SMART DUST 2010

1. INTRODUCTION
supply as well. Many prototypes that have been As the research community searches for the developed in the past were about the size of a small processing platform beyond the personal computer, matchbook and it was in 2001 that Kris Pister was networks of wireless sensors have become quite able to harness the latest technology to develop a interesting as a new environment in which to seek prototype smaller than the nib of a ballpoint pen research challenges. These have been enabled by the (fig.1). Even though this would seem very small to rapid convergence of three key technologies: digital the human eye, the ideal size would be at least a 100 circuitry, wireless communications, and MicroElectroMechanicalSystems (MEMS). In each area, advances in hardware technology times smaller than this. It is certainly within the realm of possibility that future prototypes of Smart Dust could be small enough to remain suspended in buoyed by air currents, sensing and

and engineering design have led to reductions in air, remarkably compact, autonomous nodes, each communication capabilities, and a power supply.

size, power consumption, and cost. This has enabled communicating for hours or days on end. These kinds of networking nodes must consume measured kilobits per second, and potentially need to inhigh volumetric densities. These containing one or more sensors, computation and extremely low power,communicate at bit rates Berkeleys Smart Dust project, led by Professors operate

Pister and Kahn, explores the limits on size and requirements dictate the need for novel ad hoc power consumption in autonomous sensor nodes. routing and media access solutions. Smart dust will Size reduction is paramount, to make the nodes as enable an unusual range of applications, from inexpensive and easy-to deploy as possible. These sensor- rich smart spaces to self-identification and millimeter-scale nodes are called Smart Dust. detect light and vibrations in its environment. They also go by the name of motes. These motes could eventually be the size of a grain of sand, though each would contain sensors, computing circuits, bidirectional communication technology and a power history racking for virtually any kind of physical Smart dust devices are tiny wireless sensors that can object.

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FIG.1 PROTOTYPE
IN OF

SMART DUST

RELEASED

and thus, they have shorter life spans (Yang 2003). However, long battery life is critical to applications where it would be costly, inconvenient, or impossible to retrieve a smart dust mote in order to

2001

2. History
Smart dust was conceived in 1998 by Dr. Kris Pisterof the UC Berkeley (Hsu, Kahn, and Pister 1998; Eisenberg 1999). He set out to build a device with a sensor, communication device, and small computer integrated into a single package. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded the project, setting as a goal the demonstrationthat a complete sensor/communication system can be integrated into a cubic millimeter package .(By comparison, a grain of rice has a volume of about 5 cubic millimeters.) In the early stages of the project, the team gained experience by building relatively large motes using components available off the shelf . One such mote, named RF Mote,has sensors for temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, light intensity, tilt and vibration, and magnetic field and it is capable of communicating distances of about 60 feet using radio frequency (RF) communication. If the mote operated continuously, its battery would last up to one week.One of the issues that the UC Berkeley team faced in building smaller motes involved powering the device. Small batteries help minimize the size of the resulting mote, but they contain less energy than traditional, larger batteries

replace its batteries. This would be true, for example, with temperature and humidity-monitoring motes placed inside the walls of a building during its construction . Faced with the trade-off between miniaturization and long battery life, early smart dust developers leaned toward miniaturization. The Smart Dust project Web site states that [t]he primary constraint in the design of Smart Dust motes is volume, which puts a severe constraint on energy since we do not have much room for batteries or large solar cells(Pister 2001). However, the team applied tactics to conserve the available energy to prolong battery life. One approach, taken by Dr. David Culler, was to designsoftware that enabled the motes to sleep most of the time yet wake up regularly to take readings and communicate. This allows for energy conservation during the sleep period.The UC Berkeley team equipped some of their early motes with optical communicationsystems in order to reduce power consumption and allow for a smaller device (Warneke et al. 2001). With this scheme, a mote designated as activewas equipped with a transmitting device similar to what is found in the laser pointers

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used by presenters in business presentations (ibid, p. a mote is placed in an existing network, it adapts to 48). Another energy-saving approach the researchers Pister 1998). A mote with a passive communication instead it uses a series of mirrors controlled by a blend in with the other nodes to form a larger the network take over its load . The operation of analogous to the way a soccer team passes the ball explored was passive transmission (Hsu, Kahn, and network; and when a mote fails, the other devices in system does not have anonboard light source but motes in a mesh network has been described as smallelectrical charge (Warneke et al. 2001). When a until it reaches its destination During the course of laser is pointed toward the mote, it can rapidly adjust the Smart Dust project, Professor David Culler and a the position of its mirrors to send messages encoded team of researchers at UC Berkeley created the in pulses of light; the message could then be read by a special optical receiver. This TinyOS operating system (Yang 2003). Once passive installed on a mote,

communication system proved effective in reducing this software is responsible for operating the device, energy consumption, but it has limitations because managing its power consumption, and passive motes in a network cannot directly to rely on a central station equipped with a light source to send and receive data from other motes facilitating communication with other motes (ibid). athttp://www.tinyos.net (Webb 2004). The Smart Dust project resulted in laboratory and communicate with one another and instead have The software is open-source and available

A common mote communication scheme utilizes field demonstrations of a few generations of radio frequency (RF) signals to communicate over motes with names like Clever Dust, Deputy Dust, relatively short distances.This allows designers to Daft Dust, and Flashy Dust (Pister 2001). minimizemote size and power consumption (Webb 2003). When communicating, the devices compensate for this by passing each message to a neighboring mote which, in turn, passes the Dust Networks message on to another nearby mote, and so on, until the message reaches the destination thecentral monitoring station associated with the group of motes (ibid). . As implemented, the networks formed by motes are fairly robust; that is, a network ofmotes continues to perform even if some of its communication paths fail to operate. And once solar powered mote with bi-directional GolemDust More importantly, it spurred the interest of numerous other academic and corporate researchers

The Generations of Smart Dust Motes

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communications and sensing (acceleration and ambient light) 11.7 mm3 total circumscribed volume ~4.8 mm3 total displaced volume the size of a deck of cards), which are compatible with more types of sensors. Other commercially available motes are sold by Dust Networks. Thiscompany offers motes which areabout the size of a matchbook,operate on DaftDust two AA batteries and have a 5-year battery life (Metz 2004). Many of the sensors available for smart dust motes are micro-electromechanical systems 2.1 Smart Dust Today 63 mm3 bi-directional communication mote Flashy Dust Tiny, ubiquitous, low-cost, smart dust motes have not yet been realized, however, some reasonably small motes are commercially available. One of these, the MICA2DOT, is 6 available from Crossbow Technology, Inc. 138 mm3 uni-directional communication and sensing (ambient light) mote 2.1 Smart Dust Today Tiny, ubiquitous, low-cost, smart dust motes have not yet been realized, however, somereasonably small motes are commercially available. One of these, the MICA2DOT, is 6 available from Crossbow Technology, Inc. The unit becomes a mote once a small sensorboard, coin battery, and antenna are added to the product (Crossbow 2004b). In addition, Crossbow sells larger motes (about
The MICA2DOT mote, typically powered by a circular

The unit becomes a mote once a small sensorboard, coin battery, and antenna are added to the product.

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button battery, is not much bigger than a quarter.

microwatts levels, and if careful power management strategies re utilized (i.e., the various parts of the dust mote are powered on only when necessary). To enable dust motes to function over the span of days, solar cells could be employed to scavenge as much energy

2. SMART DUST COMPONENTS A Smart Dust mote is illustrated in Figure 2. Integrated into a single package are MEMS sensors, a semiconductor laser diode and MEMS beam-steering mirror for active optical transmission, a MEMS corner-cube retroreflector for passive optical transmission, an optical receiver, signal-processing and control circuitry, and a power source based on thick-film batteries and solar cells. This remarkable package has the ability to sense and communicate, and is self-powered. A major challenge is to incorporate all these functions while maintaining very low power consumption, thereby maximizing operating life given the limited volume available for energy storage. Within the design goal of a cubic millimeter volume, using the best available battery technology, the total stored energy is on the order of 1 Joule. If this energy is consumed continuously over a day, the dust mote power consumption cannot exceed roughly 10 microwatts. The functionality envisioned for Smart Dust can be achieved only if the total power consumption of a dust mote is limited o

as possible when the sun shines (roughly 1 Joule per day) or when room lights are turned on (about 1 millijoule per day). Techniques for performing sensing and processing at low power are reasonably well understood. Developing communication architecture for ultra-low-power represents a more critical challenge. The primary candidate communication technologies are based on radio frequency (RF) or optical transmission techniques. Each technique has its advantages and disadvantages. RF presents a problem because dust motes offer very limited space for antennas, thereby demanding extremely shortwavelength (i.e., high frequency) transmission. Communication in this regime is not currently compatible with low power operation. Furthermore, radio transceivers are relatively complex circuits, making it difficult to reduce their power consumption to the required microwatt levels. They require modulation, band pass filtering and demodulation circuitry, and additional circuitry isrequired if the transmissions of a large number of dust motes are to

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be multiplexed usingtime-, frequency- or codedivision multiple access. thesimultaneous transmissions from a large number of dust motes at different locations within the receiver field of view, which is a form of spacedivision multiplexing. Successful decoding of these simultaneous transmissions requires that dust motes not block one anothers line of sight to the BTS. Such blockage is unlikely, in view of the dust motes small size. A second requirement for decoding of FIG. 2 CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF OPTICAL MOTE An attractive alternative is to employ free-space optical transmission. Kahn and Pisters studies have shown that when a line-of-sight path is available, well-designed freespace optical links require significantly lower energy per bit than their RF counterparts. There are several reasons for the power advantage of optical links. Optical transceivers require only simple baseband analog and digital circuitry; no modulators, active bandpass filters or demodulators are needed. The short wavelength of visible or near-infrared light (of the Smart Dusts full potential can only be attained when the sensor nodes communicate with one another or with a central base station. Wireless communication facilitates simultaneous data collection from thousands of sensors. There are several options for communicating to and from a 3. COMMUNICATION AMONG simultaneous transmission is that theimages of different dust motes be formed on different pixels in the BTS imaging receiver.

MOTES

order of 1 micron) makes it possible for a millimeter- cubic-millimeter computer. Radio frequency and optical communications each have their strengths scale device to emit a narrow beam (i.e., high antenna gain can be achieved). As another consequence of this short wavelength, a base-station transceiver (BTS) equipped with a compact imaging receiver can decode and weaknesses. Radio-frequency communication is well understood, but currently requires minimum power levels in the multiple milliwatt range due to analog mixers, filters, and oscillators. If whisker-thin

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antennas of centimeter length can be accepted as a part of a dust mote, then reasonably efficient antennas can be made for radio-frequency communication. While the smallest complete radios are still on the order of a few hundred cubic millimeters, there is active work in academia and industry to produce cubic-millimeter radios. Semiconductor lasers and diode receivers are intrinsically small, and the corresponding transmission and detection circuitry for on/off keyed optical communication is more amenable to low-power operation than most radio schema. Perhaps most important, optical power can be collimated in tight beams even from small apertures. Diffraction enforces a fundamental limit on the divergence of a beam, whether it comes from an antenna or a lens. Laser pointers are cheap examples of milliradian collimation from a millimeter aperture. Collimated optical communication has two major drawbacks. Line of sight is required for all but the shortest distances and narrow beams imply the accurate pointing. Of these, the pointing accuracy can be solved by MEMS technology and clever algorithms, but an optical transmitter under a leaf or in a shirt pocket is of little use to anyone. Presently optical communication is the more opted form of communication in some depth due to the potential for extreme lowpower communication. We discuss it in detail here. In its simplest passive configuration, the passive reflective device consists of three mutually orthogonal mirrors. Light enters the CCR, bounces off each of the three mirrors, and is reflected back parallel to the direction it entered. In the MEMS version, the device 3.1 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION Two approaches to optical communications have been explored to date: passive reflective systems and active steered laser systems. In a passive communication system, the dust mote does not require an onboard light source. Instead, a special configuration of mirrors can either reflect or not reflect light to a remote source. 3.1.1 PASSIVE REFLECTIVE SYSTEMS

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has one mirror mounted on a spring at an angle slightly askew from perpendicularity to the other mirrors. In this position, because the light entering the CCR does not return along the same entry path, little light returns to the sourcea digital 0. Applying voltage between this mirror and an electrode beneath it causes the mirror to shift to a position perpendicular to other mirrors, thus causing the light entering the CCR to return to its sourcea digital 1. The mirrors low mass allows the CCR to switch between these two states up to a thousand times per second, using less than a nanojoule per 0_1 transition. A 1_0 transition, on the other hand, is practically free because dumping the charge stored on the electrode to the ground requires almost no energy. Figure 3 illustrates a free-space optical network utilizing the CCR based passive uplink. The BTS contains a laser whose beam illuminates an area containing dust motes. This beam can be modulated with downlink data, including commands to wake up and query the dust motes. When the illuminating beam is not modulated, the dust motes can use their CCRs to transmit uplink data back to the base station. A highframe- rate CCD video camera at the BTS sees these CCR signals as lights blinking on and off. It decodes these blinking images to yield the uplink data. Kahn and Pisters analysis show that this uplink scheme achieves several kilobits per second over hundreds of meters in full sunlight, at night, in clear, still air, the range should extend to several kilometers. Because the camera uses an imaging process separate the simultaneous transmissions from dust motes different locations, we say that it uses space-division multiplexing The ability for a video camera to resolve these transmissions is a consequence of the short wavelength visible or near infrared light. This does not require any coordination among the dust motes, and thus, it does not complicate their design. The latest Smart Dust device is a 63-mm autonomous bi-directional communication mote that receives an optical signal, generates a pseudorandom sequence based on this signal to emulate sensor data, and then optically transmits the result. The system contains a micromachined corner-cube reflector, a 0.078-mm3 CMOS chip that draws 17 microwatts, and a hearing aid battery. In addition to a battery-based operation, we have also powered the device using a 2-mm solar cell. This mote demonstrates Smart Dusts essential concepts, such as optical data transmission, data processing, energy management, miniaturization, and system integration. A passive communication system

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suffers several limitations. Unable to communicate with each other, motes rely on a central station equipped with a light source to send and receive data from other motes. If a given mote does have a clear line of sight to the central station, that mote will be isolated from the network. Also, because the CCR reflects only a small fraction of the light emitted from the base station, this systems range cannot easily extend beyond one kilometer. To circumvent these limitations, dust motes must be active and have their own onboard light source. 3.1.2 ACTIVE-STEERED LASER SYSTEMS For mote-to-mote communication, an active-steered laser communication system uses an onboard light source to send a tightly collimated light beam toward an intended receiver. Steered laser communication has the advantage of high power density; for example, a 1-milliwatt laser radiating into 1 milliradian (3.4 arc seconds) has a density of approximately 318 kilowatts per steradian (there are 4 _ steradians in a sphere), as opposed to a 100-watt light bulb that radiates 8 watts per steradian isotropic ally. A Smart Dust motes emitted beam would have a divergence of approximately 1 milliradian, permitting communication over enormous distances using milliwatts of power. Forming ad hoc multihop networks is the most exciting application of mote-to-mote communication. Multihop networks present significant challenges to current network algorithmsrouting software must not only optimize each packets latency but also consider both the transmitters and receivers energy reserves. Each mote must carefully weigh the needs to sense, compute, communicate, and evaluate its energy reserve status before allocating precious nanojoules of energy to turn on its transmitter or receiver. Because these motes spend most of their time sleeping, with their receivers turned off, scheduling a common awake time across the network is difficult. If motes dont wake up in a synchronized manner, a highly dynamic network topology and large packet latency result. Using burst mode communication, in which the laser operates at up to several tens of megabits per second for a few milliseconds, provides the most energy-efficient way to schedule this network. This procedure minimizes the motes duty cycle and better utilizes its energy reserves. The steered agile laser transmitter consists of a semiconductor diode laser coupled with a collimating lens and MEMS beam-steering optics based on a two degree-of-freedom silicon micromirror. This system integrates all optical components into an active 8-mm volume. Many Smart Dust applications rely on direct optical communication from an entire

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field of dust motes to one or more base stations. These base stations must therefore be able to receive a volume of simultaneous optical transmissions. Further, communication must be possible outdoors in bright sunlight which has an intensity of approximately 1 kilowatt per square meter, although the dust motes each transmit information with a few milliwatts of power. Using a narrow-band optical filter to eliminate all sunlight except the portion near the light frequency used for communication can partially solve this second problem, but the ambient optical power often remains much stronger than the received signal power. As with the transmitter, the short wavelength of optical transmissions compared with radio frequency overcomes both challenges. Light from a large field of view field can be focused into an image, as in our eyes or in a camera. Imaging receivers utilize this to analyze different portions of the image separately to process simultaneous transmissions from different angles. This method of distinguishing transmissions based on their originating location is referred to as space division multiple access. Imaging receivers also offer the advantage of dramatically decreasing the ratio of ambient optical power to received signal power. Ideally, the imaging receiver will focus all of the received power from a single transmission onto a single photodetector. If the receiver has an n* n array of pixels, then the ambient light that each pixel receives is reduced by a factor n2 compared with a non-imaging receiver. Typically, using a value for n between 8 and 32 makes the ambient light power negligible compared with the electronic noise in the analog electronics.

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hundred dollars. Late adopters can expect lower prices as the price per mote falls. This is supported by an Intel report excerpt.Researchers at Intel expect that, with re-engineering, Moore's Law and volume production, motes could drop in price to less than $5 each over the next several years The Intel report utilizes Moores Law which postulates thatthe number of transistors on a chip roughly doubles every two years, resulting in more features, increased performance and decreased cost per transistor Based on this law, the assumption of a $5 mote in the year 2010, and of the price halving every 18 months, the price of a smart dust mote COST AND AVILABILITY should reach about 65 cents in 2015 and 5 cents in2020. This is depicted in figure 1 Another

The price for the motes from crossbow is about indicator of future prices is the aspirin-sized Spec $150 each,but for volume purchases,the price per unit mote. Dr Jason Hill of JLH Labs estimates that when pulmates to as low as $40 The CEO of Crossbow produced in large quantities, Spec and its associated expects prices to drop to about $10 or less per unit. components can be produced for a total of about 62 One factor to consider when estimating the costs of cents per mote (Hill 2005). smart dust networks is ease of installation. One factor networks is ease of installation. Battery operated motes do not require the installation of additional electrical wiring and their installation simply requires a screwdriver (Dragoon 2005). In comparison to traditional wired sensors, a smart dust mote requires no wiring and this results in both lower labor and materials costs.Clearly, early adopters have several commercial smart dust products available to them in the price range of a few available, Spec low price and small size. Once commercially

to consider when estimating the costs of smart dust is well positioned to appeal to later adopters with its

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area in Palm Springs, California. The experiment, conducted with the U.S. Marine Corps, began when an unmanned airborne vehicle (UAV) flew over the area, dropped 8 motes (which were wrapped in protective foam) and then departed (Hill 2003). After deployment, the motes organized themselves into a network and then began to lookout for moving vehicles ; when a 5 vehicle was detected, the mote recorded tracking information about the event. Eventually, the UAV plane flew over the scene and retrieved each nodes tracking data and then, finally, returned to its home based to deliver the data it collected. The experimenters successfully downloaded the vehicle tracking information from the plane for display on a personal computer. In doing so, they showed how smart dust can be used by military and law enforcement personnel to unobtrusively monitor movement within a region. Scientists at the University of California at San Diego approach smart dust from a biotechnology perspective to produce motes from chemical compounds rather than electrical circuitry (Sailor, Bhatia, Cunin 2002). While not yet commercially available, their motes have 2 Early Applications proved useful in laboratory environments (Link and In a demonstration, smart dust was used to detect Sailor 2003). One experiment demonstrated the use of smart dust to detect the vehicles traveling through an isolated desert

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presence of hydrocarbon vapors from approximately 65 feet away (Schmedake, T. A. et al. 2002). In thisstandoff detection, the researchers placed porous silicon smart dust particles in a gas dosing chamber and 1270). Using a laser to illuminate the smart equipment, the team detected the hydrocarbon vapors based on the changes in the light reflected from the smart dust after it had chemically reacted with the hydrocarbon vapors. experiment was limited to hydrocarbon vapors, the researchers predict that with appropriate chemical modification, the smart dust sensors used can specifically detect biomolecules, explosives, (and) chemical warfare agents allows motes to sense battlefield conditions. For example, imagine that a commander wants to be able to detect truck movement in a remote area. An airplane flies over the area and scatters thousands of motes, each one equipped with a magnetometer, a vibration sensor and a GPS reciever. The battery-operated motes are dropped at feet (30 meters) or so. Each mote wakes up, senses signal to find its neighbors. All of the motes in the area create a giant, amorphous network that can collect data. While the Data funnels through the network and arrives at a collection node, which has a powerful radio able to transmit a signal many miles. When an enemy truck drives through the area, the motes that detect it transmit their location and their sensor readings. Neighboring motes pick up the transmissions and forward them to their neighbors and so on, until the signals arrive at the collection node and are transmitted to The various applications that Smart Dust can be put are endless as can be seen from the various scenarios listed below. Smart Dust can be implemented in practically any field because of its ability to collect information The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was among the original patrons of the mote idea. One of the initial mote ideas implemented for DARPA the commander. The commander can now display the data on a screen and see, in real time, the path that the truck is following through the field of motes. Then a remotely piloted vehicle can fly over the truck, make sure it belongs to the enemy and drop a bomb to destroy it. This might seem like a lot of trouble, but it is really more effective than the

monitored the experiment from a distance (ibid, p. a density of one every 100 dust and a telescope outfitted with measurement its position and then sends out a radio

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solutions of the past. In the past, the tool a commander used to prevent truck or troop movement through a remote area has been land mines. Soldiers would lace the area with thousands of anti-truck or anti-personnel mines. Anyone moving through the area -- friend or foe -- is blown up. Another problem, of course, is that long after the conflict is over the mines are still active and deadly -- laying in wait to claim the limbs and even lives of any passerby. According to a UNICEF report, over the last 30 years, landmines have killed or maimed more than 1 million people -- many of whom are children. With motes, what is left behind after a war are tiny, completely harmless sensors. Since motes consume so little power, the batteries would last a year or two. Then, the motes would simply go silent presenting no physical threat to civilians nearby. The following are some of the ideas floating around that show a few of the ways that smart does can affect our lives in the future: The monitoring of weather and seismology Better prediction of earthquakes and tornados. Inventory Control Know where your crashing due to technical problems by finding them before they occur. Land to space communication networks with real time data. Chemical and biological sensors - could be used to monitor the purity of drinking or sea water, to detect hazardous chemical or biological agents in the air or to locate and destroy tumor cells in the body faster communication from earth to space

products are and what shape they're in any time, anywhere. Sort of like FedEx tracking on steroids for all products in your production stream from raw materials to delivered goods. Product quality monitoring smart dust can have many positive effects on quality control: Temperature, humidity monitoring of meat, produce, dairy products, etc. Smart offices and smart homes environmental conditions in the office or home are tailored to the desires of every individual. Sports smart dust could bring a whole new aspect to sporting events. Sailboat

The monitoring of environments on Mars and racers can monitor the changes in the wind and other planets. current to gain an advantage. Also, Internal spacecraft monitoring this can be think about the possibilities of putting motes on the balls during games to monitor useful in preventing the shuttle from

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things such as ball spin and speed.

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spot problems long before they become critical.

Typical Applications
If you survey the literature for different ways that people have thought of to use motes, you find a huge assortment of ideas. Here's a collection culled from the links at the end of the article. It is possible to think of motes as lone sensors. For example: You could embed motes in bridges when you pour the concrete. The mote could have a sensor on it that can detect the salt concentration within the concrete. Then once a month you could drive a truck over the bridge that sends a powerful magnetic field into the bridge. The magnetic field would allow the motes, which are burried within the concrete of the bridge, to power on and transmit the salt concentration. Salt (perhaps from deicing or ocean spray) weakens concrete and corrodes the steel rebar that strengthens the concrete. Salt sensors would let bridge maintenance personnel gauge how much damage salt is doing. Other possible sensors embedded into the concrete of a bridge might detect vibration, stress, temperature swings, cracking, etc., all of which would help maintenance personnel

2You could connect sensors to a mote that

can monitor the condition of machinery -temperature, number of revolutions, oil level, etc. and log it in the mote's memory. Then, when a truck drives by, the mote could transmit all the logged data. This would allow detailed maintenance records to be kept on machinery (for example, in an oil field), without maintenance personnel having to go measure all of those parameters themselves. You could attach motes to the water meters or power meters in a neighborhood. The motes would log power and water consumption for a customer. When a truck drives by, the motes get a signal from the truck and they send their data. This would allow a person to read all the meters in a neighborhood very easily, simply by driving down the street. All of these ideas are good; some allow sensors to move into places where they have not been before (such as embedded in concrete) and others reduce the time needed to read sensors individually. This concept of ad hoc networks -- formed by hundreds or thousands of motes that communicate with each other and pass data along from one to another -- is extremely powerful. Here are several examples of the concept at work:

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Imagine a suburban neighborhood or an 8.A biologist could equip an endangered apartment complex with motes that monitor the water and power meters (as described in the previous section). Since all of the meters (and motes) in a typical neighborhood are within 100 feet (30 meters) of each other, the attached motes could form an ad hoc network amongst themselves. At one end of the neighborhood is a super-mote with a network connection or a cell-phone link. In this imagined neighborhood, someone doesn't have to drive a truck through the neighborhood each month to read the individual water or power meters -- the motes pass the data along from one to another, and the supermote transmits it. Measurement can occur hourly or daily if desired. A farmer, vineyard owner, or ecologist could equip motes with sensors that detect temperature, humidity, etc., making each mote a mini weather station. Scattered throughout a field, vineyard or forest, these motes would allow the tracking of micro-climates.

animal with a collar containing a mote that senses position, temperature, etc. As the animal moves around, the mote collects and stores data from the sensors. In the animal's environment, the biologists could place zones or strips with data collection motes. When the animal wanders into one of these zones, the mote in the collar would dump its data to the ad hoc network in the zone, which would then transmit it

A forest service could use smart dust to

monitor for fires in a forest (Eng 2004). In this scenario, forest service personnel would drop the dust from an airplane and then count on the sensors to self-organize into a network. In the event of a fire, a mote that notices unusual temperatures in its zone would alert neighboring notes that would in turn notify other motes in the network. In this way the network of motes would notify a central monitoring station of the fire and the location of the mote that noticed it. Equipped with prompt notice of the fire and its approximate location, firefighters could race to the scene and fight the fire while it is small. By linking similar networks of motes to a central fire reporting system, the system can be extended to monitor an enormous region in a national forest.

A building manager could attach motes to

every electrical wire throughout an office building. These motes would have induction sensors to detect power consumption on that individual wire and let the building manager see power consumption down to the individual outlet. If power consumption in the building seems high, the building manager can track it to an individual tenant. Although this would be possible to do with wires, with motes it would be far less expensive.

Motes will be applied in industrial settings to

reduce plant downtime and enhance safety. Consider the scenario of a chemical plant that utilizes pipes to transport acidic or abrasive liquids. The chemical contents of the pipes can gradually weaken them so,

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to prevent accidental chemical releases, plant operators must periodically inspect piping and other components that may be susceptible to wall thinning caused by erosion/corrosion (Jonas1996). Today, this inspection process is labor intensive for pipes covered with insulation and for pipes located in confined areas. In the future, smart dust could be employed to facilitate several corrosion-detecting motes on piping throughout the plant and then configure a central monitoring station to receive status updates from the motes. And because the motes can be installed under pipe insulation, plant personnel would no longer need to manually remove insulation to evaluate the condition of a pipe (Gibbons-Paul 2004). With this system, the plant manger benefits from having up-to-date status information of all piping while avoiding the costs of manual inspections. In business, smart dust will be applied in similar innovative ways to improve services and save money. One such scenario involves a local lighting and power organization. Today, in order to determine which of thousands of street lights, are out or in need of service the power company periodically surveys the lights after sunset or waits for a customer complaint. But imagine if the organization monitored its service area with thousands of cheap, light-sensor equipped motes. The firm can now immediately pinpoint the

location of non-working lights without incurring the labor and transportation costs of a physical survey. Repairs can be organized in a more systematic manner, complaint calls can be reduced, and customers will be more satisfied Motes placed every 100 feet on a highway

and equipped with sensors to detect traffic flow stopped traffic. Because no wires are needed,

inspections. With this, a plant operator would place could help police recognize where an accident has

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interview with smart dust inventor Kris Pister, a reporter asked about the dark side of the technology. Dr. Pister replied, I believe that the benefits will far, far outweigh the drawbacks,but Im hardly unbiased.These issues are not easily resolved, but as smart dust becomes smaller, cheaper, and more prevalent, privacy concerns are likely to increase. 5.2 Security Smart dust motes, as networked computing devices, are susceptible to security concerns similar to that of computers on the Internet. One of these susceptibilities is due to the fact that motes in a network are reprogrammable. This feature allows 5 Issues issues and concerns for stakeholders. security weaknesses, the need for standards, and these issues is discussed below. 5.1 Privacy Its easy to imagine that tiny smart dust sensors could be used for mischievous, illegal, or individuals could use motes to monitor people without their knowledge. could become the tool of choice for corporate espionage. Privacy issues such as these have been raised before. In one case, during an an administrator to update the software on along to all the other motes in the mote identity verification algorithms in the this mote software feature could be exploited by hackers and eavesdroppers (ibid). In applications that gather sensitive data, system designers should be aware that there is a risk that the 5.3 Standards manufacturers produce motes, end users will have more choices when building a system. However, not all smart dust devices would work The development and use of smart dust raises some a single mote and then command it to pass the update These include privacy issues, potential system network (Culler and Mulder 2004). Although the the environmental impacts of smart dust. Each of TinyOS operating system would make it difficult,

unethical purposes. Corporations, governments, and data could be compromised. And smart dust As interest in smart dust increases and more

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effectively together without standards. Fortunately, a together to tackle complex tasks set of standards is forthcoming -- an alliance of industry leaders has proposed the ZigBee standards (Economist 2004). Once 10 agreed upon by industry and released by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the standards will apply to residential, industrial, and building controls (ibid). And the alliance is well positioned to draft additional standards should the need arise due to the discovery of new applications for the technology. 5.4 Environmental Impacts After smart dust is sprinkled in a remote or desolate area to accomplish a monitoring function, it is not easily or inexpensively retrieved. If a mote fails and is consequently abandoned by its owner, there is an environmental impact. A motes environmentally unfriendly components include integrated circuits, a battery, and a printed circuit board. Clearly, motes have environmental impacts that should be considered by users. It is somewhat ironic that negative environmental consequences could arise from the use of smart dust for an environmentally sound purpose such as protecting a forest from fires. ZigBee is named after the zigging and zagging of bees, which are individually simple organisms that work 10

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F. Gfeller and W. Hirt, A Robust Wireless Infrared
D.

Goodman,

Wireless

Personal

Communication Systems, Addison-Wesley Longman, Reading, MA,1997.

V. S. Hsu, J. M. Kahn, and K. S. J. Pister,

Wireless Communications for Smart Dust, Electronics Research Laboratory Memorandum Number M98/2, 1998. http://www.janet.ucla.edu/WINS. http://www.research.digital.com/wrl/projects/ Factoid/index.html.
http://www-

mtl.mit.edu/~jimg/project_top.html. J. Jubin, J. D. Turnow, The DARPA Packet Radio G. S. Lauer, Packet-Radio Networks, Chapter 11 in REFERENCES P.B.Chu , KSJ Pister 8. CONCLUSION

optical Smart Dust, is an integrated approach to networks of communication using micro corner cube millimeter-scale reflectors 10th IEEE Intl Workshop on sensing/communicating nodes. Smart Dust can Micro Electro Mechanical Systems transmit passively using novel optical

J . Kahn , R.H.Katz, KSJ Pister Mobile Networking for Smart Dust

reflector technology. This provides an inexpensive way to probe a sensor or acknowledge that information was received. Active optical transmission is also possible, but consumes more power. It will be used when passive techniques cannot be used, such as when the line

W. Dabbous, E. Duros, T. Ernst, Dynamic

Routing in Networks with Unidirectional Links, Workshop of Satellite-Based Information Systems, Budapest, (September1997).

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of-sight path between the dust mote and BTS is blocked. Smart dust provides a very challenging platform in which to investigate applications that can harness the emergent behavior of ensembles of simple nodes. Dealing with partial disconnections while establishing communications via dynamic routing over rapidly changing unidirectional links poses critical research challenges for the mobile networking community
Pa All paragraphs must be indented. All paragraphs must be justified, i.e. both left-justified and right-justified. A. ge Layout Your paper must use a page size corresponding to A4 which is 210mm (8.27") wide and 297mm (11.69") long. The margins must be set as follows: Top = 19mm (0.75") Bottom = 43mm (1.69") Left = Right = 14.32mm (0.56") Your paper must be in two column format with a space of 4.22mm (0.17") between columns. I. PAGE STYLE All paragraphs must be indented. All paragraphs must be justified, i.e. both left-justified and right-justified. A. Text Font of Entire Document The entire document should be in Times New Roman or Times font. Type 3 fonts must not be used. Other font types may be used if needed for special purposes. Recommended font sizes are shown in Table 1.
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] J. Breckling, Ed., The Analysis of Directional Time Series: Applications to Wind Speed and Direction, ser. Lecture Notes in Statistics. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 1989, vol. 61. S. Zhang, C. Zhu, J. K. O. Sin, and P. K. T. Mok, A novel ultrathin elevated channel low-temperature poly-Si TFT, IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 20, pp. 569571, Nov. 1999. M. Wegmuller, J. P. von der Weid, P. Oberson, and N. Gisin, High resolution fiber distributed measurements with coherent OFDR, in Proc. ECOC00, 2000, paper 11.3.4, p. 109. R. E. Sorace, V. S. Reinhardt, and S. A. Vaughn, High-speed digital-toRF converter, U.S. Patent 5 668 842, Sept. 16, 1997. (2002) The IEEE website. [Online]. Available: http://www.ieee.org/ M. Shell. (2002) IEEEtran homepage on CTAN. [Online]. Available: http://www.ctan.org/texarchive/macros/latex/contrib/supported/IEEEtran/ FLEXChip Signal Processor (MC68175/D), Motorola, 1996. PDCA12-70 data sheet, Opto Speed SA, Mezzovico, Switzerland. A. Karnik, Performance of TCP congestion control with rate feedback: TCP/ABR and rate adaptive TCP/IP, M. Eng. thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, Jan. 1999. J. Padhye, V. Firoiu, and D. Towsley, A stochastic model of TCP Reno congestion avoidance and control, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, CMPSCI Tech. Rep. 99-02, 1999. Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specification, IEEE Std. 802.11, 1997.

easy way to comply with the conference paper formatting requirements is to use this document as a template and simply type your text into it.

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