Is Ecotourism a Useful Tool for Sustainable Development?

The Case of the Mamirau Reserve in the Brazilian Amazonia

Julio Cesar Souza de Andrade

Supervised by Professor Michael Redclift

2002
This dissertation is submitted as a part of the MSc Tourism, Environment and Development.

Abstract
This research project is a study of the ecotourism venture developed in the Mamirau Sustainable Development Reserve, which is located in the Brazilian Amazonia. The study takes a diachronic approach, considering all the phases of implementation since 1997. Issues considered are the following: the participation of local people and how they benefited from the tourism venture, and how the tourist activities have affected conservation in the area. For the evaluation, a framework based in indicators of sustainability is used. It is revealed that tourism activities developed in Mamiraua

contemplates the majority of principles related to ecotourism; however, profitability is still to be reached.

Key words: Ecotourism, Local development, Sustainability, Brazilian Amazonia, Community involvement in tourism.

List of Contents

Page

Abstract List of Tables and Figures Abbreviations Acknowledgments 1-Introduction 2-Literature Review 2.12.22.3Amazonia : Development and destruction Sustainable development paradigm Tourism and ecotourism

2 4 5 6 7 11 11 12 13 13 14 16 18 18 19 20 25 26 29 31 32 33 36 38 41

2.3.1- Tourism: sustainability 2.3.2- Ecotourism debate 2.3.3- Tourism and ecotourism in the Brazilian Amazon 3- Methodology 3.1- Description of fieldwork 3.2- Framework for evaluation 4- Ecotourism in Mamirau 4.1-Evaluative framework 4.1.1- Minimization of negative impacts 4.1.2- Increase of awareness and understanding 4.1.3- Contribution to conservation of protected areas 4.1.4- Participation of locals in the decision-making process 4.1.5- Generation of economic and other benefits to local people 4.1.6- Participation of local people as visitors 5- Conclusions 6- References

List of Tables

Page

1 - The Most Included Issues in Ecotourism Definitions 2 - International Tourist Arrivals in Brazil and Manaus 3 Ecotourism Development in Mamirau 4 Competition among Ecotourism Ventures in the Amazon 5 - Summary of Principles and Indicators for Ecotourism 6 Income from Handicraft Sales

15 17 21 24 25 35

List of Figures

1 - Mamirau Reserve Location 2 - Central Amazon Ecological Corridor 3 Ecotourism Management in the Mamirau Reserve 4 - Ecotourists in Mamirau 5 - Information Source for Tourists 6 Service Evaluation 7 Uacari Lodge 8 Income for Local Communities from Ecotourism 9 Origin of Ecotourists to Mamirau

7 8 20 22 22 23 27 33 37 4

List of Abbreviations

AAGMAM Guides and Lodge Workers Association of Mamirau BA Brazilian Amazonia DFID Department for International Development United Kingdom EMBRATUR Brazilian Tourism Authority IBAMA Brazilian Environmental Authority IDB Inter-American Development Bank IDSM Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentavel Mamiaua MCT Brazilian Science and Technology Ministry MMA Brazilian Ministry of the Environment MSDR Mamirau Sustainable Development Reserve NGO Non-governmental Organisation PROECOTUR Programme for the Development of Ecotourism SCM Sociedade Civil Mamirau UN United Nations UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization WCS World Conservation Society WTO World Tourism Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank my family as well as old and new friends that help me during this course. I would also to thank the Instituto de Desenvolvimento Mamirau and MCT for their support during the fieldwork. Finally I wish to thank the people of Mamirau, who were extremely friendly and receptive.

1-Introduction
The Amazonia embraces a total area of around 7.8 million km2, seventy percent of which is Brazilian territory, representing more than 60% of Brazil. The Brazilian Amazonia (BA) contains about 40% of the worlds remaining tropical rainforest. It is seen by the environmental movement as an icon: a great biodiversity, an important carbon

sink, and a regional climate and hydrologic regulator. This region is also home to a human population of about twenty million people, including an indigenous population of 200,000 people (IBGE, 2000). Alternatives for conservation and development within the region are highly debated. Since the 1990s, tourism, especially ecotourism, has been successively presented as one of the main economic options for the region. Nowadays, tourism is considered the major industry in the world involving 700 million international trips that generated US$ 478 billion in 2000(WTO, 2000). Even though there is a consensus about some negative impacts that this activity causes; it has been viewed as an alternative for aiding conservation. Tourist dollars could convince local people and governments that forests can produce more money in the long term (Boo, 1990; Dharmaratne, Sang and Walling, 2000). This was one of the reasons why the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) declared 2002: The International Year of Ecotourism. This investigation will present a case study evaluating an ecotourism venture developed in the Mamirau Sustainable Development Reserve (MSDR) in the Brazilian Amazon. Figure 1- Location of the Mamirau Reserve

Source: Mamirau database

This reserve was created in 1990, by the Amazonas state, comprising 11,240 Km2 of the varzea floodplain - at the confluence of the Solimoes and Japura rivers, in the BA. The MSDR was recognized in 1993 by the International Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Mamirau is the habitat of two endemic monkey species, and has a human population of 5,829 residents (Mamirau, 2002). Mamirau and its neighbours, the Amana Sustainable Development Reserve and the Ja National Park, are part of the Central Amazon Ecological Corridor. This corridor constitutes an area equivalent to the size of Costa Rica. Figure 2 - Central Amazon Ecological Corridor

Source: Mamirau Reserve

This reserve is managed by a non-governmental organization (NGO), the Sociedade Civil Mamirau (SCM), based in Tef. To carry out the studies that resulted in the management plan, Brazilian Science and Technology Ministry (MCT) and foreign agencies DFID-UK and European Union funded several researchers; also the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the World Conservation Society (WCS) contributed to the reserve. In 1999 the Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentavel Mamirau (IDSM) was created to channel more public funds to the reserve. Consequently, the Mamirau Reserve adopted a new style of management for protected areas in Brazil. Due to compounding efforts from government institutions, NGOs and Brazilian and foreign organizations, Mamirau became one of the better funded protected areas in the country. Although there is a persistent mistrust of foreign involvement in the reserve management by local authorities in Tef, it seems that at the national level, as pointed out by Ans Kolk (1998), the political ecology of conservation in the BA evolved from conflict to cooperation. These efforts were recognized by the 2001 UNESCO award presented to the IDSM for its relevant research in conservation and sustainable use of renewable resources. In 2002, the IDSM director, Marcio Ayres received the La Roe Award from the Society for Conservation Biology for his social, economic and political work developed in Mamirau. In the Management Plan of the MSDR, alongside areas for strict conservation, traditional economic activities such as agriculture, forestry and fishing are allowed under sustainable management practices in certain zones. Besides, ecotourism is presented as a strategic economic activity to be implemented in order to reduce the exploitation of natural resources and to provide extra income for local people (SCM, 1996). The use of case studies has been a leading mode of investigating the relationship between ecotourism, development, and environmental protection (Boo, 1990; Lindberg, 1991; Wallace and Pearce, 1996). As argued by Hall and Butler (1995), site specific studies, by reducing the scale of analysis, lack an overview of the phenomenon studied. Nevertheless, due to the great number of local issues involved in ecotourism, case studies can be a very useful approach. There are some case studies about ecotourism in the BA: Wallace and Pierce (1996), Nelson (2000), Rossi (2001). All of them were developed in areas near Manaus. They report little involvement of local communities in decision-making and unwanted cultural change; the only reported benefits were few employment opportunities. None of

these studies focused on protected areas for conservation, one of the main attractions for ecotourists. This is the main reason why the ecotourism venture in Mamirau was chosen as the object of this study. It is the most well-known ecotourism programme planned and developed in the BA within a protected area. Not surprisingly, it appeared in the Lonely Planet Brazil (Noble et al. 2002) as the best place to see wildlife in the BA. Thus, this research paper aims to investigate how ecotourism was planned and implemented in the MSDR between 1997 and 2002. Its objectives are: first, to evaluate to what extent the community living within the reserve was consulted and/or participated in the decision-making process; second, how the local population has benefited from ecotourism activities; third, how these activities have affected the conservation of the natural environment; four, could/should the model implemented in the Mamirau ecotourism venture be replicated in other areas in the Amazon, or other parts of the country? It is worth highlighting that the aims of the research are congruent with the general aims of the reserve itself: conservation of the varzea environment in the Amazon, and the improvement of the livelihood of the local human population that has not been relocated after the creation of the reserve (SCM, 1996). The main limitation of this study is the short duration since the inauguration of the ecotourism venture. It underwent the planning phase in 1997/8, the building phase in 1999/2000, and the entire infrastructure was completed in the second half of 2001. Thus, planning and implementation measures will also be considered in the evaluation. This early evaluation can be justified by the fact that the Brazilian government and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) are funding the national programme to develop ecotourism, Programme for the Development of Ecotourism (PROECOTUR), with special attention to the Amazonia. Therefore, it is convenient to have an evaluation of the already existing ecotourism venture within a protected area of the BA. A limited budget and a time constraint for fieldwork have reduced the scope of this piece of research. Another factor that has to be taken into account is that the collection of data was undertaken during the flood season. In the varzea environment, the water level can rise up to twelve meters, dramatically altering the ambience. A more accurate evaluation would require observation during both wet and dry seasons. The next section will present a literature review on issues of development and conservation in the BA. Another aspect that will be reviewed is tourism: its nature, and the possible differences between ecotourism and nature-based tourism. This will be followed by a discussion about the methods used to acquire data during the fieldwork, and 10

a presentation of the framework to evaluate the ecotourism venture. The ecotourism venture at Mamirau and the results of the research will then be discussed. Finally I will conclude with a critical look at tourism in the BA.

11

2- Literature review
2.1Amazonia : Development and destruction

In this section a review of the historic development process in the BA will be presented. Until thirty years ago the BA had only lost 1% of its forests (Padua, 1997), even though human settlement had begun approximately 10 to 20 thousand years ago (Meggers, 1971), and European settlers were there for almost five hundred years. Causes of this phenomenon can be attributed to obstacles of access, endemic diseases, and especially the availability of timber and agricultural lands in the Brazilian Atlantic forest and other woodlands in the world. However, in the last thirty years, the region has undergone a destructive development pattern, destruction of the natural environment and exploitation of local communities. Since the late 1960s, backed by loans from international financial institutions, the Brazilian government decided to develop the region by opening new roads, and implementing energy and mining projects. Favoured by highly subsidised credits and tax breaks, national and multinational corporations, with little considerations to environmental impacts, were involved in the above government projects, as well as timber extraction, cattle raising and agricultural projects. In 2000 fourteen percent of the BA had already been deforested (Laurence et al, 2001). People from all over the country were attracted to this new frontier described by Goodman and Hall (1990) and Rich (1994). As the majority of the Amazonian soils are unsuitable for agriculture, most of the new settlements were unsuccessful. This resulted in the rural population moving to the periphery of the towns, causing what Becker (1995) called an urbanized forest. At the same time the natural environment was being disturbed by the pollution of rivers and the destruction of the forest to establish agricultural mono crops and pastures, and the indigenous and traditional population (caboclos) had their land confiscated and their livelihoods severely affected. In response, rubber tapers, people displaced by dams, and traditional fishermen formed social movements to defend their rights. These politically and economically disadvantaged groups became safeguards against the environmental degradation perpetrated by commercial interests. These movements

echoed in theoretical constructions such as the sustainable livelihood thinking by Chambers (1987), environmentalism of the poor (Guha and Martinez-Alier, 1997) and grassroots action for productive conservation (Hall, 1997).

12

2.2-

The sustainable development paradigm and the Amazonia

During the 1980s a theoretical construction appeared to reconcile the ideals of conservation and human development. The World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1980) was the first document to use the term sustainable development; later adopted as the pillar of the thesis defended in Our Common Future (WCED, 1987). In both documents sustainable development is presented as the tool for maximizing human welfare without causing significant environmental damage and without jeopardizing economic growth. However, as pointed out by Redclift (1987) and Adams (1990), if sustainable development is to be effective, it has to deal with the nature of the political economy and prioritize the basic needs of the poor. Not only does a responsibility to the environment and the next human generation have to be taken into account, but an intra-generation balance is also necessary. Goodman and Redclift (1991) pointed out that any account of sustainability in Latin America has to consider regional and national politics and economic factors. The structural linkages with the international economy must also be reviewed. In their opinion poverty alleviation should be a high priority in a strategy of sustainable development in countries such as Brazil. Between 1988 and 1992, the years before the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio 1992, environmental issues gained momentum. New federal legislation recognized several pieces of indigenous land and created the extractive reserves. A new reserve for protection of the Amazonian varzea, the Mamirau reserve, was also established by state law. These decisions were attempts to create alternatives for environmental conservation while tackling the issue of social justice by assuring sustainable livelihood for the traditional population in the Brazilian Amazon. However, in the aftermath of the Rio92 UNCED, the struggle between conservation and economic growth continued in the BA frontier. Becker (2001) points to the growing lack of integration between conservation and development strategies in this region.

13

2.3-Tourism and Ecotourism 2.3.1-Tourism: sustainability

Tourism development raises similar questions to development in general. Travel and tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for less than one year for leisure, business, and other purposes. On a world scale, in 2000 travel and tourism accounted for around 11% of GDP, and over 10% of all employment (WTO, 2000). Especially during the 1970s, tourism was heavily promoted by the World Bank and was presented as a passport for development in less developed economies. However, after several studies, this trend was criticized. De Kadt(1979) and Mathiesson and Wall (1982) revealed that, on the one hand, tourism resulted in employment opportunities and hard currency earning; but, on the other hand, it caused considerable cultural change, environmental damage and land speculation. In response to the criticism of mass tourism the 1980s witnessed the appearance of a green movement advocating new forms of less destructive tourism, under the label of alternative tourism (Holden, 1984; Krippendorf, 1987; Smith and Eadington, 1992). Influenced by the philosophy that small is beautiful, these initiatives prioritised local employment, small scale development and the conservation of landscape. However, Butler (1992) questioned the practicality of these ideas, showing how difficult it is to keep all these variables under control in a market economy. Therefore, defining what sustainability means is a crucial issue for any economic activity. After the Rio92 UNCED, debates about sustainability indicators became increasingly relevant. Mowforth and Munt(1998,116) listed the most frequently used tools for promoting and assessing sustainability: area environmental protection, impact industry regulation, visitor management capacity techniques, calculations,

assessment,

carrying

consultation/participation, codes of conduct and sustainability indicators.

Nevertheless, writers highlight the difficulty of reaching a consensus for the evaluation of sustainability in a concrete reality (Mowforth and Munt, 1998; Fennell, 1999). On the one hand, the use of measurement techniques creates parameters towards an effective analysis of sustainability. On the other hand, discussions about implementing

14

regulation, governmental or self-regulatory, in order to enforce precautionary procedures have caused a lot of controversy.

2.3.2- Ecotourism debate Trips to national parks or other natural areas are not a new phenomenon (Hays, 1959). Studies of the effects of tourism activities in natural areas have been done for more than two decades. They have proven the possibility of opposing impacts. On the one hand, tourism has been an incentive for the conservation of natural resources in many parks (Owen, 1969 and Trorsell, 1973); on the other hand, uncontrolled tourist activities can be detrimental to the natural environment, as exemplified by Cohen (1978, 234): It is an amusing irony that the National Park System of California has been forced to limit the number of permits to backpackersafter several years of environmental degradation brought about by masses of eco-freaks trying to get away from civilization.

The appearance of ecotourism as a new tourist phenomenon has been attributed to some factors: first, the accessibility to cheaper and faster means of transportation, which made new destinations more accessible; second, the increase in green tourist

consumerism, that generated a greater demand for the implementation of infrastructure and new

services developed by tour operators(Wight,1994); third, the

appearance of professional associations such as the Ecotourism Society in the USA, which develop guidelines and promote conferences about ecotourism in many countries. This is a classic definition of ecotourism: travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1986, quoted in Boo, 1990).

However, a consensus about a definition is far from being reached. A content analysis study of over 85 different definitions of ecotourism was done to shed light on this phenomenon (Fennel, 2001). The majority of these definitions appeared between 1991 and 1996.

15

Table 1 The most included issues in ecotourism definitions Subject Where ecotourism occurs Conservation Culture Benefits to locals Education Sustainability Impacts
After: Fennel (2001, 407)

% Of Appearance 62.4 61.2 50.6 48.2 41.2 25.9 25.0

As can be seen from the table above, due to the number and complexity of issues involved, ecotourism is not a simple observable fact. It involves ethic, environmental, economic and social-cultural issues. Some writers are very critical of the benefits of ecotourism. For example, Wheeler (1993, 1994) says that advocates of ecotourism are distressingly nave by not recognizing the disruptive effects on fragile environments, or disturbingly devious to exploit them for financial profits. Also Butler (1996a) points out that ecotourism defenders are short-sighted by not perceiving that even where well-managed ecotourism ventures can produce limited local benefits, the infrastructure and services required to reach the visited area create further impacts that outweigh the benefits. Recognizing that ecotourism is a double-edged sword, some authors have presented more positive views about ecotourism development: Cater and Lowman (1994) emphasized the importance of a holistic approach and the use of monitoring tools; Weaver(1998) highlighted the development of more environmentally friendly tourist services in less developed countries that can influence the domestic tourism to follow its lead; Fennel and Malloy (1997) found that tour operators involved in ecotourism were fairly more ethical than other kinds of operators. These authors, at least, give ecotourism the benefit of the doubt. NGOs involved with tourist issues have criticized the shortcomings of ecotourism and emphasized the need to empower local communities. Tourism Concern dedicated an 16

issue of its magazine In Focus to evaluate ecotourism. On the one hand, it criticized ecotourism for being just a label; on the other hand, it presented community-based ecotourism as an alternative to avoid environmental degradation caused by oil exploitation in Ecuador (Tourism Concern,2002). Another NGO long involved with ecotourism is the WWF. The widely quoted study Ecotourism: Potentials and Pitfalls, was written by Elizabeth Boo(1990), WWFs Latin America specialist. This study covered advantages and disadvantages of using ecotourism as a tool for conservation in Latin American national parks. In another paper WWF(2001) proposed community-based ecotourism where the local community has considerable control over, and participation in, its development and management, and a major share of the benefits stay within the community. However. assuring social sustainability for community-based tourism projects has not been easy. Examples from Ecuador(Wood,1998;Drumm,1998), Indonesia (Sproule and Suhandi, 1998), and Namibia(Ashley,2000) showed that to assure viability of

community-based tourism venture, strong support is required from NGOs, governments and/or limited partnerships with tourism business. No matter which term is used,

community-based (eco)tourism, pro-poor tourism or fair-trade tourism, it seems that the survival of these initiatives is dependent on the ability to attract a specific group of people concerned with conservation and local development supporting them (DSa,1999). and truly interested in

2.3.3- Tourism and ecotourism in the Brazilian Amazon Over the last four years, Brazil has gained 14 places in the ranking of the World Tourism Organization. Being the 29th destination preferred by tourists worldwide and receiving more than 5,3 million tourists(WTO,2000). However, tourism in the BA is very limited, with roughly 1% of foreign visitors to the country travelling to this region (EMBRATUR, 2001). The main reason being that there are other more accessible areas for seeing wildlife in South America, such as in the Pantanal or the Amazon forest in other countries. Manaus is the main gateway for tourists aiming to visit the BA. However, as can be seen from the table below, the tourist flux has decreased over the years.

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Table 2International Tourist Arrivals( thousands) Year 1990 1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
NA- Not Available

Brazil 1,091 1,572 1,991 2,668 2,849 4,818 5,107 5,313 4,773

*Manaus 39 33 36 36 NA NA 28 27 28

% 3.6 2.1 1.8 1.3 NA NA 0.5 0.5 0.6

* International tourists registered at classified hotels in Manaus (actual data may be 20-30% higher)

Source: Amazonas Tourism Office After Janer, A. (1998)

Nevertheless, according to international trends of increasing numbers of ecotourists, the number of jungle lodges around Manaus has jumped from six in 1991 to sixteen in 1996( Neto, 1999). Visitors to these lodges numbered 36,642 in 2001, with 70% of them being foreigners (Amazonas Tourism Office, 2002). Studies evaluating the sustainability of these jungle lodges (Wallace and Pierce, 1996; Nelson, 2000; and Rossi, 2001) highlighted the deficiency in adequate environmental management and community participation. The main shortcomings were: Lack of participation of local people in the decision-making process; Lack of institutional support for capacity building programmes; Little concern for the maintenance of local culture; Lack of environmental education programmes; Lack of financial contributions for the conservation of protected areas.

This resulted in a common evaluation that these ventures could be classified as nature-based tourism, but they fall short in the aims of ecotourism. This can be attributed to a profit-line approach by entrepreneurs, and a lack of support and regulation by the government to build an inclusive development strategy. These features can change in the future due to investments of U$ 225 million for the development of ecotourism in the BA, announced by the Brazilin government. This project, named PROECOTUR, aims to improve the sustainability of existing tourist activities under the ecotourism banner; and further expand them to other areas in all the nine states of the BA (MMA, 2001). 18

3- Methodology
As discussed by Alf Waller (1992, 1997), until the 1980s tourism studies gained recognition from the use of marketing and business quantitative methods. Since it was necessary to evaluate broader issues such as the nature of the development of tourism, it was difficult to restrict research methods to surveys and quantitative measures. Qualitative approaches were used when the empowerment of local people (Ashley and Roe, 1998) and their perceptions of tourism were studied (Crick-Furman and Prentice, 2000). This study used qualitative techniques to acquire primary data such as interviews of key primary and secondary stakeholders and participant observation. Where quantitative data was necessary, the database of the Mamirau ecotourism management was used. This was particularly helpful in accessing data about economic benefits for local communities such as income generated by wages and the sale of products. Data from surveys carried out among tourists on the evaluation of the venture was also collected. This approach allowed a triangulation to be attempted, in order to increase the validity of the case study as referred to by Hoggart, Lees and Davies (2002)

3.1- Description of fieldwork The fieldwork spanned a six-week period. The first week was spent in the Mamirau office, in Tef, where documents about the implementation of the ecotourism venture were browsed. This information was used to identify key informants. The next three weeks were spent on the reserve. Activities included visiting and interviewing people: employees on the lodge, craft makers, farmers, fishermen, and community leaders. Interviewed informants were participants and non-participants in tourism in three different communities: Boca do Mamirau and Vila Alencar - the most visited by the tourists- and Caburini, less involved in tourism. The following week was spent on the Uacari lodge, where the author participated in the tourist activities, and interacted with the tourists, lodge workers and guides. It was an opportunity to evaluate the floating lodges sanitary conditions, eco-efficiency related issues and possible negative impacts on the environment. The author also participated in visits to communities with tourists in order to ascertain if the guidelines recommended to prevent negative social impacts were being followed. The majority of the tourists visiting the reserve were interviewed at the end of their stay. 19

The last two weeks were spent interviewing key stakeholders in Tef, who were local environmental, religious and political authorities. Some of the management staff of the Mamirau reserve were also interviewed, especially the ones involved in tourism.

3.2- Framework for evaluation The tourism venture developed in the Mamirau Reserve defines itself as practicing ecotourism. As has been discussed earlier, ecotourism is neither a simple concept to define nor a clear-cut phenomenon to evaluate. As pointed out by Geoffrey Wall (1996) the main difficulty in measuring ecotourisms achievements is the large number of variables involved. In this case study an assessment framework was prepared based on an adaptation of that presented by Wallace and Pierce (1996) to evaluate ecotourism in some lodges near Manaus, in the BA. For each principle derived from their definition of ecotourism, Wallace and Pierce (1996) related some indicators. These were presented as markers of the condition, aiming to make the evaluation more accurate. A similar approach was used by Ross and Wall( 1999a, 1999b) to analyse

ecotourism in three Indonesian National Parks. The six objectives they selected could be related to the same six principles recognized by Wallace and Pearce. The above authors recommend that the choice of indicators should be selected by involved stakeholders at the site. Due to the limited time for the fieldwork, it was impossible to build a list of indicators with a consensus of the stakeholders in this Mamirau case study. However, some indicators were included based on the fieldwork experience. For example, it was decided that some issues from the pro-poor tourism (PPT) framework should be incorporated. As one of the Mamirau tourism venture raison detre is to improve the livelihood of the local population, some issues raised in the propoor tourism report (Ashley, Boyd and Goodwin,2001) were applicable in this case.

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4- Ecotourism in Mamirau:

The area zoned for ecotourism comprises 35 Km2, and represents 0.3 % of the reserve. Part of the ecotourism area is located within the restricted zone. Figure 3 -

21

This area was chosen due to its natural beauty, its availability of significant scientific data about local flora and fauna, its proximity to Tef and its community support for the development of ecotourism. The development of ecotourism in Mamirau evolved in the following three phases: Table 3Ecotourism Development in Mamirau
Period
1997-1998

Phase
Planning spontaneous demand no new infrastructure

Activities Developed
local communities consultation process economic feasibility study scientific research infrastructure

*Butlers Phases
Exploration

1999-2001

Implementation

Guides and Lodge Workers Association creation

Involvement

building

of

new

arrangements of visits to communities tourist floating lodge construction capacity building development

infrastructure

soft-opening marketing 2002- future Full Functioning alliances with tour operators appearance in national and international tourist guides

opening of new trails profit sharing mechanism quality improvement of operation long-term hospitality training program monitoring of social and environmental impacts Development

Source: SCM (1999, 2000, 2001)

* Butler (1980) tourist area cycle of evolution.

In order to improve the viability of the Mamirau ecotourism project, its staff participated in a capacity building programme for community-based ecotourism developed by the WWF, among seven other initiatives in Brazil. Another important step for the implementation of the tourism venture was an economic feasibility study carried out by an independent consultant which affirmed the viability of the project. The budget was set at US$ 400,000, and was approved by its funding organisations, the DFID and the Brazilian Ministry for Science and Technology (MCT). This study also pointed out that in the middle term, relevant benefits to the community would be generated (Janer, 1998).

22

The number of visitors to guarantee a profit for the Mamirau ecotourism venture was predicted to be between 400-500 tourists per year. Even though 316 visitors came to Mamirau in 2001, only 162 of them were full-fare payers. The rest were discounted fare payers and official visitors, who were related to funding institutions of the reserve as can be seen from the chart below: Figure 4Visitors per year
350

316
300

277
250

200

209
Ecoturists

162
150

total

145 130 110 77

100

50

1998

1999

2000

2001

Source: Mamiraua database

However, these numbers are expected to rise by developing a stronger marketing strategy. As can be seen in the chart below, the main source of information for tourists about Mamirau is communicated by word-of-mouth to tourists. Figure5Information Source
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1999 2000 2001 Source: Mamiraua at abase

Tour operator Friends Internet Media Other

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An alternative marketing strategy for NGOs is the development of a customerfriendly internet homepage (Di Prieto, 2000) and its inclusion in travel guides. One of the tools in the pipeline is a new homepage with Portuguese, English and Spanish versions for the ecotourism venture. For the travel guides, a significant sign of the acceptance of the Mamirau ecotourism venture was its appearance in the latest editions of travel guides. In the Lonely Planet Brazil and South America 2002, there are positive reviews about Mamirau: The [Mamirau] reserve is the last intact area of varzea (floodplain forest) in the Brazilian Amazonia a beautiful, pristine environment of jungle, rivers and lakes. It also has a very well-run ecotourism program that provides some of the best wildlife viewing in Amazonia Mamirau is a pioneer of the sustainable development concept, which aims to combine nature conservation and scientific research with improved opportunities for the local population. Lonely Planet Brazil (Noble et al, 2002).

Interviews during fieldwork revealed that 85% of foreign tourists decided to visit Mamirau mainly due to this Lonely Planet review. Two specialist travel guides about the Amazonia also provide information about Mamirau: Cadogan, in English, and Philips, in Portuguese. Services provided in Mamirau have been well evaluated by tourists as can be perceived from the chart below: Figure 6Service Evaluation by Tourists year 2001

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Lodging Catering Guiding Source: Mamiraua database

Excelent Very Good Good Fair Poor

If the categories excellent and very good are considered as one, levels of satisfaction with services offered by the Mamirau ecotourism project is over 90%. This is 24

a significant achievement especially if it is taken in consideration that the local residents had never worked for tourism ventures before. However, other factors are determinants for the continuity of a tourism venture. How do Mamiraus prices and attractions compare with other famous ecotourism projects in the Amazonia? Table- 4
Comparison among ecotourism ventures in the Amazonia
Lodge, Region Ariau, Manaus Aldeia dos Lagos, Silves Cristalino, Alta Floresta La Selva, Napo,Ecuador Explorama, Iquitos, Peru Manu Lodge,Manu, Peru Mamiraua C-Canopy viewing, C R CP Wildlife Access(h) Price 4D/3N (US$) Y N N Tamed 2.5 375 N N Y No data 5 378 Y Y N > 450 birds ? 450 Y Y ? >425 birds,14 prim. 2-3 604 Y Y ? >500 birds 2-3 427 Y Y N >450 birds,13 prim >2 675 N Y Y 370 birds, 7 prim 1.5 360 R- Research link, CP-Community Involvement, Y-Yes, N-No After Janer, A.(1998) Source: Lodges/Internet

As shown in the table above, Mamirau offers a competitive price in relation to other ventures. In this sample Mamirau is not considered a primary location for birdwatchers, and it lacks a canopy viewing platform. Even though it does not present a record of primates, it does have two endemic monkey species, the charismatic white uacari and the black squirrel monkey. Research links and community participation are also special features of the experience in Mamirau. Arriving at Tef, 450 Km west of Manaus, Mamirau can be reached by boat or aircraft. Daily flights are available for a cost of U$ 150 from Manaus. A common tourism package involves pick-up at the Tef airport and round-trip transportation to the floating lodge at Lake Mamirau, boat and trail visits to selected parts of the ecotourism management area, overnight accommodation and meals at the lodge(usually for 2-3 nights). Tef is a regional business center with 65 thousand inhabitants. Besides commercial activities, fishing and logging are also important sources of income. Even though Tef has some potential tourist attractions, such as nineteenth century buildings, river beaches during the dry season, and a burgeoning local market, it is only used as a stepping stone for Mamirau. As the local administration does not have a tourism policy, this could be a reason why Tef does not take part in the PROECOTUR. This shrinks the development linkages that could be produced by the Mamirau tourism venture. In the next section more details of how tourism in Mamirau fits into an ecotourism evaluative framework will be discussed. 25

4.1 - Evaluative Framework Table- 5 Summary of Principles and Indicators

Principle 1-Minimization of negative impacts on the environment and to local people: Group size Mode of transport/Energy use Methods of waste disposal Architectural style/building, materials/dcor used Measures of biophysical change: erosion, water quality, wildlife behaviour Sensitivity of activities Attitudes of local people Social organisation and institutional change Principle 2- Increasing awareness and understanding of an areas natural and cultural systems: Exposure to community Perceptions of visitors about interpretive activities Guide training/abilities Opportunities to contribute Principle 3- Contribution to conservation and management of legally protected natural areas: Information about protected areas Adherence to Reserves Management Plan Collaboration with scientific research and sustainable management Principle 4- Maximization of the early and long-term participation of local people in the decision- making process: Ownership of ecotourism ventures/local committees Increased access to information and communication Principle 5-Generation of economic and other benefits to local people that complement traditional practices: Local perceptions of changes caused by tourism Local employment/level Purchase of local products: values and variety Continuance of traditional activities Access to credit and support for partnerships Services provided for community Utilization of natural resources Training/capacity building

Principle 6- Participation of local people as visitors: Use for environmental education by local schools Events/special fares for locals/national visitors

Adapted from Wallace and Pierce (1996, 861).

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4.1.1-

Principle 1 Minimization of negative impacts on the environment and to local

people:

Group size In Mamirau Butlers (1996b) approach to carrying capacity is used, limiting visitors to one thousand per year. Tourist activities have a maximum of thirty tourists at a time, and groups of four per trail are the limit when visiting the forest. This is a measure to minimize negative impacts as well as to enhance wildlife sighting. Even though the current number of visitors is around one third of the maximum established, respect for this limit can be expected in the future, because the venture is run by a non-profit organisation.

Mode of transport/Energy use

Motorised boats and canoes with oars are the chief means of transport. The main possible impacts are: noise, riparian disturbance and low levels of hydrocarbon pollution. These negative impacts were considered low and localized by an environmental impact assessment carried out in the reserve (Hughes and Botelho, 2000, 12). Main precautionary measures include motorboat speed limits, the use of less powerful and less polluting engines, and careful measures to avoid petrol spills. As concerning energy supply, the Uacari lodge is equipped with roof-mounted solar panels to provide electrical energy. In case of over-consumption, a diesel generator is activated, hence guests are asked to switch off lights when leaving the rooms. It is the philosophy of the Mamirau reserve to offer only the basic comforts. So far, it can be claimed that the eco-efficiency of the project is high, and it handles the issue with great concern.

Methods of waste disposal Solid waste: when visitors go on the trails, they are discouraged from carrying non-biodegradable wrappings. They are informed of these rules on arrival. No tourists or guides were seen throwing litter during fieldwork. Biodegradable material is disposed directly into the aquatic system, while non-biodegradable rubbish is burnt on site or taken back to Tef, where unfortunately it is dumped in a simple landfill site.

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Liquid Effluent: due to annual floods of up to 12 meters, sanitation is a big challenge in this environment. At the moment there are only two liquid effluent treatment plants consisting of filtration beds of layers of gravel, sand and coal. So far they have the capacity to treat 20% of the sewage. By the end of 2002 it is envisaged that all sewage will be treated with additional treatment plants. Potential negative impacts are a localized increase of biological oxygen demand, and visual impact of sewage dumping especially during the low water season. For a tourism venture that aims to be a benchmark, it is below expectations in this specific item, since neither the treatment system is yet completely installed, nor has its efficiency has been fully proved.

Architectural style/building materials/dcor used

Figure 7 - The Uacari Lodge

Source: Mamirau database

The Uacari lodge is built mainly in local wood. It was designed by a Brazilian architect specialized in Amazonian style. It is a set of floating lodges linked by footbridges. The dcor consists of locally produced handicraft. It is a comfortable, rustic construction well-integrated into the landscape and built by local builders.

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Measures of biophysical change: erosion, water quality, wildlife behaviour Currently eleven trails are in use. Erosion is not a considerable threat as the trails are underwater for about five months. With regard to water quality, the ecotourism programme has made some tests about the quality of the water in 2000; however, so far it does not have a consistent monitoring programme for evaluation of the efficiency of the treatment of sewage. Establishing monitoring procedures and the development of sound sanitation technology for the varzea environment could have an indirect benefit for the local communities. Due to the low level of sanitation in the BA, tourist concerns, revealed in interviews, can be an incentive to push for public policies to improve the quality of life of the local population The special zone for ecotourism is only 0.3 % of the reserves total area, thus impacts on wildlife behaviour could include a reduction of the sight of animals due to their migration to other areas. Since the middle of 1999, a monitoring programme was carried out. After an evaluation of the data available, some caveats were revealed that resulted in changes in the methodology. New measures which started in 2002 will be used as the baseline.

Sensitivity of activities

Besides maximum numbers of tourists, management techniques are also used to reduce possible negative impacts caused by the tourism venture in Mamirau. Guiding is mandatory on trails and on visits to communities. These visits are pre-arranged by radio in order to minimise disruption of community life. Tourists also receive a folder with the following rules: to respect privacy in the houses, not to enter schools during classes, and to ask permission before taking pictures. Animal feeding and disturbing them are also prohibited in the reserve.

Attitudes of local people

Attitudes were perceived ranging from a scale of curiosity, pragmatism to a slight animosity against the taking of pictures manifested by some locals. Most locals are very curious about tourist habits and motives. One community leader interviewed, in Vila Alencar, viewed tourists with a pragmatic approach. For him, at the beginning visitors were somewhat amusing, but now that tourism has become an economic alternative, 29

people are more interested as they begin to reap some benefits. This attitude can be contrasted with a potentially more controversial one. A resident farmer insisted on being paid for his picture being taken since local guides were benefiting from tourism. Apart from the latter, interviews revealed that there was no significant resistance to the ecotourism venture.

Social organisation and institutional change

The ecotourism venture has fostered the creation of a local Association of Guides and Lodge Workers (AAGMAM). It is an opportunity for cooperation among people in neighbouring communities. Tourism often is a great source of employment for women (de Kadt, 1979). In Mamirau, cooks and chambermaids are all women; there are also female guides. Besides, these ecotourism activities have fostered two womens associations for the production and sale of handicrafts. Hence, employment opportunities for women help to empower them in these communities. The issue of tips is a sensitive one. Just as the promise of tips can boost the quality of services; it may also encourage guides to bring tourists into restricted zones. Besides, exceptionally high tips can undermine the determined basic pay and confuse the local value system. The current active rule is for tourists to deposit tips in a box for it to be shared by the group as a whole; however, individual tipping is freely practised. In short, although risks are present, organisational and institutional changes have improved the links among communities involved in the tourism venture.

4.1.2- Principle 2 Increasing awareness and understanding of an areas natural and cultural systems:

Exposure to community A visit to a local community is offered as part of the stay in Mamirau. They have the opportunity to talk to local residents, as well as take a tour of the community to see plantations, livestock, the roasting process of manioc flour, and other activities developed in the communities. These tours are guided by local residents to ensure meaningful contact and respect for local concerns. The visit lasts about two hours which may be considered short. However, as tourists have contact with local guides and helpers in the lodge during the outings, they can continually interact with local people. 30

Perceptions of visitors about interpretive activities

Probably the best example of interpretive material available is the Mamirau Natural History Guide (Bannerman and Marigo, 2001). This guide explains about the geology, biologic evolution, geographic data, fauna and flora species, and the human adaptation to the varzea ecosystem. Moreover, visitors have videos, books, lectures, maps and folders about the ecosystem in Mamirau, as well as about the whole Amazonia. Furthermore, visitors can count on a trained team of native guides and a bilingual biologist. Sometimes it is possible to visit researchers working in the reserve. Nevertheless, it was perceived that the amount of information about the native peoples social and cultural systems is far less than the amount of information about animals in the reserve. In interviews with tourists, some pointed out that visits to communities were more focused on the selling of handicrafts than learning about the local life style. As a result, the Mamirau conservation model risks not being well understood. The majority of the visitors interviewed at the end of the visit had not grasped that in the reserve there is a productive management approach linked with conservation, which permits people living within the reserve to fish and log for sale in order to enhance their livelihoods. Guide training/abilities

Local guides have their own knowledge about the rainforest; all of them were born in the reserve, and their culture is embedded in strategies of surviving in the varzea environment. The ecotourism venture organized three formal training programmes for guides. This includes notions of evolutionary theory, ecosystems, taxonomy, ecotourism, environmental education, environmental impact monitoring, interpreting maps, safety, first-aid, and Basic English commands (SCM, 2001). The local guides main limitation is the difficulty in communicating with non-Portuguese speakers. Learning a second language is not an easy task as many of them have only completed elementary school.

Opportunities to contribute

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The willingness to contribute to local conservation and development projects is one of the alleged features of ecotourism practitioners (Wallace and Pierce, 1996). This trend was positively assessed from interviews, where the majority of foreign tourists and a minority of Brazilians said they would contribute to support conservation if a scheme were presented. The Mamirau homepage offers information for collecting contributions through a Brazilian bank account. However, this current method involves a bank transfer which was considered time-consuming by foreign tourists. Thus, providing an easier option for contributions can be an extra source of income that has not been explored yet. 4.1.3- Principle 3 Contribution to conservation and management of legally protected natural areas:

Information about protected areas

Mamirau is the unique floodplain natural reserve in the BA. A great amount of information about research in the reserve can be found in the small library in the Uacari lodge. Also available is information about the situation of the Brazilian protected area system.

Adherence to the Reserves management plan Part of the area where the ecotourists activities are developed is within the restricted zone (figure 3, pg- 21). There are rules exists prohibiting trespass of the restricted areas. Used as buoys for the floating lodge, wood was bought from the sustainable forest management programme, therefore adhering to the management plan. Even though the lodge is located in an area rich in fish stock, fish are always bought from areas where fishing is allowed. Another indicator of the adherence to the management plan is the hiring of local people; only specialists are from outside. Collaboration with scientific research and sustainable management The activities for collaboration between ecotourism and researchers are scientific tourism and lectures. Although this potential is far from being developed, some groups of foreign students visited the reserve to participate in research and forest management

32

programmes. Other initiatives reported are lectures about primates and river dolphins. In these cases tourist groups pay an extra fee.

4.1.4- Principle 4 Maximization of the early and long-term participation of local people in the decision making process:

Ownership of ecotourism venture/ Local committees The ecotourism venture belongs to the SCM, the NGO that manages the reserve. There are drafts, from as early as 1999, about creating local committees to participate in the management of the ecotourism venture (SCM, 1999, 2000); nevertheless, none were implemented. This decision has been postponed to a time when the ecotourism venture achieves the profitability line. This issue was not perceived as an urgent demand by locals. Increased access to information and communication In 1997, when the implementation of the ecotourism programme started, some meetings were held between the ecotourism coordinator and the communities located in the zoning area destined for ecotourism activities. A local resident reported that at that point he had no idea about ecotourism. This fact illustrates the limits and difficulties of building a participatory process in community-based ecotourism, especially where the local population has little previous experience with tourism activities. To achieve empowerment of the communities, a continuous process of consultation and re-evaluation is required (Ashley and Roe, 1998; Wood, 1998). In an effort to reach this goal, tourist activities are continuously evaluated in community meetings. Another way to improve the process of decision-making by the locals is to provide opportunities to participate in forums and congresses where tourism is discussed. Last year the president of the Guides and Lodge Workers Association (AAGMAM) participated in the International Symposium on Ecotourism in the Amazon, where he discussed community involvement in ecotourism. This is an illustration of good practice by the Mamirau ecotourism management.

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4.1.5- Principle 5 Generation of economic and other benefits to local people that complement traditional practices: Local perceptions of changes caused by tourism On the one hand, two factors were positively highlighted by locals: first, they could earn some money based on abilities they already had, such as knowledge of their local environment; second, extra income was generated during the flood season by tourism activities, when agriculture is not possible and fishing is less profitable. On the other hand, two concerns were also mentioned: first, the loss of autonomy in tourism jobs; second, complaints about the obligation to work on patron saints days. Nevertheless, during a meeting to evaluate the tourism activities in 2001, local workers voiced their hopes for more tourist visits and higher wages (SCM, 2001). During fieldwork a competition was perceived between the two communities where tourist visits occur, in order to sell their handicraft. Thus, local guides, lodge workers, artisans and farmers are interested in the increase of tourist activities

Local employment/level

Fifteen guides and twelve lodge workers are currently working for the ecotourism venture. This represents 10% of the population of the four communities in this sector of the reserve, where ecotourism activities are already one of the main sources of income. Figure 8Income for local communities from ecotourism BrR$
Products Services
30,000

35,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002*

*estimated based in data from Jan/June. Source: Mamiraua Database *estimated based in data from Jan/June.

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As can be seen from the chart above, considering the BrR$ 200 minimum Brazilian wage in 2002, income generated by ecotourism activities for the communities involved is enough to employ ten full-time employees. However, as the majority of guides and lodge workers are only part-time, there are three times more people working for the ecotourism venture. In the future the workers pay is expected increase with the growth in the number of tourists. Another way of increasing benefits for communities is the filling of managerial positions by locals. As in most ecotourism ventures, it is often difficult to fill managerial positions from amongst the locals, due to low educational levels. Nevertheless, a local guide will be trained in the near future to be manager at the Uacari lodge.

Purchase of local products: values and variety Purchase of local produce is one of the trumpeted advantages of ecotourism. Except for industrial equipment, all the other materials are acquired from the city of Tef, thus reducing leakage of tourism profits. With regard to buying produce within the reserve, some factors have to be considered. Two aspects are conducive to local buying: first, as ecotourism in Mamirau is not treated as a luxury programme, it does not require imported products; second, emphasis on fresh ingredients and Amazonian food served in the lodge also leads to a greater consumption of local produce. Nevertheless, some aspects hinder this: first, it is necessary to convince local farmers to sell in small quantities, due to the small storage capacity and infrequent demand; second, transportation costs do not make it cost effective. As can be seen from Figure-8, income generated by the purchase of local products increased seven fold in 1999, compared to the previous year. However, in 2000 and 2001 this value was substantially reduced. This discrepancy was the purpose of a meeting during which the ecotourism team and local communities decided to implement a different strategy (SCM, 2001). The successful approach now in practice involves mediation by the local guides between the manager and the foodstuff producers. This is a way of sharing responsibility between the manager and employees in order to benefit a greater number of people.

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Table 6Income from handicraft sales Year Value (BrR$) 1999 500 2000 1277 2001 3997
Source: Mamiraua database

Another source of income linked to tourism activities is the sale of handicrafts. Traditional production of everyday utensils was adapted to the taste of visitors and are sold as souvenirs. Thirty families are involved in this production. In the years 2000 and 2001 income generated by handicraft sales was greater than for any other products sold by the communities for the ecotourism venture.

Continuance of traditional activities

So far ecotourism has not become a sufficient source of revenue to displace other activities, as the great majority of locals are part-time employees. During the days when they are not working within tourism, locals follow their traditional activities e.g. agriculture, fishing and keeping house. The Mamirau database shows that only 30% of the local produce was sold by employees; therefore, benefits are also reaped by those families not working in the tourism venture.

Access to credit and support for partnerships Micro-credit is an economic development tool commonly used in Mamirau. The use of this scheme also involves a learning process, as the ribeirinhos (varzea dwellers) are not used to having access to credit, and basic accounting controls. This process certainly develops a sense of empowerment, as in the past they were overexploited by barter systems dominated by middlemen.

Services provided to community

In Mamirau an integrated management approach has been developed, thus it is difficult to distinguish benefits only attributed to ecotourism. However, improved transport and communication are some of the services that can be used by local communities. These improvements have highly increased the sense of security in the communities. Sanitation is another aspect that is being positively affected by the 36

ecotourism venture, as new technologies are being tested and could be implemented in other areas of the reserve.

Utilization of natural resources

The special zone for ecotourism is within the restricted zone, thus restrictions were already set before the ecotourism venture existed. The approach in the Mamirau Reserve is conservation allied to sustainable management of natural resources, therefore there is no clear conflict between ecotourism activities and local people. Sustainable management is also advertised as one of the tourist attractions, with some student groups coming to participate in forestry management and ecotourism activities as a special programme.

Training/ Capacity building As tourism is a relatively new activity for the region, all capacity building activities had to be developed by the SCM. Guides, cooks, chambermaids and speed-boat drivers have a number of training courses. As an institution supported by the Brazilian Ministry for Science and Technology (MCT), the Mamirau Institute is also evaluated by the amount of training delivered (IDSM/MCT, 2002). Besides the investment in local capacity building, managers also benefit from training, although they are not locals. As a result of this experience, some of the ex-managers and biologists have moved to other regions in Brazil to start up ecotourism programmes or to become consultants. These facts make Mamirau a kind of practical school for ecotourism professionals. 4.1.6 - Principle 6 Participation of local people as visitors:

Use for environmental education by local schools The SCM carries out an environmental education programme with activities addressed to people living within the reserve and in the towns around it. Some of these activities involve visiting the ecotourism management area and the Uacari lodge, where they can take part in lectures about the reserve and go on the trails. These visits have two objectives: environmental awareness-raising and marketing of the Mamirau reserve. For the great majority it is their first time visiting the area. These visits have occasionally involved students already living within the reserve. This is an opportunity for the children

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of lodge workers and guides to visit their parents work place, as well as the restricted zone for conservation.

Special fares for locals/national visitors Figure 9Origin of ecotourists to Mamiraua

Australia 2% North America 23% Brazil 38%

South America 1%

Europe 34%

Asia 2%

Prices for ecotourism packages in Mamirau are two-tiered: national tourists have a 20% discount in prices as an incentive for Brazilians to visit the reserve. A subsidized price for a one-day visit is also available for the local residents in Tef in an effort to attract support for the reserve.

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5- Conclusions:

This report investigated the implementation of an ecotourism venture in the Mamirau Reserve in the BA within a region of wetland forest. In this reserve a new approach to conservation has been implemented whose focus is to integrate conservation ideals with the improvement of the livelihood of the local population. The reserve was created in 1990, and ecotourism activities began in 1997 reaching full implementation in 2002. Although the number of tourists visiting Mamirau is still small, new investments earmarked for ecotourism in the BA justifies what could be considered an early evaluation. This research involved six weeks of fieldwork with the acquisition of quantitative data from the SCM database, which was enriched and contrasted with primary data attained by a number of qualitative techniques. Following the steps of similar previous evaluations (Wallace and Pierce, 1996; Ross and Wall, 1999a) of the controversial concept, ecotourism (Wheeler, 1993; Fennell, 2001), the findings were used within a framework with indicators to reveal to what extent the tourism venture in Mamirau achieved local development and environmental conservation. The first aspect discussed was the participation of local communities in the decision-making process. The implementation of the tourism venture in Mamirau was done under a participatory approach. As pointed out by Wilson and Bryant (1997), environmental management has gradually evolved to be a multi-layered process. In the Mamirau tourism venture stakeholders included the SCM, local people, funding institutions, environmental authorities and consultants. Local people participated in an early and long-term consultative process to decide about the development of the new economic activity; thus, they had access to a flux of information that allowed them to make decisions concerning their participation in the implementation process. However, the decision-making process was also marked by the disparity of knowledge and power between local communities and other stakeholders, especially the SCM personnel. Although a great number of meetings were held suggesting a bottom-up management approach, the main budgetary and administrative decisions were made by SCM personnel and external consultants. Thus, on the whole, a mix of bottom-up approaches better describe this process. Building a community-based initiative is a great challenge especially where levels of illiteracy are high, markets distant, and other demands on time are high(Ashley and 39 top-down and

Roe,1998). Hopes of enhancing the local communities capacity to make decisions are based on the increasing role of local associations that were fostered during this process. In the future it is possible that local people can participate in local committees where they can influence the management of the tourism venture and decide about the distribution of profits more directly. A second important aspect was the extent to which the local population has benefited from the ecotourism activities. They received economic benefits in the form of employment opportunities as well as market access for selling local produce and handicrafts. These could be considered limited benefits, but they were highly valued by the local population as a source of secure income, especially during the flood season. This is a phenomenon also reported in pro-poor tourism experiences elsewhere (Ashley, Roe, Goodwin, 2001). They also benefited from access to micro-credit, training programmes and the development of organisational abilities. However, some disadvantages related to tourism were pointed out by locals such as the loss of autonomy and the obligation to work during public holydays, which have interfered in their social life. In the long-term, the greatest gain provided by tourism activities in Mamirau is the reduction of the local populations dependency on natural resources for their livelihood, and the discovery that they can make a living using their knowledge of the rainforest environment. A third facet investigated was the effects of the tourism venture on environmental conservation. So far the tourism venture has not been able to generate a profit to invest in conservation activities. However, during its implementation a precautionary approach to minimize negative impacts on the natural environment was pursued. Carrying capacity issues were taken into consideration by the adoption of maximum numbers (Butler, 1996b) even though tourist activities are reduced to a small section of the reserve, representing only 0.3% of the total reserves area. Choices involving architectural design, building materials, energy use, transport means and waste disposal were made aiming to reduce negative impacts. Yet, low levels of negative localised impacts are inevitable: noise, hydrocarbon pollution, waste generation, and some disturbances to wildlife. Monitoring and evaluating these negative impacts can be vital for the continuance of the attraction of the tourism venture itself. Monitoring tools are included in the management process required to run an ecotourism venture (Payne, 1999). At Mamirau, since 1999 monitoring systems have been used for examining changes in wildlife behaviour and water quality; however, the collection and analysis of data has not been

40

consistent. The continuity and consistence of the monitoring systems is required to demonstrate care of the environment. A fourth issue pertinent to this research was the extent to which the tourism model implemented in Mamirau could/should be implemented in the BA and elsewhere. Even though it presents some flaws, a superior result was reached in Mamirau when compared with commercial tourism ventures located in the rainforest around Manaus (Wallace and Pierce, 1996; Nelson, 2000 and Rossi, 2001) especially in the following aspects: participation of the local population, benefits generated for the communities, environmental care and increase of awareness of the Amazonian environmental and cultural aspects by locals and tourists. However, so far the Mamirau ecotourism venture has not reached a sufficient amount of tourists to generate profitability. At the moment the continuity of the project still depends on external grants to finance the project. Thus, an immediate recommendation for replication is premature. This case-study demonstrates that ecotourism is not a panacea for development and conservation in the Brazilian Amazon, as previously alerted by other writers (Rocha, 1997 and Figueiredo, 1999). However, based on the evaluation of the initial development of the venture in Mamirau, ecotourism continues to be a valuable option for

development especially in regions near protected areas rich in wildlife and beautiful landscape. Nevertheless, this will only be possible if the traditional local population is integrated as an important stakeholder in the development process.

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