A Scientific Investigation

A Scientific Investigation, following
the Scientific Method, with

conclusions that
support
The Religious Perspective
Written by Martyn Arthur

martyn@adivinecreation.org.uk
www.adivinecreation.org.uk
1
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
Preamble 6
Science and the nature of the Book 9
The nature of the Book 10
Chapter 2. Methodology
A historical Perspective 12
Adopting a totally Scientific Approach 14
Attributing causes to Events 16
Events on the Periphery of the
Rules of our science
Events clearly falling outside the
Rules of ours science
Terminology, the use of the Words "Divine Creator" 17
The term "Random Chance" 18
What are the Questions? 19
Presumptuous Questions? 19
What do the Questions seek to establish? 20
Concept 1. The Nature and development of
the Universe
Concept 2. The Nature of the Creation, and
the development of Life
The Hypotheses 23
Chapter 3. The Big Bang and the start of the

first second of time
The Start of the very First Second 24
Atoms the core Material of the Universe 24
Protons and Neutrons 25
Quarks and the strong Nuclear Force 26
Electrons and The Electrostatic Forces 26
Assembling the Components 27
Particle physics 27
The atomic zest for Life 27
2
The quantity of Matter and Energy
Introduced into the Universe 28
No Wood Chippings in the crafting of this
Universe's Materials 29
The complexity of Creation - v - its simplicity 30
Chapter 4. The creation of the Universe

An explanation of the molecular Nature of Heat 32
After the start of the very first Second of Time 33
Several Hundred Thousand Years after Point Zero 34
Almost a Million Years after Point Zero 35
Where are we in the Universe? 37
How do we know about the Universe's Past? 38
The Doppler effect 38
The Doppler effect on Light 39
The Pudding Model of the Universe 39
Chapter 5. The nature of the Universe

The Night Sky 41
The scale of the Universe 41
The Components of the Universe 42
The Laws of the Universe 44
The "timing" of the Universe 45
Chapter 6. The creation of the Stars

Star formation 47
The Nature of the Early Stars 50
Chapter 7. The Solar System

The physical Solar System 51
The position of the other Celestial Bodies
relative to the Earth 53
The location of the Earth relative to the Sun 54
The importance of the Nature of the Solar
System in the development of Mankind 55
A simpler Solar System 56
3
Chapter 8. The Earth and the Moon
The Physical Moon 57
The formation of the Moon 57
The interaction between the Moon and the Earth 58
Congenial Climate
Examples of the effect of the Earth's twenty
three degree tilt
The Ocean's tides & Solar Eclipses
Chapter 9. The formation of the Earth

The physical Earth 61
The nature and action of Tectonic Plates 62
Water, the Cradle of Life 64
Water on the Earth; the Earth's Oceans 65
The Earth's Atmosphere 66
Chapter 10. The structure of Life

Definitions of Life 68
Cells are the basics of Life 69
Atoms, the core Materials for Life 69
The chemical formation of Molecules 70
Understanding the distinction between
chemical and nuclear activity 71
Organic Molecules, the Building Blocks
of Life 71
The creation of Organic Molecules is NOT
the creation of Life 72
The number and the types of Components
necessary for Life 72
The DNA Double Helix 74
The problem of the formation of the first Cell 75
The additional Chicken and the Egg problem 76
What the first ever Cell shares with modern Cells 78
4
Chapter 11. The origin of Life through to the
development of Mankind
The origin of Life, the Precambrian Period
before 590 Million Years ago 80
Confirmation that all Cells without exception
share the same DNA reading Mechanism
The origin of aerobic (oxygen loving) Life
The start of Evolution and Natural Selection
The origin of animal Life, the Cambrian Period
from 590 to 505 Million Years 83
The Period from 505 to 360 Million Years ago 84
The laying down of Fuel, the Carboniferous
Period from 360 to 286 Million Years ago 84
Reptiles and extinctions, the Permian Period
from 286 to 248 Million Years ago 85
The next Generation of Life forms, the Triassic
The Great Dinosaurs, the Jurassic Period from
213 to 144 Million Years ago 86
The End of the Dinosaurs, the Cretaceous
Extinctions generally 86
The Time of the development of the Mammals,
The Tertiary and Quaternary Periods from 65
million years to some 10,000 years ago 87
Mankind, The Holocene Period from 10,000
years ago to Date 87
The nature of Mankind
Characteristics and Abilities that define Humanity
The uniqueness & the emergence of Mankind
Chapter 12. Conclusions

Hypothesis 1 94
Hypothesis 2 94
Hypothesis 3 95
Hypothesis 4 98
5
Chapter 1. Introduction
Preamble
From the start of the first second of time, through to the first
cell and then the emergence and the development of Mankind,
the entire process of assembling the data and creating this book
has been an incredibly fascinating, yet humbling experience.
Expressing the various issues associated with the nature of the
Universe and that of humanity’s and my presence in it has
made me acutely aware what a magnificent edifice of Creation
the Universe truly is!
I have been exceptionally fortunate and privileged to have

been born, to have grown up and to have aged, at a time when
modern science has come increasingly to maturity, so that I
have had the opportunity of personally experiencing progress
as it occurred. From a neighbour having the first television in
the street through to the first satellite to orbit the Earth, we
now actually have a space station in orbit around the planet.
This is manned and relatively casually visited from Earth by a
tourist. As my fingers tap the keyboard there are two remotely
controlled explorers, Spirit and Opportunity, driving around
mars exploring that planet. They transmit information to Earth
almost as if the planet mars itself were just a couple of hundred
meters away in the Earth's back garden. All of this, so very
much development in just half a century, it is truly incredible!
Just a hundred years ago Einstein's theories of relativity,

brilliant and inspired as they are, were nonetheless theories
that, at that time, could not be properly tested simply because
they predicted outcomes which science then lacked the
resources to test. Now however, with massive advances in
scientific and technological resources, those very theories have
been subject to extensive practical experiment, and have been
thoroughly proven. More latterly, an understanding of genetics
6
was just getting started forty years ago when I started to
indulge my curiosity. Yet now, just recently, it has become
possible to catalogue the entire human genome (the genetic
"plan" for the makeup of the human body), and for the medical
profession to undertake the most incredible genetic
engineering processes!
From my earliest memories I have been blessed (or perhaps

cursed) with an enquiring mind. My mother told me early on
that I was born with the word "why" on my lips. Early work
colleagues chided me for asking far too many questions, and
told me that that I should accept more without seeking the fine
detail of everything. "We don't make the rules" they used to
say, "we just carry them out, and you should do the same".
Simple acceptance without question however has never been a

philosophy to which I have subscribed, and I have indulged a
lifelong fascination (and at age fifty four that's a long time to
be fascinated) trying to learn as much as possible about the
nature of the Universe, science and the interaction of both with
Life. I have, over the last forty years, been able to stand on the
sidelines and observe, explore and develop an interest in
virtually every aspect of scientific advancement as it relates to
my interest. References to ”exploring science” neither profess
nor presume any form of expertise in any scientific discipline,
my own formal qualifications being in the rather mundane
field of accountancy, administration and the processing of
paperwork. Rather, I have had the time and opportunity to read
about, consider and understand many of the advances,
discoveries and conclusions in modern science, without having
become involved in the real hard work. The "nitty gritty" that
all of the specialists in their individual scientific fields have to
undertake.
My good fortune has not however been limited to the timing of

my birth. I have been additionally fortunate as to have been
7
able to organise my social, domestic and work circumstances
so that there was sufficient quality time available to be able to
indulge my interest and passion, and to explore all those
aspects of science that are so fascinating.
Like virtually everyone else I suppose, I looked up at the night

sky and wondered, what is it all about, why is there so very
much of everything? In the pub at night with people milling
around and drink flowing, again how, why, was it planned or
did it just happen?
Traditionally religion and science have used different methods

to attempt to find answers to these questions. Science has
relied on an objective approach to consider and describe the
physical Universe, attempting perhaps to answer the 'how'
question. Religion however is subjective, using to a certain
extent non-sensory experience or statements to understand the
Universe, and thus perhaps attempting to answer the 'why'
question. In the “early” days of science the two were closely
linked but latterly both spheres have tended to be independent
of the other.
With our advances in science I wondered, might it be possible

to come to some form of scientific conclusion about the nature
of the Creation of the Universe, the matter in it and Life, so
that science supported the religious perspective instead of, in a
sense, contradicting it? My thoughts were NOT to question in
any way the nature of religion, or any aspect at all of any form
of Religion. Religion is far too precious and private even to
consider going along that route. Rather I became increasingly
interested specifically to examine closely the conclusions of as
broad a range of scientific disciplines as possible. Thus to
endeavour to establish just what, and how much, we actually
know about these questions, across as wide a field of science
as possible!
8
Science and the nature of the Book
The book doesn't attempt to introduce any "new" science but,
as noted, seeks to bring together in one place, data from as
wide a variety of scientific disciplines as possible, It then
endeavours to express that data both scientifically, but also in
terms that the layperson can understand..
The nature of science is one of proposing hypotheses, testing

and experimenting, and then endeavouring to come to
conclusions. Even then, scientific data is valid only for as long
as it is not successfully proved to be flawed. It is an interesting
historical fact that many past fundamental conclusions of
science have been proven incorrect or inadequate in
subsequent time frames, when the means to test those
conclusions became available. The early propositions that the
Earth was flat and that it was located at the centre of the Solar
System are but two examples of strongly held views that have
since been superseded and demonstrated as incorrect.
The difficulties in those earlier times were that whilst

hypotheses could be proposed, the nature of the orbital motion
of the planets for example, a means of testing them was
generally not available. Latterly however modern science has
sophisticated equipment and knowledge available to enable,
sometimes, the arrival at more certain conclusions. Einstein's
theories of Relativity predicted for example that time, as we
know it intuitively is not as it seems. Essentially the speed of
the passage of time itself actually changes by reference to the
speed at which a traveller is moving, when that traveller is
moving at a speed close to the speed of light. It was a proposal
that could not be tested at that time, but that it is indeed the
case has now been well tested and proven by extensive
experiment and demonstration.
An understanding of a discussion of this nature is inevitably

going to require the reader to apply a certain amount of
9
endurance and concentration. In order to make the content of
the book in its entirety as understandable as possible to those
without a mathematical or scientific background, the use of
any form of complex mathematical calculations, or scientific
notation (for example 1016 ) has been avoided. Using actual
numbers as opposed to scientific notation has inevitably lead to
the inclusion of some pretty big numbers but that at least gives
a clear indication of the incredibly massive (and sometimes
incredibly tiny) scale of things. Explanations have been given
in as simple a way as it has been possible to construct them,
and even temperatures are expressed in degrees Celsius as
opposed to the scientific Kelvin scale.
Additionally, the unnecessary pedantic application of detail

and scientific terminology has been avoided. There are
occasions where, for the sake of clarity, terminology has been
used that is not strictly contextually accurate, but where the
"inaccuracy" makes no practical difference to the meaning. For
example the simpler to understand concept of "weight" has
generally been used where "mass" would be more correct.
The nature of the Book

Every chapter in the book has been written so as to be as self
contained as possible. There are inevitably therefore occasions
where there is some repetition of material although every
attempt has been made to keep such repetitions to a minimum.
The project was not actually undertaken with the intention of
writing and producing a book, but rather as a personal
indulgence into a lifelong curiosity. As things progressed
however, it seemed from comments from friends and family,
that there might be others with an interest in the conclusions
being reached, and hence this book has now come about.
As the book comes together I am aware that whilst the subject

matter is compelling for me, I have no idea whether it will be
sufficiently compelling for others to purchase it, or indeed
10
even if a publisher will be found who will print it. Being an
optimist however a web site, www.adivinecreation.org.uk
has been created to run in association with the book, and if
readers have any corrections, updates, comments and
observations they would be gratefully received by email to
martyn@adivinecreation.org.uk. Relevant material received
will be published on the web site, be it negative or positive. If
there is a sufficiently large response the concept of producing a
sequel to this book, incorporating views and material from that
far wider audience is very appealing. In order to avoid any
conflict or contention in the future would interested readers
please submit commentary and data only if they are prepared
both to forgo the rights to copyright of that material and also to
permit it's publication.
11
Chapter 2. Methodology
A historical Perspective
The Universe is discussed later on in the book but for now,
suffice it to say, that it is incredibly vast, so vast as to be
incomprehensible by reference to everyday measurements.
Space itself is largely empty but populated, at vast distances,
by collections of interstellar bodies of various sizes, shapes
and construction.
There have been, since discussion and debate first began

various theories about the nature of the Universe, whether it
has always existed, or whether it had an origin at some finite
time in the past. Those theories have revolved around, for
example, variations of the concept that the Universe had no
origin and will have no end, although possibly it might have
gone through different stages at different times in the past. One
such theory for example was the Steady State Theory, which
proposed that the Universe had no beginning and no end. It
suggested an expanding Universe that stayed in perfect
balance, synonymous with a pool of water, which was kept full
to overflowing by a trickle of water from a stream. In the case
of the Universe the stream was the continuous creation of
matter, which then "flowed" into the Universe. Alternative
theories suggested that perhaps the Universe had not always
existed, that it had an origin, and that it had come into
existence at some finite time in the past.
The first significant advances in actually understanding the

true nature and structure of the Universe occurred in the last
century. These advances were mathematical in nature, and
were based primarily on the equations contained in Albert
Einstein's theory of General Relativity. They led to an
increasingly strong argument that the Universe had an origin.
12
The equations in Einstein's theory made it possible to use
General Relativity mathematically, to calculate the effect that
gravity has had on the material from which the Universe is
made. In this way it was possible to arrive at a physical
description of the Universe and to extrapolate backwards in
time to project how it had evolved. This led to a "Big Bang"
model of the Universe and to the conclusion that the Universe
is expanding. As the Universe is expanding, it follows
naturally that it was previously smaller. There must therefore
have been some point back in our "time" (in so far as we
interpret time, for day to day purposes, as the measurement of
intervals between and during events), when all the content of
the Universe was very close together.
Further back in time, some thirteen and a half billion years ago
(a billion is one thousand million), there was a point when all
the matter and energy of the Universe, space itself, and even
time, was contained at one point of zero size known as a
singularity. A singularity in this context is a point at which the
rules of our science break down, and beyond which we cannot
use mathematics to look back and "see" what was before.
Whilst therefore the Big Bang model was able to suggest what
had occurred at the very start of the first second of the Creation
of the Universe, it was unable to consider in any way what had
occurred before the start of the very first second.
This distinction between events that occurred before the first

second of the existence of the Universe, and those events that
occurred after the start of the very first second, when the
Universe had actually come into existence, is critical. Mankind
has been enabled to look back physically in time with
telescopes, and so to see light that started travelling through
space relatively soon after the start of the first second.
Additionally we have been able to discover mathematics, the
science underlying the creation of the Universe, and this has
enabled us to make calculations and deductions about past
13
events. Mankind does not however possess any mechanism
that would enable it scientifically to undertake any from of
consideration of events before the first second. That is the
exclusive domain of religion. This book very specifically
therefore considers only events that occurred after the start of
the first second.
Following on from the knowledge that the entire content of the

Universe had at one time been contained in a singularity, a
conclusion that the Universe had always existed was no longer
a feasible one. It follows therefore that the Universe had a
beginning, and that it came into existence at some finite time
in the past. This expansionist "Big Bang" model is now
commonly used to explain the growth and development of the
Universe, and the way it is today. The Big Bang concept was a
theory when it was first proposed, but there is now substantial
evidence to support it, and the nature of the evidence is set out
later in the book.
Adopting a totally Scientific Approach

The longer I pondered the more it seemed that no individual
scientific discipline addressed questions about the nature of
Creation, and Life, in a sufficiently broad way as to be able to
propose comprehensive answers. What might become apparent
if data from all the relevant scientific sectors were assembled
and analysed? Many of the criticisms of research undertaken
by, and documents prepared by non-scientists, are that those
non-scientists propose conclusions that are not based on a
formal scientific analysis. As such they are unable to achieve
scientific credibility.
Science can be defined as a method of learning about the

physical Universe by observation and by experiment, and by
applying the principles of the Scientific Method. The Scientific
Method involves examining evidence, proposing hypotheses,
14
and testing those hypotheses in valid and reliable ways, in
order to arrive at a conclusion.
An early decision therefore was to ensure that a totally

scientific approach was followed, and that all the relevant
parameters of the consideration were defined at the outset, and
redefined as necessary. It was also necessary to endeavour to
put to one side any preconceived concepts and ideas, in order
to approach the issue in a totally unbiased manner.
Considerations were thus started and formalised, on the basis

that the concept of an expanding Universe had now been
adequately proved. There was a general acceptance that the
Universe had indeed come into existence at some finite time in
the past. As much as possible of the scientific data that I had
learnt over time was assembled into a comprehensive whole,
and this was then formulated into testable scientific hypotheses
following the objectiveness of the scientific method.
We have already touched on the fact that strongly held past

conclusions of science were subsequently found to be
incorrect. A further example occurred when Einstein proved
that the then accepted physical laws of motion did not hold
true in respect of events occurring at speeds close to the speed
of light. The result of this was that the very nature of the rules
of science across the whole World changed. This was because
Einstein had established that the previously accepted rules of
science were incorrect, and could no longer be supported.
If, for example, an apple suddenly projected itself upwards

from a tree without the application of any upward force, and in
defiance of the force of gravity, that would be an event that did
not conform to the known rules of our science. We would then
have to try to account for the event by proving that it
demonstrated a flaw in the existing rules of our science. If we
could establish that to be the case, we could then change those
15
rules to correspond with the new situation. Alternatively if we
could not attribute the event to a flaw in those rules, we would
have to conclude that the event had been the subject of some
unknown external influence. Fortunately, in our day-to-day
lives, events of this nature tend not to happen, and we are not
therefore faced with the dilemma of accounting for them.
Attributing causes to Events

The book considers a number of events that lay either outside,
or on the periphery of the scientific rules of Mankind. In
considering and attributing a cause to any such events, it is
first of all necessary to establish whether that event has
occurred on the periphery of those scientific rules, or whether
it is clearly and unambiguously outside them.
Events on the Periphery of the Rules of our science

An example of such a peripheral event is the event that gave
rise to the location of our Moon relative to the Earth and the
Sun. There is a clear mathematical relationship between the
positioning of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun and the relative
sizes of the Moon and the Sun.
The size of the Moon at 1/400 that of the Sun, and the distance
of the Moon from Earth also at 1/400 that of the Sun is such
that it provides for periodic Solar Eclipses. These have the
effect of "blotting out" all or part of the Sun to observers on
Earth. Solar Eclipses are caused by the passage of the moon
between the Sun and Earth, obscuring the sun from viewers on
Earth. I have frequently seen it stated that this relationship
between the bodies “couldn’t be a coincidence”. It is thus
suggested that their locations are "conclusive evidence" that
the Moon must have been "put" into its specific orbit for a
reason, and that fact, as such, is evidence of a an action on the
part of a Divine Creator.
16
There is no apparent reason for the relationship between those
three bodies, and the way they are positioned and line up from
time to time is indeed a most peculiar occurrence. Nonetheless,
there is no test that can be applied to this relationship under the
scientific method. The existence of this relationship cannot
therefore be used in any way as evidence of the occurrence of
a Divine act.
Having said that, it became apparent, as soon as the book

started to come together, that a lot of odd coincidences have
occurred over time. A number of these coincidences have been
cited, not as direct evidence of an event, but simply in support
of some of the conclusions that have been put forward.
Events clearly falling outside the Rules of ours science

If an event can be demonstrated to have occurred outside the
rules of our science, we have previously seen that it is
necessary to further consider whether the event can be
accounted for by proving that it demonstrates a flaw in those
rules. If it does represent a flaw in those rules we can then
change those rules to correspond with the different situation
created by the event.
If we are neither able to account for the event within the rules
of our science, nor to change those rules because the event has
demonstrated a flaw in them, then the event must be attributed
to an alternative cause of some sort.
Terminology, the use of the Words "Divine Creator"

In trying to understand the nature of events that fall outside the
rules of our science we are inevitably constrained by, and
limited to the knowledge experience and vocabulary made
available to all of us by the nature of our existence. In
particular these factors limit how, and the extent to which we
are able to visualise those things, of which we do not have a
direct experience.
17
I could find no means of considering, trying to express an
explanation for, or attributing a cause to such events, other
than to think of, and to refer to them, as arising from the
actions of some sort of an entity the nature of which within the
context of our science, I do not, and cannot understand.
In considering the concept of an entity, it was therefore

necessary to find a description that embodied a reference to
such an entity. In addition however, that description also
needed to address the fact that the entity has powers, attributes
and abilities, which are inevitably totally beyond those
possessed by any individual members of the human race, and
indeed beyond the whole of Mankind.
Descriptive words such as, for example, "Intelligent Creator",

were considered, but they failed altogether to address the
powers, attributes and abilities possessed by the "entity". The
only combination of words that adequately described the
attributes of the entity was "Divine Creator". It is recognised
that this is a combination of words with religious implications,
but in the context of the book the use of "Divine Creator" is
intended as a means of describing an entity with powers,
attributes, and abilities over and above those of Mankind.
The term "Random Chance"

It is common to see the occurrence of events that lie outside
the rules of our science attributed to a "random chance" event.
Indeed there can be no objection to the consideration that such
events may be attributable to random chance, provided that the
material that is the subject of the random chance exists. For
example the random chance event associated with the flipping
of a coin can occur, but only if the coin exists. Without the
coin there is nothing to flip and the event cannot occur.
18
Explanations for the coming together of energy and matter in
the Universe as a result of a random chance can be valid only
if the material associated with that random chance event exists.
The following is a fine but critical distinction. Whilst the
concept of random chance could be used to account for the
“coming together” of matter and energy in existence just after
the start of the Universe, it cannot be used to account for the
fact that the matter and energy actually came into existence,
and that it is present in the Universe. The existence of the
matter and energy in our Universe falls outside the rules of our
science.
Conclusion 2.1 A random chance event cannot account for the

existence of the matter and energy in the Universe. The
existence of that matter and energy falls outside the rules of
our science.
What are the Questions?

Before being able to proceed with the quest, it was first
necessary to define clearly the questions to which answers
were sought. Additionally it was necessary to ensure that those
questions fell within the realms of science, and did not stray
into the area of religion. I therefore defined what appeared
originally to have been two clear questions.
1. Am I, and the Universe around me, here intentionally, or as

a result of some "accident of nature"?
2. How do I as an individual fit in with the "grand design" of
things?
Presumptuous Questions?
Some may say that these are presumptuous questions.
Nonetheless we, the human race, are both restricted by, yet at
the same time entitled to function within the parameters of
what is known to us. It is a straightforward fact, that, within
those parameters and what is known to us, we alone, on this
19
Earth, and in the known Universe, are able to sit and ponder
the nature of the Universe. To consider whether an
unfathomably magnificent structure such as the Universe, with
all of its beauty and majesty, could have come into existence
by accident. Perhaps then to conclude that it was not an
accident, and that its very existence is the result of a deliberate
process of a Divine Creation.
It is a fact that all of the particles in our bodies have, at some

time, been part of the gas clouds and material that have
pervaded the Universe for the past thirteen and a half billion
years. Many of the atoms themselves, from which our bodies
are made, were manufactured in stars that have burnt out long
since. We are therefore all of us "Star Children", and perfectly
entitled to conjecture and draw conclusions about the nature of
our own origin. For whatever reason, we have the ability to do
so, so why should we not do so?
What do the Questions seek to establish?

It soon became apparent that the questions set raised two very
different issues, giving rise to two totally separate concepts.
Concept 1. The Nature and development of the Universe

We have seen that the singularity prevents us from looking
back to a time before the Universe was created. It is worth
repeating the need to draw a clear distinction between what, if
anything, existed before the Universe came into being, and the
nature of events that occurred after the beginning of the first
second of its existence. It is a fine distinction, but a critical
one. Within our science, we know nothing at all of what there
was before, and what happened before is a matter strictly for
religion.
In the context of Concept 1 therefore, the quest is to consider

and to try and attribute causes to certain events that occurred in
relation to the Universe, during and after that first second.
20
Concept 2. The Nature of the Creation and the development
of Life
There is a widespread debate about whether, expressed here
very simplistically, Life, and accordingly Mankind, developed
through a process of evolution from the “primeval soup”, as
suggested by Darwin, or whether Life and Mankind developed
by some other means.
The debate seems to revolve around just TWO concepts.

EITHER there was some form of Divine act of Creation of
Life, OR the evolutionist concept, that Life and Mankind
evolved as a totally “natural” process of evolution, following
on from some situation, possibly a random event, that gave rise
to the Creation of the Universe. The evolutionist suggestion
seems to be that the Creation and the development of Life was
a sequential evolutionary process, and that any apparent
discrepancies in that process must have an evolutionary
explanation that is, as yet, undiscovered.
But are the two alternatives the only options, or is a THIRD

alternative possible? Could it be that a Divine Creation of Life,
and natural evolution, do not offer an either, or situation, and
that they are somehow interconnected?
Before considering more fully the possibility of a third

alternative, it is necessary first of all be clear about yet another
particular and very specific distinction, this time between the
nature and development of the Universe, and the actual
Creation and development of Life.
As we will continue to see, the Universe, whilst incredibly

sophisticated, at the same time enjoys the most beautiful
simplicity. Since it came into existence its development on the
grand order of things has followed a set of mathematical rules
that are consistent throughout its depth and breadth. Whilst we
21
are a very long way indeed from fully understanding those
rules, they fall within the known laws of our science. As we
will see, events associated with the Universe's development
and growth have followed one another in a linear fashion, in
line with what could be construed as a clearly defined plan of
events.
Life and its ongoing development have however involved a

very different process. We shall see that Life has existed on
Earth for at least three and a half billion years. Arbitrariness
was inevitably present in creatures from the very first time an
organism made a decision about a course of action, regardless
of whether or not that decision was a conscious one.
Additionally, at some later point, consciousness and freedom
of choice entered the arena.
It is inevitable that three and a half billion years of life, with its
arbitrary actions and freedom of choice, must have involved an
inconceivably massive number of possible permutations. If the
Creation of Life and Mankind were orchestrated with a defined
outcome, it is clear that planning and providing for that
outcome, would have been a very different concept all together
from planning for, and orchestrating the creation of a
mathematical Universe.
Might Life, and its development, have come about as a result

of that third alternative? That there was a Divine Creation of
Life, but that natural selection was not an alternative to that
Divine Creation process, but an integral part of the ongoing
development of it? More particularly, built in to the plan might
there have been be a specific provision for, and the intention
of, Divine Intervention and fine-tuning of natural evolution at
certain stages of its progression? Thus might it be that
inexplicable evolutionary discrepancies were not the result of
evolutionary events awaiting an explanation, but were the
result of specific interventions by the Divine Creator?
22
The Hypotheses
1. That there is a Divine Creator and that Divine Creator
was responsible for the creation of the matter and
energy that exists in our Universe.
2. That a Divine Creator guided and controlled the nature

of the development of our Universe.
3. That a Divine Creator was responsible for the initial

occurrence of Life on Earth.
4. That a Divine Creator was responsible for the

progressive development of Life on Earth by a process
of evolution, and that evolution followed its “natural”
path. Certain otherwise inexplicable events that
occurred during that evolutionary process were the
result of specific interventions by the Divine Creator.
23
Chapter 3. The Big Bang and the start of the first
second of time
The Start of the Very First Second

We have seen that there was a point in time when all the matter
and energy of the Universe, space itself, and even time, was
contained at one point of zero size known as a singularity. As
we have also seen a singularity in this context is a point at
which the rules of our science break down, and beyond which
we cannot use mathematics to look back and "see" what was
before.
The singularity prevents us from looking back further than the

start of the very first second of time, and our consideration
thus starts some thirteen and a half billion years ago at the very
start of that very first second, of the very first day of our new
Universe. The Universe was contained within that singularity
which was of infinite density and heat. It exploded, not a
conventional explosion as we know it like a bomb fragmenting
into an existing space. Rather it was an expansion, with
material spreading out in all directions, an event that created
both the rapidly expanding space into which the matter was
rushing along with time itself. The matter was in the form of
sub atomic particles such as photons (virtually weightless
"units" of light) and electrons along with protons and neutrons,
sub atomic particles that are the basic building blocks of
atoms, the very elements themselves.
Atoms, the core Material of the Universe

We will look first at the core constituents of all matter, tiny,
tiny, particles. Atoms, so small that four million of them could
fit in a straight line across the head of a pin. Every atom is
made up of a small dense nucleolus of sub atomic particles
called protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of other
subatomic particles called electrons which circle the nucleolus.
24
There is typically one electron for each proton and the number
of protons at the core of an atom determines its chemical
nature. The gas hydrogen for example, has just one proton and
one electron, whilst oxygen has eight protons, eight electrons
(and eight neutrons).
The volume of the atom itself is largely empty space. The

distance of separation of the central nucleus from the orbiting
electrons is vast. It is of the order of magnitude equivalent to
the distance between the head of a pin, representing the
nucleus, located at the centre of an athletics stadium, and the
distance to the boundary of the stadium, which equates to the
orbit of the electron.
Whilst therefore the atom itself is tiny, we can see that those
neutrons and protons that make up its core are even more
minute. Protons and neutrons both weigh roughly the same and
are incredibly light and tiny at one point six billion, billion,
billionth of a gram. The weight of an electron is even less
again at 1/1836 of that of a proton or a neutron.
Protons and Neutrons

The proton is an electrically charged particle with a single
positive charge, whilst the neutron is a particle that is
electrically neutral. As we saw above, both particles are
located at the centre of the atom and weigh roughly the same.
They are both constructed from members a family of yet even
smaller fundamental particles called quarks. There are a
number of members of the quark family of which two are
named "up" and "down". (No, this isn't science fiction and the
name Quark was derived from the line "Three quarks for
Muster Mark" in Finnegan's Wake, a book written by James
Joyce). A proton is made from two up quarks and a down
quark. A neutron is made from one up quark and two down
quarks.
25
Quarks and the strong Nuclear Force
The quarks that make up the proton and the neutron are bound
together by what is described as the "strong nuclear force", a
binding force which binds all the particles in the nucleolus of
an atom together. This binding force is carried by yet more
tiny particles called gluons.
The strong nuclear force is the most powerful of all natural and
fundamental forces. It is so powerful that vast amounts of
energy are involved in overcoming it, as in nuclear fusion. It is
the energy liberated by nuclear fusion of the element hydrogen
and some other elements, that causes the Sun and the other
stars to shine. The net energy associated with the nuclear
fusion process of one gram of hydrogen is the equivalent of
175,000-kilo watt-hours of energy, sufficient energy to power
an electric fire for 20 years.
Electrons and The Electrostatic Forces

The electron is an electrically charged particle with a single
negative charge, that orbits around the central core of the atom.
Although the weight of an electron is 1/1836 of a proton, its
electrical charge is equal in magnitude to, but the opposite of
that of a proton. Electrons are fundamental particles in their
own right, and belong to yet another family of particles,
leptons.
Electrons are unaffected by the strong nuclear force, and their

location orbiting the nucleus is the result of the electrostatic
attraction of the negatively charged electron, to the positively
charged proton. This electrostatic force, which holds the tiny
electrons in their orbits, is a million times weaker than the
Strong Nuclear Force. It takes just a tiny amount of energy
from a surrounding atom to dislodge an electron from its orbit.
26
Assembling the Components
The individual constituents of the atom fit together beautifully,
like the parts of a jigsaw puzzle. Quarks make up protons and
neutrons, which are all in turn bound together by the Strong
Nuclear Force to make an atomic nucleus.
The strong nuclear force that affects particles at the nucleus

does not affect the electron. If it did, it would draw the electron
into the core, with the result that the formation of the chemical
elements (more about chemical elements later), and all that
followed from that, would not have been possible. Instead the
proton is permitted to experience both the strong nuclear and
the electrostatic forces, whilst the electron is permitted to feel
only the electrostatic force, thus allowing its orbit around the
nucleus.
Particle physics
The point about the incredible nature, and tiny size, of this
material has I suspect been adequately made, and I don't
propose to go into any greater detail about it here. The subject
of particle physics is an incredibly complex one, and there are
numerous institutions Worldwide studying it. Whilst massive
strides have been made in understanding the atomic structure
of the atom, the nature of its construction and the reason for
the presence of its component parts in the Universe at the start
of the first second of its Creation is unknown.
Conclusion 3.1 The presence of, and the nature and method of
the construction of atoms, their components and the forces
associated with them is unknown, and cannot be accounted for
within the rules of our science.
The atomic zest for Life

We have seen the complex nature of the atom, the heart of all
matter, yet despite that complexity its atomic structure follows
a set of rules that are generally understood by our science. At
27
the very first moment, the very start of the very first second of
Creation, the nature of the material introduced into the
Universe was such that, as we will see later, it would readily
and eagerly give itself to the development of organic
molecules. These organic molecules were to be the very
building blocks of Life.
Coincidence 3.1 The components that would not only support

life but also provide for and enable its very existence were
present in the Universe at the start of the very first second.
The quantity of Matter and Energy introduced into the

Universe
It is a fundamental rule of our science, the law of conservation
of energy, that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can
only be transferred from one form to another. If you were for
example to burn some wood in a sealed vessel it would radiate
a little heat, and you would find that the sum of the radiated
heat, and the ash and smoke that remained in the vessel had
exactly the same energy / matter equivalence as the wood and
the air in the bottle, before the wood was burnt. The sum total
of matter and energy in the Universe is similarly an
unchanging fixed amount. The vast quantities of energy and
matter that exist in the Universe today, were introduced into
the Universe at the time of the singularity.
As has already been noted we do not know what occurred

before the singularity, nor do we know the source of the vast
amount of matter and energy that was introduced into the
Universe at the point of the singularity. What is an indisputable
fact is that this matter was introduced, and that the quantity of
matter introduced was sufficient to sustain the development of
the Universe, otherwise the Universe and all that it contains, as
we can readily see just by looking around us, would not be
here today.
28
present in sufficient quantities in the Universe at the start of
the very first second.
No Wood Chippings in the crafting of this Universe's

Materials
When a human craftsman, for example, carves something from
wood, there are inevitably bits left over, chippings flakes etc.
There was however absolutely no extraneous material left over
in the Creation of the Universe. The crafting of the atom and
its component parts occurred with the finest of precision.
Everything fitted together perfectly with no extraneous
material. There were no other random "bits" of something.
There were no loose particles that do not associate with
anything else, and simply exist in space. Beta radiation and
various other sub atomic particles all exist, but they all tie into
the same mathematical / practical picture.
If somehow the coming together of material in the Universe

had been the subject of the random chance assembly of
existing material, then there could, say, have been the
appearance, at the origin, of element X that did not interact
with any other matter introduced at that time. The matter could
have been arbitrarily visible and, equally as arbitrarily, have
occupied, fifty percent, one percent or whatever percent of the
Universe, whilst being totally inert and disassociated with
other matter. There were however no such superfluous "bits",
and everything in the Universe interacts perfectly, both
mathematically and practically with everything else.
In coming to the conclusion that there is no extraneous

material in the Universe we are not constrained by what we
know of our immediate environment here on the Earth. We
have a rapidly increasing, and extensive knowledge of places
and events elsewhere in space. This comes from space
29
exploration, including visits to the Moon, mars and other more
remote solar bodies, data from the international space station,
telescopes, radio telescopes, meteors and in excess of three
hundred kilograms of material brought to Earth from the
Moon. Despite a detailed analysis of all this data and material,
we have no reason to believe that the nature of the material
elsewhere in the Universe is any different from the nature of
material here on Earth. We have no reason to believe, or even
to think, that any other form of material exists anywhere else.
Coincidence 3.3 All of the components that were present in the

Universe at the start of the very first second were relevant to
life and its existence. There was no extraneous material.
The complexity of Creation - v - its simplicity

As I worked my way through the chapters of the book,
backwards and forwards, checking here and correcting there, I
became increasingly enchanted by the stark contrast between
the practical complexities, and yet the conceptual simplicity of
the Creation, and following on from that Life and Mankind.
The structure of the atom is so very complex. The science of

particle physics associated with the three building blocks,
protons, neutrons and electrons is so complex that, despite
extensive research throughout the World, we regard it as an
achievement that we have been able to move but a few
individual atoms a tiny distance. We shall see later on in the
book, in more detail, how the arrangement of electrons in their
orbits provides for the creation of the individual chemical
elements, the reactions that occur between those elements, and
the creation of massive collections of atoms, macromolecules
that are the building blocks of life.
It is all so integrally complex, yet a concept so simple that an

individual, with absolutely no scientific knowledge, can
understand it. The smallest part of an element that retains its
30
unique chemical properties is an atom. From combinations of
just one hundred or so elements comes everything we know of,
everywhere, from a grain of sand through the human brain to
the Sun. We will also see how this theme of simplicity versus
complexity repeats itself throughout the process, not only in
relation to the development of the Universe, but also following
through into the nature of Life itself.
This concept of simplicity isn't however restricted just to

atoms, but reflects itself throughout our everyday lives. Every
structure, without exception, that mankind makes, starts life as
something simple that is built upon either by equally simple
parts, or more complex parts that themselves derive from
simple ones. The nature of the Creation of the Universe has
permeated itself through to our everyday lives.
31
Chapter 4. The creation of the Universe
An explanation of the molecular Nature of Heat

When we discuss heat we are actually referring to the vibration
motion of atoms and molecules. We saw in the last chapter that
matter is made of atoms. These atoms are in a state of
continuous energetic vibration, and the application of more
energy causes them to vibrate more violently and with
increased energy. A simple example is steam. It starts as water,
a collection of atoms in a kettle. The electrical energy applied
to the kettle is taken up by the atoms in the form of heat, thus
causing them to vibrate more violently. With the increasing
application of more energy the vibration increases to such a
pitch that massive volumes of atoms are able to break loose
from the body of water in the form of steam. If you scald your
hand in steam from a kettle, what has actually happened is that
the particles in the steam are moving and vibrating with such
force that when they collide with you, they cause physical
damage to the atomic structure of you hand.
Another example of how the vibration of atoms is felt as heat

occurs when an individual is present in a warm room, with the
doors and windows closed. What is perceived as heat is the
pressure of the atoms of the air vibrating and bouncing against
the walls of the room and our bodies. Opening a window into a
cooler environment releases the vibrating particles to the
outside World, reducing the pressure and thus the heat in the
room. This might sometimes be noticeable as a draft as the
vibrating particles "rush" out.
It was mentioned in the introduction that Celsius as opposed to

the scientific Kelvin scale would be used in the measurement
of heat. Essentially the difference between the two is that zero
degrees Kelvin represents absolute zero, when atomic particles
stop vibrating entirely. In degrees Celsius this equates to a
32
temperature of minus two hundred and seventy three degrees
Celsius.
After the Start of the very first Second of Time

In the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang, after the start of
the first second, the temperature of the Universe was an
inconceivable thousand billion degrees Celsius. The sub
atomic particles, electrons, neutrons and protons that we read
about earlier had not yet formed themselves into atoms. They
were still individual particles whizzing around at velocities at,
or approaching the speed of light.
Originally there was both matter and antimatter. The existence

of antimatter incidentally is a fact and not a science fiction
fantasy. It is produced and annihilated continuously in stars,
and it is also produced here on Earth in laboratory particle
accelerators that are able to produce high-energy antimatter
particles. In the beginning, when matter and antimatter met,
they cancelled each other out and annihilated each other
creating photons, "particles" of light radiation. There was
however an imbalance, an excess of matter over antimatter. As
the interactions between them continued matter continued to
annihilate antimatter and vice versa. The Universe was left
with a surplus of matter, no antimatter and a vast quantity of
radiated light. Over time these particles combined to form
protons and neutrons, and in due course atoms.
The amount of energy involved at this very early time was

unimaginably vast. We have already seen that the net energy
associated with the nuclear fusion of just one gram of
hydrogen is sufficient to power an electric fire for 20 years.
The weight of the Earth is six thousand, billion, billion

kilograms. I'm not going to even start trying to work out how
much energy equivalence there is in the Earth, let alone the
Universe!
33
Several Hundred Thousand Years after Point Zero
By several hundred thousand years after point zero the
temperature of the Universe had fallen to just several thousand
degrees Celsius, and the Universe continued to expand. If this
rapidly increasing distribution of matter throughout the
Universe had been the same in every direction, it would have
lead to a universal mist of evenly distributed particles with no
potential to form stars, planets or Life. But that wasn't the way
that it happened.
Instead as the expansion continued matter collected into

distinct clumpy dust clouds that began to condense and rotate,
forming the forerunners of galaxies (vast collections of stars).
In some of the smaller clouds where there were the right
forces, and sufficient material, the clouds began to collapse
under gravity. If the material in the cloud became sufficiently
compressed nuclear reactions began at its centre, and a star
was born.
So, what was it that caused the material to gather together in

clouds? Before the completion of the first fraction of a second
of the Universe's new life, tiny variations (known technically
as quantum fluctuations) in the amount of matter being
distributed were contained within the overall design and nature
of the Universe. In some areas the density of the matter was
slightly greater than others, and although incredibly minute,
these small variations were nonetheless sufficiently large for
gravity to start to act on them and draw them together. Tiny
amounts of matter were concentrated into slightly larger
amounts, and those slightly larger amounts were concentrated
into larger ones again. And so the clumpy dust clouds came
together.
Coincidence 4.1 From the start of the first second the

distribution of matter through the Universe was orchestrated
34
so as to enable the formation of vast gas clouds. This lead to
the Creation of stars like our Sun, planets like the Earth and
Life leading to the development of Mankind.
Almost a Million Years after Point Zero

Stars had already formed by this time, and the provision for the
manufacture of the heavier elements up to and including iron
was well underway. The formation of the interstellar bodies is
covered in more detail later. We saw earlier that the
components had been crafted and the plan prepared.
Now we can see the assembly starting to take shape The first
ever production line had moved into production, and the
contrast between simplicity and complexity continued to
manifest itself. The material first introduced into the Universe
was in the form of tiny sub atomic particles, along with the
nuclear forces needed to pull the core parts of the atomic
nuclei, the quarks together.
With this came the electrostatic force necessary to trap

electrons into the orbits of those newly formed protons thus
creating hydrogen, the simplest, most basic, naturally
occurring element, formed simply from a central proton with
an orbiting electron.
The point here, expressed very simplistically, is that the "bits"

needed to make up the atoms were designed to fit together, and
the strong nuclear force, and the electrostatic force that
facilitated that assembly came along with the bits. The facility
for the particles to assemble themselves was such that, once
assembled, they had “self-formed” themselves into the first
basic hydrogen atom, a proton with an orbiting electron.
Essentially, elements are classified by the number of protons in

their nucleus, and this is then expressed as their weight.
Hydrogen having one proton is classified as the lightest
35
element, helium with two is a little heavier, and Iron with up to
twenty-six protons is much heavier.
Hydrogen is also the basic fuel for nuclear fusion in stars

(nuclear fusion is the fusing, squeezing together, of the nuclei
of light elements to form heavier ones). Once the particles
were assembled into basic hydrogen atoms, gravity started to
act, creating the stars and squeezing the hydrogen cores in
them together, to form helium. Once helium formed the next
heaviest element was squeezed together, and thus many of the
elements necessary for life were constructed in a
straightforward linear fashion. The first, perfect production
line was continuing its work.
The fusion process just described, that takes place in living

burning stars, can form only elements up to a maximum weight
up to, and including that, of iron. The heavier elements, not
created by the burning of the stars, are created in violent
supernova explosions at the end of the star's life. These
explosions also have the effect of dispersing all of the elements
created throughout space.
So the earlier massive stars burned the hydrogen fuel available,

and then went through the process of creating the heavier
elements by fusion, and then by exploding into supernovas.
Yet a further beauty of the plan therefore was that the process
was a cyclical one, with later generations of stars thus starting
Life with increasingly large quantities of the heavier elements.
Not quite a perpetual motion machine, but the perfect
mechanism to provide for the ongoing generation of material.
Eventually the proliferation of elements throughout the
Universe was sufficient for our Sun and the rocky planet called
Earth to form.
Our Universe's production line came equipped with all the raw
materials needed for its output, a production plan incorporated
36
into its raw material and a fully comprehensive distribution
network!
The design of the development of the Universe, from that very

first second, was so perfect that one might perhaps envisage a
Divine Creator being able to leave it to its own devices for ten
billion years, until all was ready for the first appearance of
Life.
Coincidence 4.2 Inherent in the nature of the Universe's design

were the raw materials needed for its output, a production
plan, a fully comprehensive distribution network and a cyclical
process to facilitate an ongoing production process.
Where are we in the Univers e?

We inhabit the planet Earth, orbiting our Sun, a star which is
just one of a hundred billion other stars in our Galaxy, a
Galaxy called the Milky Way. There are literally billions of
galaxies scattered throughout the Universe.
So where exactly are we in relation to the singularity and the

point of origin of the Universe, and where are we located in
relation to the overall Universe now? Well, all matter and
energy, of which we are a part, was packed into an
infinitesimally small space at the very beginning. What is
certain therefore is that the material that comprises our planet
and us, was packed into that space which lay at the centre of
Creation. So if nothing else we are entitled to make the
somewhat abstract statement that we were actually at the
centre of the Creation.
That aside, we simply don't have the means to assess where the
Earth lies in relation to the rest of the content of the Universe.
It is variously argued that we have no reason to believe that the
Solar System, the Sun, or the Earth, lie at the centre of the
Universe. There is however no known scientific evidence that
37
proves that we aren't located at the centre either; we simply
don't know.
How do we know about the Universe's Past?

We have seen that the concept of the Big Bang originally
derived from the equations of Einstein's theories of Relativity.
Included in those equations was a prediction that because of
the way matter and energy, on the grand scale, was distributed
equally throughout the Universe there would be a general
background heat permeated throughout space, at a temperature
of approximately minus two hundred and seventy degrees
Celsius. We saw earlier that although this is extremely cold it
is slightly above absolute zero. At the time that the prediction
about the background heat was made science lacked the ability
to test it, but the heat, at almost exactly the temperature
predicted, has now been detected both by instruments on man
made satellites in space, and also by Earth bound equipment. It
provides a very firm verification of the theory.
Additional evidence comes from the fact that by analysing the

light coming from other Galaxies (the Doppler effect), it has
been possible to measure whether those Galaxies are moving
towards us or away from us. The conclusion has been that they
are indeed, generally moving away from us, and from each
other, with the more distant Galaxies moving with increasing
speed, thus confirming the concept of an expanding Universe.
The Doppler effect

Sound offers an example of the Doppler effect. A traveller
standing on a train station as a fast moving train passes through
will hear the pitch of the train rise as it approaches the station,
and fall as it leaves. The reason for this is that sound is a series
of waves travelling through the air. As the train approaches the
traveller the individual sound waves are compressed by being
heard by the traveller at shorter and shorter intervals, thus
making the pitch rise. As the train moves away the waves are
38
heard at greater and greater intervals, stretching the
wavelengths out to lower pitches.
The Doppler effect on Light

Light, as part of the electromagnetic spectrum is also a wave,
and is thus subject to a similar Doppler effect. Colour relates to
wavelength for light in the same way as pitch relates to
wavelength for sound, If someone was shining a torch at you
and, moving towards you at the same time, the wavelengths of
the light would become compressed and the colour of the light
would change. How much the colour of the light changed
would depend on the speed with which the torch was
approaching you, As it was moving towards you, the
compression of the light would tend towards the blue end of
the spectrum and would be called blueshifted light.
In astronomy therefore, the Doppler Redshift results from the

source of light moving away from the observer. The
wavelength of the light is moving away and is stretched out
and shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. Without
getting into any further detail, the point to make is that the
redshifting of the light from distant galaxies confirms that they
are moving away from each other.
The Pudding Model of the Universe

An often-used explanation of the nature of this spreading and
moving away of the Galaxies throughout the Universe is the
"Pudding" model. Imagine that the pudding starts out resting
on the baking tray as a small ball of dough with raisins in it.
The expansion of the Universe is then described as analogous
to that expansion. The raisins on the pudding are the Galaxies.
As the pudding cooks and expands, raisins near each other will
move with like speeds, whilst the raisins that are farther apart
at the edge of the pudding move away with increasing speed.
39
Conclusion 4.1 The presence of the predicted background
heat, and confirmation that the galaxies are moving away from
each other ratifies the Big Bang theory, and provides firm
evidence that the Universe had an origin.
40
Chapter 5. The nature of the Universe
The Night Sky

To an Earth based observer, the night sky looks like a
hemispherical dome bounded by the horizon. Stars rise on the
eastern horizon and move across the sky in a westerly
direction. As the night progresses, they continue their motion,
eventually setting below the western horizon. We now know of
course that the perceived motion of the stars is not real, but is
due to the rotation of the Earth from west to east every twenty-
four hours. For the purpose of defining the positions of the
stellar bodies, stars galaxies etc, it can be imagined however
that the they are fixed to the inside of a sphere that rotates
around the Earth once daily, and observers from the Earth
define the positions of the bodies by reference to their view
from Earth.
Early observers concluded that all the lights in the sky were
stars, but with the advent of increasingly powerful telescopes,
the true nature of the night sky started to reveal itself. They
weren't seeing just stars, but planets, comets and also distant
galaxies, with vast collections of stars many billions of miles
away from other galaxies also containing billions of stars.
When we observe a distant point of light we see it not as it is

now, but as it was at a certain time in the past, at the very
moment that the light left it.
The scale of the Universe

Before taking a more detailed look at the nature of the objects
in the Universe, and also the nature of their Creation, we need
to understand just how very vast our Universe really is. When
considering the astronomical distances involved here, we can't
really think in terms of conventional units like miles, meters or
kilometres. We need to think in terms of much bigger
41
dimensions, and the distance light can travel over a period of
time has become the accepted unit of measurement of
distances of this kind of magnitude.
Light in the vacuum (emptiness) of space, travels at three

hundred thousand kilometres per second, and can circle the
Earth some seven times in one second. Thus light can travel
ten thousand million kilometres in one year, and it is this unit
of measurement, described as a light year, that is used to
describe distances in the Universe. For example our observable
Universe is estimated as some fifteen billion light years (or
more) across, that's one hundred and fifty billion, billion,
billion kilometres.
Essentially, with the exception of comets that land on Earth,

and the three hundred or so kilograms of rocks shipped down
from the Moon, everything we know, and have learnt about the
Universe and its contents, comes to us in the form of
electromagnetic radiation, and indeed, from every form of
radiation in the Electromagnetic spectrum from low energy
radio waves through to the high-energy gamma rays.
Included in the Electromagnetic Spectrum, although only a

very small part of it, is visible light. Until fairly recently this
has been our only means of observing the night sky. Even then,
particles and other material in the Earth's atmosphere
prevented a large part of that visible light from reaching us. It
is only during the last century that developments in electronics,
and advances in space travel and space based monitoring
equipment have enabled us to significantly enhance our
knowledge of the night skies.
The Components of the Universe

Our planet Earth and the Solar System to which it belongs is
contained within a Galaxy, the Milky Way, a swirling spiral
System of one hundred billion stars, of the order of one
42
hundred thousand light years in diameter. Galaxies are not the
ultimate collections of stars, and galaxies themselves are
grouped into clusters of up to several thousand members.
The space between stars and galaxies is often described as a

empty, and although this is true by reference to the density of
the Earth's atmosphere, interstellar space actually contains a
tiny mixture of gas and dust at one hundred million, million,
millionths of the Earth's atmosphere.
We are going to look only very briefly, and then just for
completeness, at the nature of the various interstellar bodies on
the grand scale. They are not directly relevant to the content of
the book and are more than adequately covered in other
publications.
1. Galaxies
There are billions of galaxies of widely different types in the
Universe. There are different ways of classifying those
galaxies, the simplest being their arrangement into three
fundamental types, spiral with spiral arms emerging from
them, elliptical, and irregular galaxies with no defined nucleus
or structure. Galaxies range in diameter from three thousand to
one hundred and fifty thousand light years.
2. Black Holes
A black hole is an area of space into which material has fallen
and from which nothing, not even light, can escape. As matter
is compressed its gravitational attraction increases, and thus
the escape velocity at its surface increases. If the compression
of matter becomes sufficiently great, so that the escape
velocity exceeds the speed of light, gravity overcomes all other
forces, and the body collapses to a black hole. This is then a
point of infinite density and, like the origin of the Universe, is
known as a singularity where the rules of our science fail.
43
3. Pulsars
A Pulsar is the central core of neutrons of a dying star that has
exploded in a supernova.
4. Stars
We have already touched briefly on stars. Our very close
neighbour the Sun, itself a star, plays such a critical role in our
Life that a discussion on stars has been accorded a chapter of
its own.
The Laws of the Universe

Although there are very, very many aspects of the Creation of
the Universe that are not clear to us, it is known that with some
exceptions, black holes for example, the Universe is governed
by a set of laws. As far as we have been able to establish these
laws are homogenous (operate equally everywhere) through
space. Whilst seeking to avoid the complexities of
mathematics, we must just touch on a couple of these laws.
The Universal Law of Gravitation provides that all bodies in

the Universe attract each other with a force that depends on the
weights of those bodies. That attraction increases
proportionally; the closer the bodies are to each other.
Consider that the closer two billiard balls are to each other the
more gravity makes them want to get closer. The reason that
they don't actually move closer together is because they are
prevented from doing so by the friction of the table, and the
overpowering gravitational attraction of the Earth and the other
bodies around them. Left alone in some remote corner of the
Universe, devoid of gravitational attraction from other bodies
and on a frictionless table, they would indeed get together
under gravity.
44
Another Universal law, one we have already discussed, is that
light travels at a fixed speed of three hundred thousand
kilometres per second.
Conclusion 5.1 The design, the development and the nature of

the Universe are governed by a distinct set of rules of science,
for example that light in a vacuum must travel at three
hundred thousand kilometres per second. Whilst we can, to a
certain extent, understand those rules we are bound by them.
Within the rules of our science we are neither able to account
for the existence of those rules nor to circumvent them in any
way.
The "timing" of the Universe

We have seen that the tiny variations in the original
distribution of matter caused gravity to concentrate tiny
amounts of matter into larger amounts of matter, and those
larger amounts of matter into even larger clumps of matter and
so on. The end results of the influence of this gravitational
force were the galaxies, the stars and the planets.
The initial variations in the distribution of particles were very

small, so that large scale changes took a relatively long time to
manifest themselves. During the first nine billion years the
stars were creating the abundance of elements needed to create
the rocky mineral rich planet that is Earth. Over the next four
and a half billion years the oxygen rich atmosphere on Earth,
and subsequently Life as we know it, were developing.
If the original fluctuations in the distribution of matter had

been smaller, there might not, by now, have been sufficient
time for the overall abundance of elements necessary for our
existence to have been manufactured. If the fluctuations had
been larger, or even much larger the Universe might have
collapsed before the Earth even formed.
45
Coincidence 5.1 The size of the random fluctuations of matter
introduced into the Universe was appropriate for the timing of
the Creation of Earth and Life on it.
46
Chapter 6. The creation of the Stars
Star formation
At the start of the Universe the elements necessary for Life,
oxygen, nitrogen and iron for example, didn't exist and had to
wait to be created in the furnaces of the stars. We know that
the only element present in the early Universe was hydrogen,
and the first stars were therefore composed almost entirely
from this. Star formation is a complex process and no two stars
are the same. Their construction is for example dependent,
amongst other things, on the volume of material in their
vicinity available for their formation.
Following the Big Bang huge interstellar clouds consisting of

gas and tiny particles of solid material formed, and these were
the basis of the formation of the first stars. Concentrations of
material broke loose from those huge clouds in clumps. A
clump of material that has broken free from the other parts of
the dust cloud, and has its own unique gravity and identity, is
known as a protostar.
As a protostar develops loose gas and dust fall into its centre
under the increasing gravitational attraction of the growing
star. The protostar star, at first, has only a small percentage of
its final mass and the envelope of the star continues to grow as
inflowing material is accreted. After a few million years,
nuclear fusion begins in its core,
Over a period of time the protostar starts increasingly to

generate a stellar wind, an out rushing of sub atomic particles,
and when this outgoing force exceeds the pressure of the in
flowing material that inflow of material stops. The star is then
considered a young star with a fixed mass, and its future
evolution is set. During the early stages the residue of the
original broken away clump of gas and dust cloud surround the
47
young star. Some of these remains dissipate under the force of
the stellar wind, whilst some of it may come together under
gravity, in the process possibly creating objects such as
planets.
A star therefore is essentially a ball of gas held together by the

interaction between its own gravity, and the pressure
emanating from the centre. The force of gravity is continually
trying to force the star to collapse towards its centre, whilst
outward pressure produced by the energy from the Star's
interior resists this.
You will recall that Hydrogen is the lightest element, with one
proton and an orbiting electron. When a star burns, gravity
forces the individual hydrogen atoms together until they
combine to form the heavier element helium. The energy
associated with the process of fusing atoms in this way is the
energy that we see radiating from the Sun and the other stars.
When all the hydrogen atoms have been converted to helium,
helium is then similarly fused together to form the next
heaviest element, until, eventually, all the lighter elements that
are capable of being fused in the normal process of a stars Life
have been fused together to form a core of the heavier
elements.
Once the star reaches this point there is therefore no more fuel
to be processed, and the continuing generation of power is no
longer possible. Consequently there is no more outgoing
pressure resisting the inwards gravitational attraction, and the
star starts to collapse in on itself under the force of gravity.
The eventual fate of a star depends on its size and mass. Stars
around the size of our Sun will tend to collapse in on
themselves and become white dwarfs, hot bodies of a size of
the order of magnitude of Earth, and densities of hundreds of
millions of kilograms per cubic meter.
48
In the larger more massive stars the collapse in on themselves
is extremely rapid, fusing the atoms at the core into even
heavier elements with massive fusion reactions. The dying star
explodes releasing a vast amount of energy, sufficient to blow
away all the outer parts of the star in a violent explosion, and
the star thus becomes a supernova. The light of this one star is
then as bright as that from all the other one hundred billion
stars in that galaxy. During this explosive phase those heavier
elements that were formed within the collapsing star, together
with the rest of the content of the outer regions of the star, are
blown into interstellar space at a speed approaching ten
thousand kilometres per second. Left behind is a neutron star
of even greater density than a white dwarf.
In other cases, the process is slower. Instead of an explosion,

elements from the star's interior zones rise to the surface and
are then lost to space when the outer layers blow off. The end
results are similar. The space between the stars is enriched
with increasingly heavy elements.
All of the naturally occurring elements in the Universe with

weights greater than hydrogen were thus produced inside stars,
and spread throughout space by supernovae. It took
generations of stars, each processing the debris left by earlier
ones and thus starting off with a greater quantity of heavier
elements than the last, and then redistributing more elements
through further supernovae, to produce the present abundance
of elements found in the Universe. Each successive generation
of stars thus started off with a greater quantity of heavy
elements than the previous generation.
These elements that are generated in stars, and through the

death of stars, don't however make up only the massive
interstellar bodies. They make up every single part of all of our
bodies, and everything else that we see about us. So we are, all
49
of us, made up of material much of which has been processed
at least once, and possibly several times, inside stars.
The Nature of the Early Stars

The very first stars were nothing like our Sun. They were
massive, perhaps ten times bigger than our Sun, white-hot
stars, burning for only a few million years. When those first
stars came to the end of their lives many exploded as
supernovae, and began the seeding process in the Universe,
spreading vital heavier elements like carbon and oxygen,
which served as planetary building blocks.
It was the design of these early stars however that caused them
to be so short-lived. The more massive a star the more space
there is for nuclear reactions to occur, thus the more quickly it
burns up its hydrogen and hence the brighter and hotter it is.
The rapid conversion of hydrogen into helium also means that
the hydrogen gets used up at a greater rate in the more massive
stars than the smaller ones. This of course leads to a much
faster creation of the heavier elements than if the stars had
been smaller.
For a star like the Sun, the main stage of its Life lasts about ten
thousand million years, whereas a star ten times as massive
will be ten thousand times as bright and will last only one
hundred thousand years. Thus another feature of the design of
the Universe was that, in its early years, the production of the
elements necessary for Life occurred quickly.
Coincidence 6.1 The nature of the early stars of the Universe

was such that it provided for a relatively fast creation of the
elements needed to develop and sustain Life.
50
Chapter 7. The Solar System
The physical Solar System

Earth, the planet on which we live, is located in the Solar
System, a collection of nine planets and other bodies such as
Moons rotating around the central body the Sun. The Solar
System in turn is located in our own Milky Way Galaxy,
which was formed, like the others, from the massive clouds of
gas and dust in the Universe.
There are various theories and a great deal of uncertainty about

how the Solar System was formed. For the purpose of this
book the nature of the Solar System’s formation isn’t
important, as we are more concerned with its nature and the
consequences of its formation, as opposed to the fine detail of
its construction.
One way or another it is believed that the Sun and the other
bodies in the Solar System all originated at or about the same
time, from of a single cloud of gas and dust that itself had
broken off from a larger cloud. Once it had broken loose from
the main cloud the broken off clump of dust would have
started to rotate under its own acquired gravity, and then, later,
started to collapse in on itself causing material from the cloud
to flow towards the centre. The speeding up of the rotation
caused the cloud to flatten out into a disk, with the densest part
in the centre.
Material from the cloud of dust and gas continued to flow into
the centre of the disk under gravity, releasing energy in the
form of heat as it did so. The temperature and pressure at the
centre increased until it enabled nuclear reactions to start at the
core. The pressure at the centre further increased as a
consequence of these nuclear reactions until, at some point, the
outgoing pressure exceeded the inflowing force of material,
51
and the outgoing pressure became visible as radiated heat. The
centre of the disk had become a star, our Sun.
There was a cloud of dust around the outskirts of the evolving

Sun, some of the particles of which collided and hung together
forming larger and larger fragments. There were more and
more collisions, until the dust that had not been either drawn
into the Sun, or blown away by a stellar wind generated by the
Sun, came together to form the nine planets, and the other
bodies in the Solar System.
These planets are now well spaced from each other and in, as
far as we know, stable orbits maintaining their respective
orbital distances around the Solar System under the
gravitational force of the centrally located Sun. The Sun
weighs almost a thousand times as much as the rest of the
Solar System put together, and its massive gravitational force
controls and guides its family of planets, satellites, comets, and
many hundreds of thousands of asteroids and other bodies of
varying sizes from tiny dust specks upwards. The path of each
of these bodies around the Sun is determined primarily by a
balance between the inward attraction of the Sun's gravity, and
the gravitational effects of the bodies themselves, although the
Sun's attraction is the most predominant force.
We shall soon see that once the Solar System, and with it the
Sun and the Earth, had come into being, life was so eager to
get going that it came into existence within a relatively short
space of time.
Coincidence 7.1 The nature of the matter in the Universe was

such that it was eager and ready for the formation of Life.
By the very nature of the process of the ongoing creation of

heavier elements, we can see that the Universe will progress to
a state where increasingly heavy elements will abound, and the
52
presence of lighter elements will become increasingly rare.
Here on Earth we have sufficient, but not an excess, of all the
elements necessary for Life. We might make a judgement that
similar criteria about the eagerness of the formation of life
applied also to the Solar System itself, and that it formed as
soon as the appropriate necessary ratios of elements needed for
Life existed.
Coincidence 7.2 The nature of the Solar System is such that it

came into existence at a time when the distribution of elements
was appropriate for the formation of Life on Earth.
The position of the other Celestial Bodies relative to Earth

It is a fact that the spacing of a number of planets (interspaced
with an asteroid, Ceres) out from the Sun follows a specific
mathematical order, for which there is no apparent reason or
explanation. A scientist named Bode discovered the rule and
the relationship has become known as Bode’s law. The
mathematics of this is readily available on the Internet and has
been omitted. A table setting out the results of the application
of this rule is set out below.
Bode’s Number sequence
Planet Bode Actual Error
Mercury 0.40 0.39 0.01
Venus 0.70 0.72 0.02
Earth 1.00 1.00 0.00
Mars 1.60 1.52 0.08
Ceres 2.80 2.77 0.03
Jupiter 5.20 5.20 0.00
Saturn 10.00 9.58 0.42
Uranus 19.60 19.20 0.40
53
This is one of a number of coincidences of numbers that occur,
and, although it is not of any particular significance within our
current knowledge, it is nonetheless another oddity of
Creation.
Coincidence 7.3 The spacing of the first seven planets

(interspaced with an asteroid) out from the Sun follows a
specific mathematical order for which there is no apparent
reason or explanation.
The location of the Earth relative to the Sun

The only other relevant thing to say about the physical
formation of the Solar System is that, one way or another, it
ended up with a balanced distribution of material such that the
Earth was of exactly the correct weight, size and location
relative to the Sun, to facilitate the development of Life on
Earth.
By reference to the position of Mars and Venus, both of which

are uninhabitable, if the location of the Earth had been just
midway between that of Mars and its current location it too
would have been uninhabitable, and unable to sustain Life. By
reference therefore to the overall diameter of the Solar System,
the location of the Earth relative to the Sun is precise to
0.000005%, as far as its location is necessary in order to
sustain Life.
Coincidence 7.4 The position of the Earth relative to the other

bodies in the Solar System was ideal for the development of
Life.
Coincidence 7.5 By reference to the overall diameter of the

Solar System the location of the Earth relative to the Sun is
precise to 0.000005% as far as its location is necessary in
order to sustain Life.
54
We shall however see in the next chapter that there was
another Solar System "player", the Moon, the existence and
positioning of which was very relevant to Life on the Earth.
Without its influence the relatively clement seasons that we
enjoy on Earth would have been very different.
The importance of the Nature of the Solar System in the

Long before the early Greeks concluded that the Earth was
round civilisations were studying the movements of the Moon,
Sun, and planets, and using the information about those
movements to calculate the seasons. By studying the
movement of these celestial bodies those early observers
created the first calendars. With a calendar it became possible
to calculate the arrival of the planting seasons. The
measurement of land was necessary if it was to be shared and
divided accurately, and the measurements of amounts of seeds
or grain were also a factor in farming. Later came the need to
measure value as bartering and subsequently money
transactions came about.
The main factor that made it possible for Mankind to settle in

permanent communities, and to develop as it has, was
agriculture. After farming was developed some ten thousand
years ago, people living in tribes or family units did not have
to be on the move continually searching for food, or herding
their animals. Once people controlled food production and
were reasonably sure of a reliable supply of it, the nature of
life changed completely.
Coincidence 7.6 The development of agriculture necessary for

a progressively developing civilisation was a direct result of
the nature of the Solar System and the orbits of the bodies in it.
The science of mathematics is often described as having been

developed by mankind, but its existence was actually inherent
55
in the nature of the creation of the Universe. Mankind simply
discovered it, in the same was as it has been enabled to
discover so many other things. The discovery of mathematics
came about through agriculture, and without mathematics there
would have been no means for the successful development of
agriculture. Without agriculture, which came about as a result
of the nature of the Solar System, it is questionable whether
mathematics itself would have been discovered.
Coincidence 7.7 The discovery of mathematics, the forerunner

of all science, went hand in hand with the development of
agriculture, and was the result of the nature of the orbits of the
A simpler Solar System

How easy it would be to imagine a much simpler Solar System
created by a random chance, from the matter in the evolving
Universe. It could perhaps have provided for just one planet,
Earth, rotating at a fixed distance from the Sun, and ideally
suited for the formation of Life, and with no other heavenly
Solar System bodies. Then there would have been the distant
light points of galaxies and stars.
Life might then have come into existence in just the same way
as we will see in later chapters, but without the features of the
Solar System, the civilisation that is Mankind could not have
developed.
Coincidence 7.8 The nature of the distribution of the bodies in

the Solar Stem other than Earth, was fundamental to the
development of mankind.
56
Chapter 8. The Earth and the Moon
The physical Moon

With the exception of mercury and venus, all the planets of our
Solar System have natural satellites or Moons revolving
around them. The Earth has one such Moon.
Our Moon is the Earth's only satellite. It orbits the Earth in an

elliptical orbit varying from four hundred thousand kilometres
to three hundred and fifty thousand kilometres, with an orbital
period around the Earth of approximately twenty-seven and a
half days. It rotates on its own axis in exactly the same time
that it takes to travel around the Earth, so that the same face of
the Moon is always facing the Earth. The Earth / Moon system
also revolves around the Sun, taking approximately 365 days, a
calendar year, to complete one orbit.
The formation of the Moon

A popular theory about the development of the moon is that it
was part of the ongoing process of collision and accretion of
Solar bodies that occurred around the time of the formation of
the planets. It is believed that, at a time when the Earth had
achieved a relatively high degree of stability, a body of the
order of the size of Mars collided with it at high speed.
Following on from this collision the Moon formed either as a
direct result of some of the material from the collision being
ejected directly into space, or, over a period of time, from the
debris from the collision accreting together to form the body of
the Moon.
Another, alternative theory, is that the velocity of the object

was such that it was just right to be captured by the Earth's
gravity and pulled into orbit around the Earth.
57
The interaction between the Moon and the Earth
Congenial Climate
We have already seen how the Earth found itself in a unique
location, a narrow habitable zone around the Sun. Venus is too
close to the Sun and hence is too hot for Life. Mars is too far
from the Sun. Only the Earth has the proper size and
composition of matter to be habitable.
A planet's axis, about which it rotates, is an imaginary line

through both of the planet's poles. The Earth makes one full
orbit around the Sun each year but the axis around which it
rotates is not at right angles to the Sun, but points away from it
by approximately twenty three degrees. The Earth can be
considered as being "split" at the equator into the Northern
hemisphere, the top half of the Earth, and the Southern
hemisphere, the bottom half of the Earth. This twenty three
degree tilt is very important, and is very significant in causing
differential seasons, and varying climatic conditions
throughout the year. The gravitational interaction between the
Moon and the Earth is responsible for maintaining the Earth's
twenty three degree tilt.
Examples of the effect of the Earth's twenty three degree tilt

Because the tilt is permanent it causes the Northern
Hemisphere to be tilted towards the Sun during the summer,
and it is thus in a more direct path of the Sun's energy. The
Sun's rays have less distance to travel through the atmosphere
resulting in less Sunlight being scattered before reaching the
ground. Additionally a high Sun angle produces long days.
The heat of the Sun penetrates only a little way into the solid
surface of the land, so that its temperature changes easily. For
example at night the desert is cold, fifteen degrees Celsius or
lower, but when the Sun rises in the morning the temperature
increases rapidly to forty degrees Celsius or more. There is
58
significantly more land than water in the northern hemispheres,
and in the summer therefore the Northern landmasses become
extremely warm during the summer days.
Heat however has a totally different effect on the waters of the

oceans, which it penetrates more deeply than the land. The
oceans heat up more slowly than the land, but retain the heat
for much longer, so that during the night they might loose just
a few degrees of heat, far less than land. In the winter the
southern hemisphere with its mass of slowly warming water
leans towards the Sun, and the sunlight is spread thorough the
mass of water so that Southern summers in January are cooler
than Northern Summers in July.
Coincidence 8.1 The specific location of the Moon in its orbit

around the Earth is largely responsible for the Earth’s
congenial climate and varying seasons.
The Ocean's tides

The gravitational attraction of the Moon is primarily
responsible for the daily ocean tides, which are caused by the
gravitational forces between the Earth and the Moon. The
Moon's gravitational attraction is stronger on the side of the
Earth nearest to the Moon, and weaker on the opposite side.
Since the Earth, and particularly the oceans on it are not rigid,
the planet is stretched out slightly along a line toward the
Moon and we see two bulges in the oceans, the tides. It is
believed that these tides may have contributed to the original
mixing and assembly of organic molecules, which as we shall
soon see, were the building blocks of Life (although not Life
itself).

around the Earth is believed to have played a significant part
in the formation of organic molecules.
59
Solar Eclipses
A Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun
and the Earth and can result in the Moon totally obscuring the
Sun. Both the Moon and the Sun are almost perfect spheres a
vast distance apart and yet are capable of creating Solar
Eclipses. This is possible only because;
?? The Moon is 1/400th the size of the Sun

?? The Moon is and 1/400th the distance of Earth from the
Sun
?? The Moon and the Sun are perfectly aligned on the
same plane as the Earth and Sun.
Coincidence 8.3 There is a clear mathematical relationship

between the positioning of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun
and the relative sizes of the Moon and the Sun.
The size of the Moon at 1/400 that of the Sun, and the distance
of the Moon from Earth at 1/400 that of the Sun, cause
periodic Solar Eclipses that can have the effect of ""blotting
out" the Sun to observers on Earth. There is no apparent reason
for this relationship.
Coincidence 8.4 The mathematical relationship between the

sizes of the Moon and the Sun causes periodic solar eclipses to
occur which can completely obscure the view of the Sun from
the Earth.
60
Chapter 9. The formation of the Earth
The physical Earth

The Earth formed in a similar fashion to the other planets in
the Solar System in a process of accretion, by which gravity
caused clouds of dust to form into rubble, which then formed a
central point of attraction for material to the newly forming
planet. The growth of accumulated matter compressed the
interior, produced heat and increased the Earth's temperature.
The Earth wasn't the only body to form, and other bodies of
various sizes also formed and then collided with the Earth
adding to its size and making the planet hot and molten.
As the temperature continued to increase the heavier elements

such as iron flowed to centre of the Earth, whilst the lighter
substances such as silicon and aluminium rose to the surface.
The Earth has a central core that is divided into two parts, a
solid inner core with a radius of one thousand kilometres,
where the pressure is more than a million times greater than at
the surface. It is estimated that the temperature at the core is
in the region of five thousand degrees Celsius, similar to the
temperature at the surface of the Sun.
Beyond the central core is a liquid outer core, extending

beyond centre of the planet to a radius of some three thousand
kilometres. It is believed that this is made up of liquid iron,
mixed with liquid nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.
Convection in the outer core, combined with the effects of the
Earth's rotation, gives rise to the Earth's magnetic field.
The next outward layer, the Earth's mantle, makes up seventy

percent of the total volume of the Earth. The inner part of this
region is solid, while the upper, outer mantle is plastic and
very hot. The material in the mantle is close to the melting
point of rocks so that it flows almost like a liquid.
61
Finally a crust ranging from five to seventy kilometres in
thickness covers the mantle. The thinner parts tend to be
oceanic crust, whilst the thicker crust is continental crust.
Coincidence 9.1 The nature of the formation of the Earth was

such that it has a protective crust, which is just five kilometres
thick in some places. The crust is all that lies between Life and
the heat of the inner Earth.
The nature and action of Tectonic Plates

As the Earth cooled from its original molten state the surface
cracked, to become a collection of huge rafts of rock called
tectonic plates. It is believed that these tectonic plates are
unique in the Solar System. The continents lie on top of some
of the plates, which "float" slowly over the surface of the
planet.
At one time all the continents were joined together, forming a

huge continent called Pangea, surrounded by one ocean. They
drifted apart, and eventually came to be where they are today.
The continental movement continues even today, and the
plates move relative to one another by a few inches a year.
Although in the short term this isn't much over time it brings
about great changes.
Coincidence 9.2 The existence of Tectonic Plates on Earth is

believed to be unique occurrence in the Solar System.
When these plates meet they may slide under each other in a
process called subduction, and as the material of the plates
sinks more deeply the heat from the centre begins to melt it.
This process causes Earthquakes and the formation of
volcanoes. Alternatively plates may collide and as the rocks
are pushed together they pile up creating mountains.
62
Most of the World's volcanoes are located near active or
previously active plate boundaries, and the majority of the
Earth's physical resources of energy, minerals, and rich soil
that are available to man are concentrated near past or present
plate boundaries. The relative ease of availability of these
resources has been a significant feature in Mankind's
development.
Oil and natural gas are the products of the deep burial and
decomposition of accumulated organic material in geologic
basins and mountain ranges formed by tectonic plate activity.
Heat and pressure at depth transform the decomposed organic
material into pockets of gas and oil. These often migrate
upwards through openings in surrounding rocks, and collect in
reservoirs which are often close to the Earth's surface and
accessible by the drilling of wells.
Coal is also a product of accumulated decomposed plant

debris, buried under overlaying sediments. Most coal
originated as peat in ancient swamps and bogs created many
millions of years ago. The existence of these waterlogged areas
is associated with the flooding and drainage of the land
resulting from fluctuations in the level of water on the surface
of the planet. These fluctuations are associated with plate
tectonics and other geologic processes. Plate tectonics
therefore, whilst not directly responsible for the coal deposits
themselves played a very significant part in their being laid
down.
Coincidence 9.2 The presence and the activity of the Tectonic

Plates has resulted directly in the availability to mankind of
the majority of the Earth's natural resources of energy,
minerals, and rich soil.
63
Water, the Cradle of Life
Water is far from being “just water”. It is a very special,
unique, substance that is involved in virtually every process
that occurs in Life. It is quite literally the stuff that Life is
made of. Eighty percent of our bodies are made from it and
water is all around us in the air. Water is the only substance
that occurs as a solid, a liquid and a gas at the relatively
ordinary temperatures found on the Planet’s surface. It is this
that makes it very special indeed.
Water is a chemical compound. A chemical compound is a

chemical substance formed from two or more elements. The
normal pattern for most compounds is that as they cool the
vibration motion of their atoms reduces, and they become
more closely packed together. Conversely as the compound’s
temperature increases the atoms vibrate more and spread out
from each other thinning out the compound as they do so. The
word density is used to describe how closely the atoms are
packed together, and a substance in a mixture floats on its
surface if it is less dense than the other materials in the
mixture.
Think of an oily film floating on water for example. Another

example is the presence of stones and wood in a bucket of
water. The stones, which are denser than water push the water
out of the way and sink. Wood is less dense than both the
stones and the water and floats.
Most substances become increasingly dense as they cool. Pure

water, unlike other substances, is at its densest at four degrees
Celsius. If it cools further and freezes into ice its atoms spread
out, and it becomes less dense, and so lighter than the water
itself.
Thus the heavier water sinks below the lighter ice and the ice
floats above it. A significant consequence of this is that lakes
64
and rivers freeze from top to bottom, allowing underwater life
to survive even when the surface of a body of water has frozen
over. If, like other substances, ice was denser than water and
sank, more water would rise to the top. This would then
become exposed to the colder air and form more ice, filling the
bodies of water with ice and freezing them solidly. A similar
consideration applies to the waters of the oceans, although
their salinity provides for slightly different effects. Not only
does ice thus prevent bodies of water from freezing solidly, but
it is also an insulator helping to maintain the temperature of the
water below it.
Coincidence 9.3 The nature of water is unique and very

special. It enables the existence of life in it, in conditions that
cause water to freeze and solidify.
Water on the Earth; the Earth's Oceans

Earth is unique in the Solar System in having a sufficient
abundance of water not only to sustain Life itself, but also to
help to regulate the climate and the relationship between the
oceans, the land and the atmosphere. Evaporation,
precipitation, freezing and melting make up the cyclical
process of water circulation from the ocean to the clouds, from
the clouds to the land, and then back to the oceans and the
clouds again. This cycle plays a major role in regulating the
temperature of the Planet and preventing it from overheating.
The ocean holds almost ninety eight per cent of the Earth's
water. Sunlight warms the surfaces of the oceans, which then
give up that heat by evaporation, which in turn is then carried
away as water vapour and distributed by the winds. When the
vapour reaches land it condenses as rain not only moistening
the soil for growth but also releasing its heat, which warms the
air, and so the cycle continues.
It has been estimated that without the presence of the oceans

and their regulating effect, the temperature at the surface of the
65
planet would rise to almost seventy degrees Celsius. Whilst, as
we will see later, certain Life forms even today exist at these
temperatures, Mankind could not.
Coincidence 9.4 The Earth's abundance of water is unique in

the Solar System and without it Life could not have developed.
The Earth's Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into layers, although
there are no distinct boundaries as such. The different layers
fulfil different functions in relation to Life.
The lowermost layer, the Troposphere, reaches upwards from

the Earth to an altitude of some ten kilometres. It is the layer
where we live, where the weather and climate occur and where
some eighty per cent of the atmosphere is located.
The temperature at the surface of the planet can be fifty

degrees Celsius or more. As the distance from the planet
increases, the atmospheric temperature decreases until, at the
limit of the Troposphere, it is minus sixty degrees Celsius.
This temperature drop is important, because it forms a cold
trap, a region where water vapour turns to ice and stops
ascending. Water is made from oxygen and hydrogen, and if
the water wasn’t prevented from rising further it would
continue to rise until it broke down into individual oxygen and
hydrogen atoms. The small relatively light hydrogen atoms
would then be blown into space and would leave our
atmosphere. Without this cold trap the Earth would loose its
water.
Coincidence 9.5 The nature of Earth's Troposphere is unique

in the Solar System and enables the Earth to retain its water.
The next forty kilometres of the atmosphere is called the

Stratosphere, and this is where almost all of the remainder of
66
the Earth's atmosphere is located. This layer is also critical to
Mankind as it is the "ozone" layer that absorbs the harmful
ultraviolet rays of the Sun. Ultraviolet radiation is harmful to
living tissue. It can cause skin cancer and eye damage and can
also cause mutations in species by causing cells to make
mistakes during their duplication process.
The mutation process however, is also a significant and

important factor in the ongoing changes in species on Earth,
and has been so from the time of creation of life. The level of
radiation that the planet has been subjected to since its creation
has been significantly responsible for the nature of Mankind,
and the other forms of Life that exist on it. If there had been a
different level of Ultraviolet radiation striking the planet, then
life may not have developed at all, or it would have developed
very differently.
Coincidence 9.6 The nature of Earth's Stratosphere is such

that its interaction with ultra violet radiation from the Sun has
been a significant factor in determining the nature of Life and
Mankind as it is today.
Additionally the Earth's atmosphere contains chemical

compounds, "greenhouse gases", which allow Sunlight to enter
the atmosphere freely. When Sunlight strikes the Earth's
surface, some of it is reflected back towards space as heat.
Greenhouse gases absorb this heat and trap it in the
atmosphere, keeping the Earth's temperature considerably
warmer and more stable than it would otherwise be.
Coincidence 9.7 The nature of the greenhouse gases on Earth

is unique in the Solar System. They contribute substantially to
the fact that the Earth is habitable by the civilisation that is
Mankind.
67
Chapter 10. The structure of Life
Definitions of Life
Before we move on to consider what is involved in the
Creation of Life we should understand what is it that makes
something alive? All known organisms share certain properties
which to a very great extent can serve to define the meaning of
Life. Some of the properties that clearly distinguish Life from
everything else, are set out as follows.
1. An end of existence
All Life forms on Earth experience an end to their active
existence on Earth.
2. Carbon
The element Carbon is always present in living matter.
3. Order
Every living organism is cellular. As a minimum it comprises
at least one cell with ordered structures therein. Large
molecules, made up of atoms, make up individual components
of the cell.
4. Homeostasis
The simplest form that Life can take is a single cell. Every cell
is bounded by its own outer membrane and employs
homeostasis, the maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions, which are different from the organism's external
environment.
5. Regulation
All organisms have mechanisms for regulating their internal
activities.
68
6. Reproduction
All living things reproduce themselves. They have both the
encoded instructions and the machinery necessary for
reproduction.
7. Sensitivity
All organisms respond to stimuli. Skin for example is sensitive
to being touched.
Cells are the basics of Life

The simplest entity that can represent Life is a single cell, and
single celled creatures are distributed across the whole planet.
Atoms, the core Materials for Life

We shall now consider the complexities involved in the
creation of the components that make up an individual cell.
These components are present in ALL cells, even those that are
the simplest and most primitive.
The smallest components, atoms and sub atomic particles,

were discussed in detail previously but the following is a brief
reminder.
Every atom is made up of a small dense core of sub atomic

particles called protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of
other subatomic particles called electrons which circle the
atom. There is typically one electron for each proton and the
number of protons at the core of an atom determines its
chemical nature. The gas hydrogen for example has just one
proton and one electron whilst oxygen has eight protons eight
electrons and eight neutrons.
The strong nuclear force binds the neutrons and protons to the
core of the atom whilst the electrostatic force holds the
electrons loosely in their orbits around the central core.
69
The chemical formation of Molecules
We have seen that electrons are only loosely bound to
individual atoms, and can be easily dislodged by other forces
from surrounding atoms. In doing so a recipient atom becomes
negatively electrically charged having a surplus of electrons
over protons and the converse applies to the donating atom,
which becomes positively charged. Those two atoms can then
become attracted to each other by virtue of the opposite
electrostatic charges that they now possess and temporary
transitional bonds form. You can experience this your self by
rubbing a balloon along your sleeve. Some of the electrons
temporarily come off the atoms of the balloon and your sleeve,
causing the two to be attracted to each other. They will briefly
stick together until the balance of electrons readjusts itself.
The example in the previous paragraph considered temporary

bonds between atoms, but groups of atoms can also become
bonded together in permanent arrangements by a process of
sharing electrons with surrounding atoms. Such a group of
atoms is called a molecule and the formation and breaking of
such bonds by the interaction of electrons is called a chemical
reaction. Chemical reactions of this nature are the essence of
chemistry. An example of a chemical reaction is the
evaporation of the water from a mixture of dissolved salt and
water, so that as the water evaporates the salt bonds together to
form salt crystals.
Atoms with the same number of protons have the same

chemical properties and belong to the same element, of which
there are of the order of one hundred naturally occurring ones.
An element is a chemical substance that cannot readily be
broken down to another substance by chemical means
70
Understanding the distinction between chemical and
nuclear activity
For the avoidance of confusion it might be useful to clarify the
difference between nuclear and chemical reactions. The
difference in the energy implications is vast, because of the
very significant strength of the strong nuclear force at the core
of the atom.
Chemical reactions, as we have just seen, relate to the sharing

and borrowing of electrons. For example burning a piece of
coal in the conventional fashion involves chemical reactions
such as those identified above. The process involves breaking
down the electron structures of the coal and air and converting
them to ash and smoke. In the process a little heat is also be
radiated for a short while. The sum total of the heat energy
radiated along with the residual smoke and ash equates exactly
with the original components.
Nuclear reactions however are totally different. They are

reactions that occur at the core of an atom, and involve the
proton and the neutron. Processing the nuclear forces in that
same piece of coal, by nuclear fusion in a star, would involve
sufficient energy to heat the UK for a long time.
Organic Molecules, the Building Blocks of Life

The organic matter from which all living organisms are
constructed is made from elements. Virtually all the elements
from which living creatures are made are based on the element
carbon, which is why life forms on Earth are often described as
"carbon-based" creatures.
The nature of the electrons orbiting the carbon atom is such

that carbon lends itself readily to bonding with a variety of
other atoms to create large and very complex molecules. The
molecules formed in this manner are called organic molecules,
71
and these organic molecules are the building blocks from
which cells are constructed.
The creation of Organic Molecules is NOT the creation of

Life
It is important to understand that the creation of organic
molecules is very specifically NOT the creation of Life. Rather
the creation of those molecules is the assimilation of the basic
building blocks of Life, the core materials. A not too serious
analogy perhaps is having all the components necessary for the
manufacture of a car in a heap. The bits are there, but they
have either to be assembled, or to assemble themselves into a
car. Even if the car were assembled or able to assemble itself,
it would still need an underlying driving force to enable it to
function.
The number and the types of Components necessary for

Life
It all starts with amino acids, which are organic molecules as
described above, composed primarily of mixtures of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous. There
are just twenty types of amino acid, and these are arranged into
specific sequences of complex chains that are often hundreds
of units long, in order to create massive organic molecules
known as macromolecules. There are four distinct groups of
macromolecules of which proteins are one.
Proteins are responsible for the chemical functions of the cell,

and the order of the individual sequences of amino acids in the
chains determines the biological properties and functionality of
the protein. All proteins constructed in the cell have a specific
three dimensional structure based on the arrangement of the
amino acids in the chain.
There are many different types of protein, which, aside from

water, are the main constituents of the cell. Some proteins,
72
enzymes, assist the creation of the protein chains within the
cell. The formation process is monitored and incorrectly
formed chains are destroyed by cellular processes. Different
proteins assist another type of macromolecule, carbohydrates,
in the formation and maintenance of the cell wall, a membrane
that encloses the contents of the cell. The cell wall is in itself a
very complex piece of engineering that is responsible for the
selective permeability that permits the passage of nutrients into
the cell, and waste products out of it.
The construction of complex structures such as a cell requires

detailed plans, the genetic information of the cell itself.
The DNA Double Helix

Genetics is the science of heredity, inheritance and the
variation of organisms. Virtually all cells contain the complete
instructions, all the genetic information, and the cellular
machinery necessary to reproduce itself. In the case of multi
cellular creatures like us almost every cell in our bodies carries
not only the instructions and means to duplicate itself, but also
the complete genome (genetic plan) for the whole living
organism.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is another macromolecule. It is

made up of strands that comprise a backbone with a line of
chemicals attached to it. A rough analogy can be found by
comparison with strands of Velcro where the back of the
Velcro is the backbone and the links in the material are the
equivalent of the chemicals attached to the DNA backbone.
Two single DNA strands bind together with the backbones on

the outside, and the lines of chemicals attached to each other
on the inside, to form a double stranded structure consisting of
two exactly complementary sequences of chemicals twisted
together into a double helix. Specific groups of chemicals
73
attached to the inside of the backbone carry the instructions for
the creation of specific pieces of cellular material.
Again similarly to Velcro the bonds between the chemicals are

weaker than the backbones allowing the strands to come apart
without the breakage of the backbones in much the same way
that Velcro is “unzipped”. When a cell needs to create new
material the strands “unzip” themselves. The revealed lines of
chemicals (the links in our Velcro) then serve as a template,
which the cell uses to create, by duplication, a strand of
material identical to the unzipped portion. After use, the
strands recombine ready to be used next time the creation by
duplication of another unit of that particular type of material is
required.
By way of an analogous explanation consider the way in which

we can store data in, and then copy it from a spreadsheet. We
(the cell) open the spreadsheet (unwind the DNA helix) and
select and copy the data (as the cell selects and copies the
strand of DNA). We can then past the data into a new file, say
a word processor document, in much the same way as the cell
creates a new but separate piece of material. Closing the
spreadsheet is the equivalent of the double helix rewinding.
The individual cell however is "smarter" than us in the sense
we are limited to actually working on one file at a time,
whereas the cell can work simultaneously on numbers of
strands of DNA
The nature of DNA is such that it comprises an alphabet of just

four different chemicals that make up the genetic language.
The chemical chains are coded into complex sequences to form
the words, sentences and paragraphs that are the instructions
that guide the cell in carrying out its functions. In addition to
specific instructions the chain also has the necessary
punctuation to enable the cell to identify, for example, starting
and finishing points.
74
Despite the volume of information that they contain DNA
molecules are so small that they cannot be seen with an optical
microscope, and even an electron microscope that can image
structures as small as a few dozen atoms wide cannot resolve
the individual atoms of a DNA strand.
The problem of the formation of the first Cell

We saw in the chapter about the formation of the Earth that it
was molten in its early stages of development. Following on
from that it started to stabilise and the temperature fell and
continued to fall until, at some point about four billion years
ago, the temperature fell to the region of ninety degrees
Celsius. It is believed that Life first came into existence at this
time.
The earliest fossil yet discovered was found in rocks in

Australia that were formed three and a half billion years ago.
This microfossil represents a completely formed cell, the first
evidence of Life on Earth. In considering the original
development of this cell we need to reflect that by three and a
half billion years ago the cell was formed, and existed as an
actual life form.
As we have seen temperatures low enough to sustain Life

occurred at some point approximately four billion years ago.
Taking one from the other we can see that there was only a
relatively short timescale of a maximum of half a billion years
for the creation of the first fully developed cell. During this
time, but before the formation of the cell, the organic
molecules that would facilitate the creation of this first cell
also had to come into existence. Both the organic molecules
necessary for Life, and Life itself on Earth therefore formed
within a maximum timescale of some half a billion years of the
surface temperature cooling to ninety degrees Celsius.
75
We saw earlier in this chapter the complexities and the nature
and volume of components involved in the Creation of a single
cell. Either the Life that the oldest, three and a half billion year
old fossil represents came into existence from non-Life to a
complete living entity spontaneously, or some form of
intermediate Life-type existed before it.
There is no fossil or other evidence whatsoever to suggest the

existence of any type of intermediate Life form between the
development of organic molecules, and the coming into
existence of the first cell. More particularly science is unable
to offer any form of evidence or, to suggest any way in which
the first cell might have come into existence through a process
of evolution.
Conclusion 10.1 The means by which the existence of the first

cell, representing the first ever Life form on Earth, occurred,
lies outside the rules of our science.
The additional Chicken and the Egg problem

There is a further, and a very fundamental problem, in trying to
account for how the first cell might have developed
spontaneously, and without some form of Divine Intervention.
The problem lies in trying to understand how the components
of cells that relied on other parts of the cell for their existence
could have come into being before those other parts
themselves came into existence.
Without the cell wall there would be nowhere discreet for the
cell to perform its reproductive function, to have the order and
regulation necessary for existence and to provide for the
creation of the materials necessary for cellular Life.
That cell wall necessary for homeostasis couldn't however

have been the first structure. Apart from the fact that it
wouldn't have had anything to contain and thus no function to
76
fulfil it is made of carbohydrates and proteins, and is planned
for by DNA. None of these could have existed to contribute
towards the presence of the cell wall without the presence of
the cell wall itself.
The carbohydrates and proteins couldn’t have come about first

because without the cell wall there would have been no
discreet location for their creation.
The proteins, also necessary for homeostasis and a host of

other functions, couldn't have come about first because genetic
material needed to guide the construction of proteins is itself,
in part, made from proteins.
The genetic material necessary for the planning of the proteins

couldn't have come about first as genetic material could not
exist without those proteins first having been created.
There is no way in which science is able to offer any form of

explanation of how the first cell could have been formed
spontaneously without external direction and intervention.
Conclusion 10.2 The means by which the assembly of the first

cell, the first ever Life form on Earth, occurred lies outside the
rules of our science.
The concept of Natural Selection could not, by definition, have

functioned before the first living cell existed, as before that
there was no basis for anything to have been selected.
Conclusion 10.3 There is, by definition, no facility within the

rules of our science for natural selection to have played any
part in the Creation of the first form of life.
77
What the first ever Cell shares with modern Cells
The cells of all the known creatures on Earth, without
exception share the following.
1. The same identical mechanism for reading DNA.

DNA from any creature, from the tiniest single celled
one, can be inserted into the cell of any other creature,
the largest creature on Earth for example, the Blue
Whale, and the recipient cell can successfully read and
interpret the inserted data.
2. The same templated method of replicating information.
3. The use of use DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA), a

similar nucleic acid to DNA, in the heredity process.
4. The use of proteins as chemical catalysts to facilitate

chemical reactions in the cell.
5. Enclosure within a semi permeable membrane through

which, selectively, waste products can pass out of the
cell and nutrients can pass into it.
The primitive first cell, created some three and half billon
years ago, possessed all of these features found in all modern
cells. In particular ALL modern cells could read and interpret
genetic material that was contained in that very first cell and
vice versa.
Not only was that first cell, the ancestor of all of us,
sufficiently robust to survive in itself, but also, its design was
adequate to provide for all that followed for the next three and
a half billion years! That cell’s method of reproduction was so
sophisticated that it was to survive essentially unchanged to the
78
present day and provide for the creation of all creatures on
Earth.
Coincidence 10.1 The first cell to form on Earth, three and a

half billion years ago was the first ancestor of all life and the
whole of Mankind. Its construction and method of
reproduction was so sophisticated that it was to survive
essentially unchanged to the present day, and provide for the
creation of all creatures on Earth. Modern cells could read the
genetic material from that first cell and vice versa.
79
Chapter 11. The origin of Life through to the
The origin of Life, the Precambrian Period before 590

Million years ago
Four billion years ago as the planet became relatively stable
and its crust formed, the Earth's atmosphere was steamy and
rich with water released from volcanoes, and from collisions
with comets and other bodies that were continuing to strike the
planet. As the bombardment of bodies diminished and the
Earth started to cool, torrential rain fell that turned first to
steam on hitting the still hot surface, and which then finally
collected into warm seas and oceans above and around the
cooling rock.
The atmosphere of the early Earth was thus composed largely

of water, along with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and traces of oxygen. The light element
hydrogen was soon lost to space, and the oxygen reacted with
other gases and surface rocks to remove itself from the
atmosphere in a chemical process known as reduction. For a
long time, until later forms of Life started respiring oxygen
into the air, the Earth’s atmosphere was devoid of oxygen and
would have been toxic to Mankind and most of Life, as we
now know it.
We know from the nature of the early atmosphere that the

organisms represented by that first fossil lived in this oxygen
free environment. They were anaerobic (oxygen hating) and
thrived in an environment that would be toxic to later Life. Of
this we can be certain not only because of what we know of the
atmosphere at that time, but also because we also have direct
and living evidence of the nature of that Life.
80
This is NOT mere speculation and those anaerobic, oxygen
hating Life forms, still exist today in vents on the seafloor
where hot water, at extremely high temperatures similar to
those on Earth all those years ago, comes out from the Earth's
crust. Around these vents are bacteria called archaebacteria.
They live in an oxygen free environment, which it is believed
is very similar to that of the early Earth. They convert water
and hydrogen into methane gas; oxygen would actually poison
them. They are living fossils, relics of Life in those very early
days.
Confirmation that all Cells without exception share the same

DNA reading Mechanism
An examination of these living "fossils" has revealed that
although they live in an environment that would be toxic to
other Life forms on the planet they resemble other bacteria to
an incredible extent. They have provided confirmation that the
concept of a common cellular process, which was discussed in
the last chapter, is indeed valid. A cell from a modern human
would be able to read, interpret and duplicate the DNA data
contained in that very first ever fossil.
The origin of aerobic (oxygen loving) Life

With the passage of time other, aerobic (oxygen loving), life
forms, cyanobacteria, developed into an atmosphere that was
toxic to them.
Coincidence 11.1 Aerobic Life forms developed into an

environment that was hostile and toxic to them in opposition to
anaerobic life forms for which the environment was ideal.
These tiny microbes with the ability to produce oxygen and to
which oxygen was not toxic became widespread, and released
large quantities of oxygen into the oceans and the atmosphere.
The activity of these aerobic organisms was so prodigious that
they converted the atmosphere of the entire planet to one that
contained twenty one percent oxygen, the exact correct
81
quantity necessary for human Life. Oxygen incidentally is far
from an innocuous substance and an excess of oxygen can be
toxic and even lethal to oxygen breathing creatures.
Coincidence 11.2 Aerobic, oxygen loving microbes, came into

existence and populated the planet with exactly the correct
amount of oxygen necessary for human life.
The start of Evolution and Natural Selection

These cyanobacteria were the World’s first conquerors. They
flourished and ousted the archaebacteria to the extremes of the
planet. Evolution and Natural Selection had come about with
the appearance of the Earth’s second life form.
Conclusion 11.1 Evolution and Natural Selection came about

with the appearance of the Earth’s second life form.
At the time when their presence was essential if the Earth was
to have just the right amount of oxygen for future Life the
cyanobacteria flourished, and paved the way for Life, as we
know it. They were there in exactly the right place and at the
right time. Even though the cyanobacteria had ousted the
archaebacteria there were no predators to oust the
cyanobacteria until their work was done.
Coincidence 11.3 Although the cyanobacteria had ousted the

When the work of the cyanobacteria was done they became

obsolete and were almost entirely superseded by other
organisms although some of these early microbes continue to
exist today.
82
Coincidence 11.4 When the work of the cyanobacteria was
done they became obsolete and were almost entirely
superseded by other organisms.
The origin of animal Life, the Cambrian Period from 590

to 505 Million Years
Please note that we move here from timescales generally of
billions and larger, to those of millions and smaller.
Marine and animal Life as we "know" it first appeared during

this period almost six hundred million years ago. In the blink
of an evolutionary eyelid, a period of just ten million years, a
short period of geological time, the nature of life on Earth
changed radically.
It changed from a situation where it was inhabited by simple

cellular creatures, to one, which involved the unique and
sudden appearance of all the major animal groups, complete
with organs and the necessary physiology to support a
competitive Life. Creatures with skeletons first appeared at this
time, and the fossil record shows perfect species with
incredible variation. Yet whilst one might expect some
evidence, in the form of fossils, of the transition from the soft-
bodied creatures that existed during the Precambrian Life
period to the very different ones of the Cambrian Period not
one single fossil representing a transitional creature has been
found.
There are various suggested explanations for the absence of

such fossils. These include suggestions that the creatures hadn't
formed hard parts that left actual fossils, yet our earliest fossil
three and a half billion years earlier hadn't formed any hard
parts either and still left the evidence.
Conclusion 11.2 We are unable, within the rules of our

science, to account for the unique and sudden appearance of
83
all the major animal groups. They appeared fully formed,
without any evidence of intermediate life forms between them,
and the extremely simple creatures that existed before.
The Period from 505 to 360 Million Years ago

I have not been able to identify any developments that are
relevant to the concept of this book during the period from 505
to 360 million years ago (although that isn't to say that there
weren't any) and that period is not therefore considered in this
book.
The laying down of Fuel, the Carboniferous Period from

360 to 286 Million Years ago
The Carboniferous Period which started three hundred and
sixty million years ago was not the only period in history when
fossil fuels were formed, but much production started and
occurred during that period. Fossil fuels were once living
prehistoric plants and organisms that previously inhabited the
Earth. The landmasses we now live on were continuing to
form, there were swamps and bogs, the climate was warmer
and ancient trees and plants flourished.
During the years that passed dead Life forms decomposed and
formed our fossil fuels. Different types of fossil fuels formed
depending on the combination of animal and plant debris that
was present, where and for how long the material was buried,
and the conditions that existed when it was decomposing and
becoming covered. Coal, originally in the form of peat, a mass
of decomposing plant material, formed from the remains of the
trees, ferns and other plants that lived then.
Oil and gas were created largely from organisms that lived in
water and were buried by sediment. Heat, pressure and bacteria
combined to compress and process the material under layers of
silt. As these layers were subjected to heat and pressure over
millions of years the sediments were transformed into beds of
84
rock, and the plant and animal remains underwent chemical
change and formed oil and gas. Oil and gas do not generally
stay in the rock in which they originally formed. They tend to
migrate upward through cracks and pores within permeable
rocks toward the surface where there is less pressure, and
where they often thus are available to be extracted by mankind.
Coincidence 11.5 During the Carboniferous Period the

process of transforming the abundance of organic material
into fuel and material that would be needed by Mankind as it
moved into the twentieth century was underway. The
construction of this material went hand in hand with the action
of the tectonic plates, which were then responsible for making
the material available for Mankind.
Reptiles and amphibians first came into existence in this

period.
Reptiles and extinctions, the Permian Period from 286 to

248 Million Years ago
Reptiles and amphibians first came into existence in the
Carboniferous Period and continued to develop dominance
during this time. The Permian Period saw the biggest mass
extinction to date although several smaller ones had occurred
in earlier periods. The extinction of a various species is an
ongoing process of life but during the early evolution of Life
there were several mass extinctions when large percentages of
Life forms went out of existence. By the end of the Permian
Period it is variously estimated that from half to as much as
ninety five percent of the animal and plant families that had
been alive at the beginning of the period were extinct.
The next Generation of Life forms, the Triassic Period

from 248 to 213 Million Years ago
During this period, whilst the chief vertebrates (animals with a
spinal column or backbone) were still amphibians and reptiles,
85
many new and different types of them appeared, whilst
dinosaurs increased also. The very first mammals, shrew like
creatures appeared for the first time. It is believed that these
early mammals developed from the reptiles.
A further mass extinction of many of the non-dinosaur reptiles

also occurred at the end of this period.
The Great Dinosaurs, the Jurassic Period from 213 to 144

Million Years ago
Amongst the vertebrates the reptiles continued in dominance,
whilst the massive Dinosaurs, bigger than their predecessors,
came into existence. More coal was laid and the small
mammals continued to develop, although their time for
dominance in the form of Mankind was yet a long time away.
The end of the Dinosaurs, the Cretaceous Period from 144

to 65 Million Years ago
The dinosaurs now grew to their peak size, but at the end of
the Cretaceous period another mass extinction occurred,
resulting in the destruction of something of the order of 80% of
Life forms. Land, sea and freshwater Life forms were all
equally as effected. There are numbers of theories as to why
this occurred but no firm evidence.
Coincidence 11.6 Dinosaurs dominated the Earth but they

were reptiles. The mass extinction that occurred during the
Cretaceous Period spared the lives of those mammals that
were the forerunners of Mankind.
Extinctions generally
Coincidence 11.7 No conclusions can be drawn or inferred
from the fact that there were several mass extinctions during
the half a million years since fully formed creatures first
appeared. Nonetheless they did occur and there can be little if
86
any doubt that those extinctions were integral in the
The Time of the development of the Mammals, the

Tertiary and Quaternary Periods from 66 million years to
some 10,000 years ago
The demise of the giant reptiles left the planet open and ready
for the mammalian explosion. In just sixty million years or so
mammals developed from simple primitive creatures to
Mankind, as we now know it.
Mankind, the Holocene Period from 10,000 Years ago to

Date
The nature of Mankind

Before considering in detail of the nature of human existence
we need to be aware of those characteristics and abilities that
define the nature of humanity. What it is that makes human
beings different from other creatures on the planet? The list
that follows shortly is certainly not an exhaustive one, and
given the incredibly diverse nature of humanity, I rather doubt
that it would be possible to construct one that was truly
exhaustive.
The list reflects skills, characteristics and abilities that are

readily perceived, in varying degrees, in other animals. These
include communication, cooperation and social skills, and the
formation of cooperative groups based on mutual protection,
genetic inheritance, and food gathering. Some of these traits
found in other creatures represent skills that have been learnt
and handed down. For example the use, by certain creatures, of
various tools for gathering food, and the dropping by seagulls
of shells from a height to break them open.
These skills, characteristics and abilities however are so

rudimentary and limited that they do not fall into the same
87
category as those of humans’. In particular these other
creatures, having achieved the skill level necessary for their
survival, do not demonstrate any form of ongoing development
or initiative to progress them beyond the basic needs for
survival at their particular "level". The achievements of
Mankind however, are all around us, and need no introduction
or explanation from me.
Additionally, humans are very different from every other type

of creature. We possess a curiosity and an underlying driving
force over and above the need to exist, that facilitates ongoing
invention and the development of the many human
characteristics over and above those necessary for rudimentary
survival.
In addition, much of what we do is over and above the

individual or group quest for survival. We do not form groups
only out of self-interest for example. Individuals may choose
to belong to such groups not only, or perhaps not even, for
benefits that they may themselves derive from such groups, but
rather from a desire selflessly to assist other members of the
group.
Characteristics and Abilities that define the nature of

Humanity
1. Humanity Love and Compassion

There is so much scope for exemplifying this that it could
constitute a huge volume of books in itself. Just a few of the
countless examples of the uniqueness of mans scope for love
and compassion are the capacity for an underlying selflessness,
a desire to do good, a shared sadness at the sadness of others
and the compassion, by various groups and individuals
Worldwide, towards virtually every living thing on this planet.
88
It must be said that affection is certainly a trait that is apparent
in other creatures, but not having ever experienced the thought
processes of any of them I cannot speak with any certainty of
the nature of the displayed affection. Those traits that can be
examined however, suggest that other creatures do not
experience affection in the way that we do. A parrot for
example will join with a "partner" for Life but that partner
does not have to be another parrot and can equally as well be a
human being. A duckling introduced to a car tyre at birth will
bond with the tyre and afford it the same affection that it
would otherwise have afforded its “real” mother.
And of course dogs are our best friends and shower us with
affection. But that behaviour is of course down to us. We made
them behave that way. We domesticated them millions of
years ago and through successive generations have trained
them to be affectionate towards us.
2. Wisdom and Knowledge

A possession of knowledge is an awareness of data,
information gained in the form of experience or learning and
an ability to assemble details, which, in isolation, are of lesser
value.
The possession of knowledge is not just what the individual

knows, but represents the collective knowledge of Mankind
built up over time and shared and enhanced by society
worldwide. Without this collective and shared knowledge,
organisations responsible for, for example, public services,
food distribution and transport could not function, and society
would not exist as it does today.
Society's knowledge has grown and grown, and is such that via
telescopes we can see back in time, virtually to the time of the
creation of our Universe. With the aid of spectacular
"microscopes" we can visualise and manipulate the very atoms
89
from which we are made. The World of Mankind has become
a knowledgeable and global community with, in the overall
picture, the wisdom for the wise application of its knowledge.
3. The ability to communicate through the spoken Word

Many creatures communicate but the ability of Mankind to
speak as it does is unique.
4. The ability to commit thought to the written word

The written word is an ongoing development from the spoken
word, and conveys thoughts and ideas with little ambiguity,
and significantly less scope for error, than the use of the
spoken word alone.
5. The possession of Freedom of Choice

Individuals possess the ability to consider and compare
options, and to make choices based on those options, as
opposed to being driven by an underlying instinct just for
immediate survival.
6. An understanding of the passage of Time

We have an understanding of the passage of time, when time is
understood as the measurement of intervals between and
during events. This was a critical factor in a huge variety of
areas such as, for example, agriculture and the ability to
recognise seasons.
7. The development of Technology

The development of technology is the development of a means
to solving problems and issues associated with the ongoing
development of Mankind. It has applications in the design,
manufacture and distribution of materials, equipment, and
processes to address the ongoing needs of humanity.
8. The possession of Planetary Sovereignty and responsibility
90
We alone amongst the creatures on the planet have sole
conscious responsibility for our World. Whilst we,
questionably, probably do not have the overall ability to totally
destroy our planet, nor indeed all of the Life forms on and in it,
we are certainly in a position where we could wreak enormous
damage in both of those respects. We have the ability to "make
or break" our environment and with our collective knowledge
we are aware of the consequences of our actions. We are fully
aware for example that known resources of fossil fuels are
being depleted.
9. The possession of self-awareness

Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to perceive his or
her own existence, and within that ability, to perceive the
associated feelings and behaviours that are experienced. It is
this understanding that is at the core of an individual's own
identity and is the basis for human behaviour and
accountability.
10. The ability of self reflection

Self-reflection follows on from self-awareness and relates to
the need of individuals to discover and understand more about
their individual makeup and that of society in general.
11. The ability to consider and to decide whether or not to

believe
The ability to consider and to believe is the ability to consider
an unproven idea and to conclude whether or not the idea
proposed is true.
12. The possession of Morality

We understand the concept of morality, a set of principles
based on, religious, ethical, cultural and philosophical concepts
and beliefs, by which an individual determines whether his or
her actions are right or wrong. Morality is also represented by
the rules of conduct appropriate to the society in which we
91
live. Different races and creeds have individual moralities and
what is morally acceptable to one race may not be so for
another.
13. An understanding of right and wrong

Individuals possess the ability to reason, to understand the
difference between right and wrong and to make intelligent
choices on the basis of this reasoning.
14. The ability to practice Philosophy

Philosophy in its broadest sense is the quest for knowledge or
wisdom about matters, which are fundamental to aspects of
Life in relation to meaning, being and truth.
15. An understanding of the finite nature of Life on Earth as

we know it
Mankind understands that the nature of Life as we know it on
Earth is finite and that death is the natural conclusion of it.
This contributes towards an individual’s purpose, direction and
responsibility. We have the awareness that what we do now
will affect what follows later, and we are thus capable of
looking beyond our current situation and planning for the
future.
16. The demonstration of Symbolic Behaviour

Symbolic behaviour manifests itself for example in the form of
burials, personal ornaments, and art. The benefits of symbolic
behaviour are not restricted to aesthetics and when used, for
example in conjunction with language, aid in the
conceptualisation of ideas
The uniqueness of Mankind

It has been estimated that as many as a billion, or even more
different types of organism have developed on the Earth since
the first appearance of Life, amongst which Mankind ALONE
92
is unique. Mankind however is not just unique in relation to
the items included in the previous list but in such a magnitude
of different ways that render the bridge between our nature and
that of all other creatures vast and unbridgeable.
The emergence of Mankind

There is a general consensus that bipedalism (walking on two
legs in a semi upright position) was first seen about six million
years ago with various types of semi erect species coming and
then disappearing.. The first appearance of "modern" homo
sapiens, our ancestors, occurred about a hundred thousand
years ago. We know with reasonably certainty from
archaeological evidence that those modern homo sapiens were
our ancestors and that they differentiated themselves from the
rest of the animal kingdom. They made decorative jewellery
from shells, shaped bones for artefacts such as needles and
constructed hearths for fires. Ten thousand years ago
husbandry, the cultivation of land or raising stock started, with
the domestication of animals. Some five thousand years ago
saw the occurrence of the first Egyptian writing.
More recently the fossil fuels laid down during the

carboniferous and other periods came into their own and
provided the means for Mankind to drive itself forward. Coal
was at the core of the eighteenth century Industrial Revolution
with the application of power-driven machinery to
manufacturing. Without coal the developments of the period
could not have come about.
Today oil and coal are the primary source of power for our
society. These fossil fuels however are used for more than just
fuel for vehicles and the generation of electricity. They have
many industrial and chemical uses including the production of
plastics, synthetic rubber, detergent, fertilizer, medicine, food
additives, and much more.
93
Chapter 12. Conclusions
Conclusion Hypothesis 1
That there is a Divine Creator and that Divine Creator was
responsible for the creation of the matter and energy that
exists in our Universe.
Confirmation of this hypothesis follows from the Conclusions

below.
Conclusions
Conclusion 2.1 A random chance event cannot account for the
existence of the matter and energy in the Universe. The
existence of that matter and energy falls outside the rules of
our science.
Conclusion 3.1 The presence of, and the nature and method of
the construction of atoms, their components and the forces
associated with them is unknown, and cannot be accounted for
within the rules of our science.
Conclusion 4.1 The presence of the predicted background

heat, and confirmation that the galaxies are moving away from
each other ratifies the Big Bang theory, and provides firm
evidence that the Universe had an origin.
That a Divine Creator guided and controlled the nature of
the development of our Universe.
Confirmation of this hypothesis follows from Conclusion 5.1

below and is supported by the coincidence also listed below.
94
Conclusion
Conclusion 5.1 The design, the development and the nature of
the Universe are governed by a distinct set of rules of science,
for example that light in a vacuum must travel at three
hundred thousand kilometres per second. Whilst we can, to a
certain extent, understand those rules we are bound by them.
Within the rules of our science we are neither able to account
for the existence of those rules nor to circumvent them in any
way.
Supporting Coincidence
Coincidence 4.2 Inherent in the nature of the Universe's design
were the raw materials needed for its output, a production
plan, a fully comprehensive distribution network and a cyclical
process to facilitate an ongoing production process.
That a Divine Creator was responsible for the initial
occurrence of Life on Earth.
Confirmation of this hypothesis follows from the conclusions

listed below and is supported by the coincidences also listed..
Conclusions
Conclusion 10.1 The means by which the existence of the first
cell, representing the first ever Life form on Earth, occurred,
lies outside the rules of our science.
Conclusion 10.2 The means by which the assembly of the first

cell, the first ever Life form on Earth, occurred lies outside the
rules of our science.
Conclusion 10.3 There is, by definition, no facility within the

rules of our science for natural selection to have played any
part in the Creation of the first form of life.
95
Supporting Coincidences
present in the Universe at the start of the very first second.

present in sufficient quantities in the Universe at the start of
the very first second.
Coincidence 3.3 All of the components that were present in the

Universe at the start of the very first second were relevant to
life and its existence. There was no extraneous material.
Coincidence 4.1 From the start of the first second the

distribution of matter through the Universe was orchestrated
so as to enable the formation of vast gas clouds. This lead to
the Creation of stars like our Sun, planets like the Earth and
Life leading to the development of Mankind.
Coincidence 5.1 The size of the random fluctuations of matter

introduced into the Universe was appropriate for the timing of
the Creation of Earth and Life on it.
Coincidence 6.1 The nature of the early stars of the Universe

was such that it provided for a relatively fast creation of the
elements needed to develop and sustain Life.
Coincidence 7.1 The nature of the matter in the Universe was

such that it was eager and ready for the formation of Life.
Coincidence 7.2 The nature of the Solar System is such that it

came into existence at a time when the distribution of elements
was appropriate for the formation of Life on Earth.
96
Coincidence 7.3 The spacing of the first six planets
(interspaced with an asteroid) out from the Sun follows a
specific mathematical order for which there is no apparent
reason or explanation.
Coincidence 7.4 The position of the Earth relative to the other

bodies in the Solar System was ideal for the development of
Life.
Coincidence 7.5 By reference to the overall diameter of the

Solar System the location of the Earth relative to the Sun is
precise to 0.000005% as far as its location is necessary in
order to sustain Life.

around the Earth is believed to have played a significant part
in the formation of organic molecules.
Coincidence 9.1 The nature of the formation of the Earth was

such that it has a protective crust, which is just five kilometres
thick in some places. The crust is all that lies between Life and
the heat of the inner Earth.
Coincidence 9.3 The nature of water is unique and very

special. It enables the existence of life in it, in conditions that
cause water to freeze and solidify.
Coincidence 9.4 The Earth's abundance of water is unique in

the Solar System and without it Life could not have developed.
Coincidence 9.5 The nature of Earth's Troposphere is unique

in the Solar System and enables the Earth to retain its water.
Coincidence 9.6 The nature of Earth's Stratosphere is such

that its interaction with ultra violet radiation from the Sun has
97
been a significant factor in determining the nature of Life and
Mankind as it is today.
Coincidence 9.7 The nature of the greenhouse gases on Earth

is unique in the Solar System. They contribute substantially to
the fact that the Earth is habitable by the civilisation that is
Mankind.
Coincidence 10.1 The first cell to form on Earth, three and a

half billion years ago was the first ancestor of all life and the
whole of Mankind. Its construction and method of
reproduction was so sophisticated that it was to survive
essentially unchanged to the present day, and provide for the
creation of all creatures on Earth. Modern cells could read the
genetic material from that first cell and vice versa.
That a Divine Creator was responsible for the progressive
development of Life on Earth by a process of evolution,
and that evolution followed its “natural” path. Certain
otherwise inexplicable events that occurred during that
evolutionary process were the result of specific
interventions by the Divine Creator.
Confirmation of this hypothesis follows from the Conclusions

listed below and is supported by the coincidences also listed.
Conclusions
Conclusion 11.1 Evolution and Natural Selection came about
with the appearance of the Earth’s second life form.
Conclusion 11.2 We are unable, within the rules of our

science, to account for the unique and sudden appearance of
all the major animal groups. They appeared fully formed,
without any evidence of intermediate life forms between them,
and the extremely simple creatures that existed before.
98
Supporting Coincidences
Coincidence 7.6 The development of agriculture necessary for
a progressively developing civilisation was a direct result of
the nature of the Solar System and the orbits of the bodies in it.
Coincidence 7.7 The discovery of mathematics, the forerunner

of all science, went hand in hand with the development of
agriculture, and was the result of the nature of the orbits of the
Coincidence 7.8 The nature of the distribution of the bodies in

the Solar Stem other than Earth, was fundamental to the

around the Earth is largely responsible for the Earth’s
congenial climate and varying seasons.
Coincidence 8.3 There is a clear mathematical relationship

between the positioning of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun
and the relative sizes of the Moon and the Sun.
Coincidence 8.4 The mathematical relationship between the

sizes of the Moon and the Sun causes periodic solar eclipses to
occur which can completely obscure the view of the Sun from
the Earth.
Coincidence 9.2 The existence of Tectonic Plates on Earth is

believed to be unique occurrence in the Solar System.
Coincidence 9.2 The presence and the activity of the Tectonic

Plates has resulted directly in the availability to mankind of
the majority of the Earth's natural resources of energy,
minerals, and rich soil.
99
Coincidence 11.1 Aerobic Life forms developed into an
environment that was hostile and toxic to them in opposition to
anaerobic life forms for which the environment was ideal.
Coincidence 11.2 Aerobic, oxygen loving microbes, came into

existence and populated the planet with exactly the correct
amount of oxygen necessary for human life.
Coincidence 11.3 Although the cyanobacteria had ousted the

Coincidence 11.4 When the work of the cyanobacteria was

done they became obsolete and were almost entirely
superseded by other organisms.
Coincidence 11.5 During the Carboniferous Period the

process of transforming the abundance of organic material
into fuel and material that would be needed by Mankind as it
moved into the twentieth century was underway. The
construction of this material went hand in hand with the action
of the tectonic plates, which were then responsible for making
the material available for Mankind.
Coincidence 11.6 Dinosaurs dominated the Earth but they

were reptiles. The mass extinction that occurred during the
Cretaceous Period spared the lives of those mammals that
were the forerunners of Mankind.
Coincidence 11.7 No conclusions can be drawn or inferred

from the fact that there were several mass extinctions during
the half a million years since fully formed creatures first
appeared. Nonetheless they did occur and there can be little if
any doubt that those extinctions were integral in the
100

A Scientific Investigation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Scientific Investigation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Scientific Investigation, following

the Scientific Method, with

Written by Martyn Arthur

Chapter 3. The Big Bang and the start of the

Chapter 4. The creation of the Universe

Chapter 5. The nature of the Universe

Chapter 6. The creation of the Stars

Chapter 7. The Solar System

Chapter 9. The formation of the Earth

Chapter 10. The structure of Life

Chapter 12. Conclusions

I have been exceptionally fortunate and privileged to have

Just a hundred years ago Einstein's theories of relativity,

From my earliest memories I have been blessed (or perhaps

Simple acceptance without question however has never been a

My good fortune has not however been limited to the timing of

Like virtually everyone else I suppose, I looked up at the night

Traditionally religion and science have used different methods

With our advances in science I wondered, might it be possible

The nature of science is one of proposing hypotheses, testing

The difficulties in those earlier times were that whilst

An understanding of a discussion of this nature is inevitably

Additionally, the unnecessary pedantic application of detail

The nature of the Book

As the book comes together I am aware that whilst the subject

There have been, since discussion and debate first began

The first significant advances in actually understanding the

This distinction between events that occurred before the first

Following on from the knowledge that the entire content of the

Adopting a totally Scientific Approach

Science can be defined as a method of learning about the

An early decision therefore was to ensure that a totally

Considerations were thus started and formalised, on the basis

We have already touched on the fact that strongly held past

If, for example, an apple suddenly projected itself upwards

Attributing causes to Events

Events on the Periphery of the Rules of our science

Having said that, it became apparent, as soon as the book

Events clearly falling outside the Rules of ours science

Terminology, the use of the Words "Divine Creator"

In considering the concept of an entity, it was therefore

Descriptive words such as, for example, "Intelligent Creator",

The term "Random Chance"

Conclusion 2.1 A random chance event cannot account for the

What are the Questions?

1. Am I, and the Universe around me, here intentionally, or as

It is a fact that all of the particles in our bodies have, at some

What do the Questions seek to establish?

Concept 1. The Nature and development of the Universe

In the context of Concept 1 therefore, the quest is to consider

The debate seems to revolve around just TWO concepts.

But are the two alternatives the only options, or is a THIRD

Before considering more fully the possibility of a third

As we will continue to see, the Universe, whilst incredibly

Life and its ongoing development have however involved a

Might Life, and its development, have come about as a result

2. That a Divine Creator guided and controlled the nature

3. That a Divine Creator was responsible for the initial

4. That a Divine Creator was responsible for the

The Start of the Very First Second

The singularity prevents us from looking back further than the

Atoms, the core Material of the Universe

The volume of the atom itself is largely empty space. The