Chemistry for Life: Exam 1 Elements of Life

The Atom Top number Mass number total number of protons and neutrons Bottom number Atomic (proton) number number of protons Number of neutrons = top no. bottom no. = mass number atomic number No. of electrons = no. of protons, for neutral atoms (no overall charge) Negative ions have more electrons than protons Positive ions have less electrons than protons No. of protons no. of electrons = charge on ion Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons Chemical properties decided by number and arrangement of electrons Isotopes have same configuration of electrons so same chemical properties Physical properties depend on mass, and as the mass changes for isotopes, their physical properties change Atomic Models Ancient Greeks indivisible particles Start of 19th century John Dalton solid spheres, different spheres made up different elements 1897 J J Thompson discovered electrons from charge/mass measurements model changed from solid sphere to plum pudding (Figure 1) 1909 Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger, Ernest Marsden Gold foil experiment where alpha particles (positive) are fired at thin sheet of gold. Expected most alpha particles to be deflected slightly by positive pudding, but most passed through and few were deflected backwards. Nuclear model created tiny, positive nucleus at centre (most of mass) which is surrounded by cloud of negative electrons, most of atom empty space (Figure 2) Henry Moseley charge of nucleus increases from one element to next by 1 Rutherford did further experiments and discovered protons which explains this (atoms of different elements have a different number of protons) James Chadwick neutrons nuclei of atoms heavier than they would be with just protons so something to be discovered with mass but no charge Electrons would spiral down into nucleus causing atom to collapse if electrons existed as a cloud Neils Bohr Bohr Model (Figure 3) electrons exist in fixed orbits/shells with fixed energies, EM radiation emitted or absorbed when electrons move between shells, radiation has fixed frequency. Shells of an atom hold fixed numbers of electrons, reactivity is due to electrons, full shells means stable/inert/unreactive Relative Mass Relative mass mass of an atom compared to carbon-12 Relative atomic mass (Ar) average mass of an atom of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12 Relative isotopic mass mass of an atom of an isotope on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12 Relative molecular/formula mass (Mr) average mass of a molecule of formula unit on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12 Mass spectrometer (Figure 4)

1. Vaporisation sample injected and is vaporised by electrical heater 2. Ionisation gas particles bombarded by high-energy electrons which knock off electrons, ionising them and leaving positive ions 3. Acceleration positive ions accelerated by electric field 4. Detection Mass spectrum produced by measuring time taken for each particle to reach detector depends on mass and charge light highly charged ones are faster Molecular ion formed when bombarding electrons remove 1 electron, giving highest mass, furthest on right Bombardment causes some molecules to break up into fragments, which are seen on graph as fragmentation pattern

Nuclear Radiation If unstable, atoms break down to become stable. Instability caused by having too many or not enough neutrons, or too much energy in nucleus Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays What they are Helium nuclei Fast moving electrons Very short wave EM waves Stopped by Paper/skin Thin aluminium sheets Very thick lead Ionising ability Strong Moderate Weak Deflection in electric Slight Large None field When alpha particles hit an atom they transfer some energy to it, they quickly ionise lots of atoms and lose all energy low penetrating power Nuclear fusion 2 small light nuclei combine under high temperature and pressure to make one larger nucleus, happens naturally in stars, huge amounts of energy released When hydrogen runs out, cores pressure and temperature rise. In a big enough star itll get hot enough to fuse heavier elements. The Mole and Equations Avagadros Constant = 6.02 x 10^23 (L) Empirical and Molecular Formulae Empirical formula smallest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound Molecular formula actual numbers of atoms in a compound Electron Shells and Atomic Spectra Electron Shell 1 2 3 4 Max. no. electrons 2 8 18 32 For a particular element, the frequencies in an emission spectrum are the same as those missing in the absorption spectrum. Each element has different electron arrangement so frequencies of radiation are different so spectrum for each element is unique (figure 5). Spectra for hydrogen (Figure 6) when electrons drop down to n=1 line produced in UV part of EM spectrum, n=2 visible light, n=3 infrared Ionic bonding (between metal and non-metal) Compounds are atoms of different elements bonded together Ionic bonding is when oppositely charged ions become stuck together by electrostatic attraction very strong Sodium chloride (NaCl) giant ionic lattice structure cubed shaped Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved but not when solid, as ions are fixed in position by strong ionic bonds High melting points

Often dissolve in water (polar)

Covalent bonding (between non-metals) Molecules are groups of atoms bonded together Both positive nuclei are attracted electrostatically to the shared electrons Figure 7 and 8 Covalent bonding in molecules and dative covalent bonding Fairly low melting and boiling points no giant structure to be broken down only have to overcome weak intermolecular forces not strong covalent bonds between atoms simple molecular Dont conduct electricity no free charge carriers Usually insoluble in water van der Waals = intermolecular forces Bonding Ionic Simple molecular (covalent) Examples NaCl, MgCl2 CO2, I2, H2O M/B point High Fairly low State at STP Solid Usually gas, liquid, sometimes solids Solid conduct elec? No No Liquid conduct elec? Yes No Soluble in water? Yes No (depends on polarity)

Giant Covalent Structures Tetrahedral arrangement Very high melting points Very hard Good thermal conductors vibrations travel easily through stiff lattices Wont dissolve Cant conduct electricity Metallic Structures Melting points high, affected by: no. of delocalised electrons per atom (the more there are, the stronger the bonding, the higher the melting point), size of metal ion, and lattice structure Can be shaped, ductile Good thermal conductors delocalised electrons pass kinetic energy to each other Good electrical conductors delocalised electrons carry a current Metals insoluble except liquid metals, due to strength of metallic bonds Shapes of Molecules Lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs The Periodic Table Now arranged by increasing proton number 1863 John Newlands arranged elements in order of mass, every 8th element similar law of octaves arranged in rows of 7, similar elements lined up in columns. Pattern broke down on 3rd row 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev left some gaps where next element didnt seem to fit Assumptions at the time: all were elements, and all had been discovered 1890s noble gases discovered Group 1 more reactive as you go down group Group 7 less reactive as you go down group

Periods 2 and 3 similar trends in melting and boiling points due to structure and bond strength More atoms in a molecule mean stronger intermolecular forces Metallic > Giant covalent > Simple molecular > noble gases

Group 2 Elements Metal + water = metal hydroxide + hydrogen Reactivity increases as you go down group as outer electrons are further from nucleus Oxides and hydroxides are bases Metal oxide + water = metal hydroxides (which dissolve) OH- ions make solutions strongly alkaline Magnesium is exception slow reaction and hydroxide not very soluble Increasingly alkaline as you go down group due to increase in solubility of hydroxides acid + base = salt + water Carbonates and sulphates decrease in solubility down group carbonate = oxide + carbon dioxide Thermal stability increases down group. Carbonate ions are large anions and are made unstable by presence of cation. Cation attracts electrons towards, polarising and distorting anion. Greater distortion means less stable. Large cations cause less distortion (lower charge density). So, down the group, more shells of electrons, bigger cations, less distortion caused, so more stable the carbonate anion.

Developing Fuels
Gas Volumes and Entropy Number of moles = volume in dm / 24 One mole of any gas occupies same volume (24dm) at rtp Entropy is a measure of the number of ways the particles can be arranged (measure of disorder/randomness) Substances like disorder particles naturally move to give maximum possible entropy. Gases diffuse to fill all available space more ways to be arranged in bigger space. When something dissolves, solute particles spread out in solvent, increasing entropy More particles, higher entropy. A mixture of 2 types of particle has more entropy than same amount of one type Enthalpy Changes Enthalpy change is the heat energy transferred in a reaction at constant pressure Exothermic reactions give out energy (H-) temperature of surroundings goes up e.g. combustion, oxidation of carbohydrates in respiration Endothermic reactions take in energy (H+) temperature of surroundings goes down e.g. thermal decomposition, photosynthesis enthalpy change of reaction = energy absorbed to break bonds energy released in making bonds Bond breaking endothermic Bond making exothermic Bond enthalpies differ because they are averages for a much bigger range of molecules Bond length distance between 2 nuclei in covalent molecules where attractive and repulsive forces balance Stronger attraction, higher bond enthalpy, shorter bond length Hesss Law

Standard enthalpy change of reaction is enthalpy change when reaction occurs in molar quantities shown in chemical equation under standard conditions in standard states Standard enthalpy change of formation is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their standard states under standard conditions Standard enthalpy change of combustion is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen under standard conditions Hesss Law total enthalpy change of a reaction is independent of the route taken, providing starting and finishing points are the same Hr = Hf (products) Hf (reactants)

Measuring Enthalpy Changes Enthalpy change in a neutralisation reaction: o add a known volume of acid to insulated container and measure temperature o Add known volume of alkali and record temperature rise (stir for even heating)

Systematic errors are repeated every time you carry out an experiment due to experimental set-up or limitations of equipment: o some heat absorbed by container o some heat lost to surroundings o some incomplete combustion o some flammable liquid may escape by evaporation Random errors no pattern, always happens, difficult to control. Best to repeat experiment and take average of all readings Reliability how reproducible results are Accuracy how close to true value results are

Catalysts A catalyst speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction, but can be recovered chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction Catalysis means speeding up a chemical reaction by using a catalyst Heterogeneous catalyst examples: iron in Haber process and platinum in catalytic convertors 1. Reactant molecules arrive at heterogeneous catalyst surface and bond with it (adsorption) 2. Bonds between reactants atoms are weakened and break-up, forming radicals. Radicals then get together and form new molecules 3. New molecules detach from catalyst (desorption) Adsorption needs to be strong enough to break molecule bonds but not too strong or it wont let go of atoms CO poisons solid iron catalyst in Haber process Lead poisons catalytic convertors Heterogeneous catalysts often get poisoned because poison clings to catalysts surface more strongly than reactant does. Catalyst is prevented from getting involved in reaction it should be speeding up Organic Groups Alkanes saturated impossible for carbon to make more than 4 bonds Cycloalkanes have 2 fewer hydrogens than straight-chain alkanes Alkenes unsaturated can make more bonds with extra atoms in addition reactions Cycloalkenes have 2 fewer hydrogens than open-chain alkenes Aromatic (arenes) benzene ring Aliphatic no ring e.g. alkanes, alkenes Benzene 6 carbons, 6 hydrogens, 3 double bonds more stable, less reactive as double bond electrons are delocalised around carbon ring Ethers have oxygen atom interrupting carbon chain

Isomerism General formula describes any member of a family of compounds e.g. CnH2n+1OH Molecular formula actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule, indicating any functional groups Structural formula shows atoms carbon by carbon, with attached hydrogens and functional groups Displayed formula shows how atoms are arranged and bonds between them Skeletal formula shows bonds of carbon skeleton only with any functional groups. H and C atoms not shown Structural isomers same molecular formula, different structural arrangement of atoms o different carbon skeleton different physical properties due to change in shape o functional group in different place different physical and sometimes chemical properties o different functional groups very different physical and chemical properties Shapes of Organic Molecules When a carbon atom makes 4 single bonds the molecule is a tetrahedral 3D shape with bond angles of 109.5 Atoms round a C=C form an equilateral triangle which is trigonal planar (flat) with bond angles of 120 Catalysts and Petroleum Crude oil vaporised at 350C It then goes into the fractionating column and rises up through the trays. The largest hydrocarbons dont vaporise boiling points are too high so they run to bottom and form residue As the crude oil vapour rises up through fractionating column it gets cooler. Each fraction condenses at different temperatures due to different chain lengths fractions drawn off at different levels Hydrocarbons with lowest boiling points dont condense and are drawn off as gases at top (Fractional distillation Figure 9) Thermal cracking high temperatures (1000C) and high pressure (70 atm), produces lot of alkenes which are used to make polymers e.g. poly(ethene) from ethene Catalytic cracking makes motor fuels and aromatic hydrocarbons, uses zeolite catalyst, slight pressure, high temperature (450C). Catalyst cuts costs as reaction can be done at lower temperature and pressure and speeds it up Isomerisation makes branched-chain isomers. Heating straight-chain alkane with platinum catalyst stuck on inert aluminium oxide. Molecule broken up and put back together as branched-chain isomer. Zeolite then used as molecular sieve to separate isomers. Straight chain molecules go through and are recycled. Reforming converts alkanes into Cycloalkanes into arenes needs catalyst (platinum stuck on aluminium oxide) Fuel-air mixture squashed by piston and ignited by spark, creating explosion. This drives piston up again, turning crankshaft. 4 pistons work one after other, so engine runs smoothly Fuels CO molecules bind to same sites on haemoglobin molecules as oxygen The Earth radiates IR radiation out into space, but greenhouse gases absorb some of it, warming earth

Unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in presence of sunlight to form groundlevel ozone (a component of photochemical smog) which irritates eyes, aggravates respiratory problems Particulates tiny particles suspended in the air Sulfur dioxide dissolves in moisture and converted into sulphuric acid Acid rain destroys trees and vegetation, corrodes buildings and statues, kills fish in lakes Sulfur dioxide removed from power station flue gases using calcium oxide Oxygenates added to fuels to reduce CO emissions fuel combusts fully Governments can change laws and tax pollution more highly Compulsory catalytic converters, MOT emissions test Changing peoples behaviour

Fuels of the Future Short term reduce pollution, reduce need on fossil fuels Renewable sources e.g. wind, solar, wave power wont run out, carbon neutral (except during manufacture/installation from using machines/vehicles). Not reliable and a lot needed however Biodiesel/bioethanol renewable, carbon neutral (except refining and transporting fuel, making fertilisers and powering machinery), expensive, land used for fuel not for food Nuclear power no pollution (except in refining and mining uranium ore and decommissioning nuclear plants), radioactive waste, possibility of nuclear disaster Hydrogen gas burned in modified engine or used in fuel cell (converts hydrogen and oxygen into water to produce electricity) Takes energy to extract hydrogen from seawater energy carrier Method of extraction determines how environmentally friendly Hydrogen - difficult to transport/store, flammable, has to be liquefied due to low energy to volume ratio, need new infrastructure Increasing competition means higher prices, disruption of supply due to political issues Energy efficient, use fossil fuel reserves, financial incentives, renewable energy, nuclear power

Chemistry of Natural Resources Elements from the Sea More Calculations No. of moles = concentration x volume (in cm) / 1000 Percentage yield never 100% due to not all starting chemicals reacting fully, or loss of chemicals on filter paper or during transfers between containers Percentage yield = actual yield / theoretical yield x 100% Titrations Pipette measure only one volume of solution Burette can measure different volumes and allow you to add solution drop by drop Titrations allow you to find out exactly how much acid is needed to neutralise a quantity of alkali

Measure out alkali using pipette and put in flask, add acid using burette, swirling flask. Do a rough titration first to find end point, the accurate one where you add acid drop by drop from 2cm from endpoint Universal indicator no good colour change too gradual These indicators change colour quickly over small pH range o methyl orange turns yellow to red when adding acid to alkali o phenolphthalein turns red to colourless when adding acid to alkali

Electronic Structure The further a shell is from nucleus, the higher its energy and the larger its principal quantum number Not all the electrons in a shell have exactly the same energy so shells are divided up into sub-shells that have slightly different energies Sub-shells consist of orbitals which can each hold 2 electrons Chromium and copper donate one of their 4s electrons to the 3d sub-shell because theyre happier with a more stable full or half-full d sub-shell Groups 4 to 7 can share electrons to form covalent bonds d block elements (transition metals) tend to lose s and d electrons to form positive ions Oxidation and Reduction An oxidising agent accepts electrons and gets reduced A reducing agent donates electrons and gets oxidised Combined oxygen oxidation states o -1 in peroxides o +2 in fluorides OF2 o +1 in O2F2 and H2O2 In metal hydrides hydrogen is -1, otherwise +1 Many metals reduce dilute acids Electronegativity Electronegativity the ability to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond Dipole a difference in charge between 2 atoms caused by a shift in electron density Molecules will be polar if all polar bonds point in roughly same direction Non-polar molecule if polar bonds point in opposite directions and cancel each other out, or if lone pairs of electrons on the central atom cancel out dipole created by bonding pairs Intermolecular forces Much weaker than covalent, ionic or metallic bonds

Even though the electron cloud keeps moving and the dipoles keep changing in instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces, the overall effect is for the atoms to be attracted to each other The longer the carbon (alkane) chain, the stronger the van der Waals forces due to more molecular surface area and more electrons to interact Branched-chain alkanes cant pack closely together and have smaller molecular surface areas so van der Waals forces reduced

Ionisation Enthalpies The first ionisation enthalpy is the energy needed to remove 1 electron from each atom in 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions Affected by atomic radius (the further the outer electrons are from nucleus the less strongly attracted so IE lower); nuclear charge (the more protons the more strongly attracted the outer electrons are so IE higher); electron shielding (the more inner shells the more shielding from attractive force of nucleus so IE lower) The 2nd ionisation enthalpy is the energy needed to remove 1 electron from each ion in 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 2+ ions Within each shell, successive IEs increase due to less repulsion amongst remaining electrons and electrons are being removed from an increasingly positive ion so attraction between nucleus and remaining electrons increases Removing electrons from a paired orbital is easier due to repulsion between the 2 electrons so easier to remove Group 7 The Halogens Physical state at rtp: o fluorine pale yellow gas o chlorine green gas o bromine red-brown liquid o iodine grey solid Volatility decreases down group Boiling points increase down group due to increasing strength of van der Waals forces due to increasing size and relative mass of atoms Electronegativity decreases down group as larger atoms attract electrons less than smaller ones More soluble in organic solvents than water as covalent and non-polar colour in water colour in hexane chlorine virtually colourless virtually colourless bromine yellow/orange orange/red iodine brown pink/violet Less reactive down group as it is harder for larger atoms to attract an electron to form an ion, due to increase electron shielding

Halogens displace and oxidise less reactive halide ions from solution (if halide is below halogen in periodic table)

More about the Halogens Silver ions react with halide ions to form a precipitate first add dilute nitric acid to remove ions which might interfere with reaction, then add silver nitrate solution Fluoride no precipitate as AgF soluble Chloride White Bromide cream Iodide yellow Electrolysis of halide solutions to extract halogens: o halogen element produced at anode (+ electrode) o at cathode, hydrogen ions form hydrogen gas You can only extract chlorine from concentrated sodium chloride solution, if dilute chloride ions arent discharged and hang onto their electrons, instead OH- lose their extra electron to form oxygen and water fluorine cant be produced by electrolysis of fluoride solutions, even when concentrated OH- discharged instead Halogen used to make properties used for Fluorine PTFE inert, low-friction, non-stick coating thermally stable on pans HCFCs inert, gas at rtp refrigerant sodium fluoride strengthens tooth toothpaste enamel Chlorine PVC electrical insulator electrical wires bleach kills bacteria water treatment Bromine medicines, agricultural chemical, flame retardants Iodine Medicines, nutrient The Chemical Industry Atom economy tells you what proportion of the starting materials end up in useful products % atom economy = mass of desired product / total mass of reactants x 100 Halogenoalkanes To make 2-chloro-2-methylpropane (a chloroalkane), shake 2methylpropan-2-ol (a tertiary alcohol) with concentrated hydrochloric acid at room temperature in separating funnel for 20 mins, releasing pressure due to volatility of product Allow to settle into layers, run off aqueous lower layer (containing most of unreacted 2-methylpropan-2-ol), leaving impure halogenoalkane Neutralise excess acid by adding sodium hydrogencarbonate and shaking until no more gas produced, releasing pressure frequently

Run lower layer off, add distilled water and shake, and run off lower layer again (to get rid of remaining inorganic impurities) Remove remaining water by adding anhydrous sodium sulphate (drying agent) and shake mixture remove remaining organic impurities (unreacted alcohol) by distilling mixture, collect fraction that boils between 48 and 53C chloroalkane

More about Halogenoalkanes A nucleophile is an electron-pair donor Iodoalkanes are most reactive Halogenoalkanes due to their lowest bond enthalpy (weakest carbon-halogen bond strength) 2 experiments to show reactivity: o put the 3 different haloalkanes in 3 different test tubes, and add silver nitrate (contains water) and ethanol (solvent). Precipitate forms fastest with iodoalkane most reactive o warm NaOH (aq) with haloalkanes, add dilute nitric acid to neutralise spare hydroxide ions before adding silver nitrate, or silver nitrate would react with hydroxide ions to form silver oxide precipitate The Atmosphere Giant Structures Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide have giant molecular structures (macromolecular structures) huge network of covalently bonded atoms Due to carbon and silicon forming 4 strong, covalent bonds In diamond, each C covalently bonded to 4 others, arranged tetrahedrally in crystal lattice structure o hard o vibrations travel easily through stiff lattice, good thermal conductor o very high melting point o cant conduct electricity o wont dissolve in any solvent Silicon oxide also arranged tetrahedrally in giant lattice o each silicon atom covalently bonds with 4 O tetrahedrally to form big crystal lattice o O can only bond with 2 Silicon atoms o hard crystalline solid with high melting point o insoluble in any solvent o doesnt conduct electricity carbon dioxide small molecules, each C forming double bond with 2 Os silicon dioxide each Si bonds singly with 4 O (allowing each O to bond to another Si) carbon dioxide will dissolve in water, SiO2 wont

Reaction Rates Particles need to collide in right direction and with certain minimum amount of kinetic energy (activation enthalpy) in order for a reaction to take place Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution graph of no. of molecules of gas with different kinetic energies (as not all molecules in a gas have same amount of energy) Increase temperature particles have more energy, collide more often; more molecules have the activation enthalpy More on Reaction Rates Increasing concentration or pressure particles closer together on average, collide more often, more chances to react Increasing surface area more particles can come in contact with other reactants Catalysts lower activation enthalpy by providing different way for bonds to be broken and remade (alternative reaction pathway) by forming one or more intermediate compounds The activation enthalpy needed to form intermediates from reactants, and then products from intermediates is lower than to form products directly from reactants Reversible Reaction Dynamic equilibrium closed system forward reaction going at same rate as backward reaction, amounts of products and reactants doesnt change Le Chateliers Principle: if theres a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the equilibrium will move to help counteract the change Catalysts dont affect position of equilibrium (yield) but do mean it is reached faster Concentration Pressure Temperature Increase to right if more shifts to side with moves in reactant added, to fewest gas endothermic left if more product molecules to (+H) to absorb added reduce pressure extra heat Decrease to left if reactant to side with most moves in lowered, to right if gas molecules to exothermic (-H) product lowered raise pressure to replace heat The Atmosphere The Earths surface emits much lower frequency radiation than Sun (because Earth much cooler) Only molecules of different atoms absorb IR radiation because polarities of their bonds change as they vibrate Carbon dioxide, water, methane etc do and they are greenhouse gases

Gas molecules bonds have certain fixed vibrational energy levels so only certain frequencies of radiation corresponding to these are absorbed UV and visible light move electrons up to higher quantised energy levels, if enough energy absorbed the bonds break forming free radicals

The Greenhouse Effect IR window range of IR frequencies that are not absorbed by atmospheric gases Contribution of any particular gas to greenhouse effect depends on how much radiation one molecule of gas absorbs, and how much of that gas there is in atmosphere Climate change not new, natural regular changes in Earths orbit around Dun cause ice age and interglacials; sunspot cycles; volcanic eruptions and meteor impacts cause cooling Anthropogenic change is new and caused by humans Mass spectrometry shows composition of air inside ice in polar regions, sea water is becoming more acidic (CO2 dissolves to form carbonic acid H2CO3) Alternative fuels, fuel-efficient technologies, carbon capture and storage (injecting as liquid into deep ocean; storing under pressure deep underground; reacting with metal oxides to form carbonate minerals), increasing photosynthesis Halogenoalkanes and CFCs Bond fission breaking a covalent bond o homolytic fission one electron goes to each atom forming 2 electrically uncharged radicals (reactive particles due to unpaired electron) o heterolytic fission both electrons go to same atom, forming cation and anion Halogens react with alkanes in photochemical reactions, forming Halogenoalkanes (free-radical substitution reaction) o initiation reaction photodissociation of halogen molecule (homolytic fission) o propagation reaction a radical attacks the alkane molecule the new alkane free radical can attack another halogen molecule this happens until all halogen and alkane molecules used up o termination reaction free radicals react to form stable molecules CFCs are unreactive, non-flammable, harmless, range of boiling points so used for fire extinguishers, propellants in aerosols, coolant gas in fridges, expanding polystyrene for packaging and insulating material

HCFCs (still damage ozone layer but smaller effect) and HFCs temporary alternatives until safer products developed (both are greenhouse gases, much worse than CO2) Fridges hydrocarbons, ammonia as coolant gas Aerosols pump spray systems, nitrogen CO2 foamed polymers

Ozone took time to make link between ozone depletion and Halogenoalkanes The Polymer Revolution Addition Reactions of Alkanes Hydrogen + ethane = ethane (nickel catalyst + 150 C + high pressure; or platinum catalyst + rtp) Bromine water used to test for C=C bonds shake alkene with orange bromine water, the solution goes colourless (electrophilic addition reaction). If saturated compound, doesnt react and solution stays brown Electrophiles are electron-pair acceptors (positive ions and polar molecules) attracted to double bonds Alcohols and Other Organic Compounds Aldehydes have carbonyl group at end of carbon chain Ketones anywhere except at end Carboxylic acid COOH (carboxylic functional group (carbonyl and hydroxyl) Primary alcohols oxidise to aldehydes then carboxylic acids Secondary alcohols oxidise to ketones only Tertiary alcohols do not oxidise Oxidising agent acidified potassium dichromate(VI) (orange) is reduced to green chromium(III) ion Cr3+ Oxidising primary alcohols o gently heating ethanol with (VI) and sulphuric acid in test tube produces apple smelling ethanal o to just get aldehyde, get it out of oxidising solution as soon as its formed by gently heating excess alcohol with controlled amount of oxidising agent in distillation apparatus, so aldehyde is distilled off immediately o to produce carboxylic acid, alcohol has to be vigorously heated mixed with excess oxidising agent and heated under reflux Hydrogen Bonding Strongest intermolecular force O, F or N which are very electronegative draw bonding electrons away from hydrogen, polarising bond, and H has high charge density

In ice there is maximum number of hydrogen bonds, so less dense than water, lots of big spaces in lattice structure Polymers dissolve in water if they can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules instead of with each other If too many OH groups hydrogen bonding is too strong, meaning too much energy needed to break it down insoluble If too few OH groups, wont be many hydrogen bonds formed with water insoluble

Polymers Copolymers made from more than one type of monomer joined in a random order Thermoplastic polymers no cross-linking, chains held together by weak intermolecular forces which are easy to overcome, easy to melt, hardens into new shape when it cools, can be remoulded Thermosetting polymers covalent cross-links which hold chains together in 3D giant covalent structure, doesnt soften when heated but chars, strong, hard, rigid and insoluble LDPE soft, flexible, used for plastic bags, squeezy bottles Poly(propene) tough, strong, used for bottle crates, rope Poly(chloroethene) (PVC) durable, flexible, used for water pipes, insulation on electric wires, costumes, as a building material PTFE inert and non-stick properties so used as frying pan coating Polystyrene cheap and can be made into expanded polystyrene which is light and good insulator disposable cups, crash helmets Perspex transparent and strong so can replace glass E/Z Isomerism Atoms cant rotate around double bonds Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but a different arrangement in space Trans/E-isomer is when different groups are across double bond (opposite) Cis/Z-isomer is when same groups are both above or below double bond (together) Br higher priority than F CH3 higher priority than H Infrared Spectroscopy A beam of IR radiation is passed through sample of chemical which is absorbed by covalent bonds, increasing their vibrational energy Bonds between different atoms and bonds in different places in a molecule absorb different frequencies of IR radiation Fingerprint region (1000 to 1550 cm-1) identifies a molecule because it is unique to a particular compound