Special Diodes

Resurreccion, Matthew L. BS EE 3-A Engr. Sevilla M. Tuazon Professor

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)

Overview

The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of instrumentation has contributed to an extensive interest in structures that emit light when properly biased. In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy converted during recombination at the junction is dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted light is insignificant. For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED devices. On the other hand: Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the recombination process at the p-n junction. Through other combinations of elements a coherent visible light can be generated. In the table below provides a list of common compound semiconductors and the light they generate. In addition the typical range of forward bias potentials for each is listed.
Color Construction Typical Forward Voltage (V)

Amber Blue Green Orange Red White Yellow

Construction Diagram

AlInGaP GaN GaP GaAsP GaAsP GaN AlInGaP

2.1 5.0 2.2 2.0 1.8 4.1 2.1

The basic construction of an LED appears in the figure below with the standard symbol used for the device. The smaller external metallic conducting surface is connected to the p-type material and the larger external metallic conducting surface is connected to the n-type material.

Schematic Diagram

Characteristic Diagram

The level of VD under forward bias condition is listed as VF and extends from 2.2 to 3 V. In other words, one can expect a typical operating current of about 10 mA at 2.3V for good light emission, as shown in the figure. In the figure, the normalized level is taken at IF = 10 mA. Note that the relative luminous intensity is one at IF = 10 mA. The graph quickly reveals that the intensity of the light is almost doubled at a current of 15 mA and is almost three times as much at a current of 30 mA. It is important to therefore note that: The light intensity of an LED will increase with forward current until a point of saturation arrives where any further increase in current will not effectively increase the level of illumination.

Operation of the Device

Process of electroluminescence in the LED As the name implies, the light-emitting diode that gives off visible or invisible (infrared) light when energized. In any forward-biased p-n junction there is, within the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons. This recombination requires that the

energy possessed by the unbound free electrons be transferred to another state. In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this energy is given off in the form of heat and some in the form of photons. The external metallic conducting surface connected to the p type material is smaller to permit the emergence of the maximum number of photons of the light energy when the device is forward-biased. Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected carriers due to the forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of the recombination. There will, of course, be some absorption of the packages of photon energy in the structure itself, but a very large percentage can leave, as shown in the figure.
Application of the Diode

Even thought the light in not visible, infrared LEDs have numerous applications where visible light is not a desirable effect. These include: security systems industrial processing optical coupling safety controls Such as: on garage door openers in home entertainment centers Where the infrared light of the remote control is the controlling element.

Zener Diode
Overview

A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the doping level during manufacture.
Construction Diagram

Zener diodes are constructed using a large-area PN junction which has been affixed between two heat sinks to protect the junction during impulse conduction.

Schematic Diagram

The Zener diode symbol is presented in the figures to ensure that the direction of conduction of is clearly understood together with the required polarity of the applied voltage. The direction of the conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the symbol, as pointed out in the introduction to this section.

Characteristic Diagram

The characteristic drops in an almost vertical manner at a reverse-bias potential denoted VZ. The fact that the curve drops down and away from the horizontal axis rather than up and away for the positive-VD region reveals the current in the Zener region has a direction opposite to that of a forward-biased diode. The slight slope to the curve in the Zener region reveals that there is a level of resistance to be associated with the Zener diode in the conduction mode.

Operation of the Device

Zener diode characteristic with the equivalent model for each region Since some applications of Zener diodes swing between the Zener region and the forward-bias region, it is important to understand the operation of the Zener diode in all regions. As shown in the figure, the equivalent model for a Zener diode in the reverse- bias region below VZ is a very large resistor (as for the standard diode). For most applications the resistance is so large it can be ignored and the open circuit equivalent employed. For the forward-bias region the piecewise equivalent is the same as described in earlier sections. When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, its voltage remains almost constant even though the current changes drastically, and this is the key to zener diode operation. Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche effect occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current. Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5 V operate predominately in zener breakdown. Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V operate predominately in avalanche breakdown. Both types, however, are called zener diodes. Zeners are

commercially available with breakdown voltages from less than 1 V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances from 1% to 20%. Notice that as the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up to the knee of the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (ZZ), begins to decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the knee, the zener breakdown voltage (VZ) remains essentially constant although it increases slightly as the zener current, IZ, increases. Zener Regulation The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is the key feature of the zener diode. A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-current values. A minimum value of reverse current, IZK, must be maintained in order to keep the diode in breakdown for voltage regulation. You can see on the curve that when the reverse current is reduced below the knee of the curve, the voltage decreases drastically and regulation is lost. Also, there is a maximum current, IZM, above which the diode may be damaged due to excessive power dissipation. So, basically, the zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals for values of reverse current ranging from IZK to IZM. A nominal zener voltage, VZ, is usually specified on a datasheet at a value of reverse current called the zener test current.
Application of the Diode

The zener diode is widely used as a voltage regulator because of its capacity to maintain a constant voltage over a sizeable range of currents. It can be used as a single component across the output of a rectifier or incorporated into one of the variety of one-chip regulators.

Schottky Barrier (Hot-Carrier) Diodes

Overview

There has been increasing interest in a two-terminal device referred to as a Schottky-barrier, surface-barrier, or hot-carrier diode. Schottky diodes are highcurrent diodes used primarily in high-frequency and fast-switching applications. The term hot-carrier is derived from the higher energy level of electrons in the n region compared to those in the metal region.
Construction Diagram

General construction A Schottky diode is formed by joining a doped semiconductor region (usually n-type) with a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum. Rather than a p-n junction, there is a metal-to-semiconductor junction. As shown in the first figure. Its construction is quite different from the conventional p-n junction in that a metal-semiconductor junction is created such as shown in the second figure. The semiconductor is normally n-type silicon (although p-type silicon is sometimes used), whereas a host of different metals, such as molybdenum, platinum, chrome, or tungsten, are used. Different construction techniques result in a different set of characteristics for the device, such as increased frequency range, lower forward bias, and so on. Priorities do not permit an examination of each technique here, but information will usually be provided by the manufacturer. In general, however, Schottky diode construction results in a more uniform junction region and a high level of ruggedness.

Passivated Schottky diode

Schematic Diagram

The equivalent circuit for the device (with typical values) and a commonly used symbol appear in the figure below.

Characteristic Diagram

The application of a forward bias as shown in the first quadrant of the figure below will reduce the strength of the negative barrier through the attraction of the positive potential for electrons from this region. The result is a return to the heavy flow of electrons across the boundary, the magnitude of which is controlled by the level of the applied bias potential. The barrier at the junction for a Schottky diode is less than that of the p-n junction device in both the forward- and reverse-bias regions. The result is therefore a higher current at the same applied bias in the forward- and reverse-bias regions. This is desirable effect in the forward-bias region but highly undesirable in the reverse-bias region.

Comparison of characteristics of hot-carrier and p-n diodes

Operation of the Device

In both materials, the electron is the majority carrier. In the metal, the level of minority carriers (holes) is insignificant. When the materials are joined, the electrons in the n-type silicon semiconductor material immediately flow into the adjoining metal, establishing a heavy flow of majority carriers. Since the injected carriers have a very high kinetic energy level compared to the electrons of the metal, they are commonly called hot carriers. In the conventional p-n junction, there was the injection of minority carriers into the adjoining region. Here the electrons are injected into a region of the same electron plurality. Schottky diodes are therefore unique in that conduction is entirely by majority carriers. The heavy flow of electrons into the metal creates a region near the junction surface depleted of carriers in the silicon material much like the depletion region in the p-n junction diode. The additional carriers in the metal establish a negative wall in the metal at the boundary between the two materials. The net results is a surface barrier between the two materials, preventing any further current. That is, any electrons (negatively charged) in the silicon material face a carrier-free region and a negative wall at the surface of the metal.

Application of the Diode

Its area of application was first limited to the very high frequency range due to its quick response time (especially important at high frequencies) and lower noise figure (a quantity of real importance in high-frequency applications). In recent years, however, it is appearing more and more in low-voltage / highcurrent power supplies and ac-to-dc converters. Other areas of application of the device include radar systems, Schottky TTL logic for computers, mixers and detectors in communication equipment, instrumentation, and analog-to-digital converters.

Varactor (Varicap) Diodes

Overview

Varactor [also called varicap, VVC (voltage-variable capacitance), or tunning] diodes are semiconductor, voltage-dependent, variable capacitors. A diode that always operates in reverse bias and is doped to maximize the inherent capacitance of the depletion region.Their mode of operation depends on the capacitance exists at the p-n junction when the element is reverse-biased.
Construction Diagram

The depletion region acts as a capacitor dielectric because of its nonconductive characteristic. The p and n regions are conductive and act as the capacitor plates.
Schematic Diagram

The symbols most commonly used for the varicap diode are shown in the figures below.

Characteristic Diagram

The characteristics of a typical commercially available varicap diode appear in the figure. Note the initial sharp decline in CT with increase in reverse bias. The normal range of VR for VVC diodes is limited to about 20 V.
Operation of the Device

As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens, effectively increasing the plate separation, thus decreasing the capacitance. When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion region narrows, thus increasing the capacitance.

In a varactor diode, these capacitance parameters are controlled by the method of doping near the p-n junction and the size and geometry of the diodes construction. Nominal varactor capacitances are typically available from a few picofarads to several hundred picofarads.

Application of the Diode

The varactor diode is employed in a tuning network. For example, VHF, UHF, and satellite receivers utilize varactors. Varactors are also used in cellular communications.

Photodiodes
Overview

The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to the reverse-bias region. The interest in light-sensitive devices has been increasing at an exceptional rate in recent years. The resulting field of optoelectronics is receiving a great deal of research interest as efforts are made to improve efficiency levels. Light sources offer a unique source of energy. This energy, transmitted as discrete packages called photons, has a level directly related to the frequency of the travelling light wave.
Construction Diagram

The figure in construction diagram demonstrates the use of lens to concentrate the light on the junction region.

Schematic Diagram

The symbol for the device appears in the figure below.

Characteristic Diagram

The almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment in luminous flux reveals that the reverse current and the luminous flux are almost linearly related. In other words, an increase in light intensity will result in a similar increase in reverse current. A plot of the two to show this linear relationship appears in the figure below for a fixed voltage V of 20 V. On relative basis, we can assume that the reverse current is essentially zero in the abscence of incident light.

I (A) versus fC (at V = 20 V) for the photodiode of the first figure

Operation of the Device

Basic biasing arrangement The reverse saturation current is normally limited to a few microamperes. It is due solely to the thermally generated minority carriers in the n- and p-type materials. The application of light to the junction will result in a transfer of energy from the incident travelling light waves (in the form of photons) to the atomic structure, resulting in an increased number of minority carriers and an increased level of reverse current. This is clearly shown in the characteristic diagram for different intensity levels. The dark current is that current that will exist with no applied illumination. Note that the current will only return to zero with a positive applied bias equal to VT.
Application of the Diode

The photodiode can be employed in an alarm system. The reverse current I will continue to flow as long as the light beam is not broken. If the beam is interrupted, I drops to the dark current level and sounds the alarm. It can also use to count items on a conveyor belt. As each item passes, the light beam is broken, I drops to the dark current level, and the counter is increased by one.

Photoconductive Cells
Overview

The photoconductive cell is a two-terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance varies (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light for obvious reasons; it is frequently called a photoresistive device.
Construction Diagram

The typical construction of a photoconductive cell is provided in the figure below.

The photoconductive materials most frequently used include cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe). The photoconductive cell does not have a junction like the photodiode. A thin layer of the material connected between terminals is simply exposed to the incident light energy.

Schematic Diagram

The most common schematic diagram of a photoconductive cell is provided in the figure below.

Characteristic Diagram

The sensitivity curve for a typical photoconductive devices appears in te figure below.

Operation of the Device

As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy state of a larger number of electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased availability of the photon packages of energy. The result is an increasing number of relatively free electrons in the structure and a decrease in the terminal resistance.

The peak spectral response occurs at approximately 5100 A for CdS and at 6150 A for CdSe. The response time of CdS units is about 100 ms and of CdSe cells is 10 ms.

Application of the Diode

Photoconductive cells are used in many different types of circuits and applications. Analog Applications Camera Exposure Control Auto Slide Focus - dual cell Photocopy Machines - density of toner Colorimetric Test Equipment Densitometer,Electronic Scales - dual cell Automatic Gain Control - modulated light source Automated Rear View Mirror Digital Applications Automatic Headlight Dimmer Night Light Control Oil Burner Flame Out Street Light Control,Absence / Presence (beam breaker) Position Senso

IR Emitters
Overview

Infrared-emitting diodes are solid-state gallium arsenide devices that emit a beam of radiant flux when forward-biased.
Construction Diagram

The basic construction of the device is shown in the figure below.

Schematic Diagram

The schematic diagram of an IR emitter is provided in the figure below.

Characteristic Diagram

The radiant flux in milliwatts versus the dc forward current for a typical device appears in the figure below. Note the almost linear relationship between the two.

Operation of the Device

When the junction is forward-biased, electrons from the n-region recombine with excess holes of the p-material in a specially designed recombination region sandwiched between the p- and n-type materials. During this recombination

process, energy is radiated away from the device in the form of photons. The generated photons are either reabsorbed in the structure or leave the surface of the device as radiant energy, as shown in the figure.
Application of the Diode

Areas of application for such devices include: Card and paper-tape readers Shaft encoders Data-transmission systems Intrusion alarms

Solar Cells
Overview

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the solar cell as an alternative source of energy. When we consider that the power density received from the sun at sea level is about 100 mW/cm2 (1 kW/m2), it is certainly an energy source that requires further research and development to maximize the conversion efficiency from solar to electrical energy. Selenium and silicon are the most widely used materials for solar cells, although gallium arsenide, indium arsenide, and cadmium sulphide, among others, are also used. Silicon has a higher conversion efficiency and greater stability and is less subject to fatigue. Both materials have excellent temperature characteristics. That is, they can withstand extreme high or low temperatures without a significant drop-off in efficiency.
Construction Diagram

The basic construction of a silicon p-n junction solar cell appears in the figure. As shown in the figure below, every effort is made to ensure that the surface area perpendicular to the sun is at maximum. Also note that the metallic conductor connected to the p-type material and the thickness of the p-type material.

Schematic Diagram

Characteristic Diagram

Since V = 0 anywhere on the vertical axis and represents a short-circuit condition, the current at this intersection is called the short-circuit current and is represented by the notation ISC. Under open-circuit conditions (id = 0), the photovoltaic voltage VOC will result. This is a logarithmic function of the illumination, as shown in the figure below. VOC is the terminal voltage of a battery under no-load (open-circuit) conditions. Note, however, in the same figure that the short-circuit current is a linear function of the illumination. That is, it will double for the same increase in illumination ( and ), whereas the change in VOC is less for this region. The major increase in VOC occurs for lower level increases in illumination. Eventually, a further increase in illumination will have very little effect on VOC, although ISC will increase, causing the power capabilities to increase.
Operation of the Device

The thickness of the p-type material is such that they ensure that a maximum number of photons of light energy will reach the junction. A photon of light energy in this region may collide with a valence electron and impart to it sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. The result is a generation of free electrons and holes. This phenomenon will occur on each side of the junction. In the p-type material, the newly generated electrons are minority carriers and will move rather freely across the junction as explained for the basic p-n junction with no applied bias. A similar discussion is true for the holes generated in the n-type material. The result is an increase in the minoritycarriers flow, which opposite on direction to the conventional forward current of a p-n junction.
Application of the Diode

To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar cells can be used to power or recharge portable devices.

Tunnel Diodes
Overview

The tunnel diode exhibits a special characteristic known as negative resistance. The use of tunnel diodes in present-day high-frequency systems has been dramatically stalled because of the availability of manufacturing techniques for alternative devices. Its simplicity, linearity, low power drain, and reliability ensure its continued life and application.
Construction Diagram

The tunnel diode is fabricated by doping the semiconductor materials that will form the p-n junction at a level 100 to several thousand times that of a typical semiconductor diode. This results in a greatly reduced depletion region, of the order of magnitude of 10-6 cm, or typically about region for a typical semiconductor diode. The tunnel diode is similar to a standard p-n junction in many respects except that the doping levels are very high. Also the depletion region, the area between the p-type and n-type areas, where there are no carriers is very narrow. Typically it is in the region of between five to ten nano-metres - only a few atom widths. As the depletion region is so narrow this means that if it is to be used for high frequency operation the diode itself must be made very small to reduce the high level of capacitance resulting from the very narrow depletion region. the width of this

The semiconductor materials most frequently used in the manufacture of tunnel diodes are germanium and gallium arsenide.
Schematic Diagram

The symbols most frequently employed for tunnel diodes.

Characteristic Diagram

Its characteristics, shown in the figure, are different from any diode discussed thus far in that it has a negative-resistance region. In this region, an increase in terminal voltage results in a reduction in diode current. For a comparison purposes, a typical semiconductor diode characteristic is superimposed on the tunnel-diode characteristic of the figure.

Operation of the Device

Because of the thin depletion region, through which many carriers can tunnel rather than attempt to surmount, at low forward-bias potentials that accounts for the peak in the curve as shown in the characteristic diagram. This reduced depletion region results in carriers punching through at velocities that far exceed those available with conventional diodes.

Electrons at the same level on both sides of the junction. No net current. As shown in the figure, the equilibrium energy level diagram of a tunnel diode with no bias applied. Note that the valence band of the p-material overlaps the conduction band of the n-material. The majority electrons and holes are at the same energy level in the equilibrium state. If there is any movement of current carriers across the depletion region due to thermal energy, the net current flow will be zero because equal numbers of current carriers flow in opposite directions.

Electrons on right side are raised until they are opposite empty states on left side. Strong current flows from right to left. As shown in the figure, the energy diagram of a tunnel diode with a small forward bias (200 millivolts) applied. The bias causes unequal energy levels between some of the majority carriers at the energy band overlap point, but not enough of a potential difference to cause the carriers to cross the forbidden gap in the normal manner. Since the valence band of the p-material and the conduction band of the n-material still overlap, current carriers tunnel across at the overlap and cause a substantial current flow. Note in the figure that the amount of overlap between the valence band and the conduction band decreased when forward bias was applied.

Electrons on the right raised still farther. Some are opposite forbidden band gap, some opposite empty states. Current decreases.

Electrons all are opposite forbidden gap. Very small current. As shown in the figure, the energy diagram of a tunnel diode in which the forward bias has been increased to 400 millivolts. As you can see, the valence band and the conduction band no longer overlap at this point, and tunneling can no longer occur. The portion of the curve in the characteristic diagram from peak point to valley point shows the decreasing current that occurs as the bias is increased, and the area of overlap becomes smaller. As the overlap between the two energy bands becomes smaller, fewer and fewer electrons can tunnel across the junction. The portion of the curve between peak point and valley point in which current decreases as the voltage increases is the negative resistance region of the tunnel diode. If the energy diagram of a tunnel diode in which the forward bias has been increased even further, then the energy bands no longer overlap and the diode operates in the same manner as a normal pnjunction.

Electrons raised until they spill over barrier. Current increases.

Application of the Diode

The tunnel diode can be used in high-speed applications such as computers, where switching times in the order of nanoseconds or picoseconds are desirable. It is also useful in oscillator and microwave amplifier applications, because of its
negative resistance.

PIN Diode
Overview

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, lightly doped 'near' intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts. The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic region makes the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (one typical function of a diode), but it makes the PIN diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photodetectors, and high voltage power electronics applications.
Construction Diagram

Basic PIN diode structure The instrinic layer of the PIN diode is the one that provides the change in properties when compared to a normal PN junction diode. The intrinsic region comprises of the undoped, or virtually undoped semiconductor, and in most PIN diodes it is very thin - of the order of between 10 and 200 microns.

PIN diode with a planar construction There are a two main structures that can be used, but the one which is referred to as a planar structure is shown in the diagram. In the diagram, the intrinsic layer is shown much larger than if it were drawn to scale. This has been done to better show the overall structure of the PIN diode.

Schematic Diagram

Characteristic Diagram

Forward series resistance characteristic When forward-biased, it acts like a current-controlled variable resistance.

Reverse capacitance characteristic

When reverse-biased, the pin diode acts like a nearly constant capacitance.
Operation of the Device

It is found that at low levels of reverse bias the depletion layer become fully depleted. Once fully depleted the PIN diode capacitance is independent of the level of bias because there is little net charge in the intrinsic layer. However the level of capacitance is typically lower than other forms of diode and this means that any leakage of RF signals across the diode is lower. When the PIN diode is forward biased both types of current carrier are injected into the intrinsic layer where they combine. It is this process that enables the current to flow across the layer. The particularly useful aspect of the PIN diode occurs when it is used with high frequency signals, the diode appears as a resistor rather than a non linear device, and it produces no rectification or distortion. Its resistance is governed by the DC bias applied. In this way it is possible to use the device as an effective RF switch or variable resistor producing far less distortion than ordinary PN junction diodes.
Application of the Diode

The pin diode is used as a dc-controlled microwave switch operated by rapid changes in bias or as a modulating device that takes advantage of the variable forward-resistance characteristic. Since no rectification occurs at the pn junction, a high-frequency signal can be modulated (varied) by a lowerfrequency bias variation. A pin diode can also be used in attenuator applications because its resistance can be controlled by the amount of current. Certain types of pin diodes are used as photodetectors in fiber-optic systems. The PIN diode is used in a variety of different applications from low frequencies up to high radio frequencies. The properties introduced by the intrinsic layer make it suitable for a number of applications where ordinary PN junction diodes are less suitable. In the first instance the diode can be used as a power rectifier. Here the intrinsic layer gives it a high reverse breakdown voltage, and this can be used to good effect in many applications. Although the PIN diode finds many applications in the high voltage arena, it is probably for radio frequency applications where it is best known. The fact that when it is forward biased, the diode is linear, behaving like a resistor, can be put to good use in a variety of applications. It can be used as a variable resistor in a variable attenuator, a function that few other components can achieve as effectively. The PIN diode can also be used as an RF switch. In the forward direction it can be biased sufficiently to ensure it has a low resistance

to the RF that needs to be passed, and when a reverse bias is applied it acts as an open circuit The fact that the PIN diode has a low level of capacitance because of the additional intrinsic layer in the diode, means that it can switch more effectively than other forms of diode.

Gunn Diode
Overview

The Gunn diode is a unique component - even though it is called a diode, it does not contain a PN diode junction. The Gunn diode or transferred electron device can be termed a diode because it does have two electrodes. It depends upon the bulk material properties rather than that of a PN junction. The Gunn diode operation depends on the fact that it has a voltage controlled negative resistance. The Gunn diode is not like a typical PN junction diode. Rather than having both p-type and n-type semiconductor, it only utilises n-type semiconductor where electrons are the majority carriers.
Construction Diagram

Cross section of only N-type semiconductor diode. Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type semiconductor. The most common materials are gallium Arsenide, GaAs and Indium Phosphide, InP. However other materials including Ge, CdTe, InAs, InSb, ZnSe and others have been used. The device is simply an n-type bar with n+ contacts. It is necessary to use n-type material because the transferred electron effect is only applicable to electrons and not holes found in a p-type material. Within the device there are three main areas, which can be roughly termed the top, middle and bottom areas. as shown in the figure below.

The most common method of manufacturing a Gunn diode is to grow and epitaxial layer on a degenerate n+ substrate. The active region is between a few microns and a few hundred micron thick. This active layer has a doping level between 1014cm-3 and 1016cm-3 - this is considerably less than that used for the top and bottom areas of the device. The thickness will vary according to the frequency required. The top n+ layer can be deposited epitaxially or doped using ion implantation. Both top and bottom areas of the device are heavily doped to give n+ material. This provides the required high conductivity areas that are needed for the connections to the device.

A discrete Gunn diode with the active layer mounted onto a heatsink for efficient heat transfer Devices are normally mounted on a conducting base to which a wire connection is made. The base also acts as a heat sink which is critical for the removal of heat. The connection to the other terminal of the diode is made via a gold connection deposited onto the top surface. Gold is required because of its relative stability and high conductivity.

Schematic Diagram

The Gunn diode symbol used in circuit diagrams varies. Often a standard diode is seen in the diagram, however this form of Gunn diode symbol does not indicate the fact that the Gunn diode is not a PN junction. Instead another symbol showing two filled in triangles with points touching is used as shown below.
Characteristic Diagram

As voltage is increased, conduction increases due to electrons in a low energy conduction band. As voltage is increased beyond the threshold of approximately 1 V, electrons move from the lower conduction band to the higher energy conduction band where they no longer contribute to conduction. In other words, as voltage increases, current decreases, a negative resistance condition. This negative resistance region means that the current flow in diode increases in the negative resistance region when the voltage falls - the inverse of the normal effect in any other positive resistance element. This phase reversal enables the Gunn diode to act as an amplifier and oscillator.
Operation of the device

The operation of the Gunn diode can be explained in basic terms. When a voltage is placed across the device, most of the voltage appears across the inner

active region. As this is particularly thin this means that the voltage gradient that exists in this region is exceedingly high. The device exhibits a negative resistance region on its V/I curve as seen below. This negative resistance area enables the Gunn diode to amplify signals. This can be used both in amplifiers and oscillators. However Gunn diode oscillators are the most commonly found.
Application of the Diode

Gunn diode oscillators are used for many purposes and typical applications include local oscillators, klystron replacement, transmit and receive oscillators for radio communications, military and commercial radar sources, police radar, sensors for detecting: velocity, direction, proximity, or fluid levels, alarms, pumps for parametric amplifiers, wireless Lans, collision avoidance and intelligent cruise control, and others. A Gunn diode can be used to amplify signals because of the apparent "negative resistance". Gunn diodes are commonly used as a source of high frequency and high power signals. A bias tee is needed to isolate the bias current from the high frequency oscillations. Since this is a single-port device, there is no isolation between input and output. A bias tee is a three port network used for setting the DC bias point of some electronic components without disturbing other components.

Laser Diode
Overview

The laser diode is a further development upon the regular light-emitting diode, or LED. The term laser itself is actually an acronym, despite the fact its often written in lower-case letters. Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light is monochromatic, which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors. Laser light is also called coherent light, a single wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which consists of a wide band of wavelengths. The laser diode normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED emits incoherent light.
Construction Diagram

Basic laser diode construction. The basic construction of a laser diode is shown in the figure. A p-n junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium arsenide. The length of the p-n junction bears a precise relationship with the wavelength of the light to be emitted. There is a highly reflective surface at one end of the p-n junction and a

partially reflective surface at the other end, forming a resonant cavity for the photons. External leads provide the anode and cathode connections. The laser diode is consists of heavily doped n+ and p+ regions. For manufacture it is normal to start with an n+ substrate and then the top layer can be grown onto this. The doping can be included in a variety of ways, either by diffusion, ion implantation or even deposited during the epitaxy process. A variety of materials can be used for laser diodes, although the most common starting substrates are Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and Indium Phosphate (InP). These are known as type III-V compounds because of their places in the chemical periodic table of elements. Whatever material is used, it must be possible to heavily dope it as either a p type or n type semiconductor. This rules out most of the type II-VI materials, leaving the group III-V materials as the ideal option. Apart from the basic semiconductor requirements, there are a number of optical requirements that are needed to enable the laser diode to operate. It needs an optical resonator. This must occur in the plane of the required light output. To achieve this the two walls of the laser diode that form the resonator must be almost perfectly smooth, forming a mirror surface from which the light can be reflected internally. One of the walls is made slightly less reflecting to enable the light to come out from the laser diode. Another requirement is that the two mirror surfaces must be perfectly perpendicular to the junction, otherwise the laser action does not occur satisfactorily. The two other surfaces perpendicular to the one of the required light output are roughened slightly to ensure that the laser action does not occur in this plane as well. In this way a resonant optical cavity is created. Although it is many wavelengths long it still acts as a resonant cavity.
Schematic Diagram

The laser diode symbol used for circuit diagrams is often the same one used for light emitting diodes. This laser diode circuit symbol uses the basic semiconductor diode symbol with arrows indicating the generation and emanation of light.
Characteristic Diagram

One of the most commonly used and important laser diode specifications or characteristics is the L/I curve. It plots the drive current supplied against the light output.

This laser diode specification is used to determine the current required to obtain a particular level of light output at a given current. It can also be seen that the light output is also very dependent upon the temperature.

Laser diode L-I Characteristic From this characteristic, it can be seen that there is a threshold current below which the laser action does not take place. The laser diode should be operated clear of this point to ensure reliable operation over the full operating temperature range as the threshold current rises with increasing temperature. It is typically found that the laser threshold current rises exponentially with temperature. The laser diode specification for the forward voltage across the diode is required in a number of areas of the design. Often laser diode manufacturers prefer to place the voltage on the vertical axis.

Laser diode V-I Characteristic

From the diagram it can be seen that the voltage across the laser diode is typically around 1.5 volts, although it is necessary to check for the particular laser diode in question. The forward voltage specification will vary according to the materials used in the diode, current, etc. Although the forward voltage does vary with temperature, this is not normally a major consideration.
Operation of the Device

Basic laser diode operation. The basic operation is as follows. The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source. As electrons move through the junction, recombination occurs just as in an ordinary diode. As electrons fall into holes to recombine, photons are released. A released photon can strike an atom, causing another photon to be released. As the forward current is increased, more electrons enter the depletion region and cause more photons to be emitted. Eventually some of the photons that are randomly drifting within the depletion region strike the reflected surfaces perpendicularly. These reflected photons move along the depletion region, striking atoms and releasing additional photons due to the avalanche effect. This back-and-forth movement of photons increases as the generation of photons snowballs until a very intense beam of laser light is formed by the photons that pass through the partially reflective end of the pn junction.

Each photon produced in this process is identical to the other photons in energy level, phase relationship, and frequency. So a single wavelength of intense light emerges from the laser diode, as indicated in Figure 348(c). Laser diodes have a threshold level of current above which the laser action occurs and below which the diode behaves essentially as an LED, emitting incoherent light.
Application of the Diode

With laser diodes being lending themselves to use in many areas of electronics from CD, DVD and other forms of data storage through to telecommunications links, laser diode technology offers a very convenient means of developing coherent light. Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in the pick-up system of compact disk (CD) players. Audio information (sound) is digitally recorded in stereo on the surface of a compact disk in the form of microscopic pits and flats. A lens arrangement focuses the laser beam from the diode onto the CD surface. As the CD rotates, the lens and beam follow the track under control of a servomotor. The laser light, which is altered by the pits and flats along the recorded track, is reflected back from the track through a lens and optical system to infrared photodiodes. The signal from the photodiodes is then used to reproduce the digitally recorded sound. Laser diodes are also used in laser printers and fiber-optic systems.

Current Limiting Diode (CLD)

Overview

A Current Limiting Diode, also known as a Current Regulating Diode or a Constant Current Diode, performs quite a unique function. Similar to a zener diode, which regulates voltage at a particular current, the CLD limits or regulates current over a wide voltage range. The CLD is diffused using a Field Effect process similar to the diffusion techniques used in manufacturing JFETs with the electrical characteristics optimized for high output impedance and current regulating capability.
Construction Diagram

CLD cross section

Schematic Diagram

Characteristic Diagram

From Figure, it can be seen that the device performs as a constant current generator after about some voltage level of more is applied from anode (drain) to cathode (source) of the device until breakdown occurs. Whereas, in the reverse direction it operates as a forward biased diode.

IL - Limiting Current: 80% of IP minimum used to determine Limiting Voltage VL. IP - Pinch-off Current: Regulator current at specified Test Voltage (VT = 25V). POV - Peak Operating Voltage: Maximum voltage to be applied to device. TC - Current Temperature Coefficient. VAK - Anode to Cathode Voltage. VK - Knee Impedance Test Voltage: Specified voltage used to establish Knee Impedance (ZK). VL - Limiting Voltage: Measured at IL, VL together with knee AC impedance (ZK), indicates the knee characteristics of the devices.

VT - Test Voltage: Voltage at which IP and ZT are specified. ZK - Knee AC impedance at Testing Voltage:To test for ZK, a 90 Hz signal (VK), with RMS value equal to 10% of the test voltage, VK, is superimposed on VK: ZK = VK/iK, where iK is the resultant AC current due to VK To provide the most constant current, ZK should be as high as possible. ZT - AC Impedance at Test Voltage: Specified as a minimum value. To test for ZT, a 90 Hz signal with RMS value equal to 10% of Test Voltage (VT), is superimposed on VT.
Operation of the Device

In operation the CLD regulates the amount of current that can flow over a voltage range of about 1 to 100 volts. As shown by the characteristic curve and the figure above, the CLD begins to conduct when a reverse biased voltage is applied from the cathode to the anode or PN junction. As the reverse biased voltage is increased to VL, the current increases due to the bulk resistance of the N region. As the current approaches the knee section of the curve, a depletion region develops between the N region and the P-type gate. This depletion region decreases the current path in the N region slowing the increase of current flow. Eventually, the depletion region meets the P-type gate and pinch-off occurs, allowing current flow to become constant and almost

independent of applied voltage until PN junction breakdown occurs somewhere above POV. When the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed and a forward bias is applied to the PN junction, the CLD exhibits characteristics similar to those of a forward biased diode or rectifier.
Application of the Diode

One application for a constant-current diode is to automatically limit current through an LED or laser diode over a wide range of power supply voltages. Of course, the constant-current diode's regulation point should be chosen to match the LED or laser diodes optimum forward current. This is especially important for the laser diode, not so much for the LED, as regular LEDs tend to be more tolerant of forward current variations. Another application is in the charging of small secondary-cell batteries, where a constant charging current leads to predictable charging times. Of course, large secondary-cell battery banks might also benefit from constantcurrent charging, but constant-current diodes tend to be very small devices, limited to regulating currents in the milliamp range.