Environ. Sci. Technol.

2008, 42, 86258629

Global Challenges in Energy and Water Supply: The Promise of Engineered Osmosis
ROBERT L. MCGINNIS MENACHEM ELIMELECH* Yale University

mortality, and a necessarily associated high per capita level of income and energy use (5). The terrible race that is now occurring, between exponential population growth and the rapidly increasing resource consumption necessary to approach the threshold of a possible demographic transition, is one with an outcome that is very much uncertain. The great, perhaps greatest challenge of this moment in human history is the need for everyonesparticularly those of the developed nationssto do whatever is necessary to help the rapidly growing populations of the developing regions reach the level of prosperity and security that will enable them to make this transition. To not do so will lead to a continued population increase that will lead to either an environmental or Malthusian catastrophe, or both. In other words, the alternative is unacceptable.
JULIE FARRAR

Engineered processes that cleverly exploit osmosis may provide just the answer to the global need for affordable clean water and inexpensive sustainable energy.

This effort to increase the global per capita standard of living is tied inextricably to an increase in per capita water and energy use (3, 6, 7). These important metrics of life quality measure lowest in the very regions undergoing the most rapid population growth (8). If we attempt, however, to meet this enormous need for water and energy resources through fossil fuel consumption and traditional natural resource management, we are not likely to succeed. The negative environmental impacts of climate change, accelerated by the combustion of fossil fuels, have already set the worlds climate on a precipitous course (9). Increasing this type of energy use could be equally as catastrophic as doing nothing to increase sustainable energy availability to developing regions. Equally untenable would be an attempt only to extend existing freshwater resources to meet these much higher needs. Population levels have already stressed these supplies, and climate change is shifting their allocation, making dry areas drier and causing deluge in areas in which water is already abundant (9). Increased water conservation, repair of infrastructure, and smart development of improved catchment and distribution systems will help alleviate these stresses, but while it is crucial that these measures be undertaken, they can only improve use, not increase supply. Desalination and water reuse are the only avenues to increase water availability beyond that which is available from the hydrogeological cycle (10). Given the extent, however, to which these technologies require substantial energy inputs, they will serve only to worsen a vicious cycle of climate change, water scarcity, and greenhouse gas emissions from energyintensive water purication processes. In order to meet these challenges, substantial efforts in investment, regulation, and innovation will have to be made. Technologies, market structures, and economic development methods previously deemed unconventional must now be considered, if they hold potential to meet the needs of the larger social, economic, and natural system as a whole. The purpose of this article is to introduce a largely unknown set of technologies that may contribute to this effort. These technologies, described collectively as osmotically driven membrane processes or alternately, the tools of engineered
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Water scarcity and the environmental impacts of energy use are challenges of great and increasing importance to the future of human civilization. A rapidly expanding global population and an accelerating increase in the standard of living for a growing middle class have put relentless pressure on water and energy resources (1-4). We live at a critical time in human history, when technological advancement, economic globalization, and the rapid spread of consumer capitalism have led to an unprecedented increase in the worlds population and per capita resource consumption. This increase in resource consumption, however, has not yet led to the hoped-for demographic transition that will enable a sustainable global population level. This transition is characterized by the change from a rapidly growing population to one which is stable or shrinking, enabled by a high standard of living, low expectation of premature
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osmosis, show great promise in contributing to the development of sustainable water and energy resources, potentially without requiring substantial subsidies or regulatory efforts to promote their use. Engineered osmosis relies on the design of membrane-based water separation and power generation systems, which exploit the natural phenomenon of osmosis rather than treating it as a limiting constraint. Current commercial membrane separation systems rely on hydraulic pressure to drive ux of water through a semipermeable membrane, and in such systems osmotic pressure is considered an inhibiting resistive force. In engineered osmosis, natural osmotic water ux is the primary driver for membrane transport, and hydraulic pressure, when used, is an intentional resistive force used to do mechanical work. Systems of this type may be designed to produce freshwater from nonpotable sources which may be highly saline and/or have a high membrane fouling potential, to produce electrical power from naturally occurring salinity gradients, or to generate electricity from low-temperature heat sources such as reject heat from thermal processes and conventional power plants.

Water and energy are intrinsically linked

Water and energy in modern society are intrinsically linked. Both are required to enable a high quality of human lifesnecessary to maintain sustainable population levels without the repressive pressure on populations caused by disease, famine, and war (11). Water allows for adequate hydration, sanitation, and hygiene; energy, for work and achievement beyond the capability of human and animal muscular force for warmth and light; and the time and leisure to learn and educate. Together, water and energy, in the form of irrigation and fertilization, allow for the abundant production of food. The green revolution of the last century, which greatly increased global agricultural output, is substantially dependent on the increased use of both of these resources (12). With sufcient water and arable land, energy may be harnessed from the sun in the form of biofuels. With sufciently abundant energy, water may also be made abundantspumped from deep aquifers, treated from municipal discharges for potable reuse, or desalinated from brackish and seawater supplies. Today, however, energy is not yet sufciently abundant in any form that may be used sustainably to increase water supplies. Reuse of water makes great technical sense to those who are familiar with our many achievements in water ltration and purication, and this approach must be explored and applied to its greatest practical extent. However, reuse is not favored by most potable-water users, and although reuse may reduce the demand for additional water supply, it cannot augment the existing supply.

Sustainable water supply

As climate change causes dry areas to become drier and wet areas wetter, it is easy to imagine building aqueducts to counter the imbalance. This approach, however, would be more energy-intensive and expensive than that of seawater desalination in the arid regions, because of the often great distances that would be involved. Indeed, >60% of the worlds population lives within several hundred kilometers of a coast (13), and there is no question that the mass balance of water ows would work out nicely. There is an abundant supply. Desalination as it is now practiced, however, cannot sustainably augment water supplies to meet current or future needs. Reverse osmosis (RO), a tremendously robust, effective, and increasingly efcient desalination processsnow within only a factor of 2 to 3 of the minimum theoretical energy of separation of water from the ocean (14)scannot produce water sustainably if the energy required by the
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process is provided from fossil fuels. Nor is it sufcient to build a wind or solar power plant to provide this energy and say it has no climate impact, when limited renewable resources might otherwise be used to reduce existing fossil fuel consumption. The issue is not whether the energy consumption of desalination is modest compared with other energy demands, as indeed in a great many cases it is (14), but rather that accepting the transformation of nonrenewable, carbon-emitting fuels into water will serve to worsen the problem, not correct it. More emissions would only drive further water scarcity, demanding further energy consumption, and so on, in an unsustainable downward spiral. There have been attempts to evade this outcome, in the use of alternative energy inputs for desalination by thermal desalting methods such as multistage ash and multieffect distillation (MSF and MED). These processes may take rejected heat from other processesse.g., industrial, powerproducing, and geothermalsand make freshwater from the ocean. In principle, this is an excellent approach, but the temperature of heat required by these processes for economic operation is too high (70 C for MED and 110 C for MSF) (15). The delivery of heat from the power plant to the desalination process reduces the power output of the plant, requiring additional fuel consumption to maintain output, and so prime energy in the form of fossil fuels must be used again (16). Added to this high-quality heat requirement is a considerable need for electrical energy as well. MSF plants may require as much electrical energy as RO plants do, and MED plants typically require two-thirds or more as much electricity as an RO plant (17). The ideal solution would be for a process to use very low quality heat as its energy input, at or below the temperature of its rejection from a power plant or similar thermal process (and below a temperature at which it would be useful for any other purpose), and use little or no electrical energy in addition to this heat. A process of this type would be capable of producing freshwater sustainably from saline waters, so long as its heat sources were themselves sustainable. One of the methods of engineered osmosis, forward osmosis (FO), is designed to t this set of criteria. The FO desalination process may use very low temperature heat, as low as 40 C, given an ambient temperature of 20 C (such that a temperature difference 20 C is available between the heat input and output streams), and approximately an order of magnitude less electrical energy than RO (18). The FO process is more efcient than conventional evaporative desalination processes, as it is the solute which is removed from solution by a change of phase, rather than the water itself. Furthermore, the FO process does not require the multiple stages, large heat transfer areas, and large pumping volumes required by MSF and MED. The basis of FO, as well as of the majority of technically and economically feasible engineered osmosis processes, is in the ability to create a solution of high osmotic pressure, which contains solutes that are well-rejected by semipermeable membranes and may be at any time readily, efciently, and completely removed. This high-osmotic-pressure solution is referred to as a draw solution. Many draw solutions have been considered for use, but nearly all have been discarded, as they were unable to meet these criteria (19, 20). A successful draw solution has been identied, however, in the form of a concentrated solution of ammonium (NH4+) formed by the dissolution of ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in water (21). These salts are highly soluble, create high osmotic pressures, diffuse relatively rapidly in solution, are well-rejected by semipermeable membranes, and may be removed from solution by the simple addition of low-quality heat. The salts of this solution are thermolytic: when heat is supplied, the salts decompose into ammonia and carbon dioxide gases for simple stripping from solution.

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FIGURE 1. The NH3/CO2 forward osmosis desalination process. Adapted from Refs. 20 and 21. These gases, when introduced to water again at a lower temperature, readily reconstitute the desired draw solutes. This process is inherently more efcient than a process that removes water from a solution by vaporizing it (18), as the enthalpy of vaporization of water far exceeds the enthalpy of vaporizing these dissolved salts. In the NH3/CO2 FO process (Figure 1), this draw solution is used to induce natural osmotic ux of water across a semipermeable membrane from a relatively dilute saline feedwater (21). In the case of seawater desalination, the seawater is dilute relative to the draw solution, and ux can be quite high, easily matching the rates of ow of hydraulically driven membrane separation processes like RO. As water ows across the membrane from the seawater, both the seawater salts and the draw solution solutes are rejected by the membrane, such that the seawater feed becomes concentrated to brine, and the concentrated draw solution becomes dilute. A portion of the dilute draw solution is then directed to a simple distillation column, also known as a reboiled stripper, where low-temperature heat is used to strip the NH3 and CO2 gases from the draw solution for reuse, producing a freshwater product containing <1 ppm of NH3. The membranes used by the FO process are, in principle, similar to those used in RO, in that the properties of the rejecting layer of the membranes may be identical. FO membranes, however, differ in the thickness of the support layerssthese must be much thinner and highly porous, and may not be hydrophobic, as is often the case in RO supports (22-24). The distillation column must be run under subatmospheric-pressure conditions in order to enable the use of low-temperature heat to generate steam in the reboiler to drive NH3 and CO2 gas separation, but no work is required to maintain this vacuum, as condensation of the gas stream into reconstituted draw solution maintains the desired pressures and is achieved by the rejection of heat from the FO process (18). The only electricity required by the FO process is that needed for pumping uids against frictional resistance in unpressurized process equipment and pipes, in a high-water-recovery process, with correspondingly much lower pretreatment volumes than those of conventional desalination processes (21). This electrical requirement is analogous to that of low-pressure membrane separation processes such as microltration. In this way, FO is both a membrane process and a thermal desalination method, and is very well suited to the sustainable production of freshwater from saline water sources, given an adequate supply of low-temperature waste heat.

Sustainable energy
Increasing levels of total and per capita energy consumption appear inevitable as populations continue to grow and global economic expansion raises the incomes and productivity of

vast numbers of the previously poor. This increase in energy consumption is, however, also desirable, as increased per capita energy consumption, along with increased water quality and availability, are needed to raise global standards of living to levels associated with the demographic transition already observed in developed nations (5). The form of this energy, however, is critically important. Continued reliance on fossil fuel combustion is accelerating changes in our climate toward long-term perilous effects (9). Sustainable sources of energy production must be found, but many of the currently available alternatives are inadequate for the task of replacing current and future fossil fuel use. Renewable sources such as wind, solar, and tidal power, for example, will be extremely important future energy sources, but these are limited in their availability, both geographically and temporally (25, 26). Solar power is universally available, but to different degrees of intensity and reliability, and in most cases, is not available in sufcient abundance to be generated locally and still meet urban energy demands (8). Although hydroelectric power contributes signicantly to current renewable power generation, it is not likely to make up a substantial portion of additional future renewable energy supplies because of environmental concerns and shifting precipitation patterns (9, 27, 28). Nuclear power is widely advocated as a source of carbon-free power production, and long reliable and safe operation of nuclear power plants around the world argues for the usefulness of power of this type as a replacement for fossil fuels. The use of nuclear power is not, however, without complications: there is currently no long-term destination for spent nuclear fuel. A rapidly expanding source of renewable energy for transportation is found in the agricultural production of biofuels such as corn-based ethanol and soy-based diesel fuels. The primary difculty with this method of fuel production, however, is that it requires the use of arable land, necessarily competes for the use of such land with producers of crops for food (29), and uses additional water resources (30). It may be possible to grow substantial quantities of biomass (e.g., algae) in the middle of a desert, for example, if sufcient brackish groundwater is available, as is the case in areas like the southwestern U.S. (31), but this will require further research as to its robustness and economic viability. Geothermal power is a very attractive potential source for sustainable energy production, but useful, currently economically viable geothermal resources are not geographically widespread, because of current requirements for high heat temperatures (typically >250 C, and >100 C for economical production) and relatively shallow wells (32). Recent research in the use of deep wells to obtain highquality heat from bedrock and water injection, in a much more widespread geographic region, is promising, but current thermal energy conversion technologies require, in many cases, wells as deep as 10 km below the surface (33). It would be highly useful to have a thermal energy conversion process that was capable of economically converting lower-temperature heat sources (50-150 C) into power, as this would enable the use of much shallower wells. In most places in the U.S., for example, a 3.5 km well is sufcient to produce heat at 50 C year-round, and in the Southwest, a 6.5 km deep well may readily produce heat at 150-200 C (33). This capability may potentially be enabled by the use of another of the tools of engineered osmosis, the osmotic heat engine (OHE). This system is based on the principles of pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO), in which a solution of high osmotic pressure is placed under a (relatively lower) hydraulic pressure (34). This solution is exposed to a robust semipermeable membrane, on the other side of which is a dilute feedwater. The natural tendency of such a system is for the
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tively inexpensive distillation column construction costs; and the use of a compact liquid turbine, smaller and less expensive than the large turbines used in low-temperature Rankine power plants, which at very low-temperature can have diameters as great as 10 m across (36). This capability for low-temperature heat conversion, allowing the utilization of deep-well, otherwise marginal geothermal resources, and the possibility of this effort producing economically competitive sustainable power make this engineered osmotic system an important subject for continued development and research.

AARON QUALLS

Prospects and challenges

Tremendous opportunities now exist to change our methods of using and producing clean water and power. There is a great need to do this, as a growing population, changing climate, and modernizing global civilization all demand more resources today at the expense of our ability to continue to meet these demands into the future. We live unsustainably and have no choice but to act or wait for the consequences of inaction. We must develop additional water resources; reuse, to the extent possible, the water resources we have; and ensure that the quality of this water is sufcient to prevent the spread of pathogens and ingestion of contaminants. This effort will include the need to desalinate seawater and brackish waters, and we must carry out this effort without relying on energyintensive methods that will worsen the causes of the water scarcity we are attempting to address. An excellent tool for this may be found in the technology of FO. Its effective and efcient use is constrained to environments where cogeneration of power and water is possible, or some other source of reject, or waste, heat is available, but in an increasingly urban society reliant on the conversion of thermal energy into electrical power, this should frequently be possible. Desalination of water near the dense coastal populations of the world may further allow for higher levels of natural freshwater availability in inland regions and in those areas which do not have urban power generation infrastructure. This technology, and others that may also contribute in similar ways to the sustainable production of water, must be aggressively pursued. We must also improve our use and production of sustainable energy resources. A combination of a number of energy technologies will likely be necessary: nuclear and geothermal energy, capable of providing substantial baseload power; as yet to be developed energy storage technologies, coupled with renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and tidal power to provide consistent mid- and peak-level power supply; and the use of transportation-compatible biofuels that do not compete with food production, such as those that may be derived from arid brackish water algae production or the cultivation of submarginal rangeland grasses. Many novel technologies may augment these methods, and possibly must do so, in order to provide for the enormous energy demands existing and projected globally. One possible member of this group of novel technologies is the OHE, which may enable much more widespread geothermal power production, increased efciency from existing thermal power conversion plants, and the use of difcult-to-capture, natural thermal gradients such as those found in ocean thermal energy conversion (37). Novel methods must be tested, and aggressive research and development must be undertaken, by scientists, engineers, entrepreneurs, and funding and regulatory agencies alike, if we are to meet this challenge. To the extent that we work to make abundant, safe, and sustainable water supplies and energy resources available wherever they are needed, we will signicantly further our

FIGURE 2. The NH3/CO2 osmotic heat engine. Adapted from Ref. 35. unpressurized, low-osmotic-pressure solution to transfer water through the membrane to the high-osmotic-pressure and high-hydraulic-pressure solution. As this pressurized solution expands, the additional volume may be depressurized to produce electrical power. In systems that use natural streams of differing salinity, such as seawater and river water, a system of this type is referred to as open-cycle PRO (34). In closed-cycle systems, however, both the dilute feedwater and the concentrated draw solution are recycled in the system by the use of input heat. Investigations into possible methods of designing closed-cycle PRO systems have been similar in many ways to investigations into methods of FO. Many potential draw solutions have been considered, as has the vaporization of water to reconstitute the dilute feed, in a method paralleling the separation techniques of thermal desalination systems. The most effective approach to the design of a system of this type, however, appears to be in the use of a more concentrated version of the NH3/CO2 draw solution used in FO. This is known as the NH3/CO2 OHE (35). In the NH3/CO2 OHE (Figure 2), the dilute solution is a nearly deionized working uid, containing <1 ppm NH3. The draw solution is a highly concentrated solution of NH4+ salts of the type used in FO, but placed under high hydraulic pressure. As water passes through the membrane and dilutes the draw solution, a portion of its volume is reduced in pressure through a hydroturbine, producing electrical power. Prior to reaching the turbine, however, the dilute, pressurized draw solution, expanded in volume, is passed through a pressure exchanger, which transmits most of the hydraulic pressure of this outgoing stream to the incoming, highconcentration, low-volume reconstituted draw solution. The use of this pressure exchanger and a small booster pump allows for the maintenance of a constant hydraulic pressure in the membrane system. Once the dilute draw solution has been depressurized in the pressure exchanger and turbine, a portion of it is directed to a distillation column of the type used in FO desalination to allow for stripping of the NH3 and CO2 draw solutes from the water, producing a nearly deionized working uid and a reconstituted concentrated draw solution, for reuse in the OHE. As with the FO system, the heat used by the distillation column may be of very low quality, as low as 40 C with a 20 C ambient temperature. The thermal efciency of this system is not currently high, approaching 10-15% of the efciency of an ideal Carnot engine over a range of temperatures from 40 C to 150 C (35). The cost of producing electricity by this method, however, could be quite competitive with existing means of power production. There are several reasons for this, including efcient use of membrane area, due to a high membrane power density (W/m2 of membrane area); rela8628
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chances of engaging our global citizenry in the higher standards of living, increased economic productivity, and decreased fear and uncertainty that are associated with the demographic transition we so greatly need the world to embrace.
Robert L. McGinnis is a doctoral student in the environmental engineering program at Yale University. Menachem Elimelech is the Roberto Goizueta Professor of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at Yale University and the director of the Environmental Engineering Program. Address correspondence about this article to Elimelech at menachem.elimelech@yale.edu.

Acknowledgments
We acknowledge support from the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program (for R.L.M.), the Ofce of Naval Research, and the NSF Science and Technology Center, WaterCAMPWS (Center for Advanced Materials for the Purication of Water with Systems). We also thank Aaron Qualls for the original drawings.

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