Leadership and Management in Small Businesses Research Paper

Outline In the 21st century era, small and large, private and public businesses are all aiming towards economic growth. However, this growth has slowed following emergence of unprincipled leaders whose main aim has been satisfaction of individual needs as opposed to their employees and customers. With such unethical practices, it is obvious that a strong impact has been witnessed in economic growth, which boils down to declining capital investments and unemployment for small businesses. Emergence of economic uncertainty can be traced back to WorldCom and e-business sector failure (Luthans, Luthans, Hodgetts, & Luthans 2001). Before the famous 9/11 attack, United States economy was already declining following increased unemployment and reduced consumer spending. This condition was further worsened by the 9/11 attack that resulted in increased uncertainty in economic change (Shaw & Shapiro 2002). These changes have challenged the need for leadership and management at all levels of business focusing on ensuring nothing but absolute success. For leadership and management to achieve these roles, there is need for redefinition from the commonly held perspective. Management and leadership are two terms that are commonly and differently used in small businesses and importantly in rejuvenating a dwindling economy. To some people, these terms are seen as synonyms and hence used frequently and interchangeably. From other perspectives, these words are perceived as two different business approaches. Those identifying these terms as extremes maintain the possibility of an individual being a bad manager and good leader simultaneously. Others have resided somewhere between the terms insisting that while management and leadership inherently presents two different business approaches, it is possible to navigate in both positions for a successful business. In modern business environment, businesses whether small or large- will importantly require effective managers and effective leaders if any operation is going to be regarded as successful. While some perspectives argue that their contributions to organizational success vary, it is conclusively understood that management and leadership will apparently contribute positively towards any business success. For the purpose of this article, management and leadership are understood differently. Whether utilized simultaneously or differently, many businesses will give a precise testimony of significant impacts that leadership and management have on any successful business. Therefore, the main objective here is not to evaluate how the two terms vary, but rather how they contribute to success of small business. This essay will hence understand the fundamental characterizations of management and leadership, the components of effective leadership and management in small scale businesses and their underlying theoretical perspectives. Ideally with appropriate training, it is possible for managers and leaders to develop a successful small scale business.

Leadership versus management

In any small scale business, adopting an entrepreneurial spirit is perceived as critical for economic growth, enterprise growth, and overall nation wellbeing. Therefore in these entrepreneurs, the passion is motivated towards ensuring development of businesses that will outline success. As this business is continually natured, the aim is providing the best services and products at friendly prices that can easily be afforded by their customers. Therefore, without even contemplating on what constitutes leadership and management, business developers embark on a journey that is entirely perceived to be geared towards the overall goal. Ironically, these business leaders or managers hardly possess appropriate expertise, background, and desire of managing their businesses in a

strategic manner. Leadership and management are important for success and hence if undermined, these businesses are likely to eventually fall or fail to achieve the overall objectives (Kouzes & Posner 2007). Kouzes and Posner (2007) understand leadership as a process that enables a group member to influence fellow members towards achieving a common goal. Further, the same authors explain that while indeed there exists various leadership styles, there are particular leadership components that will inherently exist in all these definitions. These varying definitions will undeniably agree that leadership is a process; it incorporates influence, involves attainment of a well labeled goal, and occurs in a group context. Hence, regardless of how leadership is operationalized, these aspects will undeniably play a contributing role in the utilized theory and definition of leadership. From a different perspective, Kouzes and Posner (2007) argue that management is understood from varying definitions. Conversely, this does not imply that both management and leadership roles cannot be held by one individual, but management is perceived to follow a definition quite different from leadership. Management definition incorporates supervisory, administrative, and executive direction of an organization or group. Therefore, management and leadership are perceived to share numerous similarities. For instance, going by the understanding of Gordon and Yukl (2004), both leadership and management are ways of impacting influence and collaborating with people for achievement of the overall goal. However, management and leadership fields can also be observed to be different. In Kotlers leadership theory, leadership is an old concept that has been employed in business for many centuries. Management on the other hand is a concept that has been developed over the last 100 years as a result of industrial transformation. Kotlers perspective is undeniably shared by many scholars when it comes to understanding leadership and management. For instance, according to theorists Nanus & Bennis as qtd. by Gordon & Yukl (2004), management is perceived to be an approach through which activities are accomplished in such a way that routines can be mastered. Leading hence implies influencing others and development of a vision through which change may be enhanced. Rost (Chemers, 2002) on the other side understands leadership as a relationship with multidisciplinary influence while management is perceived to be authoritarian leadership that is lined towards one direction. Chemers (2002) adds that leadership and management are two different business approaches that should be handled by different individuals. Moreover, an overlap exists in the two fields. For instance, when management activities are aimed at assisting employees to achieve organizational goals, this form of management is observed to be operating under leadership. As the leaders are involved in features such as organizing, planning, controlling, and staffing, they are observed to be operating under management. This is a simple indication that these two aspects will undeniably involve interchanging and similar roles and hence can hardly be fully isolated.

Literature review
In the United States, a larger section of economy is mainly centered on small businesses. In small businesses, leaders have used various approaches that have been employed to enhance organizational positioning in such a way that these business objectives and goals can be achieved (Howard, 2006). Based on the fact that economic condition has been a major concern, this market has witnessed a rapidly changing demand for small business. According to Pellerins (2007) perception, small businesses are individually owned and operated, hence hardly dominate in their field of operation. The last three decades have seen United States, among other global nations, witness a dominant development of small businesses (Kuratko, 2007). These small businesses have, in United States, resulted to the GDP growth by more than half, serving as a main source of job creation through incorporation of more than 50& of the workforce. Therefore from studies, it is apparent that when it comes to the economic growth, small businesses are hardly detachable. From the United States Census (2005) statistics, 13.3 million United States organizations were registered as small scale businesses by the year 2004. The small business

increase has come as a boost to economic growth and as a means of employment creation. Growth in small businesses has been linked to economic improvement and most importantly creation of new employment. According to Kurakto (2007), small business growth has been attributed to increased competition, profitability, and well framed organization goals. In order for these achievements to be enhanced, Kurakto (2007) has noted the importance of effective leadership. However, this has not always been the case because as earlier highlighted; poor leadership is inherent in many small businesses. Beaver (2003) and Perry (2001) affirms that one of the reasons for failure in much small business is simply because of poor leadership. Based on this understanding, Gordon and Yulk (2004) have mainly targeted their reteach in understanding important leadership skills that affect small scale environment. More than two decades ago, Beaver (2003) analyzed 200 small scale businesses that had recorded bankruptcy. From the study, it was clearly observed that the main reason behind failure of small business was management neglect, and lack of knowledge on leadership. Therefore, if these small businesses have to be successful, it is important to incorporate leadership styles. As Pellerin (2007) observes, the rate of failure in small businesses is high. This author observes that by the end of the third year, the rate of failure hits more than 62% in many small businesses. However, this study does not incorporate another burning issue: management incompetence. Scheers and Radipere (2007) add that within the first ten years of business operation, 90% of small business fail. These authors strongly agree that failure in these businesses is mainly caused by poor skills in management and leadership. As a result, for any economy to be successful, small business have to be competitive and productive (Beaver 2003). For any economic growth, the central role of small businesses can hardly be undermined. For these businesses, leadership and management skills should be understood as main steps towards increased returns. These skills are well incorporated in different theoretical perspectives. From various authors, leadership has been understood differently although there is a common agreement in these varying perspectives. Leadership has always been perceived to be a process through which one person is able to support and aid others to accomplish common tasks. Through leadership, a way is created through which contribution is enhanced by ensuring that extraordinary things are implemented (Pellerin 2007). In addition, if these leaders have to be successful, they should importantly portray internal control locus. Charismatic leadership Charisma in leadership is highlighted and defined in numerous ways. It is however perceived to be an exemplary character that is natured in an individual person. According to Kouzes and Posner (2007), charismatic leadership is perceived as a behavioral inclination of leaders that result in development of exceptionally strong relationship between leaders and their followers. For these charismatic leaders, Robbins and Coutler (2003) has highlighted three exceptional leadership characteristics which are; expression of high confidence, strong convictions, and dominance in their beliefs. The same authors also add that these charismatic leaders should be able to demonstrate optimism, determination and confidence, and collective ability of accomplishing mission and realizing the vision. These authors arguably add that these leaders are also required to engender trust as well as the ability to take personal risks to prove that their approach is indeed justified. Therefore, there is a high likelihood of charismatic leaders focusing to develop a clear and distinct group. Charismatic leadership has a high likelihood of being found in emerging and struggling small businesses than in stable and successful organizations. Emphasizing on the importance of this leadership, Kouzes and Posner (2007) have highlighted five important attributes that must be found in any leader to be categorized as charismatic. They are: (1) Articulation and vision; (2) Sensitivity to the needs of employees; (3) Personal risk taking; (4) Sensitivity to the business environment in which the business is operating; and (5) Execution of progressive behavior. Schermerhorn (2005) has summarized charismatic leaders as leaders or managers who are capable of sparking a sense of

belonging towards the business. In addition, these leaders have been able to inspire their employees towards a direction in which organizational objectives and goals may be achieved (Schermerhorn 2005). Transformational leadership According to Pryor et al. (2007), transformational leaders are able to impact movement and change in their organization. Such leaders are able to seek ways of altering the prevailing structure while ensuring that people are continuously convinced to support new responsibilities and vision. For the excellent transformational leaders, power and authority is utilized as motivational and inspirational tools to the people they follow and trust. This leadership is hence able to provide energy producing characteristics through which new changes are likely to be generated in a business. Furthermore, these leaders are capable of motivating followers to transcend their individual interests for other combined purposes while at the same time ensuring that these followers are assisted to increasingly satisfy their individual needs. Pryor et al. (2007) have revealed inner transformational leadership characteristics in small business. These characteristics are highlighted to be inclusive of honesty, integrity, and personal values. These characteristics are positively influential to the leaders behavior. For effective performance, a major ingredient is connection of transformational leadership with life experiences. This inner connection is combined with the resulting behaviors do develop external behaviors through which a business is transformed. For instance, a group vision is produced by a sense of personal involvement. Management models Conventionally, small businesses have been seen to have a low likelihood of utilizing strategic management models in comparison to large organizations based on a number of reasons. They are: (1) Small businesses are in most cases owned at the family level; (2) The leaders in small businesses are in most cases focused on daily operations thereby paying minimal-if any- attention to strategic management systems and management models; (3) Small businesses are mainly less endowed in financial resources that can comfortably be utilized in improving business performance through training; and (4) Competitors at their levels apply similar business approaches, without incorporation of any managerial models and implementation of systems through which improvement can be enhanced. Additionally, entrepreneurs involved in development of small business are hardly interested in development of procedures and processes. On the other side, large organizations obviously incorporate people with a clear understanding of management models by the time they have completed their studies in colleges. Moreover, these organizations have large amounts of finances that can resourcefully be allocated to training. Large scale businesses compete with large business opponents that are competitively and strategically driven. Strategic management approach This approach was initially developed by Toombs, White, and Pryor (1998) with a perception that small scale business leaders or managers incorporate strategic management elements in their business. This ideal incorporates the SWOT analysis together with the vision, mission, objectives, goals, values, competitive advantage, critical success factors, measurement, and feedback. Various theorists strongly insist that strategic management is an important aspect for a small business targeting enhancement of quality initiatives. Numerous authors have mostly insisted that as a result of incorporating various business theories, models, standards, tools, strategies, surveys, and training, it becomes possible for small businesses to be improved. These theorists mainly insist on the need for integrating quality initiatives into the organizations strategic management (Pryor et al. 2007). As a way of creating additional emphasis on this point, Chemers (2002) explain that total quality management must be linked to the strategy of a business because most strategies incorporate goals. Chemers also adds that TQM must be guided by a senior team in management and project selection must be based on their importance when it comes to achieving success in a business.

Robbins and Coulter (2003) supports the perception above. However, they argue that customer impact must be integrated with strategic management as a way of achieving the desired results. 5Ps model While strategic management theory is perceived to be a model that should be incorporated by business leaders for long term success and survival, this model hardly incorporates the 5Ps model that was established by Pryor (1998). The strategic management model and strategic direction establishment is perceived to be incorporated in one of the five rudiments that should importantly be adopted to enhance a business success. For pneumonic purposes, this business approach has mainly been referred to as Purpose. The remaining elements are performance, people, processes, and principles. The 5Ps model is perceived to have some elements that are similar to those found in strategic management model that has earlier been examined. However, these elements have additional importance besides their individual importance. Moreover, their alignment is perceived to be equally important.

Business leadership approaches

Trait approach to leadership Trait approach is developed from great man model as an approach through which key characteristics can be identified for successful leaders. This approach is centered on the perception that through this approach, it is possible for leadership approaches to be isolated. Therefore, individuals possessing such traits can be selected, recruited, and installed into the positions of leadership. This theory has resulted in development of numerous traits. After numerous years characterized with continuous research, it is apparently hard to identify consistent traits. Although some traits have been found in various studies, these studies results have been inconclusive. It is possible for some leaders to possess certain traits. However, in case these traits are not present in an individual, this is not sufficient reason to disqualify such a person as a leader. In order to qualify an individual as effective leader, various traits should be processed. Nevertheless, there is a high likelihood of some traits to be more frequently observed than others. Some of the commonly observed traits in an effective leader are inclusive of friendliness, technical skills, task motivation, supportiveness to group tasks, emotional control, social skills, intelligence, and general charisma. Behavioral leadership The trait studies results were not conclusive. The inconclusiveness is based on the perception that it is hard to measure traits amongst other things. For instance, it is hard to measure such traits such as integrity, diligence, loyalty, and honesty. This inconclusiveness is what has challenged development of behavioral model. In this model, the focus is based on human relationships alongside performance and output. In McGregors theory Y and theory X managers, it is observed that an average individual is more likely to develop an inherent work dislike and will make all efforts possible to avoid working. In theory X, it is observed that this individual characteristic is highly likely to provoke the need for controlling, coercing, or even threatening individuals if they are to be encouraged to make efforts required for organizational goal achievement. Theory X is also based on the perception that an average individual highly prefers being directed as a way of avoiding responsibility. In theory Y, the managers believe that mental or physical effort expenditure is as natural as rest and play. In addition, the managers believe that employees are likely to exercise self-control and self-direction as a way of achieving the objectives that define their commitment. Moreover, the ability of exercising high level of ingenuity, imagination, and creativity in organization problem solution is widely (as opposed to being narrowly) disseminated in the people and human being potentials. From this theory, it is possible to conclude that theory X leader is more drawn towards an autocratic approach while theory Y leader is more drawn towards a participative style.

In the managerial grid, developed through collaboration of Jane Mouton and Robert Blake, the focus has mainly been drawn to managers, employees (people), and task (production) orientation together with a combination of concerns between these two limits. Mouton and Brake model therefore suggest that team management, a major concern to production and employee, is the most effective leadership approach. Situational or contingency leadership approach to business Even as behavioral model is likely to assist management in a business when it comes to development of a specific leadership behavior, little guidance is given in understanding the constituents of effective leadership in varying situations. Undeniably, most modern researchers conclusively agree that indeed there exists no one appropriate leadership style for every manager under all settings. Therefore, development of contingency models was aimed at indicating that the utilized style is dependent upon such aspects as the people, the situation, and business among other surrounding variables. In contingency approach, it is understood that there hardly exists one specific approach through which managers can be able to lead. As a result of situations, varying leadership requirements are likely to be created for a leader. For this leadership situation, the solution is dependent on the factors affecting the situation. For instance, in a high routine environment characterized with repetitive tasks, a comparatively directive management approach it likely to yield best results. However, a more participative approach will be required in a dynamic environment.

Building a successful business

According to Howard (2006), business performance is perceived to be a multifaceted construct incorporating customer, operational, and financial oriented performance domains. The non-financial measures are inherent in Howard study. This performance measurement approach is incorporated as a result of limitation connected with small businesses financial data measurement. The satisfaction of the owners through performance of business is perceived to be one significant success indicators. Small business success is defined as performance level equal to or exceeding the firms owner expectations. The indicators that have mainly been employed in performance measurement are: profitability, annual earnings, and return on investments.

Standards of a small business

The small business standards have been developed by Chartered Quality Institute (CQI) (2007) in collaboration with the management consultants. This is a business model that is perceived to be important for managers targeting continuous growth in their business. Designing of the small business standards is aimed to be utilized in various investments that include small and medium size businesses, and micro businesses (CQI 2007). In the places where management term is utilized to imply micro business, it is likely to imply the proprietor. In the standard business model, there are nine main sections: (1) Customer care; (2) Business reviews; (3) Employees and staff; (4) management responsibility; (5) suppliers; (6) processes and work environment; (7) Correction and prevention of services complications; (8) Records; and (9) Documentation. While the standard is mainly perceived to be simplistic in comparison to the 5Ps model and Strategic management model, it incorporates numerous small business management key ingredients. Therefore for small businesses, it is likely to be a good starting point as the business moves towards management and improvement of its organization (CQI, 2007). In relation to the small businesses standards application, one British Standards Institute website has observed that it is possible for real business standards to be achieved by small scale businesses. If this approach is well utilized, it hence has a high likelihood of resulting in: (1) elimination of inefficiencies witnessed when it comes to allocation of already limited resources; (2) improvement of marketing speed and risk reduction; and (3) enhancement of an effective competition with bigger

businesses (British Standards Institute 2007). From the general leadership perspective, it is apparent that indeed success or failure in results production will mainly depend on leaders character. For these leaders to be viewed as effective, they have to be viewed as essential for the business success. However, the achievement of organizational success will not depend on adoption of similar leadership styles in all organizations. Nonetheless, these leaders will have an influential role on how the organizational goals are to be achieved by the employees in the organization. For this to be enhanced, small business leaders will require advanced understanding of the leadership styles to portray progress and development in achievement of organizational objectives and goals. With small business research, these leaders will be provided with understanding of leadership activities that are necessary for specific position if achievement of organizational objectives and goals is to be enhanced. These businesses will hence have to establish working environment for their business; this will be enhanced through leadership style. For organizational effectiveness, leadership will obviously have an important role. If employee empowerment will not be fulfilled in these organizations, there will be a high likelihood of employee dissatisfaction that will undeniably divert from achievement of organizational objectives and goals. Therefore, if a healthy working environment has to be maintained in these businesses, leadership should play an integral role. Conclusion Indeed the theoretical underpinnings evaluated in this article clearly demonstrate need for robust leadership existence in any small business. The failure of these businesses is indeed due to failure to adopt the necessary and fundamental requisites of a successful organization; effective leadership and management skills. This essay is very relevant; for instance in the current economic conditions that desperately require an influential intervention. Leadership hence should be trailed towards ensuring employee satisfaction and effectiveness as a way through organizational success and profitability will be enhanced. Consequently, robust leadership will eventually affect the success and profitability of small business. The way through which this will be enhanced is through incorporation of leadership and management theories analyzed in this essay. These leadership and management hence need to be employee motivation towards adaptation of organizational vision and mission. If these small organizations have to improve their operations, various leadership and management models should importantly be utilized. In fact, the strategic management should be integrated with effective leadership styles. Various models have been highlighted in this article and they are all important in enhancing business success. Although these models cannot be simultaneously used in business, any business striving towards a successful goal should ensure that it master a few which should act as guiding principles towards organizational success. References Beaver, G 2003, Small business: Success and failure, Strategic change, 12(3), 115-122. British Standards Institute 2007, The Small Business Guide to Making Standards Work, Retrieved March 13, 2009 from http://www.bsi-global.com/upload/Standards%20& %20Publications/WhitePapers/SmallBusinessGuide.pdf Chartered Quality Institute (CQI) 2007, Small business standard, Retrieved December 1, 2011 from http://www.thecqi.org/Documents/knowledge/small_business_standard.pdf. Chemers, M 2002, Cognitive, social, and emotional intelligence of transformational leadership: Efficacy and Effectiveness, Multiple Intelligences and Leadership, Reggie, RE., Murphy,SE., and Pirozzolo. FJ. (ed). Gordon, A., and G. Yukl, G 2004, The future of leadership research: Challenges and opportunities, Journal of Human Resource Research, 18, 359-365. Howard, L 2006, Small business growth: Development of indicators, Academy of Entrepreneurship

Journal, 12(1), 73-88. Kouzes, J., and Posner, B 2007, The Leadership Challenge, CA: Jossey Bass. Kuratko, F 2007, Entrepreneurial leadership in the 21st century, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 13(4), 1-11. Luthans, F., Luthans, M., Hodgetts, C. & Luthans, C 2001, Positive approach to leadership (PAL) implications for todays organizations, The Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(2), 3-20. Pellerin, H 2007, Why small businesses fail and what you can do to avoid the statistics, Home Business Articles. Retrieved December 1,2011 from http://www.salespreneuredge.com. Perry, C 2001, The relationship between written business plans and the failure of small businesses in the U.S, Journal of Small Business Management, 39, 201-209. Pryor, M., White, J., & Toombs, L 1998, Strategic Quality Management: A Strategic, Systems Approach to Quality, Thomson Learning. Pryor, M, Anderson, D, Toombs, L, & Humphreys, J 2007, Strategic implementation as a core competency: The 5Ps model, Journal of management Research, 7(1): 3-17. Robbins, S, & Coulter, M 2003, Management, 7th edition, Prentice-Hall. Scheers, L, & Radipere, S 2007, Why are so many managers not managing? African Journal of Business Management, 1(4): 85-89.

Literature Review: Graduate Recruitment and Selection

Recruitment and selection forms the foundation of the core activities and processes underlying human resource management and such activities include the acquisition, training and development, and rewarding performance of workers (Gilmore, and Williams, 2009). The success and sustainability of most organizations is directly proportional to skills and competencies of the employees. Equally, the entry point into any organization is dependent on the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection practices of the hiring team within the organization. In light of this, competition in the UK employment market has increased tremendously over the past few decades. This can be attributed to the inability of the employment market to absorb the growing pool of graduates from institutions of higher learning. According to Mohamed Branine, (2008, p. 497), graduate recruitment is one of the leading and toughest challenges facing the majority of potential employers. Mohamed (2008) argues that the causes of this phenomenon can be in part due to the complexities associated with the selection of the most qualified individuals and as well, due to the availability a several graduates in different disciplines from Ivy League institutions. To that purpose, the demand for quality graduates will remain highly competitive the most advantaged recruiters will be those with strong recruitment policies, coupled with exceptional training and development policies. In some instances, financial abilities of potential recruiters will play a substantial role in future graduate recruitment and selection processes. Varied researches and studies have been carried out and written up regarding the aspect of graduate recruitment, the attitudes of graduates, and the attitudes of recruiters with respect to choosing their employers, and as well, the perceptions of graduates towards their formative years in the employment sector. Covered in past researches also includes the influences of management executives on recruiting activities, the strategies and methods used to conduct and communicate information regarding the recruitment process, and reliability and accuracy of the recruiting tools and instruments. Much of this research has, however, concentrated on different aspects within the recruitment and selection process in different organizations across the work.

Scope of this Literature Review

In setting the context for the research undertaken in this paper, this research limits itself to the discussion of graduate recruitment and selection process in the United Kingdom. It aims to cover the gap that existed in previous researches that have been covered and written up on the field of graduate recruitment and selection process by limiting the aspect of generalizations and concentrating on particular aspects. To that purpose, it will define the concept of graduate recruitment, examine the changes and types in the strategies and methods of graduate recruitment and selection used in UK-based organizations, and identify the reasons behind the variations in the changes and developments. Additionally, this literature review will examine graduate recruitment tools and mechanisms applied in various recruitment processes, and as well, highlight particular aspects that interest employers or recruiters during the graduate recruitment process (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). Finally yet important, the literature review will provide a consistent conclusion based on the analysis of the graduate recruitment and selection process in the UK and possibly offer recommendations regarding future researches in general, and the graduate recruitment and selection process in particular. In this literature review, the term graduate is used to refer to both undergraduate (bachelors degree) and postgraduate (Masters degree) holders from recognized institutions of higher learning such as college or university. Therefore, any reference made herein referring to graduates will be referring to applicants holding either an undergraduate degree or a postgraduate degree. Majority of individuals in these categories is prepared to handle the complexities associated with diverse forms of employment and work. Simply put, their institutions equipped them with the requisite knowledge and skills required in the employment market.

Graduate Recruitment and Selection

Graduate recruitment and selection forms an essential part in the central activities underlying the management of human resources within many organizations. These activities include the acquisition of talent, training and developing the talent, and eventually rewarding the performance of the acquired talent. As such, the recruitment and selection process forms an integral part of the works undertaken by human resource management and other specialists involved in the graduate and recruitment process. According to Mohamed Branine (2008, p. 500) graduate recruitment and selection process refers to the process of searching for and obtaining potential job applicants from graduates in sufficient quantity and quality so that potential employers can select the most suitable candidates to fill in their job vacancies (p. 500). Universally, there is commonly accepted strategy or commonly agreed procedure of recruiting and selecting graduates due to the different recruiting needs and selection methods among many employers. The differences and variations in recruiting and selection methods among employers are dependent on the operations, size, and needs (Sackett & Lievens, 2008). The graduate recruitment and selection process is structured in such a manner that it involves planned rational activities comprising of particular sequentially linked phases within the employee resourcing process. Graduate recruitment and selection process comprises of two aspects that can be broken down to its constituent parts. Having defined graduate to refer to undergraduate and postgraduate degree holders, the terms recruitment and selection can be defined as separate constituent parts. Recruitment entails the process of generating a pool of capable people who qualify to apply for employment positions in certain organizations. On the other hand, selection refers to the process of whereby managers and recruiting officials utilize specific instruments to choose particular individuals from a pool of applicants in which a person or persons are more likely to succeed in that particular job position and this is mainly dependent on the goals of management and respective legal requirements. Raybould, and Sheedy, (2005, p. 63) posit that, however the two functions (recruitment and selection) are closely connected, each function calls for the application of different sets of skill and expertise, and they are fulfilled different members within the hiring process. As

such, the recruitment activity can be outsourced to outside agencies but the selection cannot be outsourced and this explains the reason as to why it is advantageous to treat the two items separately. Speaking of the roles, the recruitment and selection process plays a pivotally important role in any organization as far as shaping the performance and effectiveness is concerned. For instance, if organizations are capable of acquiring workers with the requisite skills, knowledge, and aptitudes, then, it becomes obvious that these organizations are capable of making accurate predictions regarding the future abilities of the selected employees/workers. This premise suggests that following an effective and efficient strategy in recruiting and selecting workers enables organizations to avoid undesirable costs such as high staff turnover costs, poor performance among workers, and dissatisfied customers (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). Eventually, it engenders a mutually beneficial employment relationship within the organization and it can be evidenced by increased commitment among the involved workers. To this purpose, the recruitment and selection process forms an integral part in the organizational process of leading and managing people and the recruitment and selection process is increasingly important in the strengthening of competitive advantage within that organization.

The UK Graduate Recruitment and Selection

The objective of this review is to examine and uncover the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection process among UK-based organizations. As noted, graduate recruitment and selection process forms an essential part in the central activities underlying the management of human resources within many organizations (Gilmore, and Williams, 2009). These activities include the acquisition of talent, training and developing the talent, and eventually rewarding the performance of the acquired talent. Mohamed (2008, p. 497), even though the number of individuals entering the higher education market has doubled over the past two decades, many an employer still find it difficult to recruit the type of employees that fulfill their hiring needs and requirements. The list of desirable qualities among employers has become sophisticated desirable qualities from job applicants. The Association of Graduate Recruiters reports recruitment and hiring agencies receive thousands of applications from graduates, but the employers still find it difficult to find the applicants who meet their quality. Could there be a problem with the recruiting and selection process? Do graduate applicants fail to fulfill the hiring needs, qualities, or qualifications? These are examples of questions that need answers in order to understand the reasons as to why employers still find it difficult to get the right candidates for their jobs (Shiona, 2010). Despite the availability of limited vacancies, potential employers have had to cope with increased volumes of job applicants. Mohamed (2008) argues that employers in the UK search for graduates, who are capable of adding value to their economic strength and well, enhance their reputation. Employers often recruit workers whom they can train and develop in order to utilize their skills and knowledge (Roberts, 2005). Nevertheless, what does it take to be a good graduate? What processes do employers use to identify good graduates? Another important revelation of the recruitment and selection process within the UK job industry is the relationship between the employment (graduate) labor market and the higher education sector. While higher education is supposed to nurture and prepare graduates for the job market by enhancing knowledge and learning, it is not their duty to secure employment opportunities for the graduands. This can be attributed to the fact that the higher education market is responsible for preparing graduates to fit the needs of different employment sectors thereby making it difficult to provide training to specific individuals. An exploratory study by Carless (2007) revealed that institutions of higher learning play critical roles in ensuring efficiency and efficacy among graduates. Studies by Silvester, Anderson, Haddleton, Cunningham-snell, and Gibb (2000, p. 16) points out that the graduate recruitment and selection process in the UK has undergone tremendous changes in the recent past and the majority of such changes entail the streamlining of selection procedures to reduce costs. Among the highly adopted strategies are the use virtual selection

methods such video interviews, telephones, and internet means. Traditionally, organizations in the UK recruiting industry found it a lot easier to recruit candidates that from the list of job applicants given that the majority of applicants accepted any form of job offering (Mohamed, 2008, p. 498). In the contemporary UK job market, thousands of applicants can apply for vacant job positions but it becomes a difficult task to recruit the ideal candidate. This can be attributed to the different trends and developments that have occurred in the recruitment and selection methods. Increased competition among graduate employers, technological advancements, and socio-economic and political changes are other factors that have led to complexities in the recruitment and selection processes. Keenan (2005) postulate the recruitment and selection process in the UK follows a sequential process referred to as the resourcing cycle.

Resourcing cycle of the recruitment and selection process

As earlier mentioned, the recruitment and selection process follows some defined sequences characterized by distinct and inter-linked stages. These sequences are referred to as the resourcing cycle of the recruitment and selection process. This cycle begins when graduates identify an available vacancy and ends when the selected candidate lives up to the expectation of the case by performing to the required standards. To graduate, the organization is a prospective employer while to the organization the candidate is evaluated to fill the vacancy (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). In order to ensure that best candidates are selected to a particular post, it is forcefully crucial that the recruitment and selection process be handled in a timely and professional manner characterized by effectiveness and efficiency. The first step of the recruitment and selection process entails the announcement of a vacant position within an organization. This move is subject to thorough decision-making by members of the management regarding the strategic impacts within their organization (Tineke, & Maddy, 2008). At times, situations exist where a vacant position resulting after an employee leaves are organization is replaced with automated machines. If the decision is made that, the vacant position requires to be filled, job specifications are drawn down to reflect the duties and requirements needed for that job in addition to requisite skills, experiences, and personal attributes. The next step involves the process of attracting candidates in order to produce a large pool of applicants from where the ideal candidate will be selected. Many a times this function of the recruitment and selection process is often outsourced to recruiting and hiring agencies in order to eliminate the number of unsuitable candidates applying for the vacant position. The third step is the resourcing cycle that entails shortlisting the number of candidates to a manageable level whereby it will be easy to make an employment decision (Tineke & Maddy, 2008). The selection process generates an optimum number of job seekers and the majority of applicants are rejected during this stage. Many things happen during this stage because the recruitment tools and strategies are applied during this stage including interviews, face-to-face meetings, and other forms of communicating the selection procedure. Once the recruiting tools and methods have been utilized, recruitment decisions are made and the actual selection is made. Nonetheless, the selection process does not mark the end of the job recruitment and selection exercise because their abilities and capabilities to perform the allotted job to maximum cannot be ascertained. To avoid uncertainties regarding the capabilities of selected individuals, a probationary period is imposed whereby the performance and potential of employees is assessed and evaluated. This period marks the transition period or the post selection phase where the selected employees are inducted and integrated into the organization. This is a critical process because the selected candidates are taught several issues relating to the organization such as the organizational culture, normal routines, and ethical processes within the organization. The final stage under the resourcing cycle is the evaluation of the entire post-selection process and conducting a reflection of the lessons learnt from the entire process and as well, suggesting future implications.

Statistics of Variations in Recruitment and Selection methods

According to survey findings undertaking to determine the causes of variations in recruitment methods used by employers in UK each year, 91 per cent of employers and potential graduate recruits preferred the internet as the ideal method for large organizations (Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Closely behind the internet at 89 per cent was the use of career literature such as Prospects, Prospects Today, and GET directory ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Other methods such as milk rounds and career fairs were less popular after the survey findings estimated its popularity at 45 per cent each while recruitment agencies was the least popular at 15 per cent (Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Similarly, the survey also considered the cause of variations in terms of selection methods used by employers in the UK graduate recruitment and selection industry (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). From the survey, the use of CVs and Cover letters was mostly preferred by small and medium-sized employers while the use of assessment centers and aptitude tests were less preferred by most employers (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). Shortlisting of respondents before inviting them for the interview was also revealed as one of the commonly used selection methods (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). In situations where interviews were conducted, a combination of both single and panel interviews was used with variations in compositions of members in the interviewing panel ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). Speaking of reasons for the variations in recruiting and selection methods among the graduates, accuracy and relevancy of the selection and recruitment methods seemed to be the overriding factor ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). To that purpose, employers cited the employer application form as being the most accurate and reliable method for assessing the characteristics and qualities of potential employees ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). This can be attributed to fact that employer application forms provided high levels of accuracy when gathering information, assessing the companys competencies, and as well, in simplification of the selection process ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). In terms of cost saving, the CV and covering letter provided the highest cost saving levels due to the ease of sending and in providing more information. Equally noteworthy was the use of interviews in gathering crucial but first information about the applicants. The two-interaction, fairness, ability to fill gaps left by other forms, and the ease of validation were cited as the factors that promoted the use of interviews in the selection process (Mohamed, 2008, p. 508).

Types of Graduate Recruitment and Selection Methods

Milk Round This recruitment method involves the process of conducting annual recruitment programs during career fairs different institutions of higher learning whereby potential employers and companies converge to give public lectures, presentations, and as well meet and/or interview final year students. This strategy was immensely popular in the UK some two decades ago before the expansion and development of the information age. Additionally, companies advertise and promote the available employment opportunities directly to the participating students. Many a time, the associated companies involved in these milk rounds had periodic graduate trainee programs that were specifically developed and designed to absorb fresh graduates, train them, and provide the requisite exposure to issues relating to the business world. Career services such as university outreach programmes and linkages were responsible for organizing the trade fairs in liaison with particular companies. However, this method slowly lost its popularity due to technological advancements and increased use of the internet. Most companies have created web-based recruitment strategies such as CV databases, job boards, and recruiting agencies. Companies have even gone to an extent of using the internet for job advertising, filling online application forms, and even conducting online tests such aptitude tests (Mohamed, (2008, p.500). Employee Referrals The current employees within the organization can act as a rich source of providing linkages to

potential recruits. They might be hold vital information about graduates who can match the available position within the organization and such individuals might not be in a position of responding to normal recruitment methods (Shiona, 2010). This can be attributed to the fact that most of such employees might be occupied in other jobs and might not be actively searching for job placements. However, they might be enticed to look for other available employment opportunities if the right opportunity presents itself along the way. Such a strategy can be encouraged by offering bonuses to employees who provide leads through referrals. Recruitment Brochures, Magazines, and Print Media This involves the use of graduate recruitment literature such as GET Directories, and Prospects of the UK because these brochures are direct targets for most graduates. Organizational recruitment brochures are also availed to participants during graduate recruitment fairs. Other forms that still increasingly in use by prospective employers and companies include advertisement in local dailies and newspaper whereby job adverts are placed on the adverts and targets potential applicants due to the increased velocity of their circulation and area of coverage. Advertisements Although it can be related to the above-mentioned forms of job recruitment methods and techniques, advertisements forms an ideal method that is increasingly utilized by employers to market their job vacancies and openings. Adverts are often placed on local newspapers, and online platforms. Majority of adverts are found on job websites because job seekers frequently visit such websites. Job Databases This involves maintaining a job filling system or job database for prospective employers using resumes and CVs that have been collected over extended periods. Such CVs and Resumes might have been collected from career fairs, manual deliveries, and as well from the companys mail system. Once a job opening avails itself within the organization, the people responsible for recruiting services visit the database and select potential employees from the available list. Employment Agencies Recruiting agencies specialize in the provision of job recruitment initiatives whereby they screen job applicants and subject them to tests relative to the positions they have applied based on their skills and qualifications. The costs of utilizing services from the recruiting agency might be high but they offer the best services in terms of selecting the ideal candidates for particular positions (Roberts, 2005). The long-term rewards are often advantageous to the hiring organization. Internal Recruiting This recruitment method is one of the most essential strategies of filling up available vacancies because the current employees within an organization can be suited to fill up positions that have opened up within their organizations. This employee matching strategy reduces the costs associated with other traditional hiring methods. Hiring employees from within enable a company to obtain increased value in terms of employee relation benefits. Equally noteworthy is the idea that hired employees from within often demand lower compensation as compared to hiring employees from external sectors. Lastly, internal recruiting enables companies to decrease their expenditure turnovers through the provision of advancement opportunities for existing employees. Career and Recruitment Fairs Career and recruitment fairs are often ideal places for promoting entry-level jobs for fresh graduates and as well, for this individuals willing to change their jobs. Responsible organs within many universities in conjunction with respective companies organize majority of recruitment and career fairs. Such places are also ideal for enabling potential employers to collect CVs and resumes to be used in future vacancies.

Graduate Recruitment mechanism/tools

The mechanisms used to select graduates for varies positions from one recruiter to the other and it depends on the type of job being offered. Commonly used mechanisms and tools include face-toface interviews, internet, agencies, and tests, among others. Face-to-face Interviews This is the most commonly used recruitment strategy among many employers in the graduate recruitment and selection process within the UK. Job applicants are required to appear before a panel of interviewers whereby general assessment is undertaken. Among the aspects examined during the interview is verification of the originality of documents and testimonials, crossexamining the application to find out the reasons and interests for applying the job, gauging his/her awareness and knowledge concerning matters within the industry. During specific interview sessions, the interviews are technically focused on the examination of particular details regarding the position, job description, and personality traits. The applicant is subjected to a series of questions and tests to determine different capabilities and levels of sustenance for the interviewee (Gill, & Banks, 1978). Follow-up questions are often directed to applicants to probe deeply into more details about the applicant including his special skills, points of difference, and qualifications. Recruitment Agencies Recruitment agencies are gaining increased popularity within the UK job industry particularly in the search of graduates and executive talent. This mechanism is one of the most expensive mediums irrespective of whether an organization uses the retainer or the contingency firm. Recruiting agencies specialize in the provision of job recruitment initiatives whereby they screen job applicants and subject them to tests relative to the positions they have applied based on their skills and qualifications. Recruitment agencies are experienced in matching the qualifications of candidates faster than the speed with which other organizations are capable of achieving (Roberts, 2005). Most recruiting agencies have job databases with details of thousands of applicants in addition to having a wider access to potential employees. Similarly, they have greater access to the criteria needed by the hiring companies. Online Application The internet is one of the fastest and cheapest mechanisms of recruiting workers when compared to other traditional methods of recruiting workers. Organizations wishing to recruit workers often post their jobs to internet sites for a modest period where they remain available 24-hours a day. Potential job applicants will be able to view the detailed information about the job opening and position being advertised and send their responses through electronic means. Organizations will be able to screen the applications by assessing the experience of applicants, their skills, and qualifications, and matching them with the skills required in that particular job. Due to advancements in technology, online screening processes and systems are capable of performing automatic filtering of applications send to the receiving mail. This mechanism often enables the organization to filter large volumes of job applications sent to the company. Psychometric Testing This hiring mechanism is often conducted by qualified staff and involves subjecting applicants a wide range of tests. To that purpose, psychometric testing covers varied abilities of applicants include personality profiling, ability testing, and aptitude testing. Such tests often involve two levels-A and B (Sackett, and Lievens, 2008). The first level involves aptitude testing and ability testing whereas the second level B involves personality profiling. Aptitude tests and ability tests covers a wide range of aspects that include mechanical abilities, numerical ability, verbal ability, general intelligence, sensory. and motor abilities. This strategy often allows feedback to be offered to participants. Personality profiling involves testing particular behaviors of applicants by subjecting them to things that might affect their suitability for some posts (Sackett, and Lievens,

2008). Presentations and group exercises Presentations involve giving applicants a particular topic and asking them to deliver a presentation on that topic within a given period. On the other hand, group exercises encompass the division of applicants into particular groups and selecting a role-play or discussion from where every member of the group will be expected to contribute. At the end of the exercise, the group should be in a position of coming up with a meaningful project to enable them to acquire marks.

Interests of employers
The interests of employers during the graduate recruitment and selection process vary from employer to employer, and depend on the type vacancy. Within these factors are varied aspects such as skills, qualifications, knowledge, experience, organizational capabilities, team spirit, and resilience, among others. To this purpose, graduates should prepare extensively when called for interviews by being committed to the needs and requirements of the recruitment and selection process. Any misunderstanding should be communicated in advance. According to survey findings from Mohamed (2008, p. 508), employers expectations varied depending on the size and nature of operations within the organization (p. 508). Good transferable skills was more preferred to having excellent academic grades. As such, only 21 per cent of respondents argued that the level of degree qualification was more important as compared the degree subject. However, a large percentage (87 per cent) stated that the degree classification was more important than other factors.

Summary of the Review

The graduate recruitment and selection process in the United Kingdom has undergone various changes over the past few decades and this is likely to bring an impact to future recruitment and selection processes. This can be attributed to the inability of the employment market to absorb the growing pool of graduates from institutions of higher learning. The demand for quality graduates will remain highly competitive the most advantaged recruiters will be those with strong recruitment policies, coupled with exceptional training and development policies. Traditionally, organizations in the UK recruiting industry found it a lot easier to recruit candidates that from the list of job applicants given that majority of applicants accepted any form of job offering (Mohamed, 2008, p. 498). In the contemporary UK job market, thousands of applicants can apply for vacant job positions but it becomes a difficult task to recruit the ideal candidates. Currently, the most commonly used strategies in graduate recruitment and selection methods includes milk rounds, career fairs, advertisements, recruitment brochures, magazines, and print media, employer referral, job databases, and employment agencies. Equally, the methods used to facilitate these strategies include face-to-face interviews, recruitment agencies, online application, and psychometric testing. To this purpose, graduates should prepare extensively when called for interviews by being committed to the needs and requirements of the recruitment and selection process. Reference List Carless, S.A., 2007. Graduate Recruitment and Selection in Australia. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol.15 Iss. .2, p.153-166 Gill, J.D.H. Banks, 1978, Assessment of Management Potential in Graduate Recruitment, Personnel Review, Vol. 7 Iss: 3, pp.56 61 Gilmore, S. and Williams, S. 2009, Human Resource Management, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Keenan, T. 2005. Graduate recruitment in Britain: A survey of selection methods used by

organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 16 No. 4, 303-317 Mohamed Branine, 2008 Graduate recruitment and selection in the UK: A study of the recent changes in methods and expectations, Career Development International, Vol. 13 Iss: 6, pp.497 513 Raybould, J., and Sheedy, V. 2005, Are graduates equipped with the right skills in the employability stakes? Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 37 No. 5, pp. 259-63. Roberts, G. 2005, Recruitment, and Selection, 2nd ed., Chartered Institute of Professional Development, London. Sackett, P.R. and Lievens, F. 2008, Personnel selection, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 59, pp. 419-50. Shiona C., 2010 Degrees of fit? Matching in the graduate labor market, Employee Relations, Vol. 32 Iss: 2, pp.156 170 Silvester, J., Aderson, N., Haddleto, E., Cunningham-Snell, N., and Gibb, A. 2000. A Cross- Modal Comparison of Telephone and Face-to-Face Selection Interviews in Graduate Recruitment International Journal of Selection and Assessment. Vol. 8. No. 1. Pp.16-21 Tineke C, & Maddy J, 2008. Global managers career competencies, Career Development International, Vol. 13 Iss: 6, pp.514 537

Personal Essay on When I Function the Best

When Do You Function the Best?
There are people who function best in the evening or even at night, but I just dont understand them. Being an early riser, around 9 oclock in the evening I cant think about anything except for reading a book in my bed for about half an hour and falling asleep. For me the most productive time is after about an hour or two after I wake up, and this productive state can last for different periods of time, depending on my work load and general mood. And I think that this order of events in my day is only natural, as after a good night sleep peoples brain is ready for new adventures and challenges. Besides, I enjoy getting up early in the morning, eating my breakfast and leaving home when the streets are not so crowded yet, but are appealing due to their subtle magic and special atmosphere. I love my city so much and just dont understand those people who consider it to be overcrowded and, thus, depressing. To my mind, they simply dont understand its essence and spirit. If they would at least once try to get up early and watch this beauty, they would forget about all their complaints and maybe even start to look at things in a different, more positive way. I almost always have very productive and saturated days, as I am an active and energetic person with many interests and ideas. And in the evening I know that the best activity for me is falling asleep as soon as my face touches the pillow. Thus, I just dont understand people who feel depressed and out of mood during the day, but in the evening start some important activities. Of course, there are so many people, and there cannot be two identical people and preferences, but I feel a little bit sorry for night people. They still have to work at the day time, which doesnt make them content at all. I am happy that I am not one of them.

Exploratory Essay on Why People Are Superstitious

Why Are People Still Superstitious?
Despite the fact that science is developing by leaps and bounds, the majority of people still have certain superstitions. Why is it so? I think that it is one of many interesting peculiarities of our mind and psychology, which are hard to explain, but still exist. To my mind, people are superstitious, because they dont like tranquility, though always complain that they want it more than everything. If they dont have something to grumble about, they are not truly happy, as it seems to them that their life is incomplete. Of course, it is true of not all the people, but there are many who suit this description. To tell you the truth, I dont like such people, as they dont know how to be happy in this life and usually dont achieve much. For them superstition is a kind of hobby. As for the other people who believe in superstitions, especially those who are young, I think that they do it just for fun and as a tribute to their parents, who taught them to knock on wood, avoid black cats and read horoscopes. On the whole, I think that superstitions are a way of peoples entertainment and everything here is based on self-persuasion. If you believe that you will have unfortunate day because of a black cat, you will have it due to your belief, but not because of the animal. As for me, I believe only in some of superstitions just because it is fun. In the majority of cases, I just like listening to stories about superstitious people, as it is interesting how far they can go in their beliefs despite scientific and technological progress.

Informal Essay on My Advice to Freshmen

My Advice to Freshmen
So, youve decided to enter college and succeeded to do it thats great! I hope that you are proud of yourself, as youve done a great job and so much is waiting for you in future! In this essay I want to present a couple of useful tips that will make your adaptation to college life easier and more pleasant. First of all, you had better forget the order of life that is familiar to you from school. In college no one will force you to study if you dont want to. But in case you dont study, you will just get expelled and will lose a considerable amount of time. But is it what you strived for? I dont think so. In the beginning the overall situation in college will seem strange for you, but the most important thing here is not to get lost and not to get scared. The initial stage of adaptation is hard whenever you change it significantly; thus, you can consider college to be your first adaptation rehearsal. Always ask questions; especially ask your professors so as not to make extra mistakes. In this way your teachers will see your desire to study and they will definitely like it. As for your classmates, they will also perceive it in the right way if you are self-confident enough to explain them who you are and why you want to study. On the whole, self-confidence is one of the main traits of character, without which a person just cannot achieve anything worthwhile in his life. But dont worry if you dont feel in this way when entering college. I am sure that this trait will be properly trained in the course of your studying here.

On balance, I want to say that life at college can become really unforgettable, if you find the right balance between studying, hanging out and self-improvement. With all of this under your belt you will be ready for your future more important stages and will face them prepared.

Learning Foreign Language from an Early Childhood Is It Good or Bad?

The more I read about learning foreign language from a very early age, the more I think about whether it is necessary at all. You can come across two totally different opinions: kids do or do not need it, it is good or bad for them, it does or does not make sense. In my opinion, the answer to these questions is absolutely up to a certain family with its own rules, traditions and desires. You can but agree that there are no identical families. Some of them consist of people with higher education only and have a lot of various interests, while the others lie on the couch all day, watching TV series and popular shows. For some families travelling is the inseparable part and even meaning of life, but the others barely get out of home on weekends. Some spend all the free time learning about different cultures and are happy to meet different people, while others run away from everyone who thinks and looks different than them. Id be very surprised if the family where both parent had studied and spoke foreign language didnt let their kid learn second language from childhood. Most likely they will seek to do it or at least want to. The family where no one ever spoke foreign language will most likely have the opposite opinion and will definitely have their reasons for it.

The Comedy of Errors

The Comedy of Errors was written in early 1590ies and is considered to be one of William Shakespeares earliest plays. Being both the shortest and the most farcical, the play is characterized by unusual for Shakespeare humorous devices, as the humor mainly comes from slapstick and mistaken identity, as well as from traditional for him puns and play on words. The Comedy of Errors is one of very few plays in the creative heritage of Shakespeare which observes the classical unities of time, place and action. The latter can probably be explained by the fact that the basis for it was taken from two Roman comedies. The play is the story of two sets of identical twins that were accidentally separated at birth. Antipholus of Syracuse and his servant, Dromio of Syracuse, arrive in Ephesus, which is the home of their twin brothers, Antipholus of Ephesus and his servant, Dromio of Ephesus. When the Syracusans encounter the friends and families of their twins, a series of strange and unusual misunderstandings based on mistaken identities lead to wrongful fights and adultery, which almost happens, the arrest of Antipholus of Ephesus, and accusations of infidelity, theft, insanity. For centuries, scholars considered The Comedy of Errors to be the work of a slightly superficial nature. It was often stated that Shakespeare created the light comedy, making it much less serious than his histories, tragedies or later comedies. Recent research, however, used a different approach. They consider the play to be a series of social relationships, such as master-servant, husband-wife, parent-child, native-alien, buyer-seller and monarch-parliament, which, if rooted in a Roman past, acquire special significance in the transition to early modernity that constantly guides Shakespeares drama.

The Merchant of Venice Critical Essay

The Merchant of Venice is one of the best-known plays of William Shakespeare. Its genre is traditionally defined as a comedy, however, the tragedy of the key character gives the possibility to call it a drama. The plot of the play is not original. Shakespeare actually used an Italian short story by the unknown writer. Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to marry Portia. He asks his friend Antonio for some money. Antonio agrees, but he is short of cash. He promises to cover a bond, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock. Shylock hates Antonio and proposes a condition for the loan: if Antonio is unable to repay it at the specified date, he may cut out a pound of Antonios flesh. Bassanio gets the money, wins the love of Portia and gets married. Unfortunately, Antonios ships are reported lost at sea, so he cannot satisfy the bond. Shylock has Antonio arrested and brought before court. However, Portia as a lawyer manages to protect Antonio and accuse Shylock of an attempt to kill a citizen of Venice. Shylock is made to convert to Christianity and give Antonio half of his wealth. Traditional for that time interpretation of the story about a bad Jew was changed by Shakespeare into a new type of the social conflict of global character, which is actually represented as one that cannot be solved historically. The author does not simply depicts the villain of a different faith, he makes the reader feel the two worlds of different religions and social and ethical systems Christianity and Judaism. The key feature of the play which makes it up-to-date even now is that the author does not try to prove one system to be right and the other one wrong and does not try to find the perfect ethical point of view, he just investigates how the mechanisms of different moral and religious positions correlate in modern life.

Why Do We Need to Make Education Compulsory

We dont need no education,- everyone knows that Pink Floyd song. Basically it tells us about how education system ruins you personality. However, lets not be so radical first and think about good sides of education. First of all, it actually educates us. It gives us basic knowledge of important subjects and teaches us how to do usual things. Due to the fact that normally children are taught in groups, educational system helps them to learn how to interact with each other and to understand basics of the art of communication. To my mind, these two functions can not be underestimated when we talk about children as full-fledged members of society. Now let us not forget that people come from different backgrounds. Some of them are far from what is considered regular. So, children, raised in specific circumstances only, have no other choice but become inconsequent. There are different displays of that starting from extremely religious community and ending with what we all know as Ghetto. Of course, we can say that we are open minded enough to accept all kinds of people. But lets be honest with ourselves: the further one go from standards, the harder it is for him to adjust in society. If a child wants to stand out in an extravagant way, it should be his own choice, but not the one of the community that raised him. And the task of education system is to show him the regular way. As to me, the main reason educational system should be made compulsory all around the world is because it can even everybody and give them relatively same chances to reach their goals.

Bad News is Easy to Sell

Every day we receive tons of information from different sources. The ones we trust most come from mass media of course. Reading morning paper while eating breakfast or watching TV during the dinner is a common thing. So, what is the main news our eye catches? Here is a report on plane crash victims. What else? A serial killer hasnt been found yet. And for the tenth time we read some horrifying details on how the whole town was swept away with a hurricane. It seems like there is nothing much to read about. Even the yellow papers give us the most nasty and definitely unnecessary details on celebrities personal dramas. Well, if you take a closer look, there are a lot of positive things worth finding out. Still, for some reason they are not so interesting and do not excite peoples imagination so much. Thus, the balance between good and bad news we consume is far from being even. The demand determines supply, and mass media do not work for free. On the contrary, some of them are the biggest market players. It is not hard to come to the conclusion that what they let us know is actually what we want to pay for. Media is a very clear mirror for each communitys state of mind. So, before complaining on how frightening every other newspaper issue is, let us ask ourselves, why do we want to buy them? Not everybody can say it out loud, but Im sure each one has his own reason. Psychologists say that hearing about other peoples fails makes us feel better deep inside, because we realize that it all could have happened with us, but didnt. I think the reasons for such great amount of bad news have very similar origin human mentality. Until we have that planted on the ground of market relations, bad news will be easy to sell.

Atoms for Peace?

The discovery of the nuclear energy in the twentieth century is one of the most ambiguous scientific achievements in the history of mankind. It is strongly associated both with some of the most horrific world tragedies and the most interesting technological ideas. So, what is more important when considering the issue of atomic energy, its benefits or its dangers? On the one hand, the advantages of using the nuclear technology are difficult to overestimate. A single nuclear power plant can produce as much energy as four fuel-burning ones. However, it does not pollute the air or depend on the oil deposits. Being the most destructive application of the atomic energy, nuclear weapons still perform a very special function of sustaining the world peace, as everybody understands the the use of them in case of World War III would totally destroy our planet. Nevertheless, I strongly disagree with the idea that these benefits overweigh the dangers. Together with successful peaceful applications of nuclear energy, the world experienced the two most appalling tragedies: Hiroshima bombing in 1945, which took 166 000 lives as a result of the explosion itself and far reaching effects, such as radiation sickness and cancer, and Chernobyl catastrophe of 1986, which resulted in the radioactive contamination of a huge territory and emergency evacuation of more than 200 000 people. These two examples are more than enough to realize what a destructive force the atomic technology could be. Even when being used for peaceful purposes, it requires strict safety rules, which are often violated.
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