CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1Elements of Aerospace Structures

Aerospace structures is a multi-disciplinary field whose objective is to produce structures that meet all the requirements of a flying vehicle (or, in other words, actually build the airplane, rocket, etc.). The most important keyword is airworthiness or structural integrity. This means that the structure will not fail or be damaged under the mission requirements of the aircraft. The second keyword, which is perhaps more of a constraint, is lightweight. Excess weight can result in big penalties in the performance and fuel consumption of aerospace vehicles (as well as land-based ones, although the impact is less dramatic). As an example, it was shown in a PBS program on the development of the Boeing 777 that, once the first prototype had been finished, the aircraft was actually weighted to see if the design weight objective had been achieved. Had it not, Boeing would have had to pay the airline that placed the first order (United) a certain number of Dollars per pound of overweight, presumably to cover the higher operating expense. In another example [1], one pound of unnecessary structural weight in a long-range missile may add more than 200 lbs. to the weight of the missile. In summary, the objective of aerospace structural engineers is to produce the lightest airworthy vehicle. Figure 1.1 shows various elements that are part of aerospace structures and a few examples in each category. The figure is not exhaustive, but intended to present a rough idea of the variety of issues that are considered in aerospace structural design and of the knowledge needed to address them. The elements shown are: Load Analysis: Prior to designing a structure, the type and magnitude of the loads that need to be supported have to be established. Load analysis refers to the calculation of such loads based on the mission requirements of the aircraft. Materials: Every component of an aircraft needs to be made using some material. Many materials are available to the structural designer. Careful research and analysis needs to be carried out in order to make the best choices. Mechanics: Structures need to be designed according to sound mechanics principles to ensure safety and optimum performance. Mechanics provides the tools needed to conduct load and structural analysis.

Physical Factors: These are factors having to do with the physical response of the structure to loads. They influence the form and material choice of each structural member and of the structure as a whole. Constraints: This list includes constraints that are dictated by practical and economic issues. Construction: Several types of construction have been developed for light-weight structural applications, the most appropriate one for the application at hand should be chosen. By judicious considerations of loads, materials, etc. and using the tools of mechanics, the goal of designing an optimal aircraft structure that meets reasonable design objectives can be achieved. This process will likely involve iterations, symbolized by the circular arrow in the figure.

Figure 1.1: Various disciplines that support aerospace structural design. 1.2 Work of the Aerospace Structural Engineer Structural engineers have very important responsibilities in aircraft/spacecraft design and operation. Their main responsibility is to ensure the structural integrity of the flight vehicle while keeping the weight as low as possible. In order to produce a safe structure that is optimal, the work of the structures group in an aerospace organization involves [1]:

Applied load estimation: It is obvious that before sizing a structure, the loads that need to be carried must be determined. The load sources in flight vehicles are varied and include: aerodynamics forces, power plant thrust, inertia forces, control surface actuators, launching and landing events, armament, thermal loads, docking loads, etc. The results of the load analysis appear as reports with the load design criteria for the aircraft. Stress analysis: The objective of stress analysis is to specify the geometry (shape) and material for every structural member as well as for joints and connections required to assemble the structure. Structural dynamics: This subject involves the investigation of the response of the structure to vibration and shock, including aeroelastic phenomena such as flutter. Dynamic phenomena must be studied to determine its effects on the structure and how the structure should be modified to diminish these effects. Research: Progress in aerospace structures depends on continued research into analytical and experimental tools that may improve the accuracy of calculations, into new materials, into new structural concepts, etc. In other words, research leads the way for the development of new and improved air vehicle structures.

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of the course are: Present an overall, introductory view of the subject of aerospace structures and lightweight structures. Topics include: - Historical perspectives and case studies - Load analysis - Materials - Structural concepts - Aeroelasticity - Behavior of thin-walled beams - Fatigue - Buckling - Applications of simple mechanics in relevant examples Present simple structural theories that yield solutions amenable to hand calculations or simple computational procedures. Although most of the work in the field is now conducted using sophisticated computational tools, these will not be used in this course (if you are interested in computational methods in structures, you may want to consider taking UZB 318E, Finite Element Method, as one of your technical electives).