investigator a nationalU.S. 2-wave on panel survey therelationship of between and changesin the age sense of control. Catherine Ross is coinvestigator theproject E. on funded theNationalInstitute by on Aging.