Math Portfolio

Contents

Introduction
The aim of this investigation is to consider geometric shapes which lead to special numbers. In this piece of work I will be considering triangular shapes and their associated sequences in addition to another form of special numbers, stellar numbers in relation to the number of vertices that a particular star has.

Triangular Numbers Here are the first 5 terms in a sequence of triangles with the number of dots (triangular numbers) underneath.

The first step in considering a general formula is to expand the sequence as much as possible and so

21 28 36

Now we must look at the sequence and how they relate i.e. find the difference between each of them.

Sequence:

1 2

3 3 1

6 4 1

10 5 1

15 6 1

21 7 1

28 8 1

36

1st Difference: 2nd Difference:

As we can see, the difference can be taken to the second level as at this point, the difference becomes constant; the conclusion that can be drawn is that the general formula that will apply to this sequence is in the format

That is to say that it will be a quadratic formula where n is the term in the sequence and a, b and c are constants. When n = 1 a+b+c=1 When n = 2 4a + 2b + c = 3 When n = 3 9a + 3b + c = 6 When n = 4 16a + 4b + c = 10 When n = 5 25a + 5b + c = 15 We can now express the sequence in terms of a, b and c in order to determine the specific values of the three variables in question.

(4a + c) + 5b + 1st

Sequence: (a + b + c) 2b + c) (9a + 3b + (16a + 4b + c) (25a c) Difference: (3a +

b)

(5a + b)

(7a + b) (2a)

(9a + b) (2a) (2a)

2nd Difference:

As we can see from the above expressed sequence and subsequent differences, the final difference tier results in 2a. When you express the difference of this sequence to the furthest degree, the final difference obtainable will always be 1. Therefore 2a = 1 a = 1/2 It also follows that the difference between the first and second terms of the sequence will be equal when expressed in numerical form and in terms of a, b and c. Thus

(3a + b) = 2 3(1/2) + b = 2 b = 2 3/2 Therefore, b = 1/2 Now that we have determined the value of both a and b, c can be gleaned from any of the equations that involve it. a+b+c=1 (1/2) + (1/2) + c = 1 1+c=1 Therefore, c = 0 Now we simply insert our values for the variables a, b and c into the general formula constructed.

To check that this general formula functions, we must insert the value of n for which we have previously manually determined the answer. We will start with n = 1

=1 Next, when n = 2

=3 Now, when n = 3

=6 We can thus conclusively say that the general formula derived functions in producing the number of dots in each term of the triangular sequence. Next, we will consider stellar numbers (or star numbers) that possess p-vertices and thus give rise to p-stellar numbers. Here we have the first six representations of such as sequence in which p = 6.

The next step is to determine the number of dots on each of the terms of the sequence.

13

37

73

S5
Term S1 Number 121 1 of dots S2 13

It is easier to determine patterns relationships when arrange the information thus S3 37 S4 73

and we

S S5 6
121

S6 181

S7

It is also helpful to note the amount of dots on each layer Layer Number of dots 1 1 2 12 3 24 4 36 5 48 6 60 7

It now becomes very obvious that there is a relationship between the number of dots on each layer of the star. Following the pattern, we can determine the amount of dots on the seventh term of the sequence. Term Number of dots S1 1 S2 13 S3 37 S4 73 S5 121 S6 181 S7 253

Now in order to find a general formula for this sequence, we must once again look at the differences evident between the terms. Sequence: 1 12 12 13 24 12 37 36 12 73 48 12 121 60 12 181 72 12 253

1st Difference: 2nd Difference:

As we can see the difference has become constant at the second level and thus the general formula for this sequence will also be a quadratic equation in the format

Thus, in our bid to find the values of a, b and c, we must take another look at the sequence but this time in terms of a, b and c. When n = 1 a+b+c=1 When n = 2 4a + 2b + c = 13 When n = 3 9a + 3b + c = 37 When n = 4 16a + 4b + c = 73 When n = 5 25a + 5b + c = 121 We can now express the entire sequence in terms of a, b and c which shall ultimately enable us to determine their values.

Sequence: (a + b + c) 1st Difference: 2nd Difference:

(4a + 2b + c)

(9a + 3b + c)

(16a + 4b + c)

(25a + 5b + c)

(3a + b) (2a)

(5a + b) (2a)

(7a + b) (2a)

(9a + b)

We have previously established that the second level difference is 12. This therefore leads us to conclude that 2a = 12 a=6 Now by taking this information and moving up the difference levels, we can determine the value of b. 3a + b = 12 3(6) = 12 b 18-12 = -b b = -6 To verify this information, we can also insert our value of a into another of the equations. 5a + b = 24 5(6) = 24 b 30 24 = -b b = -6 Now the final constant, c, can also be found a+b+c=1 (6) + (-6) + c = 1 c=1 We can also verify this 4a + 2b + c = 13 4(6) + 2(-6) + c = 13 c = 13 12 c=1 We can now insert these values into our general formula to obtain the specific formula for this sequence in terms of n.

As per usual, a precautionary check is in order.

When n = 5, the number of dots = 121

6(25) 30 + 1 150 30 +1 121

Next we will try looking at stellar numbers for different values of p i.e. with a different number of vertices. In this investigation, we will be looking at the situation when p = 7.

S2 S3

The next step number of of the

S4

is to determine the dots on each of the terms sequence.

S2 15 S3 43

S4 85

It is easier to determine patterns and relationships when we arrange the information thus Term Number of dots S1 1 S2 15 S3 43 S4 85

It is also helpful to note the amount of dots on each layer Layer Number of dots 1 1 2 14 3 28 4 42

It now becomes very obvious that there is a relationship between the number of dots on each layer of the star. Following the pattern, we can determine the amount of dots on the next terms of the sequence. Term Number of dots S1 1 S2 15 S3 43 S4 85 S5 141 S6 211 S7 295

Now in order to find a general formula for this sequence, we must once again look at the differences evident between the terms. Sequence: 1 14 14 15 28 14 43 42 14 85 56 14 141 70 14 211 84 14 295

1st Difference: 2nd Difference:

As we can see the difference has become constant at the second level and thus the general formula for this sequence will also be a quadratic equation in the format

Thus, in our bid to find the values of a, b and c, we must take another look at the sequence but this time in terms of a, b and c. When n = 1 a+b+c=1 When n = 2 4a + 2b + c = 15 When n = 3 9a + 3b + c = 43 When n = 4 16a + 4b + c = 85 When n = 5 25a + 5b + c = 141 We can now express the entire sequence in terms of a, b and c which shall ultimately enable us to determine their values.

Sequence: (a + b + c) 1st Difference: 2nd Difference:

(4a + 2b + c)

(9a + 3b + c)

(16a + 4b + c)

(25a + 5b + c)

(3a + b) (2a)

(5a + b) (2a)

(7a + b) (2a)

(9a + b)

We have previously established that the second level difference is 14. This therefore leads us to conclude that 2a = 14 a=7 Now by taking this information and moving up the difference levels, we can determine the value of b.

3a + b = 14 3(7) = 14 b 21-14 = -b b = -7 To verify this information, we can also insert our value of a into another of the equations. 5a + b = 28 5(7) = 28 b 35 28 = -b b = -7 Now the final constant, c, can also be found a+b+c=1 (7) + (-7) + c = 1 c=1 We can also verify this 4a + 2b + c = 15 4(7) + 2(-7) + c = 15 c + 14 = 15 c = 15 14 c=1 We can now insert these values into our general formula to obtain the specific formula for this sequence in terms of n.

As per usual, a precautionary check is in order. When n = 5, the number of dots = 141

7(25) 35 + 1 175 35 +1

141 It would also be helpful if we could now link the values of p and n in one general formula that would provide us with the number of dots on any term in any sequence. To do this, we must first look back at the two general formulas we have already produced in relation to the value of p used in that particular sequence.

When p = 6, the general formula is

When p = 7, the general formula is

It can clearly be seen that the value of p in both cases is also the value of the relative coefficient, a. It is also true that the negative of p is equal to the constant, b. In both cases the value of c is also the same. From this new information we can thus produce a new general formula that will span stellar number sequences for any value of p.