160566426X Design Frame

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I nformatI on ScI ence reference

Instructional Design
Frameworks and
Intercultural Models
Patricia A. Young
University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Young, Patricia A., 1964-
Instructional design frameworks and intercultural models / by Patricia A.
Young.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60566-426-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-427-9 (ebook) 1. Instructional systems--Design.
2. Educational technology--Social aspects. 3. Distance education--Social aspects. I. Title.
LB1028.38.Y68 2009
371.33--dc22
2008043211
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For Daddy Frank and Mother Minnie
Foreword.............................................................................................................. ix
Preface................................................................................................................. xii
Acknowledgment........................................................................................... xxviii
Section.I:.
Building.Culture.in.Design
Chapter.I
Beginnings.in.Instructional.Design.and.Culture............................................... 1
Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, & Psychology ...................................... 1
Early Instructional Design Models ....................................................................... 4
Assessing Learners and Learning ......................................................................... 6
ISD ........................................................................................................................ 7
Transforming Theories .......................................................................................... 7
Perspectives and Concepts of Culture .................................................................. 9
Mapping Culture to Instructional Design and ICTs ........................................... 13
References ........................................................................................................... 14
Endnotes .............................................................................................................. 24
Chapter.II
The.Nature.of.Culture.in.Design...................................................................... 25
Culture as a Design Construct ............................................................................ 26
Qualifying Culture in Design .............................................................................. 27
Culture in Perspective ......................................................................................... 28
Table of Contents
What Models of Culture Do ................................................................................ 30
The Polaric Dimension of Culture ...................................................................... 31
References ........................................................................................................... 33
Endnote ............................................................................................................... 36
Chapter.III
The.Culture-Based.Model.Framework............................................................ 37
What is CBM? ..................................................................................................... 37
Where Did CBM Come from? ............................................................................. 39
What can CBM Do? ............................................................................................ 39
Who Would use CBM? ........................................................................................ 40
What are CBMs Components? ............................................................................ 40
How Does CBM Work? ....................................................................................... 45
How do You Manage CBM? ................................................................................ 50
Why is CBM Intercultural? ................................................................................. 52
References ........................................................................................................... 52
Section.II:.
The.Culture-Based.Model:.ID.TABLET
Chapter.IV
CBM.Inquiry,.Development.............................................................................. 55
CBM Inquiry ....................................................................................................... 55
CBM Development .............................................................................................. 65
References ........................................................................................................... 71
Endnote ............................................................................................................... 72
Chapter.V
CBM.Team,.Assessments,.Brainstorming........................................................ 73
CBM Team ........................................................................................................... 73
CBM Assessments ............................................................................................... 76
CBM Brainstorming ............................................................................................ 80
References ........................................................................................................... 86
Endnotes .............................................................................................................. 87
Chapter.VI
CBM.Learners.................................................................................................... 88
CBM Learners ..................................................................................................... 88
References ........................................................................................................... 98
Endnotes .............................................................................................................. 99
Chapter.VII
CBM.Elements.I............................................................................................... 100
CBM Elements .................................................................................................. 100
The Anthropology of Culture ............................................................................. 103
Cultural Aesthetics ............................................................................................ 104
Cultural Artifacts .............................................................................................. 107
Cultural Capital .................................................................................................115
Cultural Classi.cation ...................................................................................... 120
References ......................................................................................................... 122
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 125
Chapter.VIII
CBM.Elements.II............................................................................................. 126
Cultural Communications ................................................................................. 126
References ......................................................................................................... 139
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 140
Chapter.IX
CBM.Elements.III............................................................................................ 142
Cultural Demographics .................................................................................... 142
Cultural Environment ....................................................................................... 160
References ......................................................................................................... 169
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 173
Chapter.X
CBM.Elements.IV............................................................................................ 174
Cultural History ................................................................................................ 174
References ..........................................................................................................211
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 214
Chapter.XI
CBM.Elements.V.............................................................................................. 215
Cultural Knowledge .......................................................................................... 215
Cultural Language ............................................................................................ 217
Cultural Physiology .......................................................................................... 220
Cultural Relations ............................................................................................ 223
Cultural Resources ............................................................................................ 225
References ......................................................................................................... 229
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 230
Chapter XII
CBM Elements VI ........................................................................................... 232
The Psychology of Culture ................................................................................ 232
Cultural Beliefs and Values ............................................................................... 234
Cultural Experiences ........................................................................................ 236
Cultural Ideas ................................................................................................... 238
Cultural Identity ................................................................................................ 239
Cultural Interests .............................................................................................. 241
Cultural Misconceptions ................................................................................... 242
Cultural Ways .................................................................................................... 244
References ......................................................................................................... 249
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 253
Chapter XIII
CBM Elements VII ......................................................................................... 254
The Science of Culture ...................................................................................... 254
Cultural Anomalies ........................................................................................... 255
Cultural Cultures .............................................................................................. 261
Cultural Futures................................................................................................. 271
References ......................................................................................................... 275
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 278
Chapter XIV
CBM Elements VIII & Training .................................................................... 279
Cultural In.nities .............................................................................................. 279
Cultural Nature ................................................................................................ 291
CBM Training.................................................................................................... 293
References ......................................................................................................... 294
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 296
Section III:
Case Studies Using The Culture-Based Model
Chapter XV
Case Study of an Educational Product ......................................................... 298
References.......................................................................................................... 314
Endnote.............................................................................................................. 315
Chapter XVI
Case Study in Game Design ........................................................................... 316
CBM GuideVideo Game Entries: PreproductionJuly 3, 2008.................... 323
References ......................................................................................................... 329
Endnotes ............................................................................................................ 330
Chapter XVII
Case Study in E-Learning .............................................................................. 331
CBM GuideE-Learning Entries: Preproduction ........................................... 335
References ......................................................................................................... 340
Endnote ............................................................................................................. 341
Chapter XVIII
Case Study in Research .................................................................................. 342
Example 1: Research Design Speci.cations ...................................................... 342
Example 2: Ethnographic Instrument................................................................ 355
References.......................................................................................................... 358
Chapter XIX
Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 359
References.......................................................................................................... 362
About the Author ............................................................................................ 365
Index ................................................................................................................. 366
ix
Instructional design (ID) theory currently refects increasingly diverse points of
view, but the array of design and instructional strategies used are typically dependent
upon an understanding of how people learn and how their backgrounds impinge the
learning process. On the other hand, ID practitioners, while not disagreeing with this
fundamental way of thinking, routinely are confronted with a multitude of other is-
sues. They are required to produce high-quality instruction delivered through a wide
variety of new technologies in a short period of time and with decreasing resources.
The instruction must be motivating and technologically sophisticated. In addition,
corporate designers are frequently dealing with global markets, and educators are
faced with students of wildly diverse ethnic backgrounds.
Patricia Young tackles this set of conditions through an exploration of how to
design instruction by emphasizing the culture of the learners. Instructional Design
Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a culture-based design model which
aims to make instruction more accessible for diverse groups of people. Some might
call it an over-lay model, one which adds the cultural component to a somewhat
traditional ID model. It is a model geared toward product design with a special
emphasis on computer-based technologies. It is a model, however, that is supported
by rock-solid research.
While few would dispute the importance of learner culture, many have diffcul-
ties in providing a concrete explanation of precisely what this means after dealing
with the obvious issues of language and clear differences in values and customs.
Culture is explicated here in detail. It is explained from an anthropological point
of view, a psychological point of view, and a scientifc point of view. Twenty-fve
elements of culture are described and explained with examples from throughout
the world. These are not elements that designers typically address. For example,
Young speaks to the role of:
Conceptions of what is beautiful;
Class and status in a society;
Non-verbal communication traditions;
Foreword
x
Behavior norms;
Emotional patterns;
Orientations toward time; and
Conceptions of intimate, personal, social and public space.
Culture impacts many ID procedures. It is critical to the needs assessment
and analysis processes, especially learner, context and at times content analysis.
Culture impacts the selection of instructional strategies and often plays a role in
media selection as well. Product development is affected by cultural considerations,
particularly with respect to the use of visuals. It is also a key consideration in the
design of assessment and evaluation instruments. In addition, Young shows how
culture factors can infuence ID project management from team formation to train-
the-trainer activities.
Knowledgeable and creative use of culture data greatly enhances any instructional
product, and understanding the effects of learner diversity is an essential instruc-
tional design competency. Nonetheless, a careful reading of the Young book seems
to suggest that taking full advantage of the culture-based model is dependent upon
including either design experts or culture experts on the project team.
However, I suspect that the problem that will be raised by many is not the
expertise required to deal with culture, but rather the additional time required to
meaningfully address it, especially as culture is broadly described in this book. Its
a part of the resistance to needs assessment in general that many designers routinely
confront. Young addresses this in part by viewing her book as a workbook or a
handbook that designers will use by selectively attending to only those elements
that are pertinent to a given project. She further facilitates the process by providing
the range of questions that could be asked to gather data related to each culture ele-
ment. This will not totally meet the concerns of skeptics. Fundamentally, designers
will need to agree with Young that culture is critical to design and instruction. ID
scholars and theorists are beginning to recognize this issue, and culture is begin-
ning to be the focus of some ID research agendas. Hopefully, this body of research
will provide results that support the logic and faith many designers now have in the
power of cultural infuences on the learning process.
The impact of culture on ID is a timely topic. It not only meets the needs of
those designing globalized and localized instruction, but it addresses a number of
current theoretical issues confronted by ID scholars today that were not previously
considered. In much of the twentieth century behavioral scientists commonly sup-
ported the tenets of logical empiricism or logical positivism. This thinking relies
upon the value of sensory data as a means of determining truth, and rejects any
view of reality that was not based upon empirical observation and verifcation. The
products of this type of inquiry were universal generalizations. During this same
xi
period the fundamental structure of our instructional design models was established
and they too tended to initially refect such empiricist thinking. As a consequence,
these ID models were not only rooted in research, but they were presented as be-
ing environmentally neutral and applicable to all education and training settings.
The positivist orientation, however, ultimately lost its broad base of support to a
great extent because it discounted the impact of culture, history, and individual
characteristics.
Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a post-
positivist examination of culture. This is a book that would not likely have been
written in the 1960s or 1970s. The current dominance of constructivist and other
learner-centered theories provides an intellectual foundation for this book today.
Youngs culture-based ID model is compatible with current theory which views
learning as a social process and knowledge construction as being unique to each
individual. It is compatible with views of communication as less of a transmission
process and more of an interaction process. It is compatible with a systemic (rather
than a systematic) view of the world. Of equal importance, however, this book
speaks to the problems of todays instructional designers, even as it expands the
felds conception of all that instructional design entails.
Rita C. Richey,
Professor Emeritus
Instructional Technology
Wayne State University
Detroit, MI
Rita C. Richey is Professor Emeritus of Instructional Technology at Wayne State University.
She was at Wayne State for thirty-seven years and has extensive experience in program
design and development, teaching and in education and training research. She is widely
published in the area of instructional design and technology. She has written or edited ten
books, and published over 40 articles and books chapters. She has two Outstanding Book
Awards from the Association of Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) Divi-
sion of Design and Development and also the AECT Brown Publication Award. While at
Wayne State University, she coordinated the Instructional Technology program for over 20
years and received fve major University awards, including induction into the Academy of
Scholars. In recognition of her careers work, in 2000 she received the AECT Distinguished
Service Award.
xii
Preface
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) saturate the daily lives of
most human beings on Earth. Those in technologically advanced societies live with
computers, radios, televisions, print technology, and so forth. As of 2008, one and
a half billion people access the Internet (Internet World Stats, 2008). Video games
have captured the attention of youth and adults, with sales expected to reach US
$48.9 billion worldwide by 2011 (Scanlon, 2007). Employers are developing serious
online games to train, recruit, and better communicate with employees (McConnon,
2007). In 2008, sales in mobile phones worldwide surpassed the US $1 billion mark
because of industry expansions in untapped emerging markets (Gartner, Inc., 2008).
College and university students access knowledge through distance education; this
continues to be a high-growth area for education and training (Waits & Lewis, 2003).
E-learning has exploded across industry, government, business, and education. The
need to know, retrain, and acquire knowledge is at an all-time high. These statistics
and facts defne the growth and impact of ICTs on the global imprint of humanity,
but how can technology serve the needs of many while serving the needs of a few?
Here are several true scenarios where the needs of a few specialized target audi-
ences have been considered.
Elsa Evers wanted a dual undergraduate degree in communication (i.e., media
production) and international studies. As part of her studies, she spent her fourth
academic year in Xalapa, Mexico, where she took the remainder of her courses
through distance education; in this situation, Elsa would access course content at a
place and time of her choosing. Elsa welcomed the opportunity to explore another
culture that differed from her own. She immersed herself in the Spanish language,
focused on understanding the lifestyle, and refected on her own cultural predisposi-
tions and their infuence on her experience (Bhandari, 2007). Elsa is embarking upon
an enriching international relations learning experience that is culture-specifc.
China and India are experiencing a surge in the video game industry. Game
developers from North America want in on these international markets, realizing
that games are a culture within themselves. The dilemma for North American video
game companies is how to make games culture-specifc (Vlessing, 2008).
xiii
In Illinois and Pennsylvania, researchers developed computer-mediated math-
ematics games that focused on the culturally relevant learning and the ethnic histories
of their student populations. These educational games served as interventions to
help improve the academic achievement of African American students and better
meet mainstream educational standards. These are cases in which culture-specifc
design was implemented out of desperation and disappointment with mainstream
educational practices (Gilbert et al., 2008; Leonard, Davis, & Sidler, 2005).
E-learning broadly serves many masters from telecommunications to the Internet.
In pockets of the world, the potential of mobile e-learning is being explored with
handheld devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and pocket
personal computers. The digitization of Maori, an indigenous language of New
Zealand, is being explored by university students through media players that run
podcasts (Tahana, 2008). Innovators in Tokyo, Japan explore text messaging with
cell phones that have the same writing system in the native tongues of Bengali,
Myanmarese, and Nepalese (Shimbun, 2008). In these cases, e-learning is made
more culture-specifc through a focus language.
In Uganda, Deogracious Kiganira Kijambu, a 23-year-old entrepreneur wants to
access the Internet in his native languageLusoga. Accessing the Internet in his own
language would help him grow his e-commerce agribusiness and it would enable
other Bantu speakers of Lusoga to participate in information and communication
features of the Internet. Kijambu knows that there are few people, in the Mayuge
district, who have acquired computer knowledge and skills; however, those few
cannot access the Internet because of the dominance of English. Speakers of Lusoga
are the customers for Kijambus business. The localization of the Lusoga language
is needed in terms of computer user interface, content, language, and other cultural
design preferences (Musinguzi, 2008).
These examples demonstrate scenarios in which culture-specifc designs were
considered for the few. For Elsa, the distance education program was specialized to
her interest in Spanish culture, but can culture-specifc educational experiences be
replicated throughout distance education programs?
1
North American game compa-
nies desire to create culture-specifc video games to broaden their market, but how
can other companies create culture-specifc entertainment games? Researchers in
Illinois and Pennsylvania designed culturally relevant computer-mediated environ-
ments for African American children; can culture-specifc educational products be
designed for other specialized groups of people? In several examples, e-learning
is made culture-specifc through the infusion of language, but what other design
specifcations can make a product more culture-specifc? For Kijambu in Uganda,
there is a need to localize, specialize, or make more culture-specifc user interfaces
that address content, language, and other cultural considerations; how can other
indigenous languages be included in this Internet revolution? These scenarios dem-
xiv
onstrate that, worldwide, there is a need to better understand the impact of culture
on design and development. In designing for societies, culture, or people, culture is
considered. When we design for people, we should design with culture in mind.
When it is unclear why a group of people rejected a product, culture should be
considered. When a product does not sell, culture should be considered. Culture
should be considered:
When learners fail to communicate in a distance education environment.
When learners fail to learn.
When users fail to understand the intricacies of user interfaces.
When a culture fails to learn from its previous historical mistakes.
When rulers overthrow a country.
When government offcials kill themselves.
When consumers fail to buy products.
When users fail to communicate.
When technologies are not used by consumers.
When the design of a product fails learners or users.
When we do not understand our target audience.
When indigenous cultures reject technology or appropriate technology.
When an entertainment game fails to entertain.
When we cannot fgure out where to begin, begin with culture, because culture
is everything.
Questions this book seeks to answer include: Is culture important to the design of
ICTs? What does it mean to create a culture-based product? How can research help
product development and understanding the target audience? How can integrating
culture better meet the needs of the target audience? How do you plan and design
with culture in mind? How do you analyze ICTs for culture? How do you create an
unbiased product? Is it possible to create a culture-specifc product for one target
audience? Is it possible to make the design process more explicit? How does culture
impact design decisions?
This book details the culture-based model (CBM), a model of culture that assists
designers, researchers, and practitioners in building a framework for culture-based
ICTs. CBM is an intercultural, instructional design framework that guides design-
ers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while
taking into account explicit culture-based considerations. The model is intercultural
because it operates inside, outside, and across cultures and cultural contexts. This
book defnes the entire model. Relevant case studies of how to use the model in in-
structional design, e-learning, game design and as a diagnostic tool are provided.
xv
CBM is adaptive in that it can be used in conjunction with traditional instructional
design models or on its own. The designer prescribes methods on the basis of the
preproduction analysis and research, the ongoing production, and the postproduc-
tion (Reigeluth, 1983). The model, as with any instructional design model, should
be modifed on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson
& Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995). Traditional
instructional design models are blueprint[s] of the instruction itself, and they
focus on what the instruction should be like (Reigeluth, 1983, p. 24). However,
CBM focuses much more broadly. It is a blueprint of the management and design
processes, and it focuses on what the content should be. CBM brings the human
element into design-related disciplines (Douglas, 2006). A complete analysis of the
empirical study, where CBM is derived can be found in Young (1999).
Within the context of this book, instructional design maintains its traditional
defnition and meaning. Instructional design proposes that learning occurs in a sys-
tematic-oriented manner, producing measurable outcomes, and that there is a process
to facilitate this learning (Reigeluth, 1983; Richey, 1986). This process is grounded
in a generic system of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evalua-
tionthe ADDIE model. Instructional design translates principles of learning theory
and instruction into a plan for the design of instructional products, activities, and
evaluations (Smith & Ragan, 2005). This process approach is signifcant for the
design of ICTs because it provides a systematic or structured methodology that all
practitioners can follow in the design process. By systematizing or organizing the
design of products or online environments, they are more apt to be well built and
researched instruction. This type of designed instruction is integral to meeting
the needs of learners (Gagn, Briggs, & Wager, 1992, p. 4).
Culture is a core construct of all design decisions; however, its potential to im-
prove the design process has been mostly ignored in the feld of instructional design
(Subramony 2004; Young, 2008b)..This is exemplifed in key texts on instructional
design where culture is described in its environmental context or from a cultural
historical perspectivenot in terms of designing instruction (Dijkstra, Seel, Schott,
Tennyson, 1997; Reigeluth, 1983; Tennyson, Schott, Seel & Dijkstra, 1997). This
lack of interest in culture as a design construct may be prevalent for various reasons.
First, designers are not sure how to represent culture in the design process, what
to look for, or what to include. Second, there may be conficts between the culture
of the target audience and the technology, and many designers are grappling with
how to bridge these communication connections (Chu & Reeves, 2000). Third, a
comprehensive framework in which to align culture with the ADDIE model has
not been available. Finally, the inclusion of cultural frames of reference may not
have been seriously considered (Gay, 2000, p. xix).
This book crosses academic and disciplinary camps, and national and interna-
tional waters, to obtain balanced perspectives. Knowledge is knowledge, and it is
xvi
there for one to freely learn from and make ones own scholarship. Interdisciplin-
ary work like this is not an easy task, but it has been an education I hope worth the
time and effort.
CBM brings something old, something new, something borrowed and something
blue to the discussion of culture; this work positions culture as a design construct.
Culture as conceptualized here is real and imaginary. Culture is real when design-
ers design with real people in mind. Culture is imaginary when designers build
fctionalized worlds and design with real people in mind (Plotkin, 2003). The human
element is always present when designing with culture in mind. Design allows the
freedom to be multidimensional in ones thinking and doing.
From Designers to Researchers
In general, this book is for anyone who is attempting to design with culture in mind.
It is also for anyone who seeks to analyze culture in anything from printed docu-
ments to Web-based environments. The content of this book provides the tools for
building, evaluating, and designing a society, culture, or target audience. Next, I
have defned how this book can help people with different roles and interests.
Designers
For the novice/professional instructional designer and e-learning designer who has
interests in incorporating culture into the design of instructional products, user in-
terfaces and other on-line environments, this book assists in building a framework
for the design of a culture-based product. It provides the tools to tailor instructional
content to a particular target audience. It aids in addressing the communication and
miscommunication issues that are prevalent in online environments. In terms of
user interfaces, this book provides the features for creating for generic or special-
ized interfaces.
Professors
Professors could use this text to defne culture, provide a background to the felds
of culture and instructional design, conceptualize culture as a design construct,
exemplify the aspects that make up a culture, and demonstrate how students might
integrate CBM in their designs. This book can be used as a resource in understanding
the dynamic complexity of culture and what should be considered when designing
with culture in mind. For a course in design, this could be one of the primary texts
or workbooks. Section I provides all the research and theory. Sections II and III
xvii
are designed to be used as a workbook. With Section II, students are not expected
to read through all the areas of CBM but to use these areas as guides in the design
process. Section III provides case studies and students may read through these
chapters when formulating their thoughts to begin designing.
Students
Graduate and undergraduates who have interests in designing ICTs should fnd this
handbook helpful. In terms of research, students will fnd the book a resource for
research references and a tool to analyze societies, cultures, and groups/individuals.
The practical examples throughout the model provide students with guidance in
understanding design factors and making design decisions. The guiding questions
throughout give students the support needed to work on their own or in small groups.
The guiding questions support design and research efforts; they help students ask
the right questions and choose the best direction. Section III provides four chapters
of case studies that detail the design process using CBM. Students should fnd these
chapters accessible and comprehensive. The problem for students may be limiting
the number of design factors, given the amount of options offered in CBM.
Researchers
This text can be used as a handbook for researchers who seek to defne anthropologi-
cal, psychological, or scientifc concepts in relation to ancient and existing cultures,
contemporary or indigenous groups, instructional products, on-line environments,
printed documents, or any other ICTs. The design factors in CBM Elements enable
researchers to collect data, analyze information, assess cultures, and defne target
audiences. CBM Learners allow researchers to evaluate the connections between
learning and culture. Section I provides the theory, research, and concepts for fur-
ther in-depth research. Researchers who are interested in the empirical path to this
model of culture may begin with Youngs (1999) work, continue with subsequent
articles and chapters (Young, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d, in press-a), and
end with this book.
More on the Book
This book seeks to appeal to national and international audiences. Although a West-
erner has written this book, there are examples throughout from people, cultures,
and societies around the world. As the author, I have tried to provide a culturally
sensitive text that has cross-cultural applications. This is a diffcult task nonetheless;
however, I ask readers to be open-minded in rediscovering how to reconceptualize
culture.
xviii
The bibliographic references are used throughout to support the writing and
provide the reader with additional data on how some ideas were developed. The
book is thoroughly researched to provide authenticity to each section, and examples
are offered to guide the design process.
This is a book to be used, not just read. This means that a researcher who wants
to analyze a culture may read the entire book but only use the chapters related to
CBM Elements for the analysis. Any designers of instructional ICTs could read and
use the design factors throughout the entire book. Game designers might read and
use design factors throughout the entire book.
ICTs, as defned in this book, follow the description adopted in the feld of
education. ICTs include a broad range of technological and resource tools that com-
municate, store, transmit, produce, manage, and disseminate information. These
technologies include the following: Internet, World Wide Web, computers, cameras,
CD-ROMs, DVDs, audiotapes, videotapes, radio, television, flms, telephones, and
print technologies (Blurton, 1999).
Two other terms that need defning are society and culture. A society is a group
of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and who collectively
inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry,
& Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing, and think-
ing. This culture shapes the societys behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede &
Hofstede, 2005). In understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of
its past and present histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006).
This book does not claim to incorporate all factors consistent with culture-based
designs. It provides a comprehensive set of design factors that, when implemented,
can best serve to authenticate a culture-based design. As designers, researchers, and
educators, it is important to understand the impact of culture on design. This book
provides guidance in making explicit those aspects of human nature and Mother
Nature that make cultures valid.

The Instructional Designer and Design
Instruction is shaped by the instructional designer. Instructional designers create
physical and virtual environments where learning is facilitated, incentives of-
fered, and rewards earned (Johnson, 1989). These designs can comprise a single
set of instructional materials, one course, or an entire program or curriculum. The
instructional designer differs from the curriculum specialist in that the curriculum
specialist is usually an expert in a particular subject matter; however the instructional
designer works through a process whereby he or she designs projects in a number
of disciplines. Although instructional designers are usually not teachers, they base
xix
their knowledge on what they know about how people learn (Richey, 1986; Smith
& Ragan, 2005). It is assumed that their designs will foster learning.
Instructional designers proceed through a process type approach when they
design solutions. The design process has several stages: [I]dentify the problem,
design a solution, implement the solution (Van Patten, 1989, p. 18). Identifying
the problem means fnding out as much as possible through observations; the analy-
sis of artifacts; and discussions with clients, sponsors, subject matter specialists,
producers, actors, teachers, and learners (Rowland, 1993; Van Patten, 1989). This
needs assessment should include the impact of a problem or need, and it should
be recorded. Designing a solution that effciently meets the needs of the project is
the next step. This solution must be fnancially doable. Instructional designers then
create a number of design solutions or products that address the problem or need, its
impact, and the expense (Van Patten, 1989). Then, instructional designers use three
types of information: what they know, what they observe and what they feel (Van
Patten, 1989, p. 18). Designers use their wisdom, observational skills, and intuition
to ascertain the problem. Thereafter, they design and implement a solution specifc
to the needs of the learner (Van Patten, 1989).
Anne-Marie Armstrong (2004), a practicing instructional designer argues that,
in the real world of instructional design frequently there is limited time for prepara-
tion and long-term contemplation..Production is quickly followed by assessment,
revisions, and then piloting the product. The instructional designer must be fexible,
effcient, and creative.
Jillian Rickertt (2004), an instructional designer, described an assignment in Asia
where her limited understanding of a particular Asian culture conficted with her job
of designing and delivering a Train the Trainer course to a group of Asian customer
service representatives. During and after the job, Rickertt (2004) refected on her
response to situations and her beliefs. For example, the classroom environment in
which Rickertt would train the trainers was cramped with rickety chairs, and only
3 of 20 computers were operational. Rickertt had higher expectations, being from
Australia. On the morning of the frst day of training, technicians were working on
the room; in hours, the chairs were fxed and all the computers were working. In
this example, Rickertts perception of the quality of the environment was based on
her own cultural experience. Rickertt also refected on how she could have created
better formative evaluations had she known that taking tests and achieving high
scores motivated the target audience in this culture.
There is a tendency for designers to impose their ideologies upon the target
audiences who will use their products or implement their designs (Taylor, 1992).
By considering the culture of the target audience in the design process, the designer
might be more inclined, for example, to have text in multiple languages, consider
the relevancy of graphic images, explore gender issues, design appropriate tests,
exhibit cultural consciousness and sensitivity, and consider the cultural context.
xx
Taylor (1992) examined how software designers could aid companies in acquir-
ing an international market share for their computer technology. To acquire these
foreign markets, he found that operating systems needed to function in a language
conducive to the learner, not the designer. Doing this is just good business (p.
10). Software products needed to incorporate the language and culture of the target
audiencewhat Taylor described as internationalization (foreign) or localization
(domestic). This is prevalent in that some operating systems function in many lan-
guages and incorporate cultural concepts.
2

Like the software programmer, the instructional designer needs to acknowledge
his or her own culture, language, ideologies, and standards. Instructional designers
need to provide a cultural context and culture-specifc design specifcations. A
cultural context means examining situations from the point of view of the target
audience (Taylor, 1992). Culture-specifc design specifcations can be applied based
on models of culturelike CBM..
Interacting in a world of diverse peoples requires that individuals have their own
cultural identity (Hofstede, 1991) and understand their cultural values. These skills
translate into an understanding of others. The instructional designer might begin
with these seven steps:
1. Develop a deeper understanding of your own culture. Ask family members
about your ethnic heritage. Become proactive in learning about your ances-
try.
2. Wipe out any preconceived notions about the target audience
3. Start with a basic slate of what you know about human beings and social
interaction.
4. Apply only the coloring that is there, not what you have come to believe.
5. Situate the design in context. Build the cultural and instructional context around
the target audience.
6. Go with what you know about ADDIE!
7. Be creative!
To limit cultural bias, an individual needs to de-center themselves
3
..De-centering
is the process in which members of a team reject the focus on Western ideologies and
try to promote a focus on the target audiences culture and learning needs (Hofstede,
1991). Designs and designers are not equitable; therefore, the assumption that, if
one thinks culture, one does culture is not true (Scheel & Branch, 1993). Integrating
culture in design must be an explicit act.
xxi
Outline of the Book
Section I provides background research to all areas covered in the booknamely
instructional design and culture. The nature of culture as a design construct is de-
fned and explored. CBM is introduced and an overview of the components of the
model.
Chapter I provides the theoretical, methodological, and conceptual background
to understanding the role of culture in instructional design. It begins with an over-
view of learning theories to the development of instructional design theories. Then
the chapter reviews some early perspectives on culture. Last, connections are made
between culture, design, and ICTs. This chapter provides international and national
perspectives in instructional design.
Chapter II is a conceptual chapter that explores perspectives on the nature of
culture in design. This chapter looks at the many facets of culture.
Chapter III provides an overview of CBM. It uses a question-and-answer format
to address basic questions about the model, such as the following: What is CBM?
Where did CBM come from? What can CBM do? Who would use CBM? What are
CBMs components? How does CBM work? How do you manage CBM? Why is
CBM intercultural?
Section II should be used as a handbook or reference resource. These chapters
cover all components of CBM. The areas are defned, described, and illustrated
with relevant examples. Guiding questions that direct the designer in creating a
generic or specialized product are provided. Generic products are guided by culture
guiding questions (culture GQ). Specialized products are guided by target audience
guiding questions (target audience GQ). Given the comprehensiveness of CBMs
ID-TABLET, it is best covered over several chapters. Therefore, the areas of the
model are covered in Chapters IV-XIV. The areas are ordered according to CBMs
management and design systemthe ID-TABLET.
Chapter IV covers CBM Inquiry and Development. Inquiry acts as a monitor-
ing system for the design process. Development controls issues related to problem
solving.
Chapter V includes CBM Team, Assessments, and Brainstorming. Team handles
all the decision making for the project. Assessments cover several forms of evalua-
tion, and Brainstorming is the primary planning area for the project.
Chapter VI focuses on the area CBM Learners that manages most of the instruc-
tional goals of the project.
Chapter VII begins CBM Elements I; Elements is divided over eight chapters.
The focus of CBM Elements is content development. This frst section of CBM is
devoted to Elements specifc to the anthropology of culture. This chapter contin-
ues with design factors Cultural aesthetics, Cultural artifacts, Cultural capital, and
Cultural classifcation.
xxii
Chapter VIII covers CBM Elements II. This chapter focuses on the design factor
Cultural communications.
Chapter IX covers CBM Elements III. This chapter outlines the design factors
Cultural demographics and Cultural environment.
Chapter X covers CBM Elements IV. Cultural history is covered in its en-
tirety.
Chapter XI focuses on CBM Elements V. This chapter covers several design
factors that include: Cultural knowledge, Cultural language, Cultural physiology,
Cultural relations, and Cultural resources.
Chapter XII covers CBM Elements VI, and begins with the section the psy-
chology of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural beliefs & values,
Cultural experiences, Cultural ideas, Cultural identity, Cultural interests, Cultural
misconceptions, and Cultural ways.
Chapter XIII covers CBM Elements VII, and begins with the section the sci-
ence of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural anomalies, Cultural
cultures, and Cultural futures.
Chapter XIV completes the fnal parts of CBM Elements VIII and the area
Training. The design factors covered include Cultural infnities and Cultural nature.
Training is another area under the management of the project. This is where educa-
tion about the product takes place.
Section III provides 4 realistic case studies using CBM and the concluding
chapter. These chapters align with CBMs framework.
Chapter XV examines CBMs ID-TABLET and how it functions in building an
educational product. Specifcally, this example demonstrates the basics of a custom
development or building a project from scratch.
Chapter XVI connects CBMs ID-TABLET to a case study in.game design. This
example illustrates an Add-on or adding on to an existing video game.
Chapter XVII connects CBMs ID-TABLET to a case study in.e-Learning. This
example demonstrates how to use the ID-TABLET for re-engineering an e-learning
environment.
Chapter XVIII connects CBMs ID-TABLET to a case study in Research. This
example presents the use of the ID-TABLET as a diagnostic evaluation tool.
The conclusion, Chapter XIX, offers some thoughts on the future of culture-
based designs, the feld of instructional design, learners and designers of the future,
and other ideas.
The signifcance of culture in the design ICTs will be important as business,
industry, government, and educational institutions that seek to meet the needs of
target audiences, diversify the designs of products and services, and capture larger
markets. This globalization in design practices is the future of instructional design
and design practices in general.
xxiii
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Endnotes
1
Entertainment games include any of the following: educational, serious, mas-
sivemultiplayer online, video, etc.
2
Taylor (1992) found that software must address the cultural context of the
learner. He identifed several concepts related to language, notational conven-
xxvii
tions, and other features of hardware and software interfaces. (a) Translitera-
tion means translating concepts from one language to another. For example,
shifting cases on American keyboards does not translate into other languages
that do not have capital letters, such as Arabic and Hebrew. (b) Hyphenation
rules differ from one language to another. Words in some languages are not
hyphenated, and some languages lend themselves to hyphenation rules. (c)
Spelling checkers in software programs are diffcult to adapt to the cultural
contexts and idiomatic expressions of languages. For example, a spell checker
fails to function with slang and colloquialisms such as sho nuf. (d) Collation
or sorting is associated with languages. For example, the letter n is added to
the Spanish language, and in Japanese, sorting is not done alphabetically but
by proper names. (e) Notational conventions are concepts such as time, date,
numbers, currency, and so forth that vary from one culture to another.
3
Although Hofstede (1991) is referring to research, the idea of decentering
oneself from cultural bias is also applicable in this example.
xxviii
Acknowledgment
If you come out of a design background, when asked why do you design?: the answer
would be because I have to. Creating, designing, and producing are part of who
I ammy being and existing. I need to create. However in academia, the creative
side is not as valued. There is room for innovation in the work we do as educators.
Finding that creativity again is part of what designing for and about culture is all
about. Being creative is something I thought I had lost in the process of buckling
down and becoming an academic; however the culture-based model builds on theory,
methodology, practice, design and creativity beyond my scope of reasoning. This
is truly a constructed model.
That said, there are many who I would like to thank for supporting this creative
process. At the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), Deans John
Jefferies and Kathy ODell directly participated in the support of this scholarship.
During the two years of concentrated writing and revisions, I utilized the help of
many UMBC Department of Education graduate assistants and I extend a warm
thanks to them.
I would like to thank the IGI Global team and Jan Travers (Vice President of
Editorial) for their help through this journey. I appreciate their patience.
My development as a professor/researcher can be accredited to a variety of
individuals in addition to those who encouraged me along the way. They include
the following professors:
Michael Banks, New York Institute of Technology, USA
Renee Clift, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Ann DeVaney, Emeritus, University of Wisconsin at Madison, USA
Anne Haas Dyson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Patricia Edwards, Michigan State University, USA
Lily Wong Fillmore, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA
Sarah Warshauer Freedman, University of California at Berkeley, USA
Michele Foster, Claremont Graduate University, USA
Bernard R. Gifford, University of California at Berkeley, USA
xxix
Etta R. Hollins, University of Southern California, USA
Jean Lave, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA
Donald J. Leu, University of Connecticut, USA
Jabari Mahiri, University of California at Berkeley, USA
Pedro Noguera, New York University, USA
A special thanks to colleagues who reviewed drafts offering constructive feedback
and suggestions on how to improve this manuscript. In addition, I would like to
thank Rita Richey for writing the forward and acknowledge her valuable contribu-
tions to the felds of instructional design and technology.
I would like to send a big hug to my family and friends. In particular, my mother
Minnie listened tirelessly to my anguish, fears and surprises. My sister Debbie con-
tinued to provide me with supportive jokes. My sister Angel lent many an ear over
the years and did so again in this process. My sister Brenda, brother Johnnie, and
sister-in-law Anna, gave me individual support in their own special ways. Thanks to
my friend and colleague Dr. Tryphenia Peele-Eady who listened and offered advice
to my ideas even when they were out of her feld of study. Cheryl Blackwell-Johnson
is a friend and colleague who supported me in the collection of data and soothed me
through this time. Finally, a special thanks to Frank James Eagles who talked me
through many of these ideas, supported my professional development and designed
some of the graphic fgures.
This has been an informative journey.
Section I
Building Culture in Design
Building culture in design looks broadly at the building blocks of documented knowledge
and how this knowledge has shaped the feld of instructional design and what we know
about culture. It further looks to the future of what culture could and should be as we move
forward in the 21st century.
This section provides historical, theoretical, and conceptual research in the areas of
learning theory, instructional design, constructivism, and culture. These chapters outline
one of many possible paths to the history of instructional design and its connection to cul-
ture. The meaning and multicontexts of culture are defned and explored. Specifcally, the
reasoning behind situating culture as a design construct is explained.
The culture-based model (CBM) is introduced and an overview of the components of the
model. The foundation of the model is revealed through a series of questions.
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture 1
Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global
is prohibited.
Chapter I
Beginnings in
Instructional Design and
Culture
Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, &
Psychology
If the history of the world is properly searched, the birth of innovation in learning
theory as a practice and psychology as a science can be found in the literature of
scholars across nations. In Germany, Wilheim A. Lay (1903) studied the relationship
between psychology (i.e., memory, perception, muscle response) and the practice
of teaching subject matter (i.e., reading, writing, and arithmetic). Lay believed that
educational topics could beneft from an experimental approach that explored not
only the psychological but also the biological, anthropological, hygienic, economic,
logical, ethical, aesthetic, and religious experiences of the pupil and his commu-
nity by means of observation, statistics and the experiment (Lay, 1936, p. 139).
In Geneva, Edouard Claparde (1905) argued that the type of teaching should be
dependent on the knowledge the child brings with them. Claparde believed that
the learner needed to know how to learn in order to learn. Ernst Meumann (1907),
in Germany, continued with this line of inquiry into experimental psychology
and experimental pedagogy examining the application of psychology methods to
pedagogical problems. Given the increased demands on children to learn more in-
formation, Meumann sought to develop psychologically based methods to improve
2 Young
is prohibited.
teaching and learning. Meumann (1913) wrote in the introduction of the book The
Psychology of Learning:
In the traditional pedagogy we read a great deal about methods of teaching; but
in most cases, the pedagogical text-books can tell us nothing about methods of
learning. And yet we fnd ourselves confronted by the very serious question as to
whether the effciency of school-room management may not be increased by sys-
tematically improving the pupils procedure in the act of learning in such a fashion
that his learning may be perfected in its technical aspects and accomplished more
economically (p. xiv).
In the United States, early examples of the scientifc approach to the child study
movement can be found in the works of psychologists G. Stanley Hall (e.g., The
Contents of Childrens Minds on Entering School - 1893) and James M. Cattell (e.g.,
Mental Tests and Measurements -1890). Furthering the research in child psychology,
John Dewey and Edward Lee Thorndike explored the psychology of schooling and
the child. Dewey (1897) theorized that, to educate an individual, one must know
about their psychological structure and activities and their social conditions (p.
4). This knowledge aided in determining where the child came from and where they
were headed. Specifcally, Dewey sought to understand how socialization infuenced
learning and how it could aid in educating the individual. Edward Lee Thorndike
(1903, 1906) contributed several textbooks on the psychology of education, teaching,
and learning. In the textbook Educational Psychology, Thorndike (1903) examined
the infuences of mental development, environment, and genetics. In formulating
a theory of education, Thorndike (1903) hypothesized the following:
To know the original natures of the beings to be educated and to know the infuence
of the forces of nature, human lives and all the paraphernalia of civilization upon
these original natures is to know how to control their education in the interest of
the aim we have chosen (p. 163).
Thorndike proposed that, through knowing humankind, it is possible to control
the quantity and quality of our knowledge. This possibility, like the theorizing of
Thorndikes predecessors, had great implications for the design of instruction and,
further, in educating the human race.
The contributions of Marxist psychologists should be added to the history of
instructional design. This work contributed to the research conducted during the
1920-1940s on child study, teaching, and learning. In the United Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), Lev Vygotskys research with the Institute of Psychology at
Moscow University produced a manual on the practical applications of teaching.
is prohibited.
This 1926 teachers manual, titled Educational Psychology (Pedagogical Psychol-
ogy), sought to provide teachers with insight on the psychology of children and the
process of instruction (Vygotsky, 1926). Vygotsky wrote extensively in the area
of child development. By example, the publication of The Problem of the Cultural
Development of the Child (1929) provided insight into the natural and the cultural
psychological development of a child. Alexander R. Luria, Vygotskys colleague,
collaborated in writing Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of
Behaviour (1930). In this text, Luria and Vygotsky (1930) presented a theory of
psychological development from ape to cultured child. Another notable psycholo-
gist who contributed to child study is Henri Wallon [The Origins of Thought in the
Child (1947) and The Psychological and Sociological Study of the Child (1947)].
By the start of World War II, the beginnings of the process approach were
clearly defned as psychologists and educators conducted research and developed
training materials to help war efforts. Robert Gagn, Leslie Briggs, John Flana-
gan, and others used the research on learning, instruction, and behavior to inform
instructional strategies that they developed for the military. The systematic design
procedures aided in the management of military projects (Johnson, 1989; Richey,
1986; Seels, 1989). For example, the development process of the atomic bomb was
an application of the systems approach. Instructional systems development (ISD)
was the militarys version of instructional design. Industry used ISD in its training
flms. These instructional flms taught large groups of people skills such as aircraft
maintenance, nursing, and woodworking, as these jobs were needed during wartime
(Saettler, 1990).
By the 1950s, the pioneering work of behaviorists and cognitivists further
defned the feld of instructional design. B. F. Skinner examined the behavior of
organisms and how these organisms learned (Skinner, 1954). Specifcally, Skinners
work on programmed instruction and his development of teaching machines
1
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vided methods and devices to scientifcally investigate instruction and learning
(Reigeluth, 1988; Seels, 1989; Skinner, 1954; Tennyson & Schott, 1997). Skinners
(1954) programmed instruction is based on operant conditioning where the learners
responses are followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Through the use of teaching
machines, Skinner shaped the learners responses by offering information in small
increments through a mechanical device. The learner proceeded through a series of
stimulus-response-reinforcement cycles where they were provided with a stimulus,
prompted to initiate a response, and then received feedback or reinforcement as to
the correctness of the response.
Cognitive learning theory fourished throughout the world. In Switzerland, psy-
chologist Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development explored the development
of intelligence in a child (Piaget, 1954). Hans Aeblis (1951) foundational work in
psychological didactics led to instructional innovations in Austria, Germany, and
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Switzerland. Aebli transformed Piagets work in developmental psychology into
an instructional theory. Specifcally, in this work Aebli used a didactical method
consisting of active methods, learning by acting, and searching and inquiring.
These methods aided in constructing mental operations and helped with exterior
operations and step-by-step symbolizations (as cited in Einsiedler, 1997, p. 272).
In the 1960s, behaviorist approaches to learning transitioned into cognitive
approaches. Learning theories gave way to theories pertinent to the design of in-
struction. Jerome Bruner (1966) developed a theory of instruction that supported
both learning and development. Bruners theory of instruction proposes that (a)
the learners environmental experiences should foster a predisposition to learn;
(b) there must be a structure to the acquisition of knowledge; (c) materials for
learning should be presented in a sequence; and (d) rewards and punishments must
be paced. Bruner believed that obtaining knowledge is a process. David Ausubel
(1960) developed a theory of cognitive structures that emphasized the subsumption
of knowledgemeaning how one increases and reorganizes ones knowledge. His
instructional theory proposed the use of advance organizers to arrange information
from the general to the more specifc.
The work of Robert Gagn for the next two decades strongly infuenced the
feld of instructional design because of its focus on learning, learning outcomes,
design, instruction, systems development, and the needs of learners or users. Gagns
(1962b) theory of knowledge acquisition proposed that knowledge can be acquired
through a systematic means (p. 357). Learners must frst perform simple tasks to
acquire subordinate knowledges. These subordinate knowledges once recalled cre-
ate a hierarchy to the more complex tasks or superordinate knowledges. Then in
1965, Gagns publication Conditions of Learning provided descriptions of learn-
ing conditions that could be observed and therefore experimentally studied. Gagn
argued that the design of a learning situation determines its effectiveness (p. 250).
Therefore, if instruction is programmed it allows for the creation of an adaptive
design that meets the needs of learners and provides indicators for assessment.
Early Instructional Design Models
From the research in task analysis, systems development and instructional systems
came some of the earliest examples of instructional design models (Gagn, 1962a;
Silvern, 1967). Most instructional design models are represented by some form of
visual language (i.e., fowchart, venn diagram or graphic shapes) (Botturi & Stubbs,
2008). Gagne (1962a) designed a fowchart to represent his model of systems de-
velopment. Figure 1.1 demonstrates that in the systems development of machines
there must be a simultaneous development of the human functions. The model plans
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the human interaction with the machine. The goal is to achieve the highest level of
effciency as the human and machine engage.
Other models of the 1960s included those of Leonard C. Silvern, Bela H. Banathy,
and John Barson. Silvern (1967) created a cybernetic model that examined the
multiple paths from outside the high school that supply real-life employment informa-
tion to the occupational teacher who would, in turn, make curriculum adjustments
on the basis of this information (p. 82). Banathys (1968) model demonstrated how
to apply the systems approach to curriculum development and specifcally focused
on learners in a school environment. Barson (1967) designed a decision-making
model for higher education institutions that used the systems approach to improve
teaching and instruction and further implement new communications media. These
early models laid the foundation to a framework for design and development. By
Figure 1.1. A systems development model
Note: Data derived from Gagns (1962a)
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the 1970s, many more instructional design models were created with a focus on
the systematic design of instruction (Dick & Carey, 1978; Gagn & Briggs, 1974;
Gerlach & Ely, 1971; Kemp, 1971).
Several histories of instructional design models have been written in 70s, 80s, 90s
and 2000s to demonstrate their continued proliferation and evolution (Andrews &
Goodson, 1980; Edmonds, Branch, & Mukherjee, 1994; Gustafson, 1991; Gustafson
& Branch, 1997, 2002; Salisbury, 1990; Stamas, 1973; Twelker, Urbach, & Buck,
1972)..This evolution is marked by diversity in the types of models, purpose, origin,
function, audience, plan of instruction, and learning goal. Further, many of these
instructional design models consistently maintain components of ADDIE. During
the ADDIE process, all areas (i.e., analysis, design, development, implementation
and evaluation) interact with each other at different stages of the process. The most
prevalent change from the early models to the more contemporary is that the design
and development of instruction is multifaceted; this is demonstrated through the
variety of visual languages that have moved from linear to concurrent or recursive
design procedures (Gustafson & Branch, 2002, p. 5).
Assessing Learners and Learning
Testing and evaluation research from the 1960s-1970s also documents a shift from
behavioral to cognitive objectives in techniques such as: criterion referenced mea-
sures, norm-referenced measures and task analysis. Criterion referenced measures
evaluate an individuals profciency at any designated level of performance. Norm-
referenced measures evaluate an individuals performance, compared with others in
the group. Consistent with the need to design instruction for learners, there is a need
to determine whether the instructional design caused some level of achievement in
the learner. Criterion and norm referenced measures aid in providing behavioral
characteristics of the learner and determining the instructional conditions or treat-
ment in which the behavior of achievement lies (Glaser, 1963; Glaser & Klaus, 1962).
Earlier examinations of criterion and norm referenced measures can be found in the
works of Flanagan (1951) and Ryans and Frederiksen (1951). Task analysis provides
information about human functions that are performance specifc, observable, and
measurable (Glaser & Klaus, 1962; Miller, 1962). For example, what is the differ-
ence between a profcient reader versus a struggling reader? What is the difference
between a skilled versus less skilled learner of mathematics? Task analysis is a
technique to describe the cognitive demands of psychological processes such as
memory, attention, perception, and language; it also identifes knowledge and skill
when sequencing instruction (Glaser, 1978). In Europe, as cited by Tennyson and
Schott (1997), researchers examined task analyses that focused on content (i.e., the
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situation) and behavior (i.e., mental procedures). These task analyses were designed
around criterion-referenced tests (Klauer, 1974; Klauer, Fricke, Herbig, Rupprecht,
& Schott, 1972; Schott, 1975, 1992).
ISD
The systems approach to instructional design was fully established by the 1970s.
This is evident by the creation of graduate educational programs in instructional
systems at colleges and universities and teacher and university faculty training
devoted to the use of media and the implementation of instructional design (Mer-
rill, 1971; Patridge & Tennyson, 1979). Instructional systems design found a place
in business and industry in the area of training. The military continued to use ISD
to streamline its training and improve effciency (Mager, 1977).
Transforming Theories
Learning theory fourished both internationally and nationally in the late 1970s and
early 1980s. In Europe, Hans Aeblis (1978, 1980, 1981) work on constructivist
learning investigated knowledge construction. Aebli experimented with how the
mind constructs and acquires knowledge and the relationship of this knowledge to
schema construction (as cited by Steiner, 1997). In North America, Robert Gagn
and Leslie Briggs formulated a theory of learning specifc to instructional design.
Gagn and Briggs (1974) argued that to design instruction, it is best to work from the
end (i.e., outcomes) to the beginning, thereby setting up the educational goal. The
framework proposed by Gagn and Briggs consisted of fve categories of learning
outcomes: attitude, cognitive strategies, intellectual skills, motor skills, and verbal
information. These fve categories are acquired through human learning and can
be observed and analyzed to design instruction based on human performance. Jo-
seph M. Scanduras (1971, 1977) structural learning theory provided a framework
for explaining and predicting cognitive behavior as it pertains to certain learning
situations. This theory deals with three perspectives of a theory of knowledge that
include determining (a) the characterization of knowledge; (b) the ideal cognitive
behavior of how knowledge is learned, selected, and used; and (c) cognitive capac-
ity as it relates to information processing and memory.
By the 1980s, learning theories transformed into integrated instructional design
theories of learning that focused on the methods of instruction versus learning
processes (Merrill, 1983; Reigeluth, 1979; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983; Tennyson &
Cocchiarella, 1986). M. David Merrills (1983) component display theory guides the
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design of learning activities (i.e., events that the learner must acquire to achieve objec-
tives) through a set of prescriptive relationships related to content and performance.
It specifcally deals with the development of microstrategies in the management of
instruction, whereas Reigeluth and Steins The Elaboration Theory of Instruction
(1979) offers methods of sequencing and organizing instruction on the macrolevel
across the areas of sequencing, selection, summarizing, and synthesizing. Tennyson
and Cocchiarellas (1986) theory of concept teaching proposes that the design of
instructional strategies is contingent on how information or content is structured.
Content can be structured as relational or attribute characteristics; thereafter, the
appropriate instructional strategy can be determined.
Constructivist theories of learning dominated the 1990s as methodologies to
improve learning and instruction. Although constructivist theories hold a diversity
of perspectives, consistency is held on the following points: (a) Learners actively
construct knowledge in their mind, and (b) instruction supports the construction of
knowledge. Therefore, knowledge is socially constructed (Duffy & Cunningham,
1996). Constructivists are interested in connecting the learner to their environment
by authentic or real world situations. Cognitive experiences are situated in authen-
tic or real world activities (i.e., cognitive apprenticeship) (Bednar, Cunningham,
Duffy & Perry, 1992). Authentic activities include those that involve the task and
the environment (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Resnick, 1987). These authentic
learning environments should be adaptable in complexity and should refect the
learners experience and knowledge base (Bednar et al., 1992). Cognitive appren-
ticeship, by example, focuses on developing, acquiring, and using cognitive skills
in authentic tasks. This methodology assists in improving teaching and learning.
Teaching becomes a process used by experts to manage complicated tasks and guide
a learning experience (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).
The 1990s mark a period of new approaches to the process of design, systems of
information delivery, and innovations in technology. New approaches to the process
of design included rapid prototyping and concurrent engineering. Rapid prototyping
is a design methodology, usually used in software engineering, whereby workable
prototypes are built, tested, and refned before fnal production. In instructional
design, rapid prototyping has been used to quickly evaluate an instructional prod-
uct (Jones & Richey, 2000; Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990). Concurrent engineering
is an approach to product development where team members work concurrently
on different features of a product. This engineering process improves communica-
tion among team members, thereby making a better product to best meet the needs
of the target audience. Typically, instructional design models focus on sequential
versus concurrent engineering (Dor & Basque, 2000). The 1990s also introduced
new approaches to systems of information delivery such as knowledge manage-
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ment systems and performance support systems. Knowledge management systems,
like databases in the early days, are information technology applications that make
available the collective knowledge of organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2005, p.
171). These applications may provide instructional design with a common reposi-
tory for the collection of learning outcomes and evaluating instructional designs
(Spector, 2002). Performance support systems are computer-based applications
that improve human performance and productivity through on-line access to in-
formation, instruction, and other materials to be learned. Within ID, performance
support systems might provide asynchronous instructional materials that support
work-related activities and functions (Milheim, 1997).
Innovations of the 1990s in interactive technology include distance education and
e-learning. Distance education is a method where the technology allows learners to
interact with instructors and obtain information at a place and time of their choosing.
Technologies of third-generation distance education include videoconferencing and
the Internet. E-learning, similarly, is a method that allows the learner to interact with
the instructor through technologies. Technologies specifc to e-learning include the
many forms of telecommunications, as well as the Internet and its capabilities of
e-mail, Wikis bulletin boards, and digital videoconferencing. Instructional design
remains integral to the project management and design involved in e-learning and
distance education approaches (Bates, 2005).
.
Perspectives and Concepts of Culture
Consistent across perspectives on culture is the desire to explain, understand, and
explore human behavior and the world we inhabit. This inquiry has taken theorists
and researchers into qualitative and quantitative examinations of individuals, groups,
cultures, and societies, and it has defned traditional disciplines such as psychology,
sociology
2
, anthropology, education, biology, chemistry, economics, and political
science. This section provides a glimpse into the origins of traditional theories
of culture to provide insight into the discourse on culture as it relates to several
disciplinessociology, anthropology and psychology. It further looks at concepts
related to culture. Specifcally, what does it mean to take a sociological view of
culture? What is an anthropological view of culture? What is a psychological view
of culture? How do these perspectives and concepts aid in understanding culture?
This review is not comprehensive, given the enormous amount of data, but its goal
is to provide insight into the nature of culture.
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Sociological Perspectives
Sociological perspectives on culture may focus on social tradition (the process)
or social heritage (the product). The product or social heritage is that which is
acquired (handed down), and the process or social tradition is the course in which
the acquisition takes place. Sociologists describe their perspectives on culture in
the following ways: patterned behavior of a group; life history of a group; customs
of a group; social relationships of the individual as it pertains to the whole group;
social heritage of a group (i.e., art, beliefs, knowledge, morals, tools and tool use,
and law); and socially shared group habits (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966).
One of the earliest examples of this sociological perspective on culture comes
from the empirical work of French sociologist and founding contributor to modern
sociology mile Durkheim, who believed that society must be understood as a
whole or through its collective consciousness (Durkheim, 1984, p. 84). A collec-
tive consciousness meant that the society, culture, or group responds with shared
beliefs, ideas, values, and norms. These characteristics defne the social aspects of
a society or culture. Durkheims work disclosed the sociological nature of culture
through an examination of the different layers, levels, and structures of the social
phenomenon enacted through beliefs, practices, and predispositions (Durkheim,
1938, p. 7). This is evident in Durkheims classic sociology text, The Division of
Labor in Society (1893) that analyzed the impact of the environment on social rela-
tions and how morals and norms formed within these social relations.
Anthropological Perspectives
Anthropological perspectives on culture emphasize learned ways acquired throughout
ones life experiences. Culture is not innate, instinctive, or biologically transmit-
ted. Culture examines the actions and interactions of individuals or groups and
the tangible or crystallized products of human behavior. Anthropologists describe
their perspectives on culture as: ways of life; ways of thinking, acting, doing, and
feeling; social interaction; behavior that is learned, taught, shared, and transferred
to other persons; patterns or forms of behavior or thinking; symbols; the making
and use of objects or tools; interactions among groups; attitudes; language use;
language articulation; and thoughts. All of these can be sanctioned or unsanctioned
by society (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966).
Franz Boas (1911), a pioneer in the feld of anthropology, viewed culture from
a whole-versus-parts interpretation, meaning that all social behavior of an indi-
vidual, an individual in a group, or the group itself is characterized through mental
and physical activities. These activities enable the production of products that serve
a function in the society or culture. The elements of culture are dependent on other
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elements, and collectively, these elements create the structure of culture. Boass
research and practice lead to the division of anthropology into four distinct felds: ar-
chaeology, linguistic anthropology, physical anthropology, and cultural anthropology.
These four felds of research cover the whole of humanity beyond time and space
(Boas, 1938, p.1). Archaeology is the study of past ways of life through analyses
of material remains. Research in this feld may include the collection of data such
as building remains, stone tools, skeletons, pottery, and other artifacts. Linguistic
anthropology originally was the study of undiscovered written language; however,
now it broadly covers human language and speech. The history of languages; the
relationship of language to societies, cultures, and people; and the sound, meaning,
and grammar of a language are research areas in this feld (Ferraro, 2004; Miller,
2002). Physical or biological anthropology is the study of biological organisms such
as humans and, specifcally, human behavior and biology. Research in this feld
includes understanding, studying or replicating the evolutionary growth, and the
organic/inorganic distinctions of organism(s). Cultural anthropology examines the
ways of life in a society or culture. This type of study entails a detailed or ethno-
graphic description of the people gained through observations, conversations, and
living with the people being studied (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987).
Psychological Perspectives
Psychological perspectives on culture focus on learning and habit. In this case,
culture is the culminating total of learning and recognized habits that are acquired
by people and transferred for generations to come. Psychologists describe their
perspectives on culture as: the total of all learned; learned behavior; a focus on the
individual; or a mental activity (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966).
Lev Vygotsky (1929), a pioneer in the feld of psychology, viewed culture as a
product of nature, meaning that human behavior only developed to the point in which
it was infuenced by culture and not beyond. Culture alters nature to meet the needs
of human beings; it is a reciprocal process. Vygotsky further formulated his ideas
into the cultural historical approach to psychology, proposing that higher mental
functions are found in humans social interaction with their environment. Humans
actively create their environment. Culturally, society organizes tasks and tools for
a young child to master that are structured in social ways. By example, language
is a tool
3
invented by humankind that aids children in the organized development
of higher mental processes. Historically, humans have created and perfected tools
that facilitate interaction with the physical environment, control mental and physical
behavior, and carry humans social history (Luria, 1979; Vygotsky, 1978).
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Conceptual Perspectives
Other perspectives on culture move beyond disciplinary focuses into concepts such
as modifcation, structure, and heredity. Similarly, concepts may deal with ideas or
hypotheses about culture. Modifcation concepts propose that culture is created and
recreated. Through modifcations to society, culture is manifested. These modifca-
tions are based out of need. For example, overcrowding in a city might create the
demand for the expansion of the city, acquisition of land, construction of housing,
and so forth. Structure concepts propose that culture is organized and arranged.
Culture becomes structured when connections are made between institutions or
systems across time. Examples of culture focused on the merger of inventions, both
tangible and intangible, within a society and the acceptance of these inventions by
groups. Heredity concepts propose that culture is tangible (i.e., artifacts or prod-
ucts) or intangible (i.e., ideas or symbols). All inventions or tools of use created and
recreated are, themselves, culture..Culture is not the human body. The tangible and
intangible products of mans inventiveness has transcended through history (Kroeber
& Kluckhohn, 1966). The production, implementation, and distribution of ideas are
culture at work. The culmination of all that humans have made is culture.
These interpretations, perceptions, and conceptions consistently use qualita-
tive and quantitative analyses to examine cultures and societies. Researching
cultures and societies requires these methodologies and procedures. Qualitative
analyses generate accounts of individuals, environments, and dialogues that focus
on understanding individuals or groups from their perspectives. Both histori-
cal and ethnographic (i.e., ethnography) analyses are included under the area of
qualitative research. Ethnography has traditionally been used to describe cultures.
The techniques of qualitative research method include the following: observation,
participant observation, open-ended interviews, and the collection and review of
documents and artifacts. Quantitative analyses generate statistical relationships
between numbers; the data collected are translated into variables (i.e., numbers
or letters), analyzed, and plotted on a table or graph. Techniques of this research
method include surveys, structured observations and interviews, data sets, and
experiments (Alasuutari, 1995; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992).
The different perceptions of culture are not neatly packaged. The blending into
another feld or practice is a natural part of the nature of culture. Culture is more
than a layered, leveled, fxed, or transfxed phenomenon..As a theory, method, or
concept, culture is everything known and yet to be known. Culture is all that there
is or could be.
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Mapping Culture to Instructional Design and ICTs
Culture is signifcant to how learners learn. It is the way learners see the world and
themselves in it. The theory and research on learning (Brown & Duguid, 1996)
and culture assists in building ICTs and further understanding how culture affects
learners interactions with technology (Collis, 1999). Researchers have examined
culture as a factor in helping learners bridge their understanding and adapt to the
academic needs of learning environments (Banks & Banks, 2003; Gutirrez &
Rogoff, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Lee, 2003; Nieto, 1996). This adaptation has
been both educational and technological as the integration of culture would situate
learners in their cultural frame of reference when learning (Branch, 1997; Gay,
2000, p. xix; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Mazyck, 2002; Powell, 1997; Thomas, Mitchell
& Joseph, 2002; Young, 2001, 2002, 2008). In some cases, researchers and practi-
tioners have created ICTs to meet the academic needs of ethnically diverse learners
(Chascas & Cummins, 2004; Eglash, Bennett, ODonnell, Jennings, & Cintorino,
2008; Gilbert et al., 2008; Pinkard, 1996, 1998). Without an existing framework,
they have found ways to integrate culture in their designs, and they have done so
through the use of technology. However, these culture-specifc creations have been
few in number.
Theorists have proposed that learning is infuenced by culture (Bruner, 1996;
Vygotsky, 1978), and culture is signifcant to how learners acquire new understand-
ings (DuBois, 1903). Learning takes place in a context that is specifc to the envi-
ronment and content information (Bednar et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1989; Bruner,
1985; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). Therefore, learning should be situated
from the learners perspective (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978). In Bruners
(1985) examination of the relationship between learner and learning, he understood
that learning is acquired in a variety of ways and that learning happens in a variety
of ways. Further, Bruner argued that learning is context sensitive (1985, p. 6). It
follows that learning takes place in a context situated from the learners cultural
perspective or a cultural context.
The literature mapped to support a cultural context in instructional design
has been articulated as culturally responsive, culturally relevant, culturally medi-
ated, cultural accommodation, cultural compatibility, cultural congruence (Au &
Kawakami, 1994; Gay, 2000; Hollins, 1996; Jordan, 1984; Ladson-Billings, 1994),
and multiculturalism (Banks & Banks, 2003; Bennett, 2001; Sleeter & Grant, 1988).
Gay (2000) argued that culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on the needs of
ethnically diverse learners by allowing them to use their prior knowledge; situates
learning from the learners cultural frames of reference; incorporates learners
ways of being, seeing, and doing; and integrates learners histories, language, and
learning styles while affrming and validating them.. Hollins (1996) contended
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that culturally mediated instruction is characterized by the homogeneity of the
curriculum, instruction, teacher, and learner; this means that all share the same
culture. However, in cultural accommodation, the teacher and learner do not share
the same culture; academic learning is facilitated through the moderate integration
of the students culture. Ladson-Billings (1994) proposed that culturally relevant
teaching assists in sustaining the culture of the learner and transcending norms of
the dominant culture; this pedagogy empowers learners through the use of cultural
referents that bridge home and school cultures. Cultural compatibility, as defned by
Jordan (1984) assumes that there are relationships between the culture of the school
and the culture of ethnically diverse learners and that those connections need to
be identifed, developed within a cultural context, and used to promote academic
achievement. Au and Kawakami (1994) hypothesized that cultural congruence
happens when ethnically diverse learners perform poorly in school on the basis of
the mismatch between school culture and home culture. Banks (1995) defnition
of multiculturalism dvocates providing learners from diverse racial, ethnic, and
socioeconomic levels with an equitable educational experience and opportunities
for academic achievement and socioeconomic advancement. Collectively, these
theories and methods focus on the needs of a target audience, integrate culture, and
situate learning from and through the learner (Young, 2008).
This research suggests that culture infuences learning and learners. To bet-
ter meet the needs of learners, culture must be considered when designing ICTs.
This means that the business as usual ways of design need to be transformative in
globalizing learning.
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Endnotes
1
Small mechanical devices used for individualized instruction.
2
See the work of Maximillian Webber for a sociological examination of theories
of culture.
3
In Cole and Scribners (1978) introduction to the book Mind in Society: The
Development of Higher Psychological Processes by L. S. Vygotsky, language
is viewed as a sign not a tool. Given the context, language can be a sign or
tool.
The Nature of Culture in Design 25
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Chapter II
The Nature of Culture in
Design
There have been many defnitions of culture hypothesized by theorists and scholars as
a way to understand human beings, other species and entities; human nature; Mother
Nature, and artifacts (Giles & Middleton, 1999; Hall, 1996; Kroeber & Kluckhohn,
1966; Williams, 1958). Culture has been characterized as being descriptive, his-
torical, normative, psychological, structural, and genetic (Kroeber & Kluckhohn,
1966). Kroeber (1948) theorized culture as how it comes to be versus what it
is (p. 253). Therefore, culture is socially constructed. Geertz (1973) interpreted
culture as a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a
system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which
men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes
toward life (p. 89). Hofstede (1991) proposed that culture is learned; it is not part
of ones genetic makeup. In the area of cultural studies, culture is concerned with
how meanings are interpreted and created in a society (Gray & McGuigan, 1997;
Hall, 1997). Williams (1958), a cultural theorist, believes that culture is ordinary
(p. 74). It is made in the human mind, making possible effort, examination, and
explication. This means culture is what is known (tradition) and what comes to be
known through investigation and invention (creativity). Baumeister (2005) argued
that culture is not innately human. Other species (e.g., monkeys and chimpanzees)
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show patterns of learned behavior that is passed on from generation to generation.
Culture is artifcial; it is civilization. (Kroeber, 1948).
A simple question-and-answer scenario about culture might proceed as fol-
lows:
What is culture? Culture is everything human made and nature made.
What is the purpose of culture? The purpose of culture is to serve humans.
How does culture function? Culture functions as directed by humans.
When will culture end? When humankind ends, culture will end.
Where is culture? Culture is everywhere.
Why do we need culture? We need culture to tell our history.
Culture as a Design Construct
Design is about creating something that does not already exist; it is a deliberate ac-
tion (Banathy, 1996). Design has an intention. This purpose may be what a product,
process, or program may do; how it is used; or how it is perceived. Design functions
by centering on the concerns of human beings. It is a conscious act, infuenced by
the interactive or iterative process between the designer and the medium. Design is
creative; it requires knowing what humans need and recognizing what they should
have. The act of design generates meaning; these meanings are up for interpreta-
tion by the designer, user, learner, consumer, or observer. Design becomes a social
act because of the focus on human needs (Winograd, 1996). Specifcally, design
may concern the culture of the workplace, home, or school; this signals a focus
on environmental or ways of life aspects of a culture. Design may also concern
the culture of employee relations, family connections, student learning, or user
interactions; this signals a focus on the individual/group or the human behavior
aspects of a culture.
Design is a disciplined, selective, and evaluative process that is concerned with
fnding solutions for what is and what should be (Banathy, 1996). Design frameworks,
such as CBM, look at solutions or guidelines to design (van de Akker, 1999). Design
theories are broadly constructed based on evidence. Design constructs function to
explain, predict and interpret design related data. As a design construct, culture
takes on the properties of design. Culture functions as an explicit act, focuses on
the needs of human beings, promotes creativity, supports social acts, maintains
meaning and order, and manages the design and evaluation process.
Culture is a design (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). As a design, culture
takes on the properties of design such as the process to develop a plan for a product,
system, or service. This semiotic relationship is managed by the designer. Culture
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is a plan for living. It seeks out human behavior for enactment but not the act itself.
The infusion of culture as a system of designs for living conveys that there is a
purpose or end (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). Culture has a purpose.
Culture is a means to an end. Culture works, moves, builds, creates, and processes
as a system. It is not static, fxed, or fossilized.
Qualifying Culture in Design
The nature of culture in design moves beyond petrifed interpretations. Culture is
not tied to a discipline, theory, or controversy. The transformation is like moving
culture from theory to practice, and in this sense, the pieces of culture must be de-
constructed and transferred from a theoretical dimension to a practical dimension.
In a practical dimension; culture maintains both physical and virtual properties,
and the properties of culture are free to be transported, reinvented, mixed, and
coagulated in the space of design.
Culture is dynamic, malleable, fuid, and always in motion.
1
Therefore, culture
can take on any form, fashion or feline. Culture exists freely in the space of design.
This emulsion is the space in which design should exist and designers should work.
In the design of ICTs, the goal is to recreate or represent culture. As a design con-
struct, culture takes on properties that make it visible and invisible, dynamic and
static, virtual and physical. Like the paint an artist applies to canvas, the nature
of culture in design maintains an infnite number of possibilities and properties.
Culture does not have physical or virtual properties in design until the designer
assigns those properties. Culture is not real until designers make it real.
The nature of culture in design is creative. This creativity is derived through
the implementation of the design process. However, some innate creative ability
is required of designers and the design. Should creativity be a prerequisite for de-
signers, or can anyone be a designer? An inventive spirit requires the ability to see
beyond the obvious and to design new ways to envision ones physical and virtual
reality. So yes, creativity is highly desirable.
Because culture has to be recreated, simulated, virtualized in the space of design,
it must contain dynamic, free-fowing properties. These properties are assigned by
designers, programmers and other members of the design team. The assignment of
property gives functionality and purpose. The nature of culture in design maintains
fuid properties that are managed by its creators.
To think about culture in design, the mind must be free of preexisting notions
of what culture means. Therefore, ones personal dispositions and biases must not
taint the creative work necessary to integrate culture in design. It is about making
choiceschanging, moving, executing, creating, producing, devising, contriving,
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planning, and inventing thingsproducts This movement is mental, physical, and
even virtual; it is unique and looks different for every designer. In that, it is the art
of design. The nature of culture in design can take on any variation of humanity
that a designer sees ft to create or recreate. Creativity is limitless; therefore, design
thinking and doing should take on this same freedom.
Culture in Perspective
The last decade of research on culture and design has focused on internationalization
and localization (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Taylor, 1992) or the inclusion
of multicultural theories and methods in the design of products and services (Scheel
& Branch, 1993). Internationalization centers on globalizing the design process or
making it accessible to cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). Localization
seeks to specialize products or services making them acceptable to target groups
through culture-specifc designs (Aykin, 2005; Degen, Lubin, Pedell, & Zheng,
Figure 2.1. Culture-based circumference for use when designing ICTs (Young,
2008)
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2005, p. 314). Multiculturalism is added to designs in forms such as cultural diversity,
cultural pluralism and cultural sensitivity (Scheel & Branch, 1993).
However, these perspectives of designing through internationalization, local-
ization, and multiculturalism serve a limited scope of what it means to integrate
culture into design (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Scheel & Branch, 1993;
Taylor, 1992). A much broader interpretation that is supported in this work is that
all designs are based in culture; however, some are culture neutral and others cul-
ture-specifc. This means that all designs are culture-based, but the degree to which
one is more neutral and the other more specifc is based on the goals of the project
and the fnal product. The culture-based circumference (see Figure 2.1) displays the
space in which design happens, and this space is occupied by design specifcations
that meet generic and specialized target audiences (Young, 2008).
Figure 2.2. Generic symbol for turning or going right
Figure 2.3. The hamsa, a Judaic symbol for protection
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Generic features can be generalized across cultures, but they are still culture-
based. Specialized features focus on meeting the needs of the target audience, and
they are also culture-based (Horton, 2005). For example, graphic symbols can be
generic or specialized. Figure 2.2 is a generic symbol for turning or going right.
Figure 2.3 is specialized; it is the hamsa, a Judaic symbol regarded as a sign of
protection warding off evil and leading to good fortune and personal well-being.
If the goal of the project is to internationalize, then the design specifcations
are generic and culture neutral (see Figure 2.1). If the goal of the project is to lo-
calize, then the design specifcations are specialized and culture-specifc. Interna-
tionalization focuses on globalizing the design process or making it accessible to
cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). The point of internationalization is
to eliminate culture (e.g., cultural symbols, religious references, etc.), making the
product one that can be used by all or a universal design (Horton, 2005). Therefore,
internationalization seeks to create a homogenous technological product that can
be used across cultures. Localization seeks to specialize products or services, mak-
ing them acceptable to target groups through culture-specifc design (Aykin, 2005;
Degen et al., 2005). Localization tailors products to the needs of a target audience
(Horton, 2005). For designers, this means that culture-based design specifcations
exist within a circumference of the generic to specialized; therefore, there is a much
broader palette in which to design (Young, 2008).
This research advocates that if the purpose is to internationalize then focus on
internationalizing the product. If the focus is on localization, then focus on local-
ization of the product. It does not advocate designing for internationalization with
localization in mind. Designers should design with the goal of adaptation. This
means that products are always subject to adaptations in technical, aesthetic, content,
culture-based, or target audience features. The best product will be one for which
the team pays attention to the task at hand. If a product has been internationalized
using CBM, then its framework allows for the retooling and rethinking needed to
later create a localized product.
What Models of Culture Do
Models of culture have traditionally been constructed to explain humankind and
our existence in the world; to explore diverse learning and learners; and to provide
a framework for cross-cultural research, analysis, and design. These models of
culture can be found across disciplines and conceptualized in a variety of forms
and formats. In the feld of psychology, researchers formulated models of culture to
explain processes of the mind (DAndrade, 1990; Quinn, 1987; Schank & Abelson,
1977). In anthropology, models of culture examine the shared behavior and knowl-
edge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Researchers in intercultural communications
have designed models of culture to explain value systems and orientations and how
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values differ across cultures (Condon & Yousef, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). The feld
of business has also participated in this discourse with models of culture that as-
sist business personnel in understanding the effects of culture on management and
how cultural values and practices are similar or different (Javidan & House, 2001;
Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). In the feld of instructional design, models
of culture focus on the integration of culture in the design process and enhancing
learning through the incorporation of culture-based design specifcations (Ed-
mundson, 2007; Henderson, 1996, 2007; Kim, 1999; Lee, 2003; Thomas, Mitchell,
& Joseph, 2002). This multidisciplinary inquiry into models of culture suggests a
need for frameworks grounded in culture that can deconstruct the complexity of
cultures and provide guidance in cross-cultural designs, relations, meanings, and
communications.
The perception of what a model of culture can be used for is limited by the pres-
ent state of available models. In examining the importance of models, Hoft (1996)
argued that models of culture act as databases for the gathering of information
pertinent to the needs of a target audience; therefore, designers need to understand
the cultures and cultural context of their users or learners. The implementation
of a model of culture in the design of instruction aids designers in the following:
distinguishing between generic and specialized design specifcations; international-
izing or localizing designs; identifying cultural biases; minimizing culture-based
mistakes; evaluating designs; and better meeting the learning needs of their target
audience.
If models of culture act as databases or repositories, then they house data until
designers are ready to use these data to build ICTs. Data come in many forms, such
as text, graphics, and multimedia formats. As a repository, the model of culture can
have a limitless (or limited) input of information. With any database, the information
and the system itself may periodically need updating. A database contains only the
information that has been inputted into it. The Internet, for example, only contains
data that people have stored in it. CBM is a repository for the gathering of data about
societies, cultures, and target audiences. Once the data has been collected, it can
be organized into a CBM guide of the target audience. The CBM guide is used to
begin thinking about how to design, develop, and evaluate products or services for
the target audience. This database can be shared with others. However, the beauty
of the database is that it allows for multiple product developments.
The Polaric Dimension of Culture
The world operates by a universal law of communal balance that constitutes a po-
laric dimension. The polaric dimension refers to the need for equilibrium within
and among all that exists in the universe. This equilibrium is manifested through
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opposites or interdependence. Opposites operate complementary in the polaric di-
mension. They are not in opposition to one another; rather, they need one another.
Interdependence translates as a semiotic relationship in which the energy of one
entity is sustained by the energy of another. The energy can decrease or increase
in either entity; however, through interdependence they remain in balance (Chung-
yuan, 1975; Maciocia, 1989). This harmonizing relation creates and maintains
equilibrium. When there is equilibrium, the polaric dimension functions properly.
All is well.
The polaric dimension is not human made; it is an entity of the universe. It is
what it is. It has no tangible parts for touching, holding or feeling. It is pure en-
ergyintangiblejust as humans belief in God is pure faith. The question is: How
do we know it exists? The polaric dimension is a natural balance of the universe.
As demonstrated in Figure 2.4, the sun and moon bring balance to Earth. Earth
tilts on its polar axis through the North and South poles. If this polarity, or polaric
dimension, exists in the galaxy and around Earth, then it also exists on Earth. The
polaric dimension is a natural part of lifes force. It is all around us, in the words
we speak and in the books we read. It haunts our lives. It plagues us daily..The
polaric dimension is part of this earthly world, as there is day and night and cause
Figure 2.4. The sun, moon, and Earth
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and effect. The words we speak can be good or bad and make us happy or sad.
Books are structured with a beginning and end. For many individuals, our lives
are haunted by beliefs of a God and Devil or good and evil. Daily, we are faced
with the reality of life and living versus death and dying. Therefore, the polaric
dimension is a force between everything that is; as such, it holds together all that
humans call culture.
The polaric dimension of culture is the alpha and omega, energy and matter,
feminine and masculine. Therefore, proposing culture as a design construct means
that culture-based designs require divergent constructionsopposites. This means
to examine life, the designer must examine death. To examine freedom, the designer
must also examine incarceration; povertywealth; joypain; pastpresent, or
macromicro. These oppositional or complementary qualities make up the polaric
dimension of culture.
Human nature can not be explained through just one perspective. If a book de-
scribed a society of people who all looked the same, acted the same, ate the same
food and had the same emotions, it would make for a very boring story. Adding
something different that is totally opposite than the norm, the story becomes more
interesting or real.
Applying the polaric dimension to design should be done carefully and sparingly.
There should be a limited number of things in which the polaric dimension is ap-
plied. In design, the goal is to make the realbelievable and the imaginaryreal.
This means that good design is seamless as the contents of its construction are not
overtly apparent. For example in designing an instructional product, error messages
may display a pop up window indicating wrong answer that is accompanied by
a sound. Instead of the learner receiving only negative responses, wrong answer
feedback can provide hints or clues to getting the answer correct. Therefore, when
the error message indicates wrong answer: it should also provide options for getting
the answer correct. An e-learning site on childrens literature could include those
books that won childrens book honors and awards, as well as those books that were
banned. In video game design, representations of weapons of mass destruction can
be paralleled with weapons that, when used for good, make a positive impact on the
society or culture. In a diagnostic evaluation of an educational software program, the
analysis should determine what is there and also what is not there in the design.
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Endnote
1
This defnition of culture is informed by the works of Giles and Middleton
(1999), Hall (1996), Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1966), Scheel and Branch (1993),
and Williams (1958).
The Culture-Based Model Framework 37
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Chapter III
The Culture-Based Model
Framework
The incorporation of culture in the design process is not a simple task. It is one
with multiple layers of depth and complexity. But it is also not impossible. CBM
captures the nature of culture in design by providing designers with guidance in
creating, replicating, modeling, planning, understanding, monitoring, research-
ing, analyzing, integrating, enhancing, communicating, managing, and assessing
culture in ICTs.
What is CBM?
CBM is an intercultural instructional design framework that guides designers
through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking
into account explicit culture-based considerations. The framework provides design
guidance from the inception of an idea to its completion and beyond. Guidance is
approached from the target audiences perspective. This type of situatedness is con-
sistent with constructivist theories and research that, to build ICTs for individuals or
groups, the design must be situated from the target audiences perspective (Bednar,
Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1992; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Bruner, 1985;
Lave & Wenger, 1991; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978).
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CBM represents a contemporary example of a model of culture (Young, 2008).
It is symbolized by the graphic representation of a circle encased by other circles
to demonstrate its iterative functioning and self-selection process (see Figure 3.1).
The functioning symbolizes how the model continues to work like a machine with
each active component responding to the next. The self-selection allows designers
to choose which areas best meet the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight
areas consistent with the acronym ID-TABLET: Inquiry, Development, Team, As-
sessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training.
In classifying CBM in the feld of instructional design, it might be referred to as
a product-oriented model versus a classroom or systems oriented model. Product-
oriented models focus on the development of products. These models have been
developed by researchers in the felds of computer-aided software engineering (de
Hoog, de Jong, & de Vries, 1994), video production (Bergman & Moore, 1990),
distance education, e-learning (Bates, 1995), curriculum development, computer-
assisted design (Nieveen, 1997) and instructional design (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).
This line of research exemplifes the complex process of product development and
the multifaceted needs across disciplines.
Figure 3.1. The culture-based model: ID-TABLETA model of culture
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Product-oriented models usually serve a need, involve the production of a
product, require analysis and re-analysis, and enable individualized instruction
(Gustafson & Branch, 2002).
Product-oriented models:
Focus on the production of a product;
Typically the production is a few hours or days;
Are usually well fnanced;
Involves a team of highly skilled people;
Is high quality, original, technologically stylish, and marketable;
Requires more time in preproduction analysis;
Must be self-instructional and intuitive requiring little human facilitation;
Provide comprehensive testing and modifcations;
Use mass distribution; and
Provide an aesthetically pleasing product (Gustafson & Branch, 2002).
The use of product-oriented models should be contingent on the context of the
instructional design project. CBM, as with any instructional design model, should
be modifed on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson &
Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995).
Where did CBM come from?
Traditionally, instructional design models have been based on learning theories.
However, CBM evolved from an empirical study of instructional products designed
by and for African Americans. A treasure of themes and concepts related to culture
were found in these materials and were classifed as cultural remnants. Cultural
remnants are the racial, ethnic, cultural, linguistic, political, social, historical, edu-
cational, and economic artifacts embedded in discourses. The cultural remnants
found in these instructional products were generalized to meet the design needs
of cross-cultural audiences, and this translation resulted in CBM (Young, 1999;
Young, 2008).
What can CBM do?

CBM can help designers:
Create a fctitious virtual world;
Recreate a culture using ICTs;
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Model an instructional strategy, task, or activity;
Plan the entire design process;
Understand people and societies;
Monitor product development;
Research the qualities of a society, culture or target audience;
Assess and assess ICTs.
Integrate features of culture throughout ICTs;
Enhance existing ICTs;
Communicate across cultural contexts and;
Manage the design and development process.
CBM has the following features:
It works in a variety of contexts (e.g., education, business, industry, govern-
ment).
It addresses instructional issues.
It addresses management, process, and content issues.
It is a multidimensional and dynamic processing system.
Who would use CBM?
CBM can be used by instructional designers, e-learning designers, Web designers,
usability practitioners, researchers, curriculum developers, professors, students,
and other practitioners.
What are CBMs components ?
CBMs ID-Tablet
The ID-TABLET focuses on project management and design. Project management
entails problem solving, planning, educating, evaluating, learning, and decision
making. The areas under project management include: Brainstorming (B1-B10),
Team (T1-T3), Development (D1-D10), Learners (L1-L10), Assessments (A1-A4),
and Training (Tr1-Tr2). The project design focuses on monitoring and content de-
velopment. The areas under project design include: Inquiry (I1-I6) and Elements
(E1-E25). These areas operate simultaneously; they maintain an interactive relation
in that certain steps are repeated or referred back to throughout the design process.
Therefore, the process is always in motionsomething is always happening.
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The following description provides an overview of the areas and design factors
in CBMs ID-TABLET. Section II details the 70 design factors in the model. Each
area is sequentially numbered so that additional design factors can be added as the
model continues to develop. Organizationally, each area has a letter followed by a
corresponding numberfor example, Assessment (A1) and Brainstorming (B1).
Inquiry
Inquiry (I1-I6) monitors development, automates the internal fow of the design
process and functions as internal sensors. It provides a series of questions to be
asked and answered during pre-production, production and post production.
I1. Genre aids in the selection of ICTs. (preproduction & production)
I1a. What ICTs are being used and why?
I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content?
I1c. Is the project affordable to the target audience, given the ICTs used?
I1d. How have ICTs infuenced the design of the product?
I2. Framing assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective.
(preproduction, production & postproduction)
I2a. Who is the target audience?
I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience?
I2c. What is the content presented?
I2d. Is the content appropriate for the target audience and why?
I2e. Where, within the products design, is this content most appropriate?
I2f. Why is this content appropriate?
I3. Omission helps in assessing a design. (production & postproduction)
I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why?
I3b. What has been unintentionally omitted and why?
I3c. What has not been considered?
I3d. Will these omissions be detrimental to the project and why?
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I4. Backgrounding helps in providing a balanced design.
(production & postproduction)
I4a. What has been backgrounded?
I4b. Is the backgrounding intentional or unintentional and why?
I4c. Will this backgrounding be detrimental to the project?
I5. Foregrounding helps in providing an objective design.
(production & postproduction)
I5a. What is emphasized and why?
I5b. Is this what should be emphasized?
I5c. How does this emphasis infuence the overall design?
I6. Visual Representations assists in conveying meaning.
(preproduction, production & postproduction)
I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product?
I6b. How do visual representations assist in the instructional process?
I6c. Who is portrayed in these visual representations?
I6d. What is portrayed in these visual representations?
I6e. What purpose do the visual representations serve?
I6f. Are inappropriate visual representations in the design?
I6g. Where are these visual representations placed in the product?
I6h. Why were these visual representations selected?
Development
Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving.
It considers those features that are important in the overall development of the
product.
D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience
(TACCT) design specifcations. Technical design specifcations focus on
function; aestheticvisual, contentsubject matter, culture-basedgeneric
or specialized, and target audiencepeople.
D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow
access and equity.
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D3. Effective technology. Use the most effcient and effective technology available
to produce the product.
D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communica-
tion technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience.
D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience
throughout the design.
D6. Explore environmental & Individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures
explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group
cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture).
D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create
similar products.
D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed
to validate the product.
D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes, and preju-
dices. Try to control for human, machine, and environmental interference.
D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards, or
visual languages.
Team
Team (T1-T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that
includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members.
This is where much of the decision making happens.
T1. Cultural expert. The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with
the target audience and community representative.
T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating
the target audience must be on the team (professors, teacher educators, etc.).
T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests
in the target audience.
Assessments
The area of Assessments (A1A4) covers multiple evaluation options. These evalu-
ations provide evidence of the products effectiveness and evaluate the goals set for
A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation oppor-
tunities.
A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools.
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A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product.
A4. Culture-specifc assessments. Create specialized evaluations.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming (B1-B10) determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial
review of the design process. It is the frst step in planning.
B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project.
B2. Pilot studies/Field tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout proj-
ect.
B3. Assess communitys response. Get the publics response to the product.
B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a per-
son versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have been
designated as an integral part of the team.
B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with an
ethnographic portrait of the target audience.
B6. Refect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing refections and assess-
ments of the product.
B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are fnancially
accessible to the target audience.
B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the instruc-
tional and/or cultural needs of the target audience.
B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical, social,
political, economic, and educational reasons for implementing this project.
B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present and
consider learner outcomes or the user goals.
Learners
Learners (L1L10) centers on the needs of learners and learning. These design
factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive of
the learners cultural frame of reference.
L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning.
L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning options.
L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering learners
and engaging instruction.
L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their
own learning.
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L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or learn-
ing objective.
L6. Culture-specifc instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies that
are individual or group specifc.
L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject
matter.
L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too grade
level or age level specifc.
L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short- and long-term instructional needs of
L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the
culture.
Elements
Elements (E1E25) facilitate content development. These Elements seek to be
comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed
(see Table 3.1).
Training
Training (Tr1Tr2) is the education of individuals. This is another phase in provid-
ing full management of a project.
Tr1. Product training. Provide training of the product as needed.
Tr2. Culture-based Training. Provide training that is culture-based incorporating
CBM Elements and interactions with cultural expert and target audience.
How does CBM work?
CBM builds a framework for the design, development, management, and assess-
ment of products. This framework begins with identifying the goal of the design.
These goals can be classifed in one of the following categories:
C: Custom development
A: Add-on
R: Re-engineer
D: Diagnostic evaluation
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Table 3.1. CBM elements
Elements Tangibles.and.Intangibles
The.anthropology.of.culture:
E1. Cultural aesthetics That which is considered beautiful
E2. Cultural artifacts Products that exist or remain
E3. Cultural capital Economics and material wealth
E4. Cultural classifcation Divisions in a culture or society
E5. Cultural communications The exchange or transmission of information
E6. Cultural demographics Characteristics of a population
E7. Cultural environment Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other
species or entity lives and develops
E8. Cultural history Narrative representation of historical events
E9. Cultural knowledge What is known and what one comes to know
E10. Cultural language Language form, content, use and meaning
E11. Cultural physiology The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species
or entity
E12. Cultural relations The relationship of one being to another being
E13. Cultural resources The use and cultivation of resources
The.psychology.of.culture:
E14. Cultural beliefs & values Beliefs (shared truths); Values (shared ideas)
E15. Cultural experiences The interpretation of the world from inside and out
E16. Cultural ideas The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions
E17. Cultural identity Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity
E18. Cultural interests Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes
E19. Cultural misconceptions Untruths, myths, stereotypes
E20. Cultural ways Behaviors, norms, feelings
The.science.of.culture:
E21. Cultural anomalies Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change
E22. Cultural cultures The scientifc identifcation of cultures, worlds, ecosystems
E23. Cultural futures That which is to come
E24. Cultural infnities Those things without limits: time, space, distance
E25. Cultural nature Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
Custom Development
Custom development is suitable for a multi-tiered project that requires the design of a
variety of products for a particular target audience. This type of project requires the
use of all or most of the components of the model. Using CBM for custom develop-
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ment will initially take considerably longer than most instructional design models.
However, the proper incorporation of culture-based design specifcations requires
this type of in-depth design processing and management. This should not be seen
as a weakness of the model but an opportunity to provide as authentic a product as
possible. Once the CBM guide is created, many products and services for the target
audience can be quickly built. The CBM guide houses information about the target
audience. The guide can be continuously updated as needed or shared with other
designers. Chapter XV provides a case study of custom development.
Custom development is for the construction of a project from scratch. The proj-
ect is totally new in that it is still in the idea phase. Projects that require custom
development use all the areas of CBMs ID-TABLET. Each area of the ID-TABLET
serves a particular function in custom development. In Table 3.2, CARD Func-
tions serves as an example of how the needs of the project can be quickly assessed.
Inquiry monitors development, automates the internal fow of the design process,
and functions as an internal sensor. This monitoring checks and rechecks that the
design process is executing properly. The development area is where problem solv-
ing happens for the overall development of the product. The team area is where the
decision making happens by the team leader to recruit a culturally sensitive group
of people; once selected, the team collaborates and continues with the decision
making. Assessments serve as the area for evaluating the product, target audience,
and the general public. Brainstorming functions as the planning area where most of
the initial design and development decisions are formulated. The Learning serves
those projects where the needs of learners are part of the projects goals. Elements
functions as the major component for content development. Educating the team and
trainer happens in the area of Training.
Add-on
An add-on is suitable for existing ICTs where the goal is to make the ICT more
culture-specifc. The objective here is to evaluate what exists in the design and use
CBM as a guide in adding on to the pre-existing design. Add-ons may be applied to
save money, avoid reinventing the wheel, update content, or better meet the needs
of the target audience. Chapter XVI provides a case study of an add-on.
A quick assessment to determine what is missing from the ICT is to conduct
the TACCT evaluation which is under CBM DEVELOPMENT D1 (TACCT design
specifcations). This will determine whether the product or online environment
has any design specifcations in the following areas: technical, aesthetic, content,
culture-based, and target audience.
The extent of the add-on needs to be determined on the basis of the projects
limitations and the investment in using CBM. Depending on the needs of the proj-
ect, the team selects those areas of CBM ID-TABLET that are most appropriate for
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the project. The following ID-TABLET guiding questions should aid in assessing
which areas are needed:
Inquiry Does the project need monitoring for design and development
issues?
Development Have all the problems been solved?
Team Will the team have to be trained or replaced?
Assessments Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating?
Brainstorming Does the project require more planning?
Learners Does the project require meeting the needs of learners?
Elements Does the content need to be revised, reviewed or recreated?
Training Will training be needed for the team or trainers?
For any question for which the answer is yes, this area is needed for adding on
to an existing design. Compare the projects budget and any other limitations with
how much time it might take to implement components of CBM. The most time-
consuming component of the model is CBM Elements. Determine the extent to
which CBM Elements will be used. If some or most of the data needed for CBM
Elements are accessible, then the management of the data and the re-evaluation of
the project need to be considered. If none of the data from the CBM guide are avail-
able, then it will take time to gather the data; however, if certain areas are selected
and others are eliminated, data collection will take less time.
Re-engineer
Re-engineering a product or online environment means that part or most of the
design can be revamped. Re-engineering requires making major changes to the
software codes, restructuring, and rebuilding. For this task, the budget must be
Table 3.2. CARD functions
Custom Development Add-on Re-engineer Diagnostic Evaluation
I Monitoring Monitoring Monitoring Exploring
D Problem solving Problem solving Problem solving Exploring
T Decision making Decision making Decision making ?
A Evaluating Evaluating Evaluating Exploring
B Planning Planning Planning ?
L Learning Learning Learning Exploring
E Content development Content development Content development Exploring
T Educating Educating Educating ?
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fully considered and the design re-evaluated. The same guiding questions can de-
termine which areas of CBM should be used in the redesign. Chapter 17 provides
a case study of re-engineering.
Diagnostic Evaluation
A diagnostic evaluation serves as a means of measurement. CBMs ID-TABLET
functions in an exploring mode when it is used as an evaluation tool. CBM aids in
researching design specifcations of existing ICTs and can serve as an ethnographic
instrument. Chapter XVIII provides a case study of a diagnostic evaluation.
Research Design Specifications
CBMs ID-TABLET meters pre-existing design specifcations to determine aspects
such as: culture neutral, culture-specifc, technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based,
target audience focused, assessments, learning, and bias. The ID-TABLET can
evaluate ICTs from print to electronic formats determining the status as culture
neutral or culture-specifc. This means that the ID-TABLET can evaluate ICTs
from a childrens book to an e-learning Web site. The areas of CBMs ID-TABLET
which are most appropriate for a diagnostic evaluation depends on the goals of the
project. Use the ID-TABLETs guiding questions to determine which areas are
most relevant.
Ethnographic Instrument
Ethnographic research describes peoples ways of life. This research uses methods
such as participant observation, interviewing, and data collection (e.g., feld notes,
videotapes, audiotapes, photography, personal documents, offcial documents;
Fetterman, 1998).
The design factors in CBM Elements serve as an ethnographic guide in analyzing
a society, culture, or target audience. A designer or researcher who is conducting an
evaluation can begin with CBM Elements. As an example, a society can be examined
for its aesthetics, artifacts, capital, classifcation system, demographics, or history;
these are all design factors under CBM Elements. Each design factor has guiding
questions or (GQ). The Culture GQ directs the designer in disclosing details of a
society or culture. The Target Audience (GQ) directs the designer in discovering
the characteristics of human beings in this society or culture. Through this analysis,
the data collection is comprehensive in covering anthropological, psychological,
and scientifc perspectives related to the society, culture, or target audience.
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How do you manage CBM?
Using Knowledge Management Systems
Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) are information technology applications
that make available the collective knowledge of organizations (Alavi & Leidner,
2005, p. 171). In the early days this type of system was called a database. Databases
allowed the collection of information into specifc felds. The information retrieved
contained subsets of the data inputted. Database functions included adding, brows-
ing, deleting, modifying, and searching. Then databases integrated more functions
such as exporting fles, linking the database to other applications, and personalized
log-ons. Databases evolved into information management systems, which have
progressed into KMS. KMS support features such as communication (e.g., threaded
discussions, e-mails), collaboration (e.g., electronic group-shared calendars), coor-
dination (e.g., shared documents & images), and control (e.g., locking documents,
accessing past versions of documents) (Spector, 2002).
For example, Spector (2002) argued that KMS might aid the feld of instruc-
tional design by providing a common repository where learning outcomes and the
instructional design can be more readily evaluated. The implementation of CBM
requires a place that can serve as a common repository where information about the
project can be easily stored, accessed, retrieved, updated, corrected, transferred,
applied, shared, and evaluated across the design team. An existing KMS could
house the collective knowledge from the design team, the information about the
target audience, and aid in the data management of the project.
KMS have been criticized as being slanted toward an American business per-
spective. Masons (2003) analysis of six KMS reports indicated a focus on technical
and content standardization, organizational knowledge, and the implementation of
incentives to follow a business culture. Considerations of a national culture and
ethnic background of employees was only measured in one report. The fndings of
Masons study indicate that these KMS promoted a generic organizational culture
and disregarded the contributions of employees national cultures and ethnic back-
grounds. This is something to consider with generic KMS.
CBM Guide
The CBM guide is a repository of the data gathered in relation to the society, culture,
or target audience, and it aligns with the areas and design factors of CBM. The
CBM guide can be housed in KMS or a Wiki, Web site, or database. The collection
of this information is important for the following reasons:
1. It creates a common repository of information that all team members can
access and keep updated.
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2. The data may be used by multiple clients.
3. It minimizes bias, stereotypes, and other misinformation about a society,
culture, or target audience, because all of the collected data is authentic.
4. It speeds the process when updating or adding on to an existing product.
5. It allows for an organized and managed design process.
The primary goal of cultural models is to act as repositories for data. The col-
lection and input of accurate data are imperative for a comprehensive portrait of
the target audience and the ultimate design of the product. The CBM guide should
house print and electronic forms of information. This collection should be fully
accessible to all persons on the design team. However, the number of persons input-
ting data should be limited. Depending on the schedule for project development,
the database could be a preproduction project that is completed before the design
team comes on board. However, depending on the team, they may want feedback
as to what goes into the overall digitally managed system.
The collection of data is valued by designers and researchers. Both are interested
in the performance of the learner, instructor, or user and the product. From this
repository of data, the designer or researcher draws conclusions about the design
process. These conclusions are integrated it the product and process (Richey &
Klein, 2007).
Society Culture Target.Audience
Inside Defne Japans video
game industry.
Determine who buys and
plays video games.
Japans target audience is Japanese
males ages 13-35. Determine what this
population likes about video games.
Outside Defne Japans
economy. Determine
the types of
entertainment people
buy and where video
games ft.
Determine the type of
video games that are
produced (e.g., console,
online, mobile, arcade).
Japanese males play video games.
Japanese females play other types of
games (e.g. online puzzles, card games,
arcade games, trivia, etc). Determine
the differences in male and female
perspectives on games.
Across Defne Japans video
game production
and distribution of
hardware and software
in comparison to the
U.S. and China.
Determine the quality
and content of Japans
video game industry in
comparison to the U.S.
and China.
Across cultures those target audiences
that do play video games include:
US males 18-35,
US females 18-35,
Chinese males 18-35,
Chinese females 18-35,
Japanese males 18-35,
Japanese females 18-35.
Compare and contrast beliefs and feelings
about video games amongst these groups.
Table 3.3. Product development of Japanese video games
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Why is CBM Intercultural?
The model is intercultural because it operates inside, outside and across cultures.
Cross-cultural implies a comparison across cultures. Intracultural refers to hap-
penings within a distinct culture. However, intercultural means happenings from,
between and across different cultures. Given these defnitions, intercultural seemed
the more appropriate. As part of CBM, the term intercultural is not tied to any
particular discipline. It exists freely to be used and manipulated. This fexibility
allows intercultural to operate inside, outside and across a society, culture or target
audience. Within the design process, CBM guides the collection of data such as
that illustrated in Table 3.3.
References
Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2005). Review: Knowledge management and knowledge
management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. In I. Nonaka
(Ed.), Knowledge management: Critical perspectives on business and management
(pp. 163-202). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London:
Routledge.
practice: How do we link? In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism
and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence
Bergman, R. E., & Moore, T. V. (1990). Managing interactive video/multimedia
projects. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42.
Bruner, J. (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5-8.
de Hoog, R., de Jong, T., & de Vries, F. (1994). Constraint-driven software design:
An escape from the waterfall model. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3),
48-63.
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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participa-
tion. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Mason, R. M. (2003). Culture-free or culture-bound? A boundary-spanning perspec-
tive on learning in knowledge management systems. Journal of Global Information
Management, 11(4), 20-36.
Nieveen, N. M. (1997). Computer support for curriculum developers: A study on the
potential of computer support in the domain of formative curriculum evaluation.
Unpublished dissertation, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2007). Design and development research: Methods,
strategies and issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Spector, J. M. (2002). Knowledge management tools for instructional design. Edu-
cational Technology Research and Design, 50(4), 37-46.
Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models:
A response to design research studies and criticism. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54.
Resnick, L. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9),
13-20.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
Young, P. A. (2008). The Culture-based Model: Constructing a model of culture.
Journal of Educational, Technology & Society, 11(2), 107-118.
Young, P. A. (1999). Roads to travel: A historical look at African American con-
tributions to instructional technology. Unpublished dissertation, University of
California, Berkeley: Berkeley, CA.
Section II
The Culture-Based Model:
ID TABLET
This section outlines in detail the 70 design factors of the culture-based models (CBMs)
management and design system: the ID-TABLET. This outline is intended to guide the
designer or researcher in better understanding the intricacies of a society, culture, or
target audience. Designing and analyzing are in-depth processes; however, the degree of
detail is contingent upon the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight areas: Inquiry,
Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training. Cer-
tain situations may not require all eight areas of the ID-TABLET. It is up to the designer
to select those areas that best represent the project. Then, within an area, the designer
selects those design factors that are most appropriate for the project.
The chapters in this section outline each area of the ID-TABLET and its subsequent
design factors. Each area is defned. Then each design factor within that area is provided
with a defnition and described in terms of the defnition; some design factors are illus-
trated through an example or offer guiding questions. The guiding questions break down
the design factors and help to provide an in-depth portrait of a society, culture or target
audience. The guiding questions direct the designer in creating a generic or specialized
product. Generic products are guided by culture guiding questions or Culture GQ. Spe-
cialized products are guided by target audience guiding questions or Target Audience GQ.
Given the comprehensiveness of CBMs ID-TABLET, it is covered in Chapters IVXIV.
These chapters should be viewed as a workbook in that they guide the design or research
process. The model is reviewed in the order of the acronym, not in the workfow order,
because each workfow is different. The areas under project management include Brain-
storming (Chapter V), Team (Chapter V), Development (Chapter. IV), Learners (Chapter
VI), Assessments (Chapter V), and Training (Chapter XIV). The areas under project design
include Inquiry (Chapter IV), and Elements (Chapters. VIIXIV).
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Chapter IV
CBM Inquiry,
Development
CBM Inquiry
Inquiry (11-16) monitors development, automates the internal fow of the design
process, and functions as internal sensors. This monitoring checks and rechecks that
the process is executing properly
1
. It is interactive and always operational if used by
the design team. Inquiry provides a series of questions to be asked and answered
during preproduction, production and postproduction. These questions outline the
design of the product and allow for a review of the product before, during, and after
production; this is a surface assessment. The list of questions is not exhaustive,
but they provide a broad selection of questions meant to focus on the needs of the
target audience, enable the design process, and screen for bias. These questions are
reviewed and reiterated throughout the design process to keep it active.
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Inquiry is divided into six design factors that provide a foundation for design
applications in any form of information and communication technologies (ICTs).
I1. Genre: Aids in the selection of ICTs
I2. Framing: Assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective
I3. Omission:.Helps in assessing a design
I4. Backgrounding: Helps in providing a balanced design
I5. Foregrounding: Helps in providing an objective design
I6. Visual.representations: Assists in conveying meaning
I1. Genre (Preproduction & Production)
Genre refers to the type of ICTs (e.g., Internet, World Wide Web, newspaper, maga-
zine, video, software, television) through which groups communicate (Berkenkotter
& Huckin, 1995). Determine the type of ICTs to be used in the project. This format
is referred to as the genre. The questions related to genre focus on determining
the format of the ICT, infuence of other technologies and the affordability of the
product. As a product evolves, changes in design can infuence the format, the price
of the product and other product considerations. Therefore, reiteration is necessary.
Inquiry questions for this category can be asked and answered during preproduction
and production. These questions can be asked at any point in the preproduction or
production process and reiterated when needed. The reiteration of these questions
throughout the design process is to control for bias. The questions related to genre
focus on determining the format of the ICTs and the affordability of the product. As
a product evolves, the changes in design can infuence the format and the price of
the product; therefore, reiteration is necessary. Seels and Glasgow (1998) argued that
the design process necessitates that questions are asked throughout the process.
I1a. What ICTs Are Being Used and Why?
This question is specifc to the genre of the product. These ICTs might include Web-
based, software, DVD, video, audiotape, print, or other formats. Determine which
ICT best represents the project. Determine why one ICT is being used over all oth-
ers by providing specifc evidence. Evidence can be supported through a detailed
physical description of the technology, its functions, and the designers rationale.
I1b. Which ICTs Are More Effective Given the Content?
The design team or client considers the most effective format to present the content.
This is a collaborative decision. Determine if the content would be effectively de-
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livered through the technologies chosen. Considerations should be made in terms
of the target audiences expertise with the technology. If the target audience cannot
operate the technology, then the product will not be effective. Access is another
area to consider in determining the most effective technology. Determine the tar-
get audiences ability to access the ICTs. Access means that the target audience
lives near a location where the product can be purchased or accessed. Determine
whether the target audience can afford to purchase the product or if there are other
free or nominal means to access the products content. There should be evidence
to support the viability and validity of the content and the ICT. Examples of other
similar but effective products could be supporting evidence. The chosen ICTs should
be able to store the content, provide the most effective access, and exhibit the best
representation of the products content.
I1c. Is the Project Affordable to the Target Audience, Given the ICTs
Used?
Producing a product that the target audience can afford is the goal. To do the oppo-
site is to bring bias into the designfavor is given to those who have the fnancial
means to afford the product, and those without such means are not considered.
Preliminary evaluations of the target audience should reveal their fnancial means
to purchase, rent, or obtain the product for a nominal fee. Complementary access
to the product is an option.
I1d. How Have ICTs Infuenced the Design of the Product?
Choosing one ICT over another can infuence the design of a product. These choices
may be made on the basis of monies available, the novelty of the technology, or other
reasons. Determine how the ICT infuences the design of the product. Make a list of
the pros and cons of using this ICT. Determine the limitations and strengths of using
the chosen ICT. The ICT should enhance the content and the products design.
In focus groups, obtain the target audiences feelings as to whether the ICT
infuenced their decision to purchase the product. Determine other infuences in
the products design.
I2. Framing (Preproduction, Production & Production)
Framing refers to how the content is presented or the point of view (Huckin, 1995).
The presentation of the content could have an angle or a slant. The frame could be
manipulative (Fairclough, 1995).This means that framing can point users toward
a particular interpretation.
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Therefore, the frame should represent the perspective of the target audience.
Throughout the design process, the frame may change based on design decisions.
Focusing on the target audience as the main frame through which to make decisions
limits bias in the overall design. Framing questions should be asked and answered
throughout all production time schedules.
I2a. Who Is the Target Audience?
The target audience is the focus of the overall design process. Most design decisions
should revolve around meeting the needs of the target audience and then, where
applicable, exceeding their expectations. Be specifc in determining the target audi-
ence. Obtain demographic data consistent with that in CBM Elements. In whatever
way possible, get to know the target audience. Although CBM provides a framework
for the collection of data about the target audience, personal interactions provide
confrmation and support for the data.
I2b. How Is the Content Presented to the Target Audience?
The presentation of the content is important in capturing the attention of the target
audience. The target audience must be interested enough to engage the product for
education, work, or pleasure. Determine how the content is presented to the target
audience. For example, an online childrens literature educational Web site could
display the books in a virtual library, where children access the book by clicking
on the book of their choice. The content of the book is opened, and the child can
access the content by turning the pages virtually. In a similar situation, the content
of the childrens literature could be presented by an avatar. The animated character
might touch a virtual book and give a synopsis of each book he or she touches to
spark an interest in the child. Once the child chooses a book, the avatar can read the
book to the child, or the child could choose to read the book on screen themselves.
Be specifc or provide as much detail of how the content is presented visually,
textually, kinesthetically, and so forth.
The design of ICTs can adapt to the needs of the target audience versus the target
audience adapting to the needs of the technology. Therefore, there can be multiple
scenarios of how to present the content. A focus group might assist in providing
some insight into the preferred ways to present content.
I2c. What Is the Content Presented?
The content should appeal to the target audience in many ways; in particular, it should
address their culture including learning styles, interests, language, etc. Determine
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what content should be presented, what should not be presented, and why. Resist
inputting ones personal reasons for including content. The inclusion of all content
must be purposeful and, above all, must support the needs of the target audience.
Use CBM Elements to guide what is included in the content.
I2d. Is the Content Appropriate for the Target Audience and Why?
Avoid content that is culturally inappropriate to the target audience. Know when it is
appropriate to present or include certain content information. Knowing the culture
of the target audience helps to limit inappropriate content. A certain level comfort
should be provided. This comfort refers to both the target audiences interaction with
the technology and its content. Use CBM Elements to guide the team in culturally
appropriate content decisions. Thereafter, pilot studies and focus groups should
provide other authentic examples of when the content works.
I2e. Where, Within the Products Design, Is This Content Most
Appropriate?
A review of the content most appropriate within the product design begins with an
examination of the placement of objects and functionality. Examine the design of
the product to ensure all objects are properly placed within the products design.
The content, when strategically placed, can be more effective. Objects should be in
logical order, deliberately placed, and accessible. The placement is most effective
if the target audiences expectations of functionality are met.
I2f. Why Is This Content Appropriate?
The design team should have research or other evidence as to why the content pre-
sented is the most appropriate. Inappropriate content presents bias in the design.
Use CBM Elements to support appropriate of content.
I3. Omission (Production & Postproduction)
Omission is what has been intentionally or unintentionally omitted. Omission
refers to items that are not present, not stated and not implied. Omitted items are
knowingly excluded; however the exclusion may have unknowingly occurred if it
was never considered (Fairclough, 1995). Omission questions should be asked and
answered throughout production and post production time schedules.
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I3a. What Has Been Intentionally Omitted and Why?
Examine the products design. Determine those items that have been intentionally
omitted. Decide whether the omission is signifcant in a positive or negative way
to the project. The teams personal ideologies should be intentionally omitted. By
focusing on the target audience rather than ones own beliefs and values, bias is
minimized.
Consult others who can identify omissions and seek their overall opinion. This
might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as com-
munity representatives.
I3b. What Has Been Unintentionally Omitted and Why?
Omitted items are absent, not stated and not implied (Fairclough, 1995). Examine
the design. Determine those items that have been unintentionally omitted. Deter-
mine why these items were unintentionally omitted. Decide what adjustments can
be made to compensate for these unintentional omissions, or what can be done to
include them in the design.
Determining what has been unintentionally omitted might require input from
individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives.
Alternatively, there are pilot studies and focus groups that can offer insight into
omissions.
I3c. What Has Not Been Considered?
Determine what has not been considered. The reasoning can be that it was not
thought of, considered or deemed important. If what has been considered is known,
then what has not been considered runs in opposition. Although it is diffcult to
consider everything, if well reviewed or researched, the team can feel comfortable
in that they tried to limit bias throughout the design process. The design team
should engage in ongoing brainstorming, and this includes discussions about what
has not been considered.
Identifying those things not considered requires input from a community rep-
resentative or other expert. This insight should be directly related to the design of
the product or the target audience.
I3d. Will These Omissions Be Detrimental to the Project and Why?
These omissions should be examined to determine whether they may be detrimental
to the project. If an important design specifcation has been omitted, determine how
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it will be integrated back into the project. Determine whether its omission will be
noticed by the client, the target audience, or others. Then, consider the costs involved
to include the omissions. Determine why the omission should remain omitted.
I4. Backgrounding (Production & Postproduction)
Backgrounding refers to what lies in the background and is de-emphasized (Fair-
clough, 1995). Backgrounded items can be implicit or explicit. Implicit items are
implied. They are not stated or present, but it is understood in what is expressed.
Backgrounded items can also be explicit. Explicit items are clear and obvious and
leave no doubt of their meaning. However, explicit backgrounded items are usually
de-emphasized or perceived to be de-emphasized in the design. Backgrounding
questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post produc-
tion time schedules.

I4a. What Has Been Backgrounded?
Examine the products design. Identify backgrounded items that are implicit. These
items can be implied in the products design. If implied, the items may not be stated
in text or images, but the message is clearly expressed.
Examine the products design. Identify backgrounded items that are explicit.
Explicit items are visually noticeable. If it is explicit, the item should be stated in
text, images, or objects. The message is clearly expressed but de-emphasized. Input
from a community representative can provide insight into what they perceive to be
backgrounded in the design.
I4b. Is the Backgrounding Intentional or Unintentional and Why?
Determine whether implied items have been intentionally or unintentionally back-
grounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding.
Determine whether explicit items have been intentionally or unintentionally
backgrounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding.
I4c. Will this Backgrounding Be Detrimental to the Project?
Once a number of items have been identifed as backgrounded, determine whether
this backgrounding will be signifcant in a positive or negative way to the project.
Identify whether the backgrounded items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased.
Determine how the specifc backgrounded items might be received.by the target
audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth.
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Consult someone who can give their interpretation of the backgrounded items
as positive, negative, neutral, or biased. This might require input from individuals
outside the project but who can act as community representatives.
I5. Foregrounding (Production & Postproduction)
Foregrounded items are present and absolute (Fairclough, 1995). Foregrounding
means determining those items that are emphasized. Usually, foregrounded items
receive more distinction and are perceived to be emphasized (Huckin, 1995). Fore-
grounding questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post
production time schedules.
Determine what things were foregrounded. Those things foregrounded may
not be readily apparent to the design team. Consider an outside community rep-
resentative, focus group etc. who can offer genuine feedback. Take this feedback
as an opportunity to improve the design before its completion. It is best to obtain
feedback more than once throughout the design process.
I5a. What Is Emphasized and Why?
Determine which aspects of the design seem to be emphasized. This emphasis may
be apparent based on size, content, color, text, image, numbers, or other aspects.
Determine how the specifc foregrounded items might be received. by the target
audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth. Decide whether the foregrounded
items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased.
The design team should be in agreement on what is emphasized and why. If
there are discrepancies with the teams vision, discuss and make adjustments. Then
decide which direction the project should proceed.
I5b. Is This What Should Be Emphasized?
Given the items emphasized, determine whether they should be emphasized. Decide
whether there is too much emphasis on these items. Determine whether changes are
needed to de-emphasize the items and emphasize other aspects of the design.
I5c. How Does This Emphasis Infuence the Overall Design?
The concepts emphasized can infuence the overall design. Determine how this
foregrounding infuences the overall design. Decide whether the emphasis slants the
project in one direction or another. Determine if there is bias in the design. If the
design is slanted in favor of the target audience, then this is the correct direction.
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I6. Visual Representations
(Preproduction, Production & Post Production)
Visual representations frame the design of the product (Fairclough, 1995). Types
of visual representations include text, diagrams, tables, sketches, flm, video, pho-
tography, graphics, icons, and so forth. Kress and van Leeuwen (1992) describe the
dynamics of text and images as complementary to the other, or a visual semiotic
(p. 92). This visual semiotic creates a relationship between text and images. Im-
ages do more than just illustrate; they are an essential part of the text and often
convey contentsmeanings, values, attitudesthat may not be a part of the
text or in contradiction to the text (p. 92). Visual representations carry content and
other data. The questions for visual representations should be asked and answered
throughout all production time schedules.
I6a. How Do the Visual Representations Frame the Product?
Examine the product. Identify the visual representations. Determine how the visual
representations frame the product. Examine how text frames the graphics and how
the graphics frame the text. Decide if the visual representation of graphics to text is
the overall intent. For example, the size of a graphic could overshadow important
text. Determine whether graphics or text dominate the design. The layout should be
purposeful, maneuverable, and understandable. Determine if the amount of content
is suffcient and if this was the intent. The design should provide a balance of visual
representations with the goal of meeting the needs of the target audience. CBM
Elements should provide data to support what works for this target audience.
I6b. How Do Visual Representations Assist in the Instructional
Process?
Examine the design of the product. Determine whether the visual representations
assist in the instructional process. Use a variety of methods to determine whether the
visual representations aid or prohibit the transfer of information. This can include
an internal validity check within the design of the program or through external
feedback. The transfer of information from technology to individual or from indi-
vidual to technology must be measured by some means or instrument.
I6c. Who is Portrayed in these Visual Representations?
Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine who
is portrayed in the visual representations. Determine whether these are the images
the project wanted to communicate.
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Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the
visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations.
Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.
I6d. What Is Portrayed in these Visual Representations?
Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine what
objects and things are portrayed in the visual representations. Determine if these
are the images the project intended to communicate.
Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the
visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations.
Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.
I6e. What Purpose Do the Visual Representations Serve?
Determine the purpose of the visual representations in the project and whether this
purpose is consistent with the overall goals of the project. Determine whether using
one visual representation instead of another better serves the needs of the target
audience. Purposeful visual representations have a function in the design process.
Visual representations may serve one or more of the TACCT (technical, aesthetic,
content, culture-based, and the target audience) features; therefore, the purpose
should be tied to one of the TACCT features or some other function. Guard against
using inappropriate or biased visual representations. One way to forego this is to
determine the purpose of all visuals. Determine how the visual representations
contribute to the design of the product.

I6f. Are Inappropriate Visual Representations in the Design?
Identify the visual representations. Determine whether the visual representations
are inappropriate to the design. For example, visuals could misrepresent or be
stereotypical of a target audience. Discuss and resolve any inappropriateness of
the visual representations. Consider the bad and good in the design of the product.
The recruitment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can
provide objective perspectives on the design of the product.
I6g. Where Are Visual Representations Placed in the Product?
Placement of visual representations can inhibit or enhance the design. Examine
the location of the visual representations in the product. Determine whether every
object is as it should be, given the target audiences expectations. Decide if the
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placement of the visual representations benefts the target audience. The recruit-
ment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can provide
objective perspectives.
I6h. Why Were These Visual Representations Selected?
The selection of visual representations should beneft the target audience. The design
team determines the validity of each example and how it enhances the project. If
adjustments have to be made that are not in favor of the target audience, consider
the ramifcations of this as a design specifcation. Determine what adjustments
will be made to make the design more equitable. Determine the consequences for
these actions.
CBM Development
Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving. It
considers those features that are important in the overall development of the prod-
uct. This area supports both new and existing products. Design specifcations focus
on determining features of a design that are technical, aesthetic, content, culture-
based and target audience (TACCT) related. Then, the ICT format of the product
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is determined based on the design of the project; format options could include:
Web based format, print, audio, software, video, and so forth. Other development
considerations are to build a product that promotes effciency, accessibility, and
versatility. Multiple representations of culture are considered in particular environ-
mental and individual/group cultures. Development focuses on creating a quality
design that authentically represents the target audience and limits interference in
the form of bias and misrepresentations. Throughout, the production process is
supported by modeling.
D1...Consider.technical,.aesthetic,.content,.culture-based.and.target.audience.
(TACCT) design speci. cations. Technical design specifcations focus on func-
tion,. aesthetic. . visual,. content. . subject. matter,. culture-basedgeneric. or.
specialized,.and.target.audience..people.
D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and target audience
(TACCT) design specifcations. Technical design specifcations focus on
function, Aesthetic visual, Content subject matter, Culture-based --
Generic or Specialized, and Target audience people.
D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that
allow access and equity.
D3. Effective technology. Use the most effcient and effective technology avail-
able to produce the product.
D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and com-
munication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target
audience.
D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience
throughout the design.
D6. Explore environmental & individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures
explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group
cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture).
D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create
similar products.
D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are
needed to validate the product.
D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes and
prejudices. Try to control for human, machine and environmental interfer-
ence.
D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards or
visual languages.
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TACCT stands for technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and/or target audience.
features. This design factor provides a way of categorizing and assessing large data
sets specifc to product design. TACCT is not useful in organizing project manage-
ment; therefore project management design factors should be excluded from this
assessment. (For example, TACCT can not assist in determining the types of feld
tests for a project; this is a project management decision). Technical features focus on
function; specifcally making the technology work or work better. Aesthetic features
are visual; they improve the appearance of the design or the technology. Content
features incorporate subject matter; this is information stored in the technology.
Culture-based features are generic or specialized; most design specifcations can
be categorized as culture neutral or culture-specifc. Target audience features focus
on a specifc group of people; this is a very specialized design that seeks to meet
the needs of a target audience in relation to the design and technology. When the
product incorporates all aspects of TACCT then the design is closer to being more
specialized than generic. The steps in using TACCT are to identify the products
design specifcations, categorize the design specifcations in relation to the TACCT
table and make decisions or evaluations based on the categorization. The TACCT
Table has the following design specifcations: T=Technical, A=Aesthetic, C=Content,
CB=Culture-based, T=Target Audience.
TACCT is a quick way of assessing an ICT. It is meant to provide some prelimi-
nary data to improve the design of the ICT and determine the direction to proceed.
It is not an in-depth evaluation tool. The categories should be seen as self-sustaining
and as providing a surface evaluation of ICTs.
D2..Mass.distribution.formats..Produce.in.formats.for.mass.distribution.that.
allow.access.and.equity.
Economics, access, and equity should be considered in the overall packaging of the
product. Mass versus limited distribution formats are important issues to consider.
A product with limited distribution may cost more to produce. A product with a
larger distribution may cost less to produce. If the product is a generic design,
then distribution for a larger audience is feasible. If the product is a specialized
design, then distribution to a smaller audience may be required. Mass distribution
considerations allows for more people to interact with new technologies, become
consumers of these technologies, and consider producing these technologies. The
more informed, equitable, and accessible new technologies, the more likely there
can be reductions in phobias and aversions to technology. This is imperative because
inhabitants of the future must be technologically savvy. On the other hand, meeting
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the needs of specialized audiences also allows technology to penetrate new markets
and brings technological innovations to everyones door.
Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audiences ability to
purchase and afford the product. The distribution of the product to locations near the
target audience allows them access to purchase the product. Equity means that the
target audience can afford the product given the purchase price. Information about
the target audiences purchasing practices of such products has to be considered.
These data should be gathered in the pre-production stage.
Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audiences ability to
use the product. Accessibility to the product provides the target audience with the
freedom to engage and learn about the product and technology. Accessibility means
access to the product either through schools, home or local community centers.
Equity means the target audience has an equal number of chances to interact with
the product, therefore the more interaction, the more opportunitiesthe target audi-
ence has to master the content. To consider the needs of the target audience, format,
accessibility, and equity must be considered and included in the overall design.
D3. Effective technology. Use the most effcient and effective technology avail-
able.to.produce.the.product.
Providing an effcient and effective product is important to meeting market demands
and more important.to the needs of the target audience. An effcient product is one
that provides much content. The product is effective if knowledge is successfully
facilitated from machine to human. Plan to stay with or ahead of the competition.
Having a competitive product means that there is no compromising on quality.
Quality has been considered and invested in the product. Possible technologies
include: audiotapes, cable, computers, CD-ROM, fber-optics, internet, print, radio,
satellite, telephone, video cassettes, video discs, or video conferencing. The type
of technology (Bates, 2005) should be driven by the needs of the target audience
not its novelty.
D4..Diversify. ICT. format.. Provide. multiple. forms. of. information. and. com-
munication. technologies. or. manipulatives. to. meet. the. needs. of. the. target.
audience.
The target audience may need more than a textual representation; therefore, pro-
viding a variety of ICTs (printed materials, video, audiotapes, computer software,
DVDs, etc.) can better meet the learning modality of the target audience. Through
visuals, the individual who understands graphic signs and symbols may best learn
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the content. For the acoustic individual, the auditory components may best meet
their needs. For the tactile individual, manipulatives help them to understand con-
tent. Meeting the diverse learning modalities of the individual may require multiple
representations of the product. For example, entertainment games
2
are produced in
video formats; however there are magazines and game guides that support the video
formats. This diversifcation in formats allows users to educate themselves about
the history behind the game, characters and their functions, and technical features
of the game. The needs of users are met by video and printed formats.
D5..Understand.target.audience..Know.your.audience..Focus.on.that.audience.
throughout.the.design.
The goals of every project should be to know your audience, focus on that audience
throughout the design, and meet the needs of the audience. Gather preliminary
research about the target audience; this information assists the entire design and
development process. Use CBM Elements to gather preliminary and extensive data.
Determine what is known about the target audience and how the design process
should proceed given what is known. Specifcally address how the needs of the
target audience are going to be met.
D6..Explore.environmental.&.individual/group.cultures..Environmental.cul-
tures.explore.societies.and.cultures.ways.of.life.(e.g.,.workplace)..Individual/
group.cultures.explore.people.(e.g.,.Japanese.culture).
The most commonly described representations of culture propose that culture is ones
environment or the culture of an individual or group. When these two perspectives
come together as a whole they provide a more holistic interpretation of cultures.
Environmental cultures include representations such as the workplace culture,
school culture, or popular culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with
that of the cultural anthropologist who examines a societys ways of life (Ferraro,
2004; Haviland, 1987). For example, an examination of environmental cultures
could include understanding, studying or replicating a societys way of life.
Individual/group cultures are tied to people such as Native American culture,
Japanese culture, Haitian culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with
that of physical anthropologists who study biological organisms such as humans
and specifcally human behavior and biology (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). For
example, an examination of a group culture could include understanding, study-
ing, or replicating the evolutionary growth and the organic/inorganic distinctions
of organisms.
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The inclusion of both environmental and individual/group perceptions of culture
is needed in the design process to balance the structure of designs. Without this
balance, designs are subject to bias, inequities, and misrepresentations. CBM Ele-
ments provides a more in-depth examination of the dynamics of culture.
D7...Quality.design..Create.a.good.product.for.other.people.who.desire.to.create.
similar.products.
A good product is one that others want to imitate. The creation of a good product
requires focusing on the best interests of the target audience in the design. Brain-
storm the steps to a good design. Implement those steps with creativity and a vision
for something unique. Determine whether the team has taken the steps to a good
design.

D8..Authenticate.product..Authentic.representations.of.target.audiences.are.
needed.to.validate.the.product.
Authentic representations mean true to life. In this case, products need to be true
to the life of target audiences to validate the product. By following CBM Elements,
authentic representations of culture can be manifested throughout the design. CBM
Elements provides the tools for a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of societies,
cultures, groups and individuals.
D9..Control.for.interference..Provide.products.that.limit.bias,.attitudes.and.
prejudices.. Try. to. control. for. human,. machine. and. environmental. interfer-
ence.
The dispositions of the team and client seep into all designs. This can be seen through
the inclusion and exclusion of content, text, images, objects, people, cultures and
societies. By following CBM for management and design decisions, the designers
personal dispositions can be greatly reduced. The collaborative effort of the cultural
expert, community representative, pilot studies participants, focus groups, and
design team members should minimize bias, attitudes and prejudice throughout
the management process. CBM Inquiry aids in limiting bias, attitudes and preju-
dices during the design and development process. If implemented, CBM Elements
provides data for the authentic representation of the target audience throughout the
design process. The collective implementation of multiple components of CBM
offers a comprehensive framework to control for interference by way of humans,
machines, or the environment.
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D10..Model.the.product.or.process..Create.prototypes,.sketches,.storyboards.
or.visual.languages.
Modeling in design means to bring something to life as a product or process. Pro-
totypes can be physical representations of the product. Sketches can be detailed
drawings. Storyboards may illustrate still images of a product. Visual languages
can be notation systems, maps, diagrams, or drawings of processes. Modeling
provides the tools to actualize the product or process. Modeling should be assessed
by the team, cultural expert, and community representative. When ready, a more
target audience friendly version can be feld tested. Modeling should be performed
throughout the preproduction and production stages to best meet the needs of the
client and the project. Prototyping and sketching are often used in game design.
Storyboarding is used in video and flm making. Visual languages are often used in
engineering and computer science. When creating visual languages, care should be
taken in the presumptions designers, developers and engineers bring to the design
process. The designer might draw a diagram of the path that the user will travel in
navigating a web site; however this path is the presumed path. It is only through
careful observation of the target audience that the multiple paths taken can be
revealed. With this in mind, feld work might consider collecting data of the users
behavior when interacting with the product.
References
Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, E-Learning and distance education. Abingdon,
UK: Routledge.
Berkenkotter, C., & Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary com-
munication. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Douglas, I. (2006). Issues in software engineering of relevance to instructional
design. Tech Trends, 50(5), 28-35.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold.
and Winston, Inc.
Huckin, T. N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis. Functional approaches to written
text: Classroom applications. TESOLFrance Journal, 2(2), 95111.
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Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1992, August). Structures of visual representation.
Journal of literary semantics, XXI(2), 91-117.
Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Endnote
1
In software engineering, this would be similar to the concept of refactor-
ing meaning that the design structure is reviewed continuously (Douglas,
2000).
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Chapter V
CBM Team, Assessments,
Brainstorming
CBM Team
Team (T1T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that
includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. These
experts become a united team who seek to fulfll the needs of the target audience
as a central goal. This is where much of the decision making happens.
T1. Cultural expert(s). The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with
the target audience and community representative.
T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating
the target audience must be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators).
T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests
in the target audience.
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T1. Cultural Expert(s). The cultural expert is the insider who
acts as a liaison with the target audience and community
representative.
The cultural expert is the target audiences representative. (The community repre-
sentative and the cultural expert can be the same person). The cultural expert has
the best interests of the target audience at heart, and their role is to ensure that the
design team remains focused on the needs of the target audience as the primary
focus of the design process. The cultural expert has established relationships with
the target audience, and they engage in maintaining this complementary relationship.
In this role, they establish and maintain relationships with the community before,
during and after production. If the target audience is unhappy with the cultural
expert; this may mean that one or more experts might be needed. The target audi-
ence is viewed as customer or consumer and their desires and wants are important.
Before the project begins, the cultural expert visits community members to get their
feedback on the proposed design. This can be in the form of focus groups, informal
meetings or face to face short surveys/interviews. This data collection becomes an
integral part of how the design process proceeds. In particular, design decisions are
altered or adjusted based on this information.
In most cases, the cultural expert can be recruited from the community. The
cultural expert might live in this community or they could have lived in this
community or a similar community. They need to vibe with the target audience
in terms of their personal or professional experiences, class identifcation, social
experiences, economic identifcation and community involvement. A high level
of comfort should be apparent in the cultural experts interactions with the target
audience and vice versa. The target audience must feel that the cultural expert is
someone they can trust. Assessing this human factor is important because, if the
target audience lacks trust in the cultural expert, the quality of data collection will
be tainted and inauthentic.

T2. Enlist Educators. Educators with expertise in subject
matter or educating the target audience must be on the team
(e.g., professors, teacher educators, etc.).
Educators with expertise in educating the target audience should be on the team (e.g.,
professors, teacher educators, instructors, curriculum specialists, trainers, subject
matter specialists). These educators could be experts in content area, language, or
any needed discipline.
Subject matter specialists have expertise in the discipline that is specifc to the
design. They can contribute to the bulk of the content and provide valuable infor-
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mation. However, traditional thinking and designs that have not worked with the
target audience should be reconsidered.
Language educators who have expertise in the language of the target audience
can aid in validating the written or spoken aspects of the design. These linguis-
tic factors are important in addressing the target audiences ability to grasp the
content. The language educator provides clarifcation so that the language of the
target audience is authentically represented without stereotypes, exaggerations or
misrepresentations.
The responsibility to transfer information from ICT to learner rests on the col-
laborative efforts of the team with great input from educators who understand the
use of technology in constructing knowledge. Finding the combination of content
area and technology skills may be diffcult among all team members; therefore this
is an area where collective creativity is required.
T3. Culturally Informed Team. Have an educated creative team
with valid interests in the target audience.
The selection of the appropriate team is key to the successful management, develop-
ment and implementation of the project. Finding people who can work together in
a culturally diverse environment is important to culture-based designs. It is easy to
gather a team of people to whom one likes to work. However, it may seem a burden
to let outsiders into ones circle. Designing for ethnically diverse learners and users
requires designers to step outside of their normal comfort zone and challenge them-
selves to hear from others and listen to others outside their social circle. All team
members regardless of race or ethnicity need to have strong interests in meeting
the learning needs of the target audience and a strong belief in the effectiveness of
the product. In this scenario, people from the designers to educational experts, are
valuable to the project (Cockburn, 1999; Fowler, 2001).
The culturally informed team receives training in the cultural elements of the
target audience, derived from CBM Elements. This training is supportive, infor-
mative, participatory, and complementary to the needs of the target audience. The
instructional design process is a complex multilayered process. Fostering a team
of highly skilled individuals (Gustafson & Branch, 2002) is extremely benefcial
to the success of a project.
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CBM Assessments
The area of Assessments (A1A4) proposes several design factors for implementing
assessments. With multiple evaluation options, assessments can include internal
and external evaluations that measure the learners acquisition of knowledge or
the effectiveness of a products design.. Assess the assessment examines the ex-
tent of bias and determines the best assessment to support the target audience.
External review focuses on the hiring of an outside agency. Then, culture-specifc
assessments provide guidance on the building of culture-specifc evaluations and
measurements.
A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation op-
portunities.
A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools.
A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product.
A4. Culture-specifc assessments. Create specialized evaluations.
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A1. Multiple Evaluation Options. Provide Internal and External
Evaluation Opportunities.
Multiple evaluation options require assessments to have more than one measure-
ment to affrm validity. These evaluations can be internal or external and should
focus on measuring the learners acquisition of knowledge or the effectiveness of
a products design.
If assessment is part of the products design, then internal and external options
should be considered during preproduction. Internal evaluations provide learners
with opportunities to check their work and reinforce skills and knowledge. An
adaptive design provides the learner with multiple opportunities to be successful
and to master the skills needed. Learner-supported evaluations versus those that
penalize should be carefully designed and woven throughout the product.
Internal evaluations may also serve as databases or feedback of the target
audiences interactions with the product. A database can be hidden within the
products structure and function as a resource to enhance the product in later ver-
sions. The database may collect a variety of information such as task completion,
product errors, learner progress, and so forth. Internal evaluations can also provide
feedback. This is exemplifed with popular operating systems that display a pop-
up window asking if the software company should be notifed of this error. The
software company monitors the performance of its computer application through
the publics feedback to these error messages.
External evaluations can come in many forms (e.g., pilot studies, feld tests,
prepackaged exams, or standardized tests). The needs of the project dictate the as-
sessment that will be used. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian,
2003) and are conducted in the actual environment and with users of the product.
Pilot studies are usually short (e.g., days or weeks) in comparison to the long term
intended use of the product. This method of inquiry often reveals problems, issues or
design faws. Pilot studies are usually conducted on products or online environments
where there are learning outcomes that need to be measured or where learning is
expected to happen. A pilot study may be conducted in a classroom setting for an
educational program that will be used in schools.
Field tests may be conducted in a variety of settings, given that the focus is on
the product and that the product may be used in a variety of environments. Field
tests are usually short in length (e.g., minutes, hours). Types of feld tests can include
surveys (e.g., in person, mail, telephone, Internet), focus groups, and interviews.
Prepackaged exams may be found in a local bookstore. These exams provide
reinforcement of materials learned in an educational setting. The content areas vary
according to the subject. These materials are usually made by private companies
and are normed for the mainstream population.
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Standardized tests are created by testing agencies and are usually administered
by schools, colleges and universities. Examples include the Standardized Assessment
Test (SAT) or Graduate Records Exam (GRE). Standardized tests are administered,
interpreted, and scored in the same way. The standardization provides a way to
compare test takers across the nation (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
A2. Assess the Assessment. Evaluate the Evaluation Tools.
Evaluate the internal and external evaluation tools. Determine the learning out-
comes that are being measured. Evaluate the testing methods (e.g., short answer,
multiple choice, essay) and whether the testing methods can measure the learning
outcomes. Go through each question carefully to determine whether learning will
be achieved through these methods of assessment. Determine whether the evalu-
ation fairly assesses the learning outcomes that are directly related to the target
audience. Establish whether the evaluation is culturally biased. Determine how bias
may affect the learning outcomes.
Determine the user outcomes that are being measured. Evaluate the measure-
ment methods and whether these methods properly assess the desired outcome. For
example, in a video game, the reloading of ammunition, time, or money indicates
that the player is advancing to the next stage or that the player has acquired a certain
level of skill that merits the increase in ammunition, time, or money. In a serious
online game designed by an insurance company, the employer may create a game
that measures a new employees knowledge of insurance policies and practices.
The software may assess success in the task by the number of reasonably answered
questions.
Review each measurement carefully to determine whether the outcomes are
achievable through these methods. Determine whether the measurement fairly as-
sesses the user outcomes. Determine how the target audience has been addressed.
Establish whether the measurements are culturally biased. Determine how bias
may affect the learning outcomes.
Assessing the assessment can rely on the learners or users opinions of the product.
This may require a brief survey or online evaluation of the assessment. A balanced
product allows for learner and user input to improving product development.
A3. External Review. Implement Other Evaluations of the
Product.
If an external review agency is needed, their involvement should be a part of initial
brainstorming discussions. Most of these agencies charge a fee, so their services
need to become a part of the overall budget. Be specifc about what the external
agency should assess and how long they will be involved. Then determine how the
external agencys report will be used to enhance the product or as evidence of the
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products effectiveness. The goal of the external review is to achieve summative
(i.e., summary of learning) evaluations of the learners progress and/or the effec-
tiveness of the product.
A4. Culture-Specific Assessments. Create Specialized
Evaluations.
Culture-specifc assessments focus on the needs of the target audience through
culturally aligned content. The content of the assessment is specifc to the frame of
reference of the target audience. These assessments are specifc to one group and
cannot be generalized across audiences or learners. Culture-specifc assessments
can replace generic assessments. These assessments are unique in that they are
creative and not tied to traditional evaluations that focus on multiple-choice ques-
tions, fll-ins, or true/false. If the goal is to get the target audience to move from
culture-specifc to culture-neutral assessments, then multiple assessments should
be designed to move from the specialized to the generic. Culture-specifc assess-
ments can also address auditory, kinesthetic, visual, taste, or smell aspects; teach
through the discipline of choice such as mathematics, art, science, dance; or focus
on abstract and concrete operations.
B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project.
B2. Pilot studies/feld tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout
project.
B3. Assess communitys response. Get the publics response to the product.
B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a
person versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have
been designated as an integral part of the team.
B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with
an ethnographic portrait of the target audience.
B6. Refect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing refections and as-
sessments of the product.
B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are fnancially
accessible to the target audience.
B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the in-
structional and/or cultural needs of the target audience.
B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical,
social, political, economic and educational reasons for implementing this
project.
B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present
and consider learner outcomes or the user goals.
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CBM Brainstorming
Brainstorming (B1B10) is conducted to align the project with its design team, as-
sess the fnancial status of the project from conception and beyond its completion,
discuss the overall design, implement preliminary assessments, and determine
learning outcomes. This preproduction period can determine what parts of the
project receive more emphasis or less, given the fnancial situation and project due
date. The design factors associated with Brainstorming determines the direction
to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. This is the frst
step in planning.
B1. Financial Support. Obtain Comprehensive Funding for the
Project.
Obtaining reliable fnancial support from preproduction to postproduction is impera-
tive to the completion of any project. This is even more important in the creation of
products intended to meet the needs of diverse populations. Given the intricacies
of the design, the creativeness needed, and the cultural wherewithal, funding these
initial projects can cost considerably more than designs that meet a mainstream or
a generic audience. Proper fnancing of initial costs will save money in producing
the design.
Culture-specifc designs require more focused monies. Those requirements may
include specialized research, additional planning and preparation, recruitment of a
culturally sensitive design team, assessments, training, and innovative designing.
B2. Pilot Studies/Field Tests of Product. Engage in
Assessments throughout Project.
Pilot studies or feld tests are needed of the target audience interacting with the
product. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian, 2003). Field tests
vary according to the project; however, they may consist of public opinion surveys,
focus groups, and so forth (see CBM Assessments for more). Pilot studies and feld
tests should be conducted throughout the design process; thereby designs are moni-
tored, manipulated, adjusted, or discarded if necessary. If preliminary evaluations
reveal that the target audience is unsatisfed with the design, then products should
be altered to meet the needs of the target audience. Assessments of the target audi-
ence throughout the design process can save time and costs.
These assessments provide authenticity and beneft the target audience. Providing
a high caliber of products is the point of these tests. In essence, the target audience
is guarded against becoming casualties of failed experiments; the goal is to reduce
or eliminate victimization.
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B3. Assess Communitys Response. Get the Publics
Response to the Product.
Assessment of the community and the publics responses to the creation of the
product during preproduction is important to the development process. First steps
include assessing the communitys and the publics response to the development
of the product. This assessment may be in the form of focus groups, surveys, or
public opinion polls (i.e., in-person, telephone, or online). However, the method of
assessment should match the target audience. For example, if the target audience
does not use computers, then an online public opinion poll would not work. Cre-
ativity in obtaining an authentic assessment method and an accurate sample size
of the community or public is benefcial before moving forward with the project.
Negative responses from the public or community can stife production and any
subsequent distribution of the product. These initial evaluations should provide
insight into the target audience and their needs.
B4. Community Representative on Team. The Community
Representative is a Person Versed in the Cultural Nuances of
the Target Audience, and They Have Been Designated as an
Integral Part of the Team.
The community representative knows the cultural nuances of the target audience,
and they are considered part of the team. In particular, the community representative
should have qualifcations as someone of the same ethnic background and history.
The racial/ethnic background of the community representative aids in providing an
authentic representation of the target audience. Second, the community representa-
tive should have knowledge of the social class of the target audience. Just relying
on the racial/ethnic identity of the community representative is not enough. This
person must have personal knowledge and/or experience in the culture and social
class of the target audience. This knowledge aids in authentically representing the
target audience.
The community representative maintains creative input or control in all stages
of the production process. This person is well versed in the language, culture, and
norms of that community and has sensitivity toward the target audience regard-
less of race, ethnicity, social class, economic status, and so forth. The community
representative is connected with the community so that he or she can remain in
the midst of current issues (e.g., political, economic, social) affecting these people.
This person guides the design team in connecting the content described in CBM
Elements to the design of the product. CBM Elements incorporates the concepts and
themes to be integrated throughout. These Elements ensure a specialized product
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and guards against homogenous technological designs. The use of these Elements
aids in authenticating designs that seek to be culture-specifc, because all designs
are culture-based.
B5. Investigate Target Audience to Authenticate Product.
Provide the Team with an Ethnographic Portrait of the Target
Audience.
Time permitting, information about the target audience can be gathered through
ethnographic methods. Data collection may begin with the following: research
articles, commissioned reports and studies, newspapers, magazines, television and
flm documentaries, cultural informants, and other ethnographic research methods
(i.e., observations; interviews, artifact collection (photographs, videotaping and/or
flm)]. All of these methods of data collection should be viewed as multiple op-
portunities to triangulate fact from fction.
Current educational research can provide insight into the target audience as learn-
ers. Specifcally, the data may indicate what instructional methods are preferred,
how learning is best acquired, and other cultural considerations. Issues such as com-
munication and interactions with technology are a growing part of research in all
felds. This source provides peer-reviewed research that is, in many cases, authentic.
Although this process may be arduous, the intricacies of understanding learning
and the learner begin with a review of research (see also CBM Learners).
Ethnographic studies may come in the form of books by researchers or professors
who have spent considerable time in the community of the target audience. This
hands-on insight is an intellectual perspective and a comprehensive case study of
the target audience. Ethnographic studies tease out details that the untrained eye
may not capture; therefore, the reviews of these studies are very insightful. Research
studies support the notion that qualitative research methods are needed in creating
culture-based designs (Dray & Siegel, 2005).
Often, reports or studies are commissioned by the government or social service
agencies to better understand the social needs of groups. These reports provide
knowledge and background into the cultural nuances of a group. Many of these reports
are housed on the Web sites of large agencies that oversee educational and social
services, grants, or the dissemination of information (e.g., institutes, bureaus).
Newspapers and magazines contain brief reports on groups and may provide
personal anecdotes.and quotes; in addition, reporters usually have to confrm sources
and authenticate stories. Stories are only as valid as their source. Additional data
should be used to substantiate any media reports.
Television and flm documentaries provide glimpses into the lives of people.
They are good resources because flmmakers seek to provide factual versus fctional
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information. The viewer becomes knowledgeable about a group based on what can
be gleamed from the video or flm. This type of anthropological data can be valu-
able in understanding a society, culture, or group.
Cultural informants are members of the target audience. These cultural informants
provide authentic insight into all aspects of the target audience. Only through interac-
tions with cultural informants can the product be authenticated. Authentic products
emanate from information and feedback obtained from the cultural informants. The
collection of ethnographic data can aid in obtaining authentic products.
Ethnographic research seeks to describe peoples ways of life or culture. Eth-
nography uses research methods such as participant observation, interviewing and
data collection (eg, feld notes, videotapes, audiotapes, photography, etc) (Fetter-
man, 1998). Ethnographic research
1
methods can be helpful in obtaining data from
cultural informants (i.e., observations, interviews, artifact collection). This consists
of observations of the cultural informants engaging in daily activities or activities
specifc to the project. Observations gathered over a period of time provide rich
authentic examples that can be simulated in designs. Time periods for observations
can range from days to weeks to months. Interviews with cultural informants as-
sist in authenticating designs. The interview questions can be scripted so that the
questions are consistent for each interviewee or given the situation, questions can
be informally asked. If there are many participants, prepared interview questions
work best; consistency across interviews makes data analysis more consistent and
true. The collection of artifacts is important in triangulating the data; interviews,
observations, and artifacts all communicate information relevant to the society,
culture, or target audience. Digital photography, videotaping and feld notes are
good resources in the collection of artifacts. Types of artifacts collected or docu-
ments via photography or videotape may include: clothing, family heirlooms, family
photographs, and so forth.
A thorough investigation of the target audience is key to authenticating the
design and the design process. The product is derived from this investigative data.
Thereby, misrepresentations and bias are limited because the design of the product
is built from real people, real artifacts, and real data.
Although this type of research is not traditionally, an aspect of instructional de-
sign, some degree of it should be considered to authenticate the designs
2
. Remember
to choose those components of CBM that best ft the specifcations of the project.
B6. Refect & Assess Learning Goals. Engage in Ongoing
Refections and Assessments of the Product.
By participating in ongoing refections and assessments of the product, the focus
remains on producing a product where learning goals are achieved. Ask and answer
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questions that are relevant to the target audience, the product, and the design team.
Determine what are the learning objectives. Then determine how the learning ob-
jectives will be met. Decide what learners will know once they have completed the
product. Examine and assess the skills learned and determine if learners have met
the learning goals. Determine how learning will be maximized. Establish with the
client and the team whether the project is intended to be culture neutral or culture-
specifc. CBM Inquiry questions assist in this refection and assessment process.
These questions can be seen as a refective way of assessing the process, product,
and participants. This assessment assists in making the product authentic because
the checks and balances are internal and external.
B7. Affordable Design. Provide an Affordable Design and ICTs
that are Financially Accessible to the Target Audience.
Provide an affordable design that is fnancially accessible to the target audience.
Thinking about affordability begins with the design specifcations themselves. The
technology format, content, and costs of production all infuence the cost of the
product. The product should be affordable for the target audience. The target audi-
ence should always be able to use the product even if they choose not to purchase
the product. If possible, the product needs to be made available through rentals,
libraries, or other nominal costs or free enterprise services.
The target audience should have access to the technology. This accessibility
can be on-going through the life of the product. Issues of access should be at the
forefront of thinking and designing for diverse populations.
If possible, provide alternative ICT formats that contain the same content; mul-
timedia (e.g., printed material, cd-rom, audiotapes, videotape, etc.) formats may
best serve to provide access to the target audience. This may not be the way of big
business; however, needs of the target audience are the priority.
If possible, extend the longevity of the product without giving up on the quality
of the product. For example, instructional products typically provide content that
is particular to the grade level of the learner. However, a product that is intended
to maintain longevity may provide instructional materials that are more develop-
mental, meaning that the materials may span prekindergarten, kindergarten, and
frst grade. The contents of the instructional materials provide more to the target
audience for their money. The product maintains longevity on the market because
it is multigraded and an affordable instructional product.
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B8. Meet Needs of Target Audience. Determine how the
Product Meets the Instructional and/or Cultural Needs of the
Target Audience.
Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target
audience. By meeting the needs of the target audience, designers support what the
individual brings to the product and use the technology to adapt to the individual
while the individual learns the technology. Thereby, the target audience becomes
an integral part of the design process.
Cultural contexts are met by addressing the needs of the target audience and
by acknowledging problems and challenges as design issues versus issues of the
target audience (e.g., communication, language, access, usability). It is important
not to blame the target audience for issues that could be altered by the design or the
product. This type of proactive design thinking limits the development of defcit
designs.
B9. Discuss & Consider Cultural Context. Discuss and
Consider Historical, Social, Political, Economic and
Educational Reasons for Implementing this Project.
The design of nonbiased products requires much discussion about the target audience
in terms of their history, social interactions, politics, economic status, religious af-
fliations and other factors in CBM Elements. Discuss how this cultural knowledge
changes the direction of the project. Determine the pros and cons of this direction.
The objective of these discussions should be to educate the design team and move all
of its members toward cultural consciousness and cultural sensitivity in the design
process. To create culture-based products, the design team assumes the status of
cultural expert of the target audience.
B10. Present & Consider Outcomes. Throughout the Design
Process, Present and Consider Learner Outcomes or the User
Goals.
Depending on the focus of the project, the target audience will be either the learner
or user. For the learner, there is a need to present and consider the learning outcomes
throughout the design. For the user, there is a need to present and consider user
goals throughout the design.
For the learner: Defne the learning outcomes that the product is expected to
produce. Determine the goals that the learner hopes to accomplish through engage-
ment with the product. Defne how these outcomes will be measured by the learner.
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Determine through what stages, clues, or measures learners know they have been
successful. Determine what the learner is expected to do with this new knowledge.
Establish how help is provided. How does the learner know they have accomplished
the intended learner outcomes?
For the user: Defne the user goals that the product is expected to provide.
Defne the goals that the user hopes to accomplish through engagement with the
product. Determine if these goals are achievable. Decide the steps, procedures, or
paths the user must implement to accomplish these goals. Establish how the user
knows they have been successful. Determine what the user is expected to do with
this new knowledge. Establish how help is provided. How does the user know they
have accomplished the intended goals?
References
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An
introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Cockburn, A. (1999, October 21). Characterizing people as non-linear, frst-order
components in software development (Technical Report No. 1999.3). Salt Lake City,
UT: Humans and Technology. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://alistair.cockburn.
us/index.php/Characterizing_people_as_non-linear%2C_frst-order_components_
in_software_development
Dray, S. M., & Siegel, D. A. (2005). Sunday in Shanghai, Monday in Madrid?!
Key issues and decisions in planning international user studies. In N. Aykin (Ed.),
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Forsythe, D. E. (1999). Its just a matter of common sense: Ethnography as invis-
ible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8, 127-145.
Fowler, M. (2001, June 29). Put your process on a diet. Retrieved July 18, 2008
from http://www.ddj.com/dept/architect/184414675
Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis
and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
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Endnotes
1
See Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative Research for Education:
An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
2
The use of ethnography in technology design is not new; it has been developing
since the 1980s to assist in software design and evaluation. The computer-
supported collaborative work community has been using anthropologists as
part of design teams to engage in ethnographic work. However, according to
Forsythe (1999), many non-ethnographers have been borrowing these ethno-
graphic methods and interpreting them unsuccessfully. Forsythe (1999) argued
that non-ethnographers should not engage in ethnographic research because
of their lack of formal training as ethnographic researchers, lackadaisical
perceptions of the research methods, and lack of respect for the ethnographic
process. Should anthropologists be a part of all design teams that seek to in-
tegrate culture in the design of ICTs? What is clear is that using ethnographic
research methods cannot be the only design specifcation in authenticating a
design.
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Chapter VI
CBM Learners
CBM Learners
The Learners (L1-L10) area centers on the needs of learners and learning. These
design factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive
of the learners cultural frames of reference and seeks to meet the learning outcomes
of the project. The design factors are adaptive to learners on multiple levels includ-
ing intellectual, motivational, and educational, thereby providing opportunities for
individualized instruction. Other design factors in this area focus on meeting the
needs of the target audience through a variety of strategies including providing op-
portunities to extend learning beyond design requirements; differentiating learning
opportunities; empowering and engaging learners; instilling proactive learning;
identifying educational objectives; enculturating the learner; and incorporating
culture-based instructional strategies.
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To design instructional products for human beings means knowing how learn-
ers learn. This design process is more inquiry based. Determine what methods
of learning are most appropriate for a learner. This suggests asking the learner,
observing the learner, analyzing situations where the learner learns, or reviewing
relevant research (Gagne & Briggs, 1974). Designing instruction without knowledge
of the learner means making assumptions about the learner. This imposes upon the
learner ones own values and dispositions versus allowing the learner to reveal their
learning styles or ways of understanding and knowing. In terms of applying a theory
of learning, this step should not be done without frst knowing the learner. Once
the learner is understood; then a theory of learning can be applied or applications
designed based on the needs of the learner. The selection and design of instruction
should be based on what is known about learners not that assumed to be known.
L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning.
L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning op-
tions.
L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering
learners and engaging instruction.
L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their
own learning.
L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or
learning objective.
L6. Culture-specifc instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies
that are individual or group specifc.
L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject
matter.
L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too
grade level or age level specifc.
L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short and long term instructional needs
of the target audience.
L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the
culture.
l 1. Extend Learning. Provide Opportunities for Extended
Learning.
Extended learning opportunities provide an adaptive design that meets learners
where they are in terms of knowing and understanding; these opportunities should
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extend or advance instruction as needed. The profcient learner needs challenging
tasks and situations. The struggling learner needs opportunities to work at their own
pace. If the product is intended to meet a varied range of learners, then these types
of extended learning opportunities should be embedded in the overall design.
Extended learning opportunities provide profcient learners with complex
opportunities that are multitiered in diffculty and struggling learners with op-
portunities to review, reinforce, and progress (see Figure 6.1).
1
Extended learning
opportunities can be constructed laterally, which means that the opportunities for
learning are similar in complexity but basically on the same level or plane. Vertically
constructed advanced learning opportunities provide instruction that increases in
complexity and diffculty. This extended or staircase learning is constructivist
as the learner continues to build on knowledge they already possess. The learner
is also provided with opportunities to remain in the lateral position for as long as
needed. This strategy supports learners where they are in skill level versus where
someone thinks they should be in skill level. This self monitoring means that
learners take responsibility for their own learning by moving up in complexity as
they have mastered skills. Ultimately, learners increase their metacognitive skills
of knowing what they know and when they know what they know.
Learners learn at different rates (speed) and ranges (distance/length). Include
extended learning opportunities that adapt to learners cognitive and sensory load and
consider the multi-modalities of learners. When using ICTs as the vehicle through
Figure 6.1. Extended learning
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which learning happens, the learning is considered multimodal. This means that
the design of instruction must interact with the multi-modalities of the learner.
Multimodalities means that information is delivered via the different sensory mo-
dalities of the human being; this can be through auditory, tactile, visual, taste, or
smell (Hempel & Altinsoy, 2005). Research supporting the use of multimodalities
in technology research indicates that it may be better to allow the learner to choose
their own level of sensory input during the learning process (Moreno & Mayer,
1999; Tuovinen, 2002). Therefore, there is a need to provide designs that adapt to
a variety of learners and learning styles.
l 2. Differentiate Opportunities to Learn. Provide a Variety of
Learning Options.
By borrowing from the educational concept of differentiated instruction that provides
learners with options in instruction (Dewey, 1897; Gagn, 1962) and applying these
ideas more broadly to the design of ICTs means that there can be differentiation
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in hardware, software, teaching and instruction, and learning. Basically, learning
does not have to be limited by traditional instructional practices of direct instruc-
tion, standardized curricula, or student in chair and instructor at the head of the
classroom. Examples of differentiated opportunities to learn can be inclusive in
media technology, teaching and instruction, and learning.
Media Technology
Providing multiple forms of media technology is one place to begin in differentiat-
ing opportunities to learn. Variations of the same instructional content can be made
available through various forms of media. These media should include electronic
and print forms such as: Electronic: computers, video game consoles, personal
data assistants, mobile phones, wearable microcomputers, video cameras, digital
cameras, televisions, flm, overhead projectors, etc. Print: books, magazines, news-
papers, board games, fash cards). The Internet presents itself as a combination of
electronic and print media. Multiple forms offer better opportunities to impact and
interact with learners. By example, educators experimented with creating a custom-
ized instructional program that used wearable microcomputers and the Internet to
teach project-based science curricula to eighth-grade students in Detroit, MI. The
fndings indicated that students began talking about science as a precursor to us-
ing scientifc terms; made connections between science and their personal lives;
exhibited interest in the technology-related activities; and were engaged in reading,
writing, and critical inquiry (Hug, Krajcik, & Marx, 2005).
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Teaching and Instruction

Provide differentiation in teaching and instruction. Teaching is defned as the act or
practice of what instructors do. Instruction refers to the knowledge and information
taught. Differentiation in teaching and instruction means many things:
Differentiation means that instruction should present a concept in multiple
ways or methods. For example, vocabulary can be taught in isolation (i.e., a
word and its meaning) or within the context of a story.
Differentiation means that instruction should provide learners with opportuni-
ties to use what they have learned. For example, learners may use vocabulary
words in their journal writing and when making an oral presentation.
Differentiation means that the culture of the learner is considered integral to
teaching practices and instructional content. The instructor learns about the
culture of the learner and makes adjustments to teaching and instruction.
Differentiation requires making available a diversity of instructional products
to teach the subject matter or content. These instructional products should
vary in media technology, subject matter or content, reading levels, interests,
and intellect.
Differentiation provides opportunities for all learners to be successful through
challenging tasks. The tasks should provide opportunities for the learner to
see and experience intellectual growth.
Differentiation in teaching and instruction requires the instructor to refect
on, review, and change how they perceive learners. Negative perceptions of
learners diminish the quality and efforts that instructors put forth.
Learning

Provide differentiation in learning. There are many theories of learning and in-
structional design theories to choose from in designing ICTs. Theories of learning
have proposed description-oriented perspectives that include behaviorist, cogni-
tive, constructivist, and humanist. Instructional design theories of learning have
proposed design-oriented perspectives that include: multiple intelligences (Gardner,
2000); conditions of learning (Gagn, 1965), and cognitive apprenticeship (Collins,
Brown, & Newman, 1989). Broadly examining these theories can aid in the design
of learning ICTs. However, the selection of theory should be based on the goals of
the project and the needs of the target audience. Designs that differentiate learning
opportunities work best at meeting the educational needs of learners.
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l 3. Empower & Engage Learners. Provide Opportunities for
Empowering Learners and Engaging Instruction
Within the design process, there are many ways to empower and engage learners.
First, there is a need to spark interest and facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.
The creativity involved in this process is the interesting part of the design process.
Imagination is all that is needed. The same inventiveness that is a part of the de-
sign of entertainment games, flms, and other such products can be brought into
the design of all products. The task is to provide learners with empowering and
engaging content. This can be done through the alignment of intrinsic stimulus
and extrinsic rewards.
Empowerment suggests an intrinsic stimulus that motivates the learner. The
stimulus, if generated through technology, is something that arouses interest, and
this enthusiasm motivates the learner. In translating this into design, decisions are
made on the kinds of things that would be an intrinsic stimulus given the products
design. For example, in a video game, a digital time clock might appear on screen
every 3 minutes, indicating how much time is left before the end of the world.
The digital time clock becomes the intrinsic stimulus that propels the user to speed
forward with their task before the world ends. This intrinsic stimulus is embedded
throughout the game. In an educational game that focuses on algebra, a learner
who is working on a problem such as [x
2
+ 5x 24 = __] could be prompted with a
single-digit multiplication problem (e.g., 3 8 = __) as a challenge incentive. The
learner could choose from a choice of challenges in this multitasked learning op-
portunity. In this case, the intrinsic stimulus is a challenge multiplication problem
chosen by the learner.
Next, focus on how the intrinsic stimuli can be embedded throughout the design,
locate the points where the stimuli are to be placed, and offer explanations of why
these placements are most appropriate. Again, the stimuli are meant to generate
a positive reaction and peek the interest the learner. The strategic embedding of
stimuli lays a mine feld for motivation.
The explicit documentation of the stimuli should be recorded in the initial brain-
storming plans. Therefore, there is a blueprint of how each stimulus was embedded
and its actual representation in the product. This record is needed for when there
are corrections, revisions, or other design matters.
Extrinsic rewards in the design of technology are most likely not concrete. Virtual
examples are feedback such as a text message or a sound indicating that an action
is correct. In an entertainment game, the user might receive points, more ammuni-
tion for an assault weapon, and an opportunity to advance to the next challenge. In
translating this into design, the designer decides on the kinds of items that would
be an extrinsic reward given the products design. The placement of these extrinsic
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rewards should be documented as part of the design process. These extrinsic rewards
can be seen as another aspect that assists in engaging learners.
Through the use of both intrinsic stimulus and extrinsic rewards, learners can
be motivated to use and continue to use products. Intrinsic learners understand the
value and worth of engaging the product. They do not have to be convinced that
the product can beneft them. Extrinsically, the product gives back or responds
positively to the learner. This feedback or response creates a reciprocal relation
between learner and technology.
3
Determine how the product addresses the need to motivate the learners. Deter-
mine how the product captures and maintains the attention of the learner.
l 4. Teach Proactive Learning. Help Learners to be Proactive in
Improving Their Own Learning.
Proactive learning requires building mechanisms into ICTs that provide incentives
to learners to improve their learning. Create multiple pathways for the learner to
improve, build, or develop skills, abilities, and experiences. Proactive learning
strategies may consist of opportunities to review, restart, go back, skip forward,
or have the problem resolved. For example, an online mathematics program that
teaches fractions could provide multiple ways to solve a problem. The learner could
have the choice to review previous lessons that led to this lesson on fractions. The
online program could allow the learner to restart the lesson from the beginning,
go back a step or two, or skip forward. Another option is to have computer simu-
lated examples of steps the learner could have taken to solve the problem. Multiple
pathways and diverse examples of how to solve the mathematical problem could
be offered. Providing this type of online support limits learners need for outside
assistance, helps them to see other pathways to learning and prepares them to take
responsibility for their own learning.
Proactive learning helps learners to use their metacognitive skills to control
their learning environment. Learners take into consideration their learning mo-
dalities (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic), and they use the technology to assist
in the acquisition of knowledge. In a science lesson, the technology could offer
three different representations of how a caterpillar transforms into a butterfy. The
frst representation could be abstractonly in words. Abstract learning focuses
on thinking. The second representation could be concrete. The learner must click
on images or text to see the transformation in controlled stages. Concrete learning
focuses on feelings or hands-on activities. The third example could be a simulated
representation in which the caterpillars transformation is fully animated and con-
tinuous with audio, visuals, and interactively engaging features. Providing choices
in solving problems and understanding content can be a benefcial way of engaging
learners in proactive learning.
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The goal of proactive learning is for the learner to take responsibility for their
own learning; therefore learners become more self-suffcient and independent.
l 5. Identify Educational Objectives. Have an Underlying
Educational and/or Learning Objective
Decide on the learning or educational objectives of the product. Begin with this
outcomes-based view of learning and the learner. It is a way of beginning at the
end and working backward. It is also a great start to the learning process if learners
know the objectives before engaging a task or activity. This is similar to how instruc-
tors present the daily agenda to the class. Objectives let the learner know what is
expected of them and hopefully aids them in achieving these goals. Therefore, the
learner is expected to acquire knowledge. A second reason to identify educational
objectives is to measure or assess the learning outcomes. The success or failure of
the objectives can be determined by assessing the learning outcomes.
4
l 6. Culture-Specifc Instructional Strategies. Consider
Instructional Strategies that are Individual or Group Specifc.
Culture-specifc instructional strategies are specialized to a particular individual or
group. These instructional strategies take into consideration how the target audience
learns and the best way of approaching this learning.
Research is the frst step in better understanding the educational needs of the
target audience. Gather relevant educational research (e.g., journal articles) on
educating the target audience. These studies should be supported by qualitative
or quantitative data. Use the fndings as a guide to determine what works best in
educating the target audience. Gather relevant academic books on educating the
target audience. Many of these books are based on research data and have proven
to be benefcial in educating the target audience.
Based on the information gathered through CBM Elements (E1E20) and other
research, determine what instructional strategies should be considered in the overall
design. Include those instructional strategies that would best meet the needs of the
target audience. The instructional strategies will depend on the content, context,
technology, and purpose of the product..
l 7. Enrich Instructional Content. Expand Instructional Content
Beyond Subject Matter.
Instructional content is unlimited in the information age, as there is so much infor-
mation. However, the packaging of this information and the selection of appropriate
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content are the challenges of design. In addition to the basic instructional content,
connections can be made to other culture-specifc elements of learners such as top-
ics related to politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, and social actions
(see CBM Elements). In doing so, a more holistic picture of learners is presented.
Products that meet the needs of learners encompass a variety of content. This
content is not limited if it seeks to consider all aspects of the learners lives in the
design process. Incorporate all aspects of the lives of the individual, group, or com-
munity (e.g., politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, social actions).
This holistic account of learners provides a more authentic representation.
l 8. Adapt Instruction to Learner. Provide Adaptable Instruction
that is not too Grade Level or Age Level Specifc.
Adapting instruction to the learner means that the product incorporates multilev-
els of instruction that translate beyond grade and age to cognitive ability. Design
materials that offer several ranges above and below the median point. Learning,
in this sense, is contingent upon the learners intellectual ability. Learners are not
penalized for struggling in the task or advancing in a learning task. Multileveled
learning opportunities beneft the learner in that they receive more content for their
money. (This may mean less money for businesses; however, the goal of CBM is
to provide more equity for learners as learners and as consumers). The amount of
content found in three non culture-based commercial products are offered in a single
multileveled products. This move to meet the needs of the learner offers a wider
market in terms of age, grade, and skill level. For example, a biology educational
program might provide instruction in the basic, intermediate and an introduction
to advanced levels of biology versus only one level.
l 9. Plan for Instruction. Focus on the Short and Long Term
Instructional Needs of the Target Audience.
A plan for instruction is not a lesson plan but a plan of action that will be imple-
mented over a period of time. This plan should begin with long-term consider-
ations of the instructional needs of the target audience. (Long-term could mean
several years or several months.) This plan considers the long-term ramifcations
of the instructional aspects of the design. The long-term goal of any instructional
project probably focuses on improving learning, building knowledge, or fostering
understanding. Determine the long-term actions that should be taken to improve
learning, build knowledge, or foster understanding. Decide in what ways the target
audience benefts from this long-term plan. Determine whether an equitable plan
has been put into place.
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A short-term plan could cover several weeks or days. This plan of action considers
the short-term ramifcations of the instructional aspects of the design. The short-
term goals of projects may provide brief assessments to measure effectiveness or
effciency to prepare for the long-term plan. Short-term plans provide results quickly
and may move projects forward quickly toward the long-term goals. Decide on the
short-term actions to improve learning, build knowledge, or foster understand-
ing. Determine how the short-term plans work toward making the long-term plan
happen. Examine whether the plan is equitable to the target audience. A plan for
instruction should consider an equitable design that meets the needs of the target
audience. Equitable factors include cost, access, and cumulative content.

l 10. Enculturate the Learner. Use the Product to Enculturate
the Learner into the Culture
Products can be used as social tools to acclimate versus alienate learners. Encultura-
tion versus assimilation makes instructional designs more accessible for diverse
populations. Designs that enculturateintegrate the culture of the learner into the
design process. Assimilationist designs make the learner adhere to the cultural
nuances of the dominant culture. The learner struggles through even though the
process is culturally incompatible. For some learners, they cannot access the con-
tent without connections to their own culture. Bridging the connections between
the learner, content, and technology are the goals of enculturating the learner. This
balancing act can be achieved in a variety of ways:
1. Offer support for technological aspects of the product.
2. Incorporate culture-specifc design specifcations of the learner. This type
of instruction indicates to the target audience that the designers value them,
their language, history, and so forth. Basically, validate the target audience
as an integral part of the design process.
3. Inform learners of what must be learned that is consistent with the dominant
ideologies. Help the learner feel comfortable and buy into this learning. For
example, a statement such as the following could accompany a product: there
are some factors consistent with Western culture that is important in interact-
ing with this product. They include (a) the use of icons that begin on the left
side of the screen and move to the right; (b) the following icon has been
tested with cross-cultural audiences as an acceptable symbol for writing.
These factors have been incorporated to make future versions of this product
consistent across groups of people.
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This type of informed marketing lets consumers know that their needs have been
considered in the design process and that businesses are working toward bridging
the lines of communication between learner, content, and technology.
Some creativity is required, but it is possible. The design team should brainstorm
ways of enculturating learners that cost less in time and money.
References
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship:
Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.),
Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453-
494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001, Spring). Extrinsic rewards and
intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational
Research, 71(1), 1-27.
Gagn, R. M. (Ed.). (1962). Introduction. In R. M. Gagne (Ed.), Psychological prin-
ciples in system development (pp. 1-10). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gagn, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston.
Gagn, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1974). Principles of instructional design. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Hempel, T., & Altinsoy, E. (2005). Multimodal user interfaces: Designing media
for the auditory and the tactile channel. In R. W. Proctor & K.-P. L. Vu (Eds.),
Handbook of human factors in web design (pp. 134-155). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Hug, B., Krajcik, J. S., & Marx, R. W. (2005). Using innovative learning technolo-
gies to promote learning and engagement in an urban science classroom. Urban
Education, 40(4), 446-472.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning:
The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2),
358-368.
Tuovinen, J. E. (2002). Cognition research basis for instructional multimedia. In
S. M. Rahman (Ed.), Interactive multimedia systems (pp. 146-162). Hershey, PA:
IRM Press.
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Endnotes
1
The idea of extended learning possesses some of the qualities of Robert
Gagns (1962) hierarchial analysis in that the learner performs simpler tasks
frst before moving on to more complex tasks.
2
The term differentiation can be found in the work of learning theorists who
sought answers to teaching and learning (Dewey, 1897; Gagn, 1962).
3

For more on the benefts of intrinsic motivation and the detriment of extrinsic
rewards for learners, see Deci, Koestner, & Ryan (2001).
4
Gagn (1965b) has written extensively on the importance of instructional
objectives. His ideas on measuring the objectives have been adapted here.
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Chapter VII
CBM Elements I
CBM Elements
Elements (E1-E25) facilitate content development. These Elements are intended to be
comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed.
Most of those things that formulate a culture are included in the 25 Elements. The
tangibles and intangibles defne the Elements. Tangibles have material qualities
and intangibles nonmaterial qualities (see Table 7.1).
The meanings of the terms culture and society can overlap, but they should be
viewed separately within the space of design. A society is a group of people who
share commonalities that are understood by all and collectively inhabit a particular
physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999).
Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing and thinking. This culture
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shapes societies behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In
understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of its past and present
histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006).
The Elements are divided into three sections: the anthropology of culture, the
psychology of culture, and the science of culture. These divisions are consistent
with research in the disciplines of cultural anthropology, cultural psychology, and
science; however, there are modifcations to provide application of these concepts
as design constructs. An overview of each section is provided as context for the
Elements. Then each design factor is defned, described, and illustrated through
relevant cross-cultural examples. A set of guiding questions for the design process
are offered that are specifc to the culture and the target audience.
Guiding Questions
Guiding questions support design and research efforts. These questions are not
meant to be comprehensive, but they are a starting point in better accessing and
understanding human beings and the world in which we live. Creating guiding
questions specifc to ones project is encouraged.
Guiding questions that address the society and culture are broadly based al-
lowing for a general review of societies and cultures. These questions are labeled
as culture guiding questions or culture GQ. Culture GQ makes inquiries from the
designer/researchers perspective or an objective interpretation of the data (e.g.,
What is the style of the object?) Answers may come from the designer/researchers
personal perspective based on data gathered through a museum visit, government
documents, and so forth. Or data can be gathered from an art historians interpre-
tation of the object; alternatively, this information may be found in a textbook or
magazine article.
Target audience guiding questions are specifc to the group or individuals in
the group. These questions are labeled as target audience GQ because if these
questions were listed separately it would be impossible to tell if a question was
for the society/culture or the target audience. As an example, a Culture GQ might
read: What products or goods are made, and the Target Audience GQ reads: What
products or goods are made by the target audience? This was also done because the
handbook may be used by a designer who reviews only questions related to society
and culture, and a researcher may only look at the questions related to the target
audience. Therefore, there is some overlap in the wording of questions.
Dealing with living and non-living target audiences is important to consider. If
the target audience is living, as much data as possible should be obtained from living
human beings. Target audience GQ makes inquiries from the designer/researchers
perspective of the data or directly from the target audience (e.g., What is the style
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Elements Tangibles.and.Intangibles
The.anthropology.of.culture:
E1. Cultural aesthetics That which is considered beautiful
E2. Cultural artifacts Products that exist or remain
E3. Cultural capital Economics and material wealth
E4. Cultural classifcation Divisions in a culture or society
E5. Cultural communications The exchange or transmission of information
E6. Cultural demographics Characteristics of a population
E7. Cultural environment Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species
or entity lives and develops
E8. Cultural history Narrative representation of historical events
E9. Cultural knowledge What is known and what one comes to know
E10. Cultural language Language form, content, use and meaning
E11. Cultural physiology The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or
entity
E12. Cultural relations The relationship of one being to another being
E13. Cultural resources The use and cultivation of resources
The.psychology.of.culture:
E14. Cultural beliefs & values Beliefs (shared truths); values (shared ideas)
E15. Cultural experiences The interpretation of the world from inside and out
E16. Cultural ideas The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions
E17. Cultural identity Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity
E18. Cultural interests Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes
E19. Cultural misconceptions Untruths, myths, stereotypes
E20. Cultural ways Behaviors, norms, feelings
The.science.of.culture:
E21. Cultural anomalies Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change
E22. Cultural cultures The scientifc identifcation of cultures, worlds, ecosystems
E23. Cultural futures That which is to come
E24. Cultural infnities Those things without limits: time, space, distance
E25. Cultural nature Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
Table 7.1. CBM elements
of the object created by the target audience?) In the case of a non-living or inac-
cessible audience, this question would be appropriate. This information can be
found in a textbook, documentary, journal, and so forth. In the case of a living and
readily accessible audience, the following target audience question may be more
appropriate: Do Mayans believe they have an artistic style? One way to fnd out the
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answer to this question is to ask the living members of the target audience? There
are fewer target audience GQ that address the living audience, but questions should
be adapted to match the needs of the project.
The Anthropology of Culture
Cultural aesthetics
Cultural artifacts
Cultural capital
Cultural classifcation
Cultural communications
Cultural demographics
Cultural environment
Cultural history
Cultural knowledge
Cultural language
Cultural physiology
Cultural relations
Cultural resources
This section is entitled the anthropology of culture because it draws from key
concepts in the felds of anthropology, language, history, economics, demography,
communications, and the physical and environmental sciences to explore the depth
of culture. The anthropology of culture takes into consideration that human beings,
other species and entities have various ways of being and seeing the world (Ember
& Ember, 2001). Therefore, a broad examination of the humanities and sciences
are required to meet these needs.
Anthropological models of culture examine the whole culture looking at the
shared behavior and knowledge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Similarly, the
anthropology of culture is a comprehensive examination of societies, cultures,
groups and individuals that build and participate in a culture. The Elements allow
the deconstruction of the range of human existence through an examination of its
human made architecture, artifacts, economic system, social classifcation, living
conditions, history, acquired intelligence, language dominance, physical structure
and cultural resources.
The Elements are defned, described, illustrated and addressed in terms of society,
culture and the target audience. There are 25 design factors under CBM Elements.
This chapter covers the frst four that include: Cultural aesthetics; Cultural artifacts;
Cultural capital; and Cultural classifcation.
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Cultural Aesthetics
E1..Cultural.Aesthetics.-.That.which.is.considered.beautiful.
Cultural aesthetics is an awareness of beauty or art in a culture. Determining what
is beautiful or artistic is subjective. An understanding of the aesthetic nature of a
culture or society helps to understand the things that are valued, individual and
group interactions, social practices, and the level of technological advancement.
Cultural aesthetics can be defned, articulated, produced, represented, celebrated,
valued, expressed, or sublimed (Ruhl, 2006).
Art
Art is the core of human existence (Preble & Preble, 2002); it defnes societies
past and present (Fumerton, 1991; Ruhl, 2006). The arts are represented through
many forms such as dance, literature, music, visual arts, carving, painting and
dramatic arts. Art serves to express the values of a culture; it provides pleasure,
entertainment, and decoration for a society (Preble & Preble, 2002; Ruhl, 2006).
The purposes that art serves may include: educational, social, political, spiritual,
and daily functionality.
Art communicates, educates or preserves information. The stained glass window
The Tree Of Jesse (c. 1150-1170) at Chartres Cathedral, outside of Paris, portrays
the genealogy of Jesus Christ. This artistic artifact serves to communicate a reli-
gious message, educate people about Jesus Christs family history and preserve this
information in a historical monument (Preble & Preble, 2002).
Art may represent a social or political purpose. Artists may use their art to criticize
society or to infuence public opinion. Representations of social and political acts
are also prevalent in architecture, sculpture, painting, television and flm (Preble &
Preble, 2002). American producer and writer Michael Moores documentaries have
impacted the social and political discourse and changed public opinion with his
expos documentaries Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004) and Bowling for Columbine (2002).
Fahrenheit 9/11 mocks the failures of President George W. Bush and his War on
Terrorism after the 9/11/2001 attack on the United States. Bowling for Columbine
examines American gun violence.
Art serves a spiritual or magical purpose in societies. One of the well known
scientifc examples celebrating art and religion is Stonehenge, a confguration of
boulders located in England (see Figure 7.1). The boulders are believed to have some
religious signifcance. When viewed from above the boulders make a creative pattern
and appear to be artistically or strategically placed (Preble & Preble, 2002).
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When art serves useful functions it becomes a valued artifact of a society. Many
objects used in everyday living provide enjoyment and utility from the moccasin
to the sports car (Preble & Preble, 2002). A chair for example, provides the func-
tionality of an object for sitting and resting. A bowl acts as a container for food.
An automobile offers the ability to travel to distant places, the comfort of sitting,
and protection from the weather.
Culture GQ
What purpose does art serve in this society or culture? Who determines what is
art? Who is allowed to create art? What forms of art are most prevalent? Does art
provide emotional satisfaction? Does art serve as a form of entertainment? How
does art adorn the society or culture? Does art serve an educational purpose?
Does art convey messages or communicate? How does art express the values of
the culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda? Does art serve a spiritual
or religious agenda? Is art used in functional ways? Is public opinion changed by
artistic expression? How has art infuenced human behavior?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience view art? Does the target audience maintain their own
artistic style and if so what is this style?
1
How does the target audience perceive
Figure 7.1. Stonehenge (part of the Sarsen circle)
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art? What motivates the target audience to create (e.g., survival, recording events,
religious reasons, spirituality, desire to create)? What purpose does art serve in
the lives of the target audience? Who, in the target audience, determines what is
art? Who, in the target audience, is allowed to create art? What forms of art are
most common in the culture of the target audience? Does art provide emotional
satisfaction for the target audience? Does art serve as a form of entertainment for
the target audience? How does art adorn the culture of the target audience? Does
art serve an educational purpose for the target audience? Does art convey messages
or communicate to the target audience? How does art express the values of the
target audiences culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda for the target
audience? Does art serve a spiritual or religious agenda for the target audience? Is
art used in functional ways by the target audience? Is public opinion changed by
the artistic expression of the target audience? How has art infuenced the behavior
of the target audience?
Beauty
Beauty is subjectively simple. Those things considered aesthetically beautiful can
become icons within a culture. Cultural icons
2
are persons, places or things con-
sidered to be sublime. Sublime means that the object or organism is awe-inspiring,
captivating, arousing, impressive, and emotionally uplifting. It can be symbolic,
religious, architectural, technological, or natural. Cultural icons bring together a
diversity of groups and provide an extraordinary experience for people. Techno-
logical or human-made cultural icons considered sublime may appear as bridges,
railways, skyscrapers, airplanes, factories, dams, or space vehicles. Natural examples
of cultural icons include those created by the earth such as the Grand Canyon and
Niagara Falls in the United States. People considered to be sublimed might include:
Jesus Christ, Mahatma Ghandi, or Mother Teresa.
What is sublime to one individual is not to another (Nye, 1999). Cultural icons
of the 21
st
century include the Akashi-Kaiko Bridge built in 2005 connecting Kobe,
Japan with the Awaji Island; at 3,991 meters, this is the worlds longest suspension
bridge. Taipai 101 is a 101 foor skyscraper located in Taipei City, Taiwan; as of
2004, it has the worlds fastest elevator in what is now the worlds tallest building
(Newsweek, April, 2006).
Culture GQ
How is beauty defned in this society or culture? What objects or things are consid-
ered aesthetically beautiful? Are any human beings considered cultural icons? What
technological or human-made objects are considered cultural icons? What natural
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wonders are considered cultural icons? How have these cultural icons shaped the
social structure of this society or culture? How have these cultural icons shaped
the environmental structure of this society or culture? Have these cultural icons
altered the future?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience defne beauty? Does the target audience consider
a person to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any technologi-
cal artifact to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any natural
phenomenon to be a cultural icon? What has been the target audiences experience
with these cultural icons? Has the target audience met, visited, seen, touched or
experienced these cultural icons? What are the target audiences impressions of
cultural icons? Are the values of the target audience tied to any cultural icon and
if so in what way?
Cultural Artifacts
E2..Cultural.Artifacts.-.Products.that.exist.or.remain.
Cultural artifacts are products that exist or remain that can be made by human be-
ings, other species or entities. These artifacts are usually tangible objects created
specifcally for a practical use or purpose (Fleming, 1974; Rieth, 2006; Ruhl, 2006).
All cultures are dependent on the artifacts of its creation to represent its existence,
survival, or demonstrate an extension of their humanity. To understand and know
a culture requires a study of those things made (Fleming, 1974). There are fve
classifcations, proposed by Fleming (1974), in which to link the properties of an
artifact; they include: history, design, material, construction and function
3
.
History
Cultural artifacts carry a history (Hitz, 1994). This history is embedded in objects
like those gathered by archeologists who seek to examine the remains of a society.
The archeologists search may lead to ancient or contemporary tools, food, cooking
utensils, personal effects, pottery, or debris (Rieth, 2006). The linguist examines
language through written documentation or recorded oral stories. The anthropolo-
gist studies artifacts such as cave paintings, photographs, or other graphic and text
representations. They also record data using videotapes or flms; collect public and
personal artifacts such as tax records, transcripts, wills, property acquisitions, let-
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ters, diaries; and use and explore technological artifacts (Brettell, 1998; El Guindi,
1998). The art historian examines drawings; paintings; printmaking; sculpture; art
made of clay, glass, metal, wood, and fber; photography; computer imaging; graphic
design and illustration; and architecture and environmental design (Preble & Preble,
2002).
4
Within all of these ethnographers is a desire to discover the meanings and
the stories that these artifacts tell.
Fleming (1974) described the relationship of the artifact to its culture in the
following excerpt:
One might interpret the signifcance of the Model T Ford to be the pioneering ap-
plication of the assembly line to mass production, its improvements on the internal
combustion engine, or its provision of cheap transportation. On the other hand,
its signifcance might be found in the fact that it was a particular instance of the
general democratization of technological benefts, or that it created a revolution in
the life-style of rural America. Or its signifcance might be found in its effects and
consequences, such as the increased mobility of the American people, the liberal-
ized sexual ethics of the middle class, or air pollution (p. 161).
Authenticating an artifacts history begins with the collection of primary and
secondary sources. Primary source documents include bills of sale, media adver-
tisements, probate reports, family records, books on design, architecture, (Fleming,
1974) department store catalogs, and so forth. A more extensive history of an artifact
may include information on its creator or manufacturer, details about its purchaser
or owner, origins and characteristics of the construction materials, chronology of
functioning, cultural meaning, and style modifcations (Fleming, 1974).
Culture GQ
What is the history of cultural artifacts in this society or culture? What are some
facts about the object in relation to this society or culture (e.g., year of creation/built;
place of origin; biographical information on the designer, creator, builder or manu-
facturer; biographical information on the owner and purchaser of the artifact; who
was it designed for; why was it designed; chronology of the passage of ownership,
history of its design, material, construction and function, etc.)? Does the object have
any specifc meaning to the society or culture? Does the object have any particular
signifcance or relevance to any group or individual? How has the object changed
this society or culture? Does the object have any religious or artistic signifcance
to the society or culture? Does the object have any signifcance to the beliefs and
values of the society or culture?
5
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Target Audience GQ
What is the history of cultural artifacts designed by the target audience? What are
some facts about the object in relation to the target audience? Does the object have
any specifc meaning to the target audience? Does the object have any particular
signifcance or relevance to the target audience? How has the object changed the
target audience? Does the object have any religious or artistic signifcance to the
target audience? Does the object have any signifcance to the beliefs and values of
the target audience?
Design
The design of an artifact refers to its form, style, and content (Fleming, 1974).
6
Form,
style and content address the characteristics and meaning of an artifact.
Form:.Form refers to the physical characteristics of an artifact. The physical char-
acteristics include all external descriptors (Preble & Preble, 2002).
Culture GQ
7
What does the object look like? What is the objects shape? What is the objects
color or range of colors? What is the objects texture? What is the objects measure-
ment (e.g., dimensions, weight)? How much space does the object occupy? Does
the object indicate the passage of time (e.g., a painting representing the life cycle)?
Does the object manipulate time (e.g., flm, video)? Does the object move? Does
the object occupy space in its movement? Does the object refect light? Does the
object absorb light?
8
Target Audience GQ
If the target audience is living, these questions may be asked. How does the target
audience describe what the object looks like? How does the target audience describe
the objects shape? How does the target audience describe the objects color or range
of colors? How does the target audience describe the objects texture? How does
the target audience describe the objects measurements (e.g., dimensions, weight)?
How does the target audience characterize the space occupied by the object? To the
target audience, does the object indicate the passage of time? To the target audience,
does the object manipulate time (e.g., flm, video)? To the target audience, does the
object move or occupy space in its movement? To the target audience, does the
object refect or absorb light?
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Style:.Style refers to the characteristics of an artifact that identify it as an object
of a particular society, culture, time period, location, group, or individual (Preble
& Preble, 2002). The style of an artifact can be unique to the individual, group,
community, culture, or society.
Culture GQ
What is the style of the object? How does the object refect the beliefs, values, or
identity of the society or culture? How are style changes refected, over a time period,
in objects (e.g., womens dresses in 1807 to womens dresses in 2007)? Is there a
defnable period of style? [For example, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the
Art Nouveau period, an international decorative style, fourished in Europe (Preble
& Preble, 2002). This style was refected in architecture, furniture, art, murals,
mosaics, glassware, and other artifacts]. Is there a geographic style exhibited in the
object in present day or across time periods? Is there a group style that exists in the
creation of objects? [For example, impressionism is a style of painting developed
by the French in the late 19th century. Several well-known artists, such as Claude
Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, adapted this style as their own and publicized
their work through exhibits (Preble & Preble, 2002). Other examples of Western
design movements include art deco, postmodernism, minimalism and pop art]. Is
there a personal style that exists in individuals who create objects and artifacts?
How is the artist, creator, or builders individual style affected by the culture?

Target Audience GQ
What is the style of the object created by the target audience? How does the object
refect the beliefs, values, or identity of the target audience? How are style changes
refected over time in objects created by the target audience? Is there a defnable
period of style for the target audience? Is there a regional style exhibited in the
object created by the target audience? Is there a group style that exists in objects
created by the target audience? Is there a personal style that exists in individuals,
in the target audience, who create objects and artifacts? What does the target audi-
ence believe to be their style?
Content:.Content contains the message or meanings communicated by an artifact.
This includes symbolic, thematic, narrative, emotional and intellectual. The content
of an artifact is expressed through its form (Preble & Preble, 2002).
9
For example,
symbolism is represented in signs and images within artifacts and captures the
messages and meanings related to its culture.
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Culture GQ
What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact? What images are
present in the artifact? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols
or symbolic meanings connect to some aspect of the society or culture (e.g., religion,
politics)? How do the images connect to some aspect of the society or culture? How
do the icons connect to some aspect of the society or culture?
10
Target Audience GQ
What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact that relate to the
target audience? What images are present in the artifact that relate to the target
audience? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols or symbolic
meanings connect to some aspect of the target audience? How do the images connect
to some aspect of the target audience? How do the icons connect to some aspect
of the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the symbols or
symbolic meaning in their artifacts?
Material
Artifacts are also made from materials such as metal, wood, plastic, glass, fberglass,
fabric, rubber, stone, clay, concrete, foam, and so forth (Fleming, 1974). Materials
are particular to time periods and geographic locations.
Culture GQ
What material is the object made from in this society or culture? What are the
characteristics of this material? Has the object been made in other kinds of materi-
als and why? What makes this material suitable to the design of the object? What
is the texture of this material?
Target Audience GQ
What material is the object made from and what is its signifcance to the target audi-
ence? Why did the target audience use this material? From the target audiences point
of view, what makes this material suitable to the design of the object? Did the target
audience view the texture of the material as important in the overall design?
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Construction
The construction of artifacts can involve automated mechanical, manual mechani-
cal or handmade techniques (Fleming, 1974). The techniques of construction are
related to the type of society or culture and time period.
Culture GQ
Through what techniques was the object made (e.g., automated mechanical, manual
mechanical, handmade techniques) in this society or culture? Given the techniques,
what was the process of its construction? How many of these objects were con-
structed? How often were these objects constructed? How has the construction of
this object infuenced the society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ
Through what techniques was the object made by the target audience? Given the
techniques, what was the process of construction used by the target audience? How
many of these objects were constructed by the target audience? How often were
these objects constructed by the target audience? How has the construction of this
object infuenced the target audience? What perspective did the target audience
have related to the construction of the object?
Function
Function includes the uses (planned functions) and the roles (unplanned functions)
of the artifact (Fleming, 1974). Planned functions refer to the intended use of the
artifact; unplanned functions refer to the unintended role of an artifact. This shift
from use to role is exemplifed in the reinvention of phonographic or vinyl records.
Vinyl records are devices that store sound and have been traditionally used to play-
back music. However, African American hip hop DJs appropriated the turntable
and used vinyl records to do scratching. Scratching means to physically create
friction between a phonograph needle and the grooves of a vinyl record. Hip hop
DJs scratched the vinyl record creating new sounds, rhythms, and meanings. The
original use of vinyl records as playback devices shifted to the new role of sound
maker (Eglash, 2004; Goldberg, 2004); thereby reinventing the technology.
Artifacts may be used in a variety of ways. If an artifact is a tool, it serves a use-
fulness. An artifact can infuence human behavior; in this case, human beings may
act with or be infuenced by the utility of the object. As an example, the invention
of the handgun enabled humans to defend themselves, hunt for game, and acquire
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feelings of empowerment. However, the handgun has also infuenced others to use
it for sinister purposes. Artifacts may also function to communicate messages,
meanings, beliefs, values, or ideas. In this sense, artifacts that communicate carry
information and messages about their history and the culture that designed, built or
manufactured them (Fleming, 1974). Artifacts can be things such as a table, chair,
knife, lamp, house, utensils, container, painting, sculpture, and so forth.
Culture GQ
What is the object? How is the object used in this society or culture? Are there other
roles in which the object is used that were unplanned from its original purpose?
Has the objects use changed human behavior? Does the object communicate any
messages, meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas? Has the objects use changed the
society or culture?
12
Target Audience GQ
What is the object created by the target audience? How is the object used by the
target audience? Are there other roles in which the target audience uses the object
that were unplanned from its original purpose? Has the objects use changed the
behavior of the target audience? Does the object communicate any messages,
meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas related to the target audience? Has the objects
use changed the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the
function of the object(s)?
More on Artifacts
There can be great depth in understanding artifacts, their role in history, and their
impact on human existence. The classifcation of artifacts begins to tell the stories
behind a culture and get at the essence of its existence. Table 7.2 illustrates how
cultural artifacts can be classifed and the data collected and organized.
Culture GQ
What human-made products exist? What human-made products have been left by
other human beings, species or entities? How do the cultural artifacts illustrate his-
tory? How do the cultural artifacts represent the existence of human beings, other
species or entities? What is the design of the cultural artifacts? From what materials
are the cultural artifacts made? How are the cultural artifacts constructed? What
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Table 7.2. SobanCultural Artifacts
13
History: A soban is a small table and a
tray used by Koreans. Early examples of
this furniture were found in the 1st
Choson B.C.7th Choson A.D. (Park,
1996). Sobans were used by royal
families and the upper class as status
symbols and signs of economic
prosperity. By the 18th and 19th
centuries, the soban became more
commonly used and produced.
Design:
Form-The soban usually measures 60
inches in length. The legs are finely
carved and are a unique characteristic of
sobans. The top panels come in different
shapes. There are a variety of sobans
some named based the region that
manufactured the table (e.g., Haeju-ban,
Tongyong-ban, and Naju-ban). Other
sobans are named based on shape of the
top panel (e.g., Dagak-ban [8-, 10- or 12-
sided]) or the shape of the legs (e.g.,
hojok-ban [tigers paw])
Style- Early sobans were plain in design.
By the 18th and 19th centuries, the soban
contained more decorative designs. It was
mass produced and used by commoners
and servants. In the late 19th century, the
Haeju-ban was characterized by its two
trestles instead of legs and its rectangular
top panel.
Content-The form and style of sobans
contained many meanings. Some sobans
were sculpted with symbols like the
Chinese character for longevity or the
Buddhist emblem .
Material: Sobans are usually made of
light weight durable wood (e.g., pine,
gingko, or paulownia). The legs are made
out of hardwood.
Construction: The basic construction
consisted of the top panel or chonpan and
the supports (legs, trestles, or bases). The
top panel overhangs the supports. Most
legs were joined by aprons and stretchers
and reinforced by bamboo nails or pegs.
Function: Sobans functioned as a cutting
board, serving tray for food and eating
table. Some other practical uses include:
tea tray, desk, table for memorable
rites.
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function do the cultural artifacts serve? How have the cultural artifacts changed
the behavior of human beings or other species or entities?
Target Audience GQ
What cultural artifacts were made or produced by the target audience? What purpose
do cultural artifacts serve in the lives of the target audience? Does a style exist in
the cultural artifacts that are unique to the target audience? How have the cultural
artifacts changed the target audiences behavior? What does the target audience
believe about the cultural artifacts in their society or culture?
Cultural Capital
E3..Cultural.Capital.-.Economics.and.material.wealth.
Cultural capital refers to the economics of a society or culture. Economics relates
to how individuals, groups, institutions, societies, or cultures cope when there is a
scarcity of resources (McConnell & Brue, 2008).
Economic histories capture historical time periods, institutions, changes and
instability, or systems. These histories may reveal trends in an economy and pat-
terns of economic systems such as feudalism, slavery, imperialism, or capitalism.
Economic histories may also reveal phases of an economic system such as com-
petitive, monopoly and transnational capitalism (OHara, 1999, p. 862). This
history is also interdisciplinary as it is diffcult to study poverty without examining
the social issues that lead to this condition. Other important roles in an economic
history are class, gender, and race/ethnicity, and these roles should be considered
as part of the analysis of economic history (OHara, 1999).
This section provides an anthropological interpretation of economics in focusing
on production, distribution, and consumption (Ferraro, 2004). This interpretation
is more inclusive of market and nonmarket societies and thereby provides a broad
examination of societies and cultures.
Production
Production is the process of acquiring natural resources from the environment and
transforming these goods into usable products. Some groups may choose to procure
goods through hunting and gathering, others may live by their livestock alone, and
others may have sophisticated technological processing systems. Societies vary in
what they produce based on the accessibility of natural resources, availability of
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technological processing, and quantity of energy resources. However, the values
of a culture also impact production. The Hindus in India, as an example, believe
the cow to be a sacred animal; therefore, the cow is not slaughtered for its beef or
consumed for food (Ferraro, 2004).
Every society divides its people into productive units with specifc duties to
perform. The household and a business are examples of units of production. The
household may be made up of family members (e.g., wife, husband, and children)
or of extended family members. In a horticultural society, members of the family
produce the products they consume through harvesting crops, building shelters,
obtaining frewood and fuels, tending livestock, making weapons and tools, and
crafting utensils and cookware. In more industrialized societies, the business or
private company as a unit of production produces goods or services. Employees are
the workers who produce the goods or provide services that are sold. They usually
receive compensation or a salary so that they can, in turn, buy goods and services
(Ferraro, 2004).
In addition to units of production, a society may divide people by labor. Divisions
of labor are usually based on gender and age, but there are exceptions.
Culture GQ
What type of society or culture is it (e.g., horticultural, pastoral)? (See Cultural His-
tory: Agricultural for more examples.) What goods are acquired from the natural
resources of the environment? How are resources acquired (e.g., hunting, machines)?
What natural resources are accessible and why? What natural resources are inac-
cessible and why? Are there units of production? What groups of people make up
the units of production? What duties are performed by the units of production? How
are goods produced? Who produces these goods? What services are provided? How
are people compensated or not? What are the most apparent divisions of labor?
How do these divisions of labor separate what people do? How do these divisions
of labor help the society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience participate in the production process? What values
of the target audience impact production? What does the target audience produce
in terms of goods and services? How do the goods produced by the target audi-
ence impact the society or culture? What does the target audience believe about
the production process?
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Distribution
Distribution is the sharing, giving, or exchanging of goods that have been acquired
from the natural resources of an environment or produced by machines or human
beings. Exchange systems allow for the disposal of surplus goods; examples include
markets, gift giving, theft, and exploitation (Ferraro, 2004).
Markets serve as places of exchange where commodities are brought and sold.
Usually, the people engaging in exchange do not know one another, nor do they have
any other relationships. Their social classes may not be equal, and this exchange will
most likely not yield any social connection. Contemporary market places include
shopping malls and the Internet. However, there are exceptions to this where the
market becomes a place of social activity (Miller, 2002).
Gifts, true gifts, are freely given without expectation of return. Examples in-
clude donations of money, blood, and tithes. The gain is immaterial but personally
rewarding (Miller, 2002).
Theft is the taking of property that belongs to someone else. This behavior, in
some cases, is an attempt to alter an inequitable economic system or human op-
pression (Miller, 2002).
Exploitation involves the mistreatment of something or someone for personal
gain; this may be considered an extreme form of exchange. The most prevalent form
of exploitation is slavery where a human being is forced to work, act, or engage in
activities without their consent or compensation (Miller, 2002).
Culture GQ
What exchange system exists or is in place in this society or culture? What goods
are brought? What goods are sold? Who are the vendors in this market? Who are
the customers in this market? How is the class of the vendor similar to or different
from that of the customer? Is this the type of market where social relationships are
cultivated? Is the distribution of goods and services equitable? What goods are given,
stolen, or exploited? What true gifts are given without expectation of return? Who
gives these gifts and why? How do gifts beneft the individual, group, or society?
Is theft part of this exchange system? Who participates in theft and why? Who
profts from theft? Are there penalties for theft? Is exploitation part of this exchange
system? Who participates in this exploitation? Who profts from exploitation? Are
there penalties for exploitation? What are the unspoken rules for the exchange of
goods and services? Is the overall exchange system equitable?
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Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience participate in the distribution process? What values of
the target audience impact distribution? How does the distribution process impact
the target audience? Is the target audience involved in the exchange system in terms
of markets, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in gift giving,
and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in theft, and if so, in what
way? Is the target audience involved in exploitation, and if so, in what way? What
does the target audience believe about the distribution process?
Consumption
Consumption refers to a persons intake and output. A person consumes and uses
food, clothing, shelter, fuel, transportation, books, tools, communication devices,
art, luxury goods, and so forth. Consumption requires that there is something to
consume (Miller, 2002). Societies vary in the type of economies that exist. There are
market economies and non-market economies. In market economies, consumption
is dependent on money. Goods must be purchased. Market economies are consumer
driven, with a focus on creating a supply to meet the demand. Depending on how
much income a person makes or has available, expenditures on basic-needs items
decrease as the income increases. For example, a person who makes $2,000 a month
and spends $1,500 on food and shelter is using 75% of their budget. A person who
makes $10,000 a month and spends $3,000 on food and shelter is using 30% of their
budget. More expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events.
Another item of exchange used in mostly market economies is money. Money
can be exchanged for a diversity of goods (e.g., clothing, food, shelter) and services
(e.g., car repair, carpet cleaning). Human beings are another item of exchange. This
exchange may manifest in the form of institutionalized slavery and other criminal
activities based on the abduction and selling of human beings (Miller, 2002). Credit
cards, as another form of exchange, are an electronic form of credit that provides
buyers a certain amount of credit in which to buy goods. Credit cards enable the
massive purchasing of goods (Miller, 2002).
In nonmarket economies, consumption takes the form of work, goods, and time.
The largest percentage of expenditures is allocated to basic needs. This is followed
by those items that have recurring costs, such as maintenance of weapons, tools
and shelter. Even fewer expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events.
Also, there are usually no taxes or monies paid to property owners, cities, or gov-
ernments (Miller, 2002).
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In nonmarket economies, consumption is also referred to as exchange. A com-
mon item for the exchange of goods is food. Food and beverages may be exchanged
between families as part of a wedding ceremony and in social situations between
friends. Other goods for exchange may be symbolic such as sacred rituals, myths,
dances, attire, and body decoration. This type of symbolic exchange is consistent
with the lovemagic ritual called Tjarada that is performed by women in the Balgo
Hills region of Australia. The women collect narratives, and then in the ritual pass
the narratives on to others (Miller, 2002; Poirier, 2005). In the exchange of labor,
people contribute to work as needed. This type of labor sharing is consistent among
Amish communities in the United States. Families contribute to the building of
housing structures as needed within the community (Miller, 2002).
Culture GQ
Is this a market or nonmarket economy? For market economies: What items are
consumables? What is the monetary system? What is the purpose of the monetary
system? Is the income of individuals monitored or restricted by the society or cul-
ture, and if so, in what way? Is an income tax or other form of allocation deducted
by those who run the society? For nonmarket economies: What form of exchange
takes place in this society or culture (e.g., work, goods, time, symbolic)? What items
are consumables (e.g., food, drink)?
Target Audience GQ
For market economies: What is the individual or target audiences economic level
within this society? If economic levels vary across the target audience, what do
these delineations look like in terms of numbers? Is the target audience economi-
cally self-suffcient? How are things brought, sold, or bartered by the target audi-
ence? Who has the most material wealth in the target audience? How is the income
of individuals in the target audience useful in understanding this market system?
What part of an individuals income, in the target audience, goes to basic needs?
Are there any reoccurring costs for the target audience? What part of individuals
income, in the target audience, goes to entertainment and events? Does the indi-
vidual, in the target audience, pay taxes or some form of allocation and to whom?
For nonmarket economies: What item receives the largest percentage of expenses
allocated by the target audience? What items are consumables for the target audi-
ence? Are there any re-occurring exchanges for the target audience (e.g., weapons,
tools, shelter, food)?
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Cultural Classification
E4. Cultural Classifcation - Divisions in a culture or society.
Cultural classifcation is the construction of divisions in a society, usually based on
the social or economic levels of its groups. Wealth, power, and prestige are criteria
that measure the social and economic levels of individuals
14
. Wealth distinguishes
one individual from another, and what constitutes wealth varies across societies
(e.g., income earned, land ownership, animal ownership). Power varies across societ-
ies and can be based on knowledge, a democratic electoral system, or elite groups
within a society. Prestige also varies across societies and can be based on criteria
such as being the elder of a group or holding a position in a certain profession (e.g.,
physician; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ
What social classifcations exist in this society or culture? What economic clas-
sifcations exist in this society or culture? How is wealth measured in this society
or culture? Who are the wealthy? How is power measured? Who has the power in
this society or culture? How is prestige measured in this society or culture? Who
has the prestige in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
Is the target audience classifed based on a social or economic classifcation? Does
the target audience have wealth? Is the target audience considered wealthy? Does
the target audience have power? Is the target audience considered powerful? Does
the target audience have prestige? Is the target audience considered prestigious?
What does the target audience believe to be their classifcation within this society
or culture?
Stratifcation
In many societies, stratifcation serves to separate groups. Two basic forms of
stratifcation are class and status. Class is attributed to individuals who may share
similar fnancial wealth and life opportunities. In a class society, individuals have
social mobility, and within a lifetime they can move their social status up or down
the economic scale. With class come restrictions, whether implicit or explicit, on
social interactions. Typical measures of class in a society include power, income,
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and wealth. For example, the United States is a class society that has social classes
ranging from the underclass, working poor, working class, middle class, upper
middle class, to the wealthy (Ferraro, 2004; Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008).
Stratifcation by social status is based on those characteristics most valued by
a society or culture. These characteristics can include heritage, location, ethnicity,
race, age, sex, and education level. Some valued characteristics individuals may
have no control over such as race, ethnicity, age and sex (Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008).
In a caste society, social status is tied to ones birthright. There is little or no social
mobility. Individuals are born into a caste and remain in this status throughout their
lifetime. Hindu India has a caste system based on the sacred texts of the Hindu
religion. People are categorized into varnas (social castes) based on birth; they
include Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras
(servants), and Dalits (untouchables; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ
What forms of stratifcation exist in this society or culture? Are these stratifcations
based on class or status (i.e., caste, race, ethnicity, nationality, creed, geographi-
cal, location, educational level)? How did this system of stratifcation come into
existence? How are individuals or groups labeled within this stratifcation? Is there
social mobility within the stratifcation? Is the stratifcation connected to the values
of individuals or groups? What values in this society or culture support stratif-
cation? Does this stratifcation make one group superior to the other? Does this
stratifcation make one group inferior to the other? What do the social interactions
of groups look like based on class and those based on status?
Target Audience GQ
Is the stratifcation of the target audience based on class or status? What values of the
target audience are impacted by stratifcation? Is this stratifcation accepted by the
target audience? If so, what behaviors indicate the acceptance or acknowledgement
of the individuals or groups place in the society or culture? If not, what behaviors
indicate the denial of an individual or groups place in the society or culture? How
do individuals in the target audience classify themselves? How does society classify
individuals in the target audience? How do the target audiences race or ethnicity
situate them in this classifcation? What are the various social classifcations within
the target audience? What are the various economic classifcations? With what
social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? What does the target
audience believe about the stratifcation of their society or culture?
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Social Groups
A social group refers to a body of people outside ones domestic grouping. Social
groups can be informal or formal. Members of both formal and informal groups
may meet in person. However, there may be members of the formal group whom
one has never met. Informal groups usually do not have a hierarchical or legal
structure (Miller, 2002). Some social groups may be defned based on a shared
identity such as ethnicity, religion, gender, profession, or political agenda. Clubs,
fraternities and sororities defne themselves based on a shared identity. Members
of these groups may engage in initiation rituals; support a hierarchical structure;
sustain and promote the group through symbols, emblems, or clothing; and engage
in activities for and through the social groups. The agendas of social groups are
varied and signifcant to economics, politics, or race.
Culture GQ
Do social groups exist in this society or culture? If so, what types of social groups
exist? Who participates in these groups? How can these social groups be categorized?
(e.g., gang, work related, clubs, fraternities, sororities, activists). What language is
used to describe people in the social groups (e.g., comrade, brother, sister)? What
rites of passage are parts of the social group? What purpose does the group serve
(e.g., entertainment, community service, collective task, education, labor, social-
ization, economic, political)? Does the social group serve the society or culture in
any specifc way?
Target Audience GQ
With which social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? Can
individuals choose their social groups, or are they chosen for them in the target
audience? Can individuals join a social group in the target audience? For the target
audience, what is the length of time an individual can be involved in a social group?
In what categories of social groups is the target audience most likely to participate?
In relation to the target audience, are social groups stratifed? What does the target
audience believe about social groups in their society or culture?
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Endnotes
1
For example, some aboriginal art is defned by dotted patterns of color
2
Cultural icons are extensions of what the inventor envisions in their mind.
See Edward Halls (1976) research on the extension transference (p. 28).
3
Fleming (1974) provided further areas for the in-depth study of an artifact
that includes: identifcation, cultural analysis, evaluation and interpretation.
Some aspects of these areas have been incorporated into the fve classifcations
presented.
4
Sowell (1994) sees art, music, literature and philosophy as evidence of a higher
culture (p. xii).
5
These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974.
6
Excluded from the list of design classifcations is decoration, structure, symbols
and images.
7
These questions have been informed by the work of Preble & Preble, 2002.
8
Preble & Preble (2002) believe that light can be manipulated in, through and by
objects; the terms used to describe light include refected, directed, refracted,
diffused and diffracted.
9
10
These questions have been informed by Preble & Preble, 2002.
11
12
13
Facts were gleamed from an article entitled Beauty of Korea in Koreana
magazine, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2006, p. 3. The image of the soban is a recreated
drawing. Most of the data about the artifact was derived from Park, 1996.
14
Ferraro (2004) found support for these ideas in the work of Max Weber,
1946.
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Chapter VIII
CBM Elements II
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the
anthropology of culture. Cultural communications is covered in its entirety.
Cultural Communications
E5..Cultural.communications.-.The.exchange.or.transmission.of.information.
Cultural communications is the exchange or transmission of information. This
exchange can be between human beings, other species or entities. Cultural com-
munications serves a purpose; these purposes maybe to report, inform, persuade,
warn, direct, or induce a response. However the ultimate goal is to convey meaning
from the information source to destination or sender to receiver (Meadow, 2002).
Cultural communications can be applied to cultures, target audiences, and other
species. In terms of societies and cultures, cultural communications looks at the
forms of communications or communication systems that exist. Cultural com-
munications in relation to a target audience looks at language (nonverbal, verbal);
writing; spatial, temporal, and visual cues; and semiotics (signs & symbols).
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Communications for Cultures
The medium of communications across cultures is very much dependent on the
culture. Whether the culture is agrarian or a metropolis dictates its use, means,
and access to communication technologies. The most rudimentary form of sound
transmission from distance to distance is the human voice (Meadow, 2002, p. 33).
The human voice is amplifed and modifed through artifacts such as horns. Besides
variations of horns, other instruments have also assisted in sound transmission such
as drums, bugles, and bagpipes. Communicating across longer distances has been
aided through signaling with the use of fre and smoke. Flags have been useful in
identifying locations, tribes, the military, schools, countries, corporations, and
esteemed individuals (Meadow, 2002).
Many cultures use various symbolic forms of written communication. These
written systems are often characterized by symbols, pictographs, drawings, carv-
ings, paintings, letters, numbers, punctuation, graphics, musical notes,
1
and char-
acters. Pictorial writing usually represents an idea or object, and alphabetic writing
usually represents a sound. Distinctive of all these characteristics is that written
systems translate into meaning, preserve thoughts and ideas, require someone who
has knowledge of the system to translate, and communicates messages over time
(Meadow, 2002).
It can be argued that mathematics, music, physics, chemistry and computing
are also forms of written communication. Mathematics is characterized by sym-
bols, alphabetic writing, and numbers that form a notation system.
2
Mathematical
concepts can be expressed in written form and, in some cases, graphical forms;
the written communication system of mathematics is understood by those who
understand its notation system. Figure 8.1 represents the mathematical symbols of
the normal frequency distribution, and the graphic representation is the bell curve
(Meadow, 2002).
Figure 8.1. Frequency Distribution
3
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Similarly, music has a notation system that is characterized by symbols (notes,
fats, sharp), letters, and numbers. Physics and chemistry use symbols, letters, num-
bers, and graphics to describe chemical elements, classify matter, and demonstrate
results. As computing continues to evolve, forms of written communication allow
the hardware to interact with the software and, ultimately, to be used by the user.
Computer programming languages are characterized by symbols, letters, and num-
bers. Java script and C++ exemplify programming languages (Meadow, 2002).
Cultures that seek to maintain their history through written communication have
used a variety of tools to record this information. Writing surfaces have included
those that are natural and human made. Writing surfaces consisted of cave walls,
clay, parchment (animal skins), papyrus (plant paper), and paper (plant fbers). Writ-
ing instruments have evolved from the stylus (for writing on clay) to quill pens,
steel point pens, fountain pens, ballpoint pens, and to fber (e.g., magic markers).
Originally, another writing instrumentthe pencilwas wood encased by graph-
ite with a sharpened tip; later, lead replaced the graphite (Meadow, 2002; Panati,
1984). Writing machines brought standardization to printing. The movable-type
printing press and subsequent models enabled the mass production of information.
The typewriter allowed the individual access to a high-quality printable type and
the use of this machine in the home and offce. Computers have brought an ease of
use, the ability to mass print and produce, superior print quality, and simplicity in
correcting text and sending text to others (Meadow, 2002). With these advances in
writing machines came the demand for the masses to know how to read and write.
Therefore, the advancement in technologies of written communication became
instruments of social change (Eisenstein, 1979).
Communicating with people across distances has been aided by cultures ability
to provide transportation. Animals, such as horses, donkeys, camels, and pigeons,
have been trained as messengers and carriers of communication. Societies that
developed roads enabled the ease of animal-drawn transportation such as the stage
coach and later motor cars. The development of roads gave people accessible ways
to travel; this led to the building of highways, a quicker and more effcient way to
travel. The telegraph line ended the need for men on horseback to carry mail and
enabled the transmission of long-distance communications through Morse code
4
.
Messages were transmitted at a high speed through electric telegraph wires.
Boats hauled cargo long distances. The various types of boats evolved from oar-
powered boats (or humans pulling the oars) to sail ships with navigation devices.
Later came steam-powered engines propelled ships, railroad trains, and automo-
biles
5
. Railway systems advanced from steam-powered engines to those supported
by electric power. Travel by aircrafts allowed for even quicker delivery of mail.
Aircrafts evolved from the hot air balloons, to propeller planes, to jet engine planes
that made possible communications fexibility through air mail. Steam-powered
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automobiles quickly disappeared. Automobiles operated by internal combustion
engines that were powered by fossil fuel. The car enabled the delivery of mail at
great distances (Meadow, 2002).
The need to physically travel from location to location decreased with the invention
of the telegraph and telephone. The telephone moved telecommunications forward in
that it allowed easy accessibility, could be used in businesses and homes, transported
the human voice, permitted ease of use, and allowed for spontaneous interactivity of
human beings. Wireless radio served a variety of uses such as broadcasting; radar;
telegraphy; and a carrier for televisions, telephones, and computers (Meadow, 2002).
Television, as a communications device, transmitted and received visual images
and sound. Initially, televisions provided black and white display and 30 lines per
picture; however, this technical feature evolved into color displays with over 1,080
lines. The picture tube quickly became a memory with plasma and liquid crystal
displays. Computers enabled higher speeds and longer distances of transmission.
The Internet allowed for the interconnection of networks. Businesses and individuals
easily access and participate in a virtually instantaneous communications system
through electronic mail. The World Wide Web, a network of programs and docu-
ments, allowed for the pinpointing of data (Meadow, 2002).
Culture GQ
What forms of communications exist in this society or culture? Have these com-
munication technologies affected the society or culture? How are messages com-
municated (e.g., gesture, pantomime, speech, written communication)? How are
messages communicated from one point to another (e.g., voice; instruments [horns,
drums, bugles, bagpipes]; smoke signals; travel by foot, animals, ship, car, plane)?
6

What forms of written communication exists? If written communication exists, how
have these data been recorded (e.g., paper, parchment, papyrus, stone, magnetic
media [e.g., foppy disc, compact disc/CD-ROM, DVD, e-books])? Has transporta-
tion assisted in the societys or cultures ability to communicate, and if so, in what
way? How have these communication technologies infuenced human beings? How
have these communication technologies impacted other species or entities?
Target Audience GQ
What forms of communication technologies are used by the target audience? How
has the target audience been affected by these communication technologies? How
are messages communicated by the target audience? What forms of written com-
munication are used by the target audience? Has the target audience been involved
in inventing any communication technologies? What does the target audience
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believe about the communication technologies that exist in their culture? Has the
communication technologies benefted the target audience in any way? How have
these communication technologies impacted the target audience?
Communications for Target Audiences
Language

Nonverbal:.Non-verbal communication does not involve words. To communicate in
a non-verbal way can be found in all societies and cultures. Nonverbal communica-
tion serves many functions, such as defning behavior. If an individual walks into a
dimly lit room where other people are moving slowly and are calm in their behavior,
the individual should know to be quiet in voice and behavior. Nonverbal commu-
nication acts as a monitor for verbal communication. When someone is speaking,
the other individual may smile, nod, blink, or make eye contact to acknowledge
that the message conveyed is being communicated. Nonverbal communication can
also convey messages. If an individual is happy, she may smile. If an individual
is sad, he may frown, look down or hang his head. Nonverbal communication is
culture-specifc (Frank, 2002). This means that gestures, posture, body stance;
touching (Ferraro, 2004); facial expressions and body language are culture-based.
Nonverbal communication is a learned behavior and it is different from culture to
culture (Ferraro, 2004). Silence, as a nonverbal form of communication, is used by
Western Apaches in their initial greeting of strangers; this is perceived as a form
of respect (Basso, 1990; Miller, 2002).
Nonverbal communication is also conveyed through the physical features,
looks or smell and the environment. The physical features of an individual include
everything on a persons exterior (e.g., face, lips, eyes, nose, legs, shoulders). The
way one dresses and looks sends a message. The design of clothing, marks and
body piercings, and hairstyles can convey messages about ethnicity, age, gender,
and so forth. For Americans, gender differentiation begins at birth when boys are
color coded with blue attire and girls pink. The odor of an individual communicates
messages again based on culture. The smell of loved ones can be comforting to
an individual. Loud perfume can be offensive to an individual who suffers from
allergies. The environment where one lives or works conveys messages. Whether
the environment is dark and gloomy or bright and colorful, each situation transmits
a different message (Frank, 2002). What that message is will be different for each
receiver based on their own cultural experiences. For example, a teenage boy ar-
rives to pick up his date, who lives in a dilapidated 12-story high rise. He may or
may not be judgmental depending on his own life experiences. Her environment
will convey what the receiver has been conditioned to believe.
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Culture GQ
What forms of nonverbal communication exist in this society or culture? What
functions does nonverbal communication serve in this society or culture? How does
nonverbal communication act as a monitor for verbal communication? How does
nonverbal communication convey messages? How is nonverbal communication
culture-specifc? What meanings are conveyed by an individuals physical features,
look, or smell? What meanings or messages are conveyed by an individuals living
environment?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience use nonverbal communication? What forms of non-
verbal communication are consistent with the target audience? How are these forms
of nonverbal communication culture-specifc? What meanings are conveyed by the
target audiences physical features, look, and smell? What meanings or messages
are conveyed by the target audiences living environment?
Verbal: Verbal communication, or the language of communication, is a system of
organized symbols that transmit and convey meaning. To communicate through
words is a human trait. Languages have been studied to determine its meaning,
decipher the code of language, and to understand the people behind the language.
Language is shaped by culture, and culture is shaped by language (Mandelbaum,
2002). This means that, within a society, language functions as the society or culture
dictates. Individuals are the pawns in this linguistic dance as they create, use, exploit,
and manipulate the language to communicate how they feel, what they believe, or
communicate just to be heard. Language is tied to power. This specifcally relates
to who can speak or who are allowed to speak. Language is tied to faith. Those
with the language of religion are taken as leaders to a higher power. Language is
also political. The dominance of the English language worldwide is an indication
of the desire for a lingua franca (i.e., common language), but also English is seen
as the superior language in many political and social situations. Language is also
gender related. Men and woman are said to have different ways of communicating,
and these ways carry meanings specifc to culture. Language is also valued. Those
with the ability to use the language well and convey meaning across contexts and
groups may be given praise or fnancial rewards. Verbal communication serves many
functions; however, all its uses and misuses are generated by the culture. (For more
on language form, content, use and meaning. See Cultural language).
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Culture GQ
How has language shaped this society or culture? What is the dominant form of
language? What are the subordinate forms of language? What function does lan-
guage serve in this society or culture? How is language political, social, religious,
or gender related? How is language created, used, exploited, and manipulated?
Target Audience GQ
How has language been shaped by the target audience? How has the target audi-
ence shaped language? What is the dominant form of language for the target audi-
ence? What are the target audiences other spoken languages? What function does
language serve for the target audience? For the target audience, how is language,
political, social, religious, or gender related? How has the target audience created,
used, exploited, and manipulated language? Given their culture, what are the target
audiences beliefs about language?
Writing
Writing is.the symbols that represent ideas or sounds. The presence of a pictorial
or alphabetic system in a culture provides a written record that can be preserved
to communicate with others in the future. A writing system communicates the
meanings of individuals in that society or culture. Writing systems are restrictive
in that they are characterized by a linear structure, text directionality (right to left,
left to right, top to bottom, and from center to the edge), and grammar. Writing is
used to convey messages. To communicate through writing serves a purpose and
function (Bruce, 2002; Marcus, 2006).
Culture GQ
How did the writing system develop in this society or culture? Does the writing
system consist of signs, pictographs, or alphabets; bidirectional or unidirectional?
What other features are signifcant to the writing system (e.g., punctuation, layout,
typography)? Does the writing system contain a grammar or a system of rules for
the language? If a written system of communication exists, on what materials is
information recorded (e.g., walls, rocks, trees, sand, the human body, clay, papy-
rus, manufactured paper)? Why did the writing system develop? When did the
writing system appear? How has it changed in content, form, or function through
time? What is the purpose of the writing system? Does the writing system convey
a specifc subject matter (e.g., data related to economics, politics, and genealogy)?
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What percentage of the population is literate in the writing system? Who knows
how to read the writing system? Who knows how to write the writing system? Are
individuals or groups not allowed to read or write? Whose knowledge is conveyed
in the writing system? How does this writing system function in this society? How
is written communication maintained (e.g., writing courses in schools, libraries)?
Who has access to written communication? How is the writing system distrib-
uted to others? Through what forms of communication technologies is the writing
system conveyed?
7
Target Audience GQ
Does the target audience have their own writing system? How did the writing
system of the target audience develop? Does the writing system of the target au-
dience consist of signs, pictographs, alphabetic, bidirectional or unidirectional?
What other features are signifcant to the writing system of the target audience?
Does the writing system of the target audience contain a grammar or a system of
rules for the language? For the target audience, on what materials is information
recorded? Why did the target audiences writing system develop? When did the
writing system of the target audience appear? How has the target audiences writing
system changed in content, form or function through time? What is the purpose of
the target audiences separate system of writing? Does the writing system convey
a specifc subject matter (e.g., religion)? What percentage of the target audience
is literate in the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to read
the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to write the writing
system? Are individuals in the target audience not allowed to read or write? Whose
knowledge is conveyed in the target audiences writing system? How does the target
writing system function in this society or culture? How is written communication
maintained and distributed by the target audience? How is the writing system of
the target audience distributed to others? Through what forms of communication
technologies, does the target audience use to convey their messages?
Does the target audience read and write in the writing system of the dominant
culture? What percentage of the target audience is literate in the dominant writing
system? For what purposes does the target audience use the dominant writing sys-
tem? Can the target audience read and write in the dominant language? What does
the target audience believe about the dominant cultures writing system?
Temporal
Temporal communications refers to the variety of ways to communicate over
distances and over time. The idea is to create a message at one period in time and
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the message is received at another period in time (Meadow, 2002). All forms of
written communication (e.g., carving, drawing and writing) if preserved can pro-
vide examples of how groups communicate over distances and over time. A letter
is written at one time and it is mailed. Then the letter is received at another time
maybe a day or several days later. Temporal communications can be condensed
or extended depending on the medium. With electronic mail, the time it takes to
email individuals who live over 3000 miles away may take 5, 10 or 20 seconds to
transmit. However, mailing a letter to someone 3000 miles away may take 3 days.
Communicating over time is much more complicated; however it has been done
in many ways. Some people have planted time capsules to tell about their history.
Ancient societies bury their dead with artifacts of their histories thereby stopping
time. The artifacts, that document written and spoken communication, exemplify
a moment in time.
Temporal communications refers to measured time in this world. It does not
refer to the after life or the spirit world or other conceptions of time (King, 2006).
Every culture understands time differently and every culture is infuenced by time.
Time can be perceived in three ways: What is time? How is time experienced? How
is time measured?
What is time? Within a culture, time may have a beginning. Time might be
considered linear or cyclic. Time may even be considered something in itself,
meaning that it exists separately from events. How is time experienced? Time is
experienced differently by individuals in each culture. How is time measured?
Time is measured differently in each culture. Typically, time has been linked to
natural phenomena, such as the rotation of the earth around the sun, varying phases
of the moon, changing weather conditions, shifting tides, and the exodus of birds
and animals during migration season. Within a culture, time may serve multiple
functions. For example in Western secular societies, the solar calendar is used for
day-to-day functions; however, the lunar calendar is used for religious fasting and
feasts (King, 2006).
Humans are fascinated by time. They are hooked on temporal communications.
There are many movies about time travel like Terminator (1984); Terminator 3: Rise
of the Machines (2003); Back to the Future (1985); Star Trek: The Voyage Home
(1986); and First Contact (1996). Those set in more contemporary modern day set-
tings include: Dj Vu (2006) and Click (2006). The mysteriousness of time and
humans inability to manipulate it in the physical world makes time a commodity
for future explorations and creative interpretations. (See Cultural infnities for more
on the concept of time).
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Culture GQ
How do individuals in this society or culture communicate over distances and time?
How is time measured by this society or culture? What is time to this society or
culture? How is time experienced by this society or culture? How is time used or
manipulated in this society or culture? Does time serve any religious purpose in
this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience communicate over distances and time? How is time
measured by the target audience? What is time to the target audience? How is time
experienced by the target audience? Does time serve a specifc function for the
target audience?
Visual
Visual communications refers to the meanings or production of meanings from im-
ages. The visual images of a society, or those represented by mass media,
8
refect a
visual language of communication, and this visual language is not understood uni-
versally. The visual language of a society is culture-specifc. Those things expressed
through visual communications are represented through multiple compositional
structures, or through variations in color. These differences infuence the meaning
of and the meanings behind visuals (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 2). The color
white is worn by women in America when they are getting married. In India, the
wearing of a white sari by women indicates widowhood (Miller, 2002)
Culture GQ
What forms of visual communications exist in this society or culture? What mean-
ings do the visual images in this society or culture communicate? How are these
forms of visual communications culture-specifc? What visual images are portrayed
through communication technologies? Are these visual images valid or invalid
representations of the society or culture and why?
Target Audience GQ
What forms of visual images represent the target audience? What meanings do the
visual images in this society or culture communicate about the target audience?
How are these visual communications specifc to the culture of the target audience?
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What visual images are portrayed through communication technologies about the
target audience? Are these visual images of the target audience valid or invalid
representations and why? What does the target audience think about visual images
represented in their society or culture?
Semiotics (Signs & Symbols)
Semiotics is the study of the use, meanings, messages, and production of signs.
Signs and symbols are semiotic properties.
Signs:.Signs are everywhere within societies and cultures. Humans create signs.
A sign can be anything as long as an individual gives it meaning. Therefore, a
sign can be a word, sound, image, behavior, object, odor, or favor. Signs have no
meaning until it is interpreted to have meaning. To organize signs, there are codes
or coding systems (Chandler, 2007; Klyukanov, 2002). In Figure 8.2, these objects
are used to house womens personal belongings. Each object has the same use or
function. However, over time they have been assigned different meanings. Figure
8.3 represents a sign or object that has multiple messages. The object is called a
pail if you live in one region of the United States, and it is called a bucket if you
live in another region. In Figure 8.4, the meanings assigned to all of these vowels
are the same; they all represent the written form of the letter a and the sound of
the letter a. However the capital letter A has different meanings attached to it
when it is at the beginning of a sentence or a name. The fonts represent different
productions of the letter a and may serve different uses.
Culture GQ
What signs are in this society or culture? What meanings have been given to these
signs? Who assigns meaning to these signs? How have signs changed this society or

This is a handbag. This is a purse. This is a pocketbook.

Figure 8.2. Handbag, purse, pocketbook
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culture? Are some signs considered valid and others invalid and why? Who deems
what signs are valid or invalid? What social, political or religious signifcance is
given to signs?
Target Audience GQ
What signs are specifc to representations of the target audience? What meanings
of interpretation does the target audience assign to signs? Does the target audience
assign meaning to signs? How have signs changed the lives of the target audience?
Have signs created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and
why? What signs, that represent the target audience, maintain social, political, or
religious signifcance?

Figure 8.3. Pail or Bucket
Figure 8.4. The Letter A

This is a pail. This is a bucket.

a
A
a
This is the letter a. This is the letter a. This is the letter a.

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Symbols:. Symbols represent things other than themselves. They come in many
forms: actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. The written
and spoken language used by humans exemplifes a sophisticated symbol system.
Other languages also have symbol systems such as Morse code, computer languages,
and braille (Ruben, 2002). Through communications media, symbols are stored,
retrieved, duplicated, transmitted, and amplifed. A speech can be recorded on
CD-ROM, audio recordings, or video recordings (e.g., DVD). It can be transferred
to print and e-mailed from one place to another, published in a book, posted on a
Web page, stored and retrieved on a computer, duplicated with a copy machine,
and amplifed through text to speech software (Ruben, 2002).
Symbols are created by humans and humans give meaning to symbols. It is the
collective agreement of humans that allow symbols to function as communication
devices. Humans create symbols and learn the meanings of these symbols in their
interactions with members of their society or culture. In Figure 8.5, the meaning
assigned to this object is that a pedestrian cross walk is ahead (Ruben, 2002).
Culture GQ
What symbols exist in this society or culture? Categorize the symbols in terms of
actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. What meanings
have been given to these symbols? Who assigns meaning to symbols? How have
symbols changed this society or culture? Are some symbols considered valid and
others invalid and why? Who deems what symbols are valid or invalid? What social,
political, or religious signifcance is given to symbols?
Figure 8.5. Pedestrian Crossing Ahead
CBM Elements II 139
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Target Audience GQ
What symbols are specifc to the target audience? What meanings have been given
to the symbols that represent the target audience? What meanings of interpreta-
tion does the target audience assign to symbols? Has the target audience created
any symbols? How have symbols changed the lives of the target audience? Have
symbols created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and why?
What symbols, that represent the target audience, maintain a social, political, or
religious signifcance?
References
Basso, K. H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic
anthropology. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press.
design: Theories and practices. Hershey, PA: IGI Global Publishing.
Bruce, B. C. (2002). Alphabets and writing. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclope-
dia of communication and information, 1, 21-25. New York: Macmillan Library
Reference.
Bruckheimer, J. (Executive Producer), & Scott, T. (Director). (2006). Dj vu [Mo-
tion picture]. United States: Touchstone Pictures.
Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The basics. New York: Routledge.
Bernardi, B. (Executive Producer), Herlihy, T. (Executive Producer), & Coraci, F.
(Director). (2006). Click [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia Pictures.
Daly, J. (Executive Producer), Gibson, D. (Executive Producer), Hurd, G. A. (Pro-
ducer), & Cameron, J. (Director). (1984). The terminator [Motion picture]. United
States: Orion Pictures.
Eisenstein, E. L. (1979). The printing press as an agent of change. Cambridge, MA:
Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Bel-
mont, CA: Thomson Learning.
Frank, M. G. (2002). Nonverbal communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Ency-
clopedia of communication and information, 2, 669-677. New York: Macmillan
Library Reference.
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Hall, P. A. V., & Hudson, R. (1997). Software without frontiers: A multi-platform,
multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. New York: John: Wiley & Sons.
Kennedy, K. (Executive Producer), Marshall, F. (Executive Producer), Spielberg, S.
(Executive Producer), & Zemeckis, R. (Director). (1985). Back to the future [Motion
picture]. United States: Amblin Entertainment.
King, P. J. (2006). Time. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 5, 2196-
2197. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Klyukanov, I. E. (2002). Semiotics. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of commu-
nication and information, 3, 916-918. New York: Macmillan Library Reference.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual
design (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Mandelbaum, J. (2002). Language and communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of communication and information, 2, 514-519. New York: Macmil-
lan Library Reference.
Marcus, J. (2006). Writing systems. In D. Levinson & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia
of cultural anthropology, 4, 1387-1391. New York: Henry Holt and company.
Meadow, C. T. (2002). Making connections: Communication through the ages.
Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Panati, C. (1984). Panatis browsers book of beginnings. Boston: Houghton Mif-
fin Company.
Ruben, B. D. (2002). Symbols. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of com-
munication and information (Vol. 3, pp. 974-975). New York: Macmillan Library
Reference.
Winter, R. (Executive Producer), Bennett, H. (Producer), & Nimoy, L. (Director).
(1986). Star trek IV: The voyage home [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount
Pictures.
Endnotes
1
African drums have been used to communicate a language or a message
(Meadow, 2002).
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2
For more information on notation systems see Botturi & Stubbs ( 2008).
3
Frequency distribution fgures adapted from a variety of sources.
4
Morse code is a coded system of dots and dashes that represent alphabetic
letters. The transmission of Morse code happens over a wire where a pulse
of electricity travels from one place to another.
5
In France around 1769, the frst steam powered automobile was built (Meadow,
2002).
6
These questions have been informed by Meadow, 2002.
7
The questions in this section have been informed by the works of Bruce (2002);
Hall and Hudson (1997); and Marcus (1996).
8
Mass media are print or any form of electronic media such as newspapers,
magazines, CD-ROMs or websites (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 17).
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Chapter IX
CBM Elements III
anthropology of culture. Cultural demographics and Cultural environment are
covered in their entirety.
Cultural Demographics
E6..Cultural.Demographics.-.Characteristics.of.a.population.
Cultural demographics provide the characteristics of a population for a geographic
area. Geographic areas are identifed by levels such as nation, state, city, county,
tracks, blocks, province, and so forth (U.S. Census Bureau [USCB], 2005). This
information is usually statistical. Demographic data provide mostly a quantitative
picture of a population and aid in predicting economic or market trends. Through
the use of demographic data, predictions about populations can be made in reference
to increases in the demand for food, clothing, educational achievement, entertain-
ment, housing, insurance, investments, health services, and so forth. Examples of
Westernized demographic trends include: baby boom years, single parent families,
two income families, and nuclear families. Demographic data are also culture-spe-
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cifc and can not be generalized to other populations. A culture-specifc example
is data from Japans 2000 census that calculated the total population of males at
62,110,764 males to 64,815,079 females. The number of females outnumbers males
by 2,704,315 (Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2000).
The collection of demographic data is unique to each society or culture. What
works for one culture may not work for another. Or the collection of such data may
not be operational due to other social, political, or economic factors.
The characteristics of a population might include data based on the following:
age, assets, birth, death, density, disease, educational achievement, ethnicity, fam-
ily, growth, housing, incarceration, income, language, marital status, migration,
mobility, occupation, race, sex, and size (USCB, 2005). All of these characteris-
tics are described in this chapter. The collection of demographic data could begin
with an examination of characteristics in a population such as age and multiple
characteristics of a population, such as sex, income, household, geographic areas,
disease, marriage, and so forth. Therefore, the data collection might look at age
and its relation to sex, or age and income, or age and household.
The guiding questions, in this section, focus on human beings; however they
can be adapted to other species and entities.
Age
Age demographics record the length of time in existence, duration of life, or life
expectancy. This could include the stages of life (e.g., infant, child, adult, elder) and
the month, day and year of birth (Meyer, 2001). These data provide many sources
of understanding how age impacts a society or culture and its classifcation with
other characteristics of a population (e.g., age and disease, age and death) (USCB,
2005).
According to the 2007 U.S. Census Bureau International Database, the country
with the longest life expectancy is Andorra, a small nation located in the Pyrnes
Mountains nestled between France and Spain. People are said to live an average of
84 years (USCB, 2007a).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the age of a population (e.g., age
and race)? What are the ages of people in this population? What are the month,
day, and year of births and self reported ages? What is the average age of life ex-
pectancy? What are the stages of life? Is the population divided according to age?
What are the total number of births within a given time period? What is the total
number of people in each age category? How are age demographics perceived in
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Target Audience GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the age of the target audience? What
are the ages within the target audience? What are the month, day, and year of births
for the target audience? What is the average life expectancy for the target audience?
What is the total number of the target audience members in each age category?
Assets
Assets demographics are statistics on owned items, effects, or property. These
data might classify assets with other characteristics of a population (e.g., assets
and households).
A household balance sheet from Singapore categorized assets as nonfnancial
assets and fnancial assets. Nonfnancial assets are considered residential proper-
ties. Financial assets include currency, deposits, shares, securities, pension funds
with equity, or life insurance with equity. In 2005, the assets of Singapore grew
$820 billion or a 5.4% growth from 2004. Non-fnancial assets saw an increase of
$5.3 billion, and fnancial assets increased $36 billion (Singapore Department of
Statistics, 2006).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the assets of a population (e.g., as-
sets and age)? What things or items are considered assets? Who has acquired these
assets? What assets are most owned by which populations? How do their assets posi-
tion them in this society or culture? How are assets demographics perceived in this
society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each asset classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What assets do the target audience or individuals in the target audience own? Who
has acquired these assets in the target audience? How do the assets of the target
audience position them in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of
the target audience in each assets classifcation?
Birth
Birth demographics are statistics that provide a place of birth and date of birth.
These data may measure a variety of factors such as live births, expected number
of children, rates of birth and fertility rates (Lazer, 1994). These data also classify
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birth with other characteristics of a population (e.g., birth and sex). According to
the United Nations 2003 World Fertility Report, birth rates have decreased since
the 1970s. This may be due to behavioral changes such as increased contraceptive
use and knowledge, family planning, population programs and policies, and the
universality of nuptials or some form of union. By example, China estimates a birth
reduction of 4 children per child bearing woman (United Nations, 2003)..
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the birth of a population (e.g., sex,
age, race)? What is the birthplace of individuals in this society or culture? What is
the time of birth? In a society, it is important to document who is born to whom and
the frequency of these births? Are individuals, groups, animals, and/or organisms
limited in the number of births? If so, how? If not, why? What is the purpose of
procreation in this society? How are birth demographics perceived in this society
or culture? What are the total numbers of births in each classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What is the place or places of birth of individuals in the target audience? What
is the frequency of births for the target audience? Are births limited for the target
audience? What is the purpose of procreation for the target audience? What are the
total numbers of the target audience in each birth classifcation?
Death
Death demographics are statistics of the termination of life. It provides data on the
number of deaths in a particular area or at a given time. These data classify death
with other characteristics of a population (e.g., death and age).
The Democratic Republic of the Congos 10 year war (1996-2006) between militia
armed forces and Rwandians left 3 million people dead and 3.5 million people dis-
placed from their homes (Kimani, 2007). This type of demographic data provided
striking evidence of the devastation of war and the unfathomable death toll.
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with death in a population (e.g., death
and age)? What are the ways in which individuals die in this society or culture?
Is one way or method of death more prominent than another and if so why? What
are the number of deaths within a given time period? How are death demograph-
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ics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each
death classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What are the ways in which the target audience dies? Is one way or method of death
more prominent than another for the target audience and why? What are the total
numbers of the target audience in each death classifcation?
Density
The density is the concentration of a population in an area and in relation to the size
of the area. These data classify density with other characteristics of a population
(e.g., density and housing, density and population).
China is the most highly populated country in the world, with an estimated 1.3
billion people by midyear 2007 (USCB, 2007b). In determining whether China
can maintain its population growth, researchers have examined agriculture, water
supply, consumption, climate, grain production, and population density. Predic-
tions about population growth and population density will determine the amount of
food needed in corresponding provinces by 2025, the turn of the century. In 2000,
Tianjins total population was 8.9 million with a population density of 787 people
per kilometer (Heilig, Fischer, & van Velthuizen, 2000).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the density of a population (e.g.,
race, housing)? What is the density population across designated areas? What is the
density population in relation to the size of the area? What numbers of the popula-
tion live in these spaces? How are density demographics perceived in this society
or culture? Are there social, economic, environmental, fnancial, or political issues
prevalent because of population density?
Target Audience GQ
Does the target audience occupy a large or small density of space? What number
of the target audience live in this space? What other characteristics of the target
audience can be considered (e.g., density and income, density and age) in gather-
ing data estimates or projections? Why does the target audience choose to live in
a densely populated area or not? How has the target audience been impacted by
density issues?
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Disease
Disease demographics are statistics on disorders of function, usually in an animal
or plant. These data classify disease with other characteristics of a population (e.g.,
disease and age).
The most deadly disease of the 21st century might be reported as HIV/AIDS.
Worldwide, the prevention and treatment of this disease, as well as the support
and care of people with HIV/AIDS, is of global concern. Through the Joint United
Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), there is a desire to end and reverse
this epidemic by 2015. As of 2005, worldwide fgures estimate that there are 38.6
million people infected with HIV, 4.1 million people contracted HIV, and 2.8 mil-
lion people died from AIDS-related causes (Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], 2006).

Culture GQ
1
What characteristics should be considered with disease and a population (e.g.,
disease and households)? What diseases exist that affect human? What diseases
exist that affect other species? How are humans, animals, and insects predisposed
to certain diseases? Are these diseases curable or treatable? What percentage of
the population is infected with diseases? How are disease demographics perceived
in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of the people in each disease
classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What diseases affect the health of the target audience? How is the target audience
predisposed to certain diseases? What percentage of the target audience is infected
with disease? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each disease
classifcation?
Educational Achievement
Education achievement demographics measure the highest educational degree or
highest level of school attended (Bauman & Graf, 2003). The educational achieve-
ment of a society or culture can be classifed based on grade level or age level. The
total number of individuals in that classifcation would then be calculated (USCB,
2005). Every society or culture has different perceptions on how education is ac-
quired, how much information is acquired, and the materials and tools for learning.
Educational achievement demographics focus on the numbers in relation to each
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groups educational classifcation system. These data classify educational achieve-
ment with other characteristics of a population (e.g., educational achievement and
income). The educational attainment from the Census 2000 U.S. Census reports
that out, of 182.2 million Americans, aged 25 and over, 80% earned a high school
diploma or higher education (Bauman & Graf, 2003).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the educational achievement of
a population (e.g., educational achievement and occupation)? How is educational
achievement classifed in this society or culture? What is the highest level of school-
ing or academic degree of individuals and/or groups (e.g., no school to doctoral
degree) in this society or culture? How is educational achievement perceived in
this society or culture? What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement
across classifcations such as, age, sex, income, and so forth? How are educational
achievement demographics perceived in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ
How is educational achievement perceived by the target audience? What is the
highest level of schooling or academic degree of individuals in the target audience?
What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement across classifcations
such as age, sex, and race for the target audience? How does the target audience
perceive educational achievement data?
Ethnicity
Ethnicity refers to the belonging or distinctiveness of a person of ethnic origin.
Ethnic groups share historical and cultural traditions that include racial, national,
linguistic, and religious associations. Ethnicity demographics record the diversity
of a society either through formal (e.g., census) or informal data collection. These
data classify ethnicity with other characteristics of a population (e.g., ethnicity and
households, ethnicity and age).
Englands Department for Education and Skills published a research topic paper
titled. Ethnicity and Education: The Evidence on Minority Ethnic Pupils aged
516 (2006). In this 2006 paper, minority ethnic groups in schools are defned as:
Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, Black Other, Chinese, Indian, Mixed
White & Black Caribbean, Mixed White & Black African and White Other. This
ethnic minority makes up 21% of the primary school and 17% of the secondary
school population (Department for Education and Skills, 2006).
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Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the ethnicity of a population (e.g.,
sex, age, race, housing)? Does ethnicity exist in this society or culture? How are
ethnic groups classifed? What common features exist amongst people of a particular
ethnicity? What are the total numbers of people in each ethnic classifcation? How
are ethnic demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the ethnicity of the target audience? Are there subdivisions within ethnic
groups of the target audience? For the target audience, what characteristics do the
ethnic groups share? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each
ethnic classifcation?
Family
A family is a household with two or more related persons (USCB, 2005); other
nonrelated persons who are living in the housing unit are also considered part
of the household. Family demographics usually consist of family composition,
size, and type. These data assist with defning family structures of a population
and classifying family with other characteristics of a population (e.g., family and
households, family and income).
The Central Statistical Offce of Swaziland collected provisional data in a 2007
Population and Housing Census, and they estimated that the Kingdom of Swaziland
has a total population of 953,524 people. This is based on the collection of data
such as the number of residents present and absent from a household, the number
of visitors present and absent, and the sex of the residents (United Nations Statistics
Division, 2007). In this case, the number of residents in the housing unit defned
the household.
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the family of a population (e.g.,
family and households; family and income)? What is the structure of families (e.g.,
single parent with two children; married couple with no children; presence of elders,
adult children, grandchildren)? What is the number of households in each family
structure? How are family demographics perceived in this society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ
What is the structure of the target audiences family or families? For the target
audience, what is the number of households in each family structure?
Growth
Growth demographics are the increases in numbers of a population. These data
assist with defning the growth of a population and classifying growth with other
characteristics of a population (e.g., growth and migration).
Uganda has one of the highest population growth rates in the world. As of 2006,
the countries population was estimated at close to 29 million people with an esti-
mated growth rate of 3.4% each year (UNAIDS, 2006). This population growth is
fueling poverty as Uganda ranks 159 out of 175 of the worlds poorest countries.
The rise in population and poverty presents economic, social and health challenges
(Republic of Uganda, 2002).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the growth of a population (e.g.,
sex, age, race, housing)? Is there growth in the population? Does the growth of
one population over another matter in this society or culture, and if so, why? What
are the total numbers of growth in the population over a period of time? How are
growth demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the growth of the target audiences population over designated periods of
time? Does the growth in population have an effect on the target audience? What
are the total numbers of growth in the target audience over a period of time? How
does the target audience perceive growth in their society or culture?
Housing
Housing demographics are specifc to housing units and households. Housing units
can be a room or group of rooms, mobile home, apartment, or house. Quarters for
groups are also housing; this can include: prisons, dormitories, military quarters,
detention centers, nursing homes, mental (psychiatric) hospitals, juvenile institu-
tions, and group homes (USCB, 2005). Housing units can be rented, owned, or
being bought (Simmons & ONeil, 2001). These data determine the housing oc-
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cupancy, housing vacancy and tenure (renter occupied or owner occupied), and
classify housing with other characteristics of a population (e.g., housing and age;
housing and density).
In addition to the housing unit itself, there is a need to know who lives in the
household and the relationship to the householder. These data provide information
about the individuals and composition of the household (Simmons & ONeill, 2001).
Individuals in the household may be labeled as follows: natural born son/daughter,
adopted son/daughter, grandmother, grandfather, stepson, stepdaughter, brother,
parent in law, son in law, daughter in law, niece, nephew, uncle, aunt, roomer,
boarder, roommate, housemate, unmarried partner, or foster child (USCB, 2005).
These data determine the applicability of households with other characteristics of
a population (e.g., households and age).
The Instituto Brasileiro de Geografa e Estatstica collected information related
to population count on December 21, 2007. The data revealed 11,422 persons who
were 100 years of age or older. Of the 7,950 women aged 100 years or older, 19.7%
headed households, 30.4% had a husband, 30% were stepdaughters or daughters,
and 11.1% were other types of relatives. Of 3,472 men aged 100 years or older, 36.6%
headed households, 43.6% were stepsons or sons, and 10.3% were other types of
relatives (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografa e Estatstica, 2007).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the housing of a population (e.g.,
sex, age, race, mobility)? How many housing units exist? How many classifcations
of housing units exist (e.g., apartment, house, prison, dormitory)? How many people
live in these housing units? How many people, rent, own, or buy these housing
units? Who lives in the household? What are the relationships of people living in
the household? How much does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space in this
society or culture? How much does it cost to purchase housing units? How much
does it cost to maintain a typical household that needs heating fuel and lighting?
How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which individuals live? What
is the condition of these homes, apartments, and dwellings? How are housing
demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of
people in each housing classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What type of housing units do the target audience reside in (e.g., shack, apartment,
house)? How much does the target audience pay for housing? How many people live
in the typical homes of the target audience? Does the target audience rent, own, or
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buy housing units? Who lives in the households of the target audience? What are the
relationships of people living in the households of the target audience? How much
does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space for the target audience? How much
does it cost to purchase housing units for the target audience? How much does it
cost to maintain a typical household for the target audience that needs heating fuel
and lighting? How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which the target
audience lives? What is the condition of the homes, apartments, and dwellings in
which the target audience lives? What are the total numbers of the target audience
in each housing classifcation?
Incarceration
Incarceration demographics report data on those persons imprisoned or confned.
These data classify incarceration with other characteristics of a population (e.g.,
sex or age).
In 2005, the United States led all other countries in the world in number of people
incarcerated, with 2.2 million people incarcerated in state and federal prisons or
local jails. China ranked second with 1.5 million people incarcerated. Estimates
predict an increase of 200,000 more incarcerated men and women in the United
States by 2011 (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2007).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the incarceration of individuals in a
population (e.g., incarceration and race)? Classify the acts that cause persons to be
incarcerated. What types of places are used to incarcerate people (e.g., jails, pris-
ons, internment camps)? How many people are incarcerated? What types of people
are incarcerated (e.g., women, men, youth)? Are there limitations, such as age or
gender, in terms of who can be incarcerated? What percentage of the population is
incarcerated? What are the ages, sex and length of time for incarcerated individuals?
How are incarceration demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are
total numbers of people in each incarceration classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What percentage of the target audience is incarcerated? What crimes did individuals
in the target audience commit that resulted in incarceration? What are the ages, sex
and length of time for incarcerated individuals in the target audience? What are the
total numbers of the target audience in each incarceration classifcation?
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Income
Internationally, the term may be referred to as earnings or revenue. Income demo-
graphics are monies or assets received for work, goods, services, and/or investments
(Trumble & Stevenson, 2002a). Income or household income usually refects all
income earned by members of a household (USCB, 2005). Additional income in a
household can come from alimony, social security, government subsidized monies,
or retirement income. These data may classify income with other characteristics of
a population (e.g., income and age).
In Ireland, the average weekly earnings vary based on profession. In 2006, the
average weekly earnings indicated the following salary trend: Prison offcers earned
$1,149.12; primary education, $831.11; secondary education, $998.67; banking and
insurance workers, $829.25; manufacturing industry male, $624.45; manufactur-
ing industry female, $451.12; and business, $644.70. Based on these earnings, it
is apparent that women in the manufacturing industry are some of the lowest paid
workers (Central Statistics Offce Ireland, 2007).
Wealth demographics can be determined by income and net worth. The com-
plete picture of economic well-being may be calculated in the difference between
assets and liabilities. Examples of assets include interest-earning accounts (sav-
ings, money market, certifcate of deposit, checking, securities, bonds, etc.); stocks
and mutual fund shares; rental property; mortgages for sale; business property;
regular checking account; home ownership; other real estate; retirement accounts;
and motor vehicles. Examples of liabilities include: secured Liabilities (broker ac-
counts, mortgages on ones own home, rental property or other real estate, debt on
profession or business, vehicle loans, etc.), unsecured liabilities, credit cards, bills
(doctor, dentist, hospital, nursing home), and loans (e.g., personal, educational;
Orzechowski & Sepielli, 2003).
Poverty demographics typically can be determined by income or total fam-
ily income. For example in the United States, poverty is determined by poverty
thresholds or income cutoffs; this means that if the total family income falls below
the poverty threshold, the family is considered to be in poverty (Bishaw, 2005, p.
2). In the report of Participatory Poverty Assessment in Rwanda, Africa, poverty
demographics are categorized as poverty and extreme poverty. Poverty is deter-
mined across social characteristics such as Umutindi nyakujya (those in abject
poverty), Umutindi (the very poor), Umukene (the poor), Umukene wifashije (the
resourceful poor), Umukungu (the food rich), and Umukire (the money rich; Howe
& McKay, 2005).
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Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the income of a population (e.g.,
income and age)? What is the income or revenue earned (e.g., <$1,000, $1,000
$1,999)? Who works in the household? What is the median household income?
What percentage of income or revenue is earned from work? How are income
demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the wealth demograph-
ics of this society or culture? How is wealth determined? How many people are
considered wealthy? What assets determine economic wealth? How many people
own these assets? What types of liabilities exist in this society or culture? What are
the poverty demographics of this society or culture? How is poverty determined?
How many people are considered in poverty? Is poverty classifed across social
characteristics, and if so, what are these characteristics? How many people are in
poverty across social characteristics?
Target Audience GQ
What is the income or revenue earned by individuals in the target audience? Who
works in the household of the target audience? What is the median household income
of the target audience? What percentage of income or revenue is earned from work
by the target audience? What are the wealth demographics for the target audience?
How is wealth determined for the target audience? How many people are considered
wealthy in the target audience? What assets determine the economic wealth of the
target audience? How many people in the target audience own these assets? What
types of liabilities exist in the culture of the target audience? What are the poverty
demographics for the target audience? How is poverty determined by the target
audience? How many of the target audience are considered in poverty? Is poverty
classifed across social characteristics by the target audience, and if so, what are
these characteristics? What are the numbers of the target audience in poverty across
social characteristics?
Language
Language demographics usually report the language or languages spoken at home,
ability to speak the native language, and language competence (Shin & Bruno,
2003). These data help classify language with other characteristics of a population
(e.g., language and race).
The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census reported that, other than Eng-
lish, there are fve top languages spoken at home by Australians: Arabic, Cantonese,
Italian, Greek, and Mandarin (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
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Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the language of a population (e.g.,
language and age)? What is the dominant language of the society or culture? What
is the subordinate language or languages of the society or culture? What total of
the population is fuent in the dominant language? What total of the population is
fuent in the subordinate language or languages? How is fuency measured in this
society (i.e., the ability to read, write, or speak)? How are language demographics
perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the native language of the target audience? How is fuency measured by the
target audience (i.e., the ability to read, write, or speak)? What total of the target
audience is fuent in the native language? What total of the target audience is fuent
in the dominant language? How does the target audience feel about the number of
people who know the dominant language versus their own language?
Marital Status
Marital status demographics relate to an individuals status or relationship to others.
Classifcations that defne marital status may include: single, married, divorced,
separated, engaged, widowed, never married, and living common-law (Kreider &
Simmons, 2003). These classifcations can be calculated based on the population
for a society or culture. These data classify marital status with other characteristics
of a population (e.g., marital status and mortality).
In a study of 94,062 Japanese men and women aged 4079, higher mortality
rates were associated with those who were married versus those who were single,
divorced, or widowed. These fndings suggest that marriage provides social sup-
port and security and potentially leads to a healthier well-being for both partners
(Ikeda et al., 2007).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the marital status of a population
(e.g., marital status and household)? What are the numbers of people in each type of
marital status? Is there a classifcation for marital status in this society or culture?
What is the marital status of individuals in this society or culture? What do these
fgures mean in terms of number of individuals in this society or culture (e.g., only
10 % of the population is married)? How are marital demographics perceived in
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Target Audience GQ
Is there a classifcation of marital status for the target audience? What is the marital
status of individuals in the target audience? What do these fgures mean, for the
target audience, in terms of number of individuals in this society or culture? What
numbers of the target audience have a certain marital status or union?
Migration
Migration demographics provide statistics on movement that crosses boundaries
with jurisdictions. Population growth or decline is affected by migration. Locally
and nationally, migration patterns are infuenced by residential, domestic, or in-
ternational migration patterns. Individuals migrate to improve economic levels or
living conditions (Schachter, Franklin, & Perry, 2003). These data classify migration
with other characteristics of a population (e.g., migration and race).
In the United States, on the individual level, migrations may improve quality
of living or increase economic opportunities (Schachter et al., 2003). In Canada,
Canadian Aboriginal people have been leaving cities and migrating back to urban
life since the 1980s. Their reasons for leaving are not based on economics alone
but other social and political conditions. Canadian Aboriginal people have left for
reasons such as the lack of affordable housing, stark contrasts between city life and
the reserve communities, issues related to racism and discrimination, and the lack
of a social network (Cooke, 2006).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the migration of a population (e.g.,
migration and age)? What are the migration patterns of people? What groups of
people are migrating? What caused the migration? From what locations did people
migrate? What were the reasons behind the migration? How many people in this
society or culture are migrating? How are migration demographics perceived in
Target Audience GQ
What are the migration patterns of the target audience? What caused the migrations
of the target audience? From what locations did the target audience migrate? What
were the reasons the target audience's migration? What are the total numbers of the
target audience who have migrated?
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Mobility
Mobility demographics refer to a persons journey to work and the available num-
ber of paths to work. Those paths can be vehicles, public transportation, biking,
walking, etc. These numbers provide an indication of what form of transportation
is most used, least used, developing, and where transportation access is needed by
a society or culture. These data classify mobility with other characteristics of a
population (e.g., mobility and race).
Improving mobility means enabling trade and easing travel. The effort to im-
prove mobility is exemplifed by the building of a 4,560-km trans-West African
coastal highway that spans 15 nations from Nouakchott, Mauritania, to Lagos,
Nigeria. This project links a unifying highway through West African countries
(Madamombe, 2006).
2
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the mobility of a population (e.g.,
sex, age, race, housing)? How do people travel? How many ways can they get to
work, school, and so forth? What are the numbers of people who travel? How are
mobility demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience travel? How many ways can they get to work, school,
etc? What are the numbers of the target audience who travel by walking, bike, car,
boat, etc? How does the target audience perceive their mobility in this society or
culture?
Occupation
Occupation demographics refer to activities in that an individual spends their time in
employment. Some classifcations of occupations include: management, professional,
service, sales, offce, farming, fshing, forestry, construction, and transportation
(Fronczek & Johnson, 2003). These data determine the applicability of occupation
with other characteristics of a population (e.g., occupation and age).
In 2007, youth (ages 1524) employment in developing countries became a criti-
cal issue for economic performance. Haitis employment data indicated that 47.4%
of the youth were unemployed and that half were not enrolled in school (Justesen
& Verner, 2007). Youth in sub-Saharan Africa make up 63% of the unemployed.
The challenges for these countries consist of creating employment for youth amid
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other issues such as poverty, teen pregnancy, violence, migration, illiteracy, and
gender bias (Justesen & Verner, 2007; Mutume, 2006).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the occupation of a population (e.g.,
occupation and age)? What work do individuals perform in this society or culture?
What duties and activities do individuals perform in their work? How are these
positions viewed by the society? Is there a status level in terms of occupations in
this society? At what age are people employable? Does having an occupation mat-
ter? How are occupation demographics perceived in this society or culture? What
are the total numbers of people in each occupation classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What work do individuals in the target audience perform? What duties and activi-
ties do individuals in the target audience perform in their work? How are these
positions viewed by the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target
audience in each occupation classifcation?
Race
Race demographics refer to data from a group of people who may share common
features (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002b). Individuals self identify their race based
on their most closely identifed race or races. These data classify race with other
characteristics of a population (e.g., race and mobility).
The 2000 U.S. Census has defned seven categories of race: White, Black or
African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian,
Native Hawaiian and other Pacifc Islander, and other race. The 2000 U.S. Census
refers to people having origins with any of the original peoples of Europe, North
Africa, or the Middle East as White. This racial group includes people who indicated
their race or races as White or wrote in entries such as Irish, Italian, German, Arab,
Lebanese, Near Easterner, or Polish (Grieco & Cassidy, 2001).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the race of a population (e.g., race
and housing)? Are there defned categories of race? What common features exist
among groups of people from the same race? How are racial demographics perceived
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in this society or culture? What is the number of people in each racial category?
What total of the population is in each racial category?
Target Audience GQ
Are all individuals in the target audience from the same race? What common racial
features exist in the target audience? What are the defned categories of race in the
target audience? How are racial classifcations perceived in the target audience?
What are the numbers of the target audience in each race classifcation? What total
of the target audience is in each racial category?
Sex
Sex demographics usually refer to female or male. These demographics may focus
on reproductive abilities. These data classify sex with other characteristics of a
population (e.g., sex and households, sex and income).
The Philippine 2000 Census-Based Population Projections estimate that the
Philippine population will grow from 76.5 million in 2000 to 141.7 million by 2040.
This growth would result in an older aging population, improved health across the
nation and decreases in the number of childbearing women (National Statistics
Offce, 2007).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the sex of a population (e.g., sex
and income)? What are the reproductive characteristics of males (e.g., fertile, in-
fertile, sterile)? What are the reproductive characteristics of females? Is one sex
more dominant than the other, or are they equal, and why? How many sexes exist?
What are the total numbers of people in each sex category (e.g., sex and marriage)?
How are sex demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What are the reproductive characteristics of males in the target audience? What are
the reproductive characteristics of females in the target audience? Is one sex, of the
target audience, more dominant than another or are they equal and why? What are
the total numbers of target audience in each sex category?
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Size
Size demographics relates to the number of individuals in a population. These data
assist with defning the overall size of a population and classifying size with other
characteristics of a population (e.g., size and growth).
As reported in 2006, by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the size of the popu-
lation of Australians with citizenship amounted to 86.1% or 17,095,569 (Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
Culture GQ
What characteristics should be considered with the size of a population (e.g., size
and family, size and household? What are the sizes of the various populations?
Does the size of the population matter in the growth of the society? How are size
demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of
people in each sex classifcation?
Target Audience GQ
What is the size of the target population? What is the size of the target audience
in relation to others? Does the size of the target audience impact social, political,
or economic conditions? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each
size classifcation?
Cultural Environment
E7..Cultural.Environment.-.Physical.and.social.conditions.in.which.a.
human.being,..or.other.species.or.entity.lives.and.develops.
Cultural environment is the physical and social conditions in which a human being,
other species or entity lives and develops. It is a functioning unit.
Types of Physical Environments
The physical environment is the space in which societies and cultures exist and
grow (Robinson-Caskie, 2006). It is usually comprised of two worlds: the natural
and human made. The natural world includes land, water, climate, plants, animals,
insects, other species, and entities of the planets biosphere. The human-made
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world includes buildings, houses, dwellings, roadways, technologies, mechanical
systems, transportation systems, communication systems, and so forth. The world
of natural and human-made environments is vast, and it can be complex given the
level of development of a society or culture (Germain & Bloom, 1999). The physical
environment impacts the organisms that exist within its natural and human-made
worlds. Habitats within the environment must maintain equilibrium to best serve
its inhabitants (Germain & Bloom, 1999)
Natural World
Climate
Air
Landforms
Water
Plants
Populations
The natural world includes the climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations
(animals, human beings, other species, and entities) of the planets biosphere (Ger-
main & Bloom, 1999). These features of a planet are linked to create a dynamic
environmental system.
Climate: Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and
their natural world (Robinson-Caskie, 2006). Typical types of ecological en-
vironments on the planet Earth include: tropical rain forest, savanna, desert,
temperate, and arctic region/tundra. The tropical rainforest is characterized by
year-round rainfall and excessive plant growth. Extreme rain in the summer
and dry winters characterize the savanna. The desert is marked by an exces-
sively hot climate with no rain or rain up to 12 inches. Temperature zones
have cold winters and warm summers. The artic/tundra is known for its cold
temperatures that do not exceed 50 Fahrenheit and permanently frozen land
also called permafrost (Robinson-Caskie, 2006).
The weather or physical features of the atmosphere can be observed from ele-
ments such as clouds, humidity, pressure, precipitation, temperature, visibility,
and wind. Other physical features of a planets atmosphere may include dust,
smoke, rain, dew, frost, fog, hail, lightning, and snow (McGraw-Hill, 2005).
Air: Air is a predominately mechanical mixture of a variety of individual
gases enveloping the terrestrial globe to form the atmosphere (McGraw-Hill,
2005, p.10). The life zone, at the face of the planet Earth is formed by three
components: air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), and land (lithosphere;
McGraw-Hill, 2005).
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Landforms: Landforms are the surface formations and landscape of a planet.
Capes, elevations, islands, plateau, and soil types are examples of landforms
(Hutchinson, 2004).
Water:. Water is a liquid substance. On the planet earth, water covers 73% of
the Earths surface. These water surfaces consist of oceans, seas, lakes, and
rivers. Over 97% of this water is found in oceans and connecting seas. There
are four ocean basins on the planet Pacifc, Atlantic, Indian & Artic. A lake
is body of water located inland. Lakes range in size; smaller lakes may be
called ponds, pools, meres, or tarns (located in mountains). Rivers are streams
of fresh water; they are much larger in volume than their tributaries that are
called branches, brooks, creeks or forks. Rivers capture the runoff from land;
serve as main stems of drainage; and act as mouths for lakes, oceans, and
desert basin discharges (McGraw-Hill, 2005).
Plants:.Plants or vegetation are the green mantle of plants. Vegetation is absent
in very dry or cold areas. Plants may be arranged in a small or large geographic
area, depending on ecological conditions. The varieties of plant species found
on a planet are known as the fora of a region. Plants need water, light and the
appropriate climate temperature. The normal growth cycle of plants happens
through temporal changes related to changes in the season (DeVasconcelos,
2006).
Populations:.Populations refer to animals, human beings, other species, and
entities. The population of a society or culture is important to its sustainability.
For human beings, considerations of a population may examine those living,
deceased, and yet to be born. A historical account of a population may look
at the population of an area at a particular period in history. Then projections
may need to be made to determine population growth in particular areas
paralleled against those who are or who will be deceased (Mebratu, 2006).
Culture GQ
What are the physical features of this natural world? Specifcally, describe the
climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations of the planets biosphere? How do
these physical features interact and exist in the environment?
Target Audience GQ
What are the physical features of the natural world that directly impacts the target
audience? How does the target audience interact with the planets biosphere (i.e.,
climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations)? Is the target audience connected
in any way to the natural world (e.g., physically or spiritually)?
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Merging the Natural and Human-Made Worlds
Conditions of the physical environment intersect with those that are natural made
and human made worlds. The physical environment can experience global environ-
mental change based on human activities. The planet earth is experiencing changes
that infuence physical, chemical and biological worlds. Climate changes are one
of the most prevalent physical changes to the planet earth. Global temperatures are
increasingly warming the earth; this is causing the disappearance of glaciers on
every continent. The loss of glaciers could worsen water supplies in water-deprived
areas. Chemical changes are caused by a variety of persistent organic pollutants
and toxic synthetic chemicals (Cunningham, W. P., 2003, p. 457-8). Chlorofuoro-
carbons (CFCs) are an organic compound composed of fuorine, carbon, hydrogen
and chlorine; they were used as aerosol propellants, cleaning solvents, refrigerants,
and foam-blowing agents. CFCs replaced the more toxic chemicals; however in the
mid 1970s, CFCs were found to cause depletion of the ozone layer that protects the
earth from ultraviolet rays (Bortman, Brimblecombe, Cunningham, Cunningham,
& Freedman, 2003). One of the most important biological changes on the planet
earth is the loss of species due to conditions such as pollution, destruction of habi-
tats and the harvesting of commercially desired species. The extinction of of
the worlds species is taxomonists greatest fear and could result in an ecological
disaster (Bortman et al., 2003).
Other examples of physical environmental conditions that affect the planet
earth include:
air and water pollution; glacial ice melts; rising ocean levels; changes in animal
behavior and migration patterns; species extinction, habitat destruction and
degradation; new species introduced into environment; depletion of clean water,
energy, fertile soil, and living organisms; (Bortman et al., 2003); urbanization,
deforestation; industrialization (Rounsevell, 2006); and population explosion
(Mebratu, 2006).
Culture GQ
What environmental conditions are prevalent in this society or culture? How are
these environmental conditions specifc to physical, chemical, or biological changes
in the planet?
Which environmental conditions are most detrimental to the planet? What is
being done about the environmental conditions? Have physical environmental con-
ditions caused changes in human beings? Have chemical environmental conditions
caused changes in human beings? Have biological environmental conditions caused
changes in human beings?
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Target Audience GQ
What environmental conditions are prevalent in this society or culture that directly
affect the target audience? How are these environmental conditions specifc to physi-
cal, chemical, or biological changes in the planet? Have physical environmental
conditions caused changes in the target audience? Have chemical environmental
conditions caused changes in the target audience? Have biological environmental
conditions caused changes in the target audience?
Which environmental conditions are most detrimental to the target audience?
What has the target audience done about these environmental conditions?
Human-Made World
Structures
Technology
Social
The human-made world consists of structures, technology, and social environ-
ments; it is a society. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that
are understood by all and collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain &
Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture
or ways of being, doing and thinking. This culture shapes societies behavior (Ember
& Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005).
Figure 9.1. Chinas administrative structure in 2003 (Adapted from Structure of
the State, 2008)
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Structures
To function in a society, individuals must engage its structure, and most societies
have a known structure. Structures are composed of multilevels and lateral areas of
complexity. Structures that form societies include legal, political, economic, educa-
tional, or religious. An example of a Western legal structure is the combination of
federal level, state level, and local levels of government with corresponding courts
and legal offcials (lawyers, judges, sheriffs, police offcers, probation offcers, etc.;
Germain & Bloom, 1999). Figure 9.1 illustrates a fowchart of the Central Organiza-
tions of the Communist Party of China in 2003 (Structure of the State, 2008).
Culture GQ
What structures exist in this society or culture? How do these structures form this
society? Who created these structures? How are these structures organized and
by whom?
Target Audience GQ
What structures in this society or culture were created by the target audience? What
structures directly affect the lives of the target audience?
Technology
All societies and cultures construct forms of technology. These technologies vary
according to the development of the society. Technologies in a human-made society
are multileveled and have multidimensional levels of complexity. The human-made
world includes technologies of: engineering, health and safety, industry, informa-
tion, science, and transportation. For example, in any given metropolis, there are
highways, roads, and streets that intersect; the transportation roadways represent
human ingenuity. Another example is the global Internet structure interconnected
by computer networks used for data transmission; here, human ingenuity becomes
multileveled and multidimensional. Figure 9.2 simulates a snapshot of the internets
structure of computer networks.
In 2008, the technologies of modern society could be classifed as disciplines of
human-made technologies. Table 9.1 provides a quick overview of the technologi-
cal innovation and capabilities of this world. A similar table might be created by
designers who are building fctionalized worlds or for researchers who are project-
ing into the future the structure of society in the year 2100. This table answers the
question: What technologies does this society possess?
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Culture GQ
What technologies have been developed by this society or culture? Who created
these technologies? What is the purpose of these technologies? How have humans
benefted from the development of these technologies? How have humans been
harmed by the development of these technologies? Has the environment been harmed
by these technologies? How have other species benefted or have been harmed by
these technologies? How are these technologies used by humans? What does the
development of these technologies say about this society or culture?
Figure 9.2. Visualization of Internet structure
Table 9.1. Disciplines of human-made technologies
Disciplines Technology
Engineering Aerospace, agricultural, architectural, audio, automotive, biochemical, biological,
biomedical, broadcast, ceramic, chemical, civil, computer, construction, cryogenic,
electrical, electronic, environmental, fnancial, fre safety, food, industrial, marine,
materials, mechanical, metallurgical, mining, naval, nuclear, optical, petroleum,
safety, sanitary, software, structural, systems, textile, tissue, transportation
Health and safety Bioinformatics, biotechnology, fre protection, health, nutrition, pharmaceutical
Industry Construction, manufacturing, machinery, mining
Information Communication, graphics, music technology, speech recognition, visual technology
Science Artifcial intelligence, ceramic engineering, computer, electronics, energy,
environmental, fsheries, microtechnology, nanotechnology, nuclear, optics,
zoography
Transportation Aerospace, motor vehicle, space
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Target Audience GQ
What technologies have been developed by the target audience? Has the target
audience created any of these technologies? What is the purpose of the technolo-
gies created by the target audience? How has the target audience benefted from
the development of technologies? How has the target audience been harmed by the
development of technologies? Has the environment been harmed by technologies
the target audience developed? How have other species benefted or been harmed
by technologies the target audience developed? How are these technologies used
by the target audience? What does the development of these technologies say about
the target audience?
Social
The social environment is the space in which human beings exist and interact.
It is made up of dyads, pairs, small groups, families, neighborhoods, enclaves,
communities, organizations, support structures, social space and time, and formal
structures (e.g., workplaces, religious affliations, health care systems, education
systems, political structures, economic structures, military systems). For humans,
the social environment is composed of other human beings, not just themselves.
This means that social environments are contingent upon human beings interacting
with other human beings. Physical environments aid in shaping social environments
(Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Humans are social beings; therefore, characterizing the human-made world in
social contexts must be considered. Socialization aids human development and
growth. There are various types of groups and groupings and a few are explained
in these examples (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Dyads/pairs consist of a two-person group. This could be a married couple, parent
and child, two friends, client-workers, tutor tutee, and so forth. Within dyad/pairs,
there is ongoing communication. Knowledge of the other is known. Expectations
are present; however they may or may not be explicit. Each is aware of their part
in the relationship (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Small groups are characterized as a group of people who interact over a period of
time. The group structure consists of behaviors that are interpersonal and expected
group behaviors. They may often accomplish a goal or meet for a particular purpose.
Small groups receive and provide support to its members. Typical examples are
families, peer groups, small enclaves, or small work groups (Germain & Bloom,
1999).
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Communities in this context are those specifc to place; this may include a
neighborhood, village, enclave, or district. The people who live and participate in
these communities have common values, beliefs, interests, behaviors, and social
networks. They may also share a sense of belonging to the community (Germain
& Bloom, 1999).
Support structures serve as support networks. Relatives, friends, and neighbors
serve as an initial group for support networks. These support networks may provide
long- or short -term resources or services, guidance, tangible assistance (e.g., loan
a car), emotional support, or feedback. Self-help groups may also serve as support
structures for individuals who have a specialized topic to share and who need emo-
tional support (e.g., Mothers Against Drunk Drivers;, Alcoholics Anonymous).
Formal structures serve to solve physical and social environmental problems and
to handle internal and external challenges of the organization. The complexity and
challenges of the organization warrants the hiring of an administrative team and
support personnel. Formal organizations usually have a set of rules, policies, proce-
dures, or regulations that aid in quality control of operations, management, service,
and personnel. Modern societies are dominated by formal organizations. Informal
groupings develop within formal organizations (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Types of social environmental conditions that develop from social environments
include racism, oppression, humiliation, genocide, segregation (e.g., employment
and housing), sexism, and homophobia.
Culture GQ
What is the social environment of this society or culture? What types of social groups
are prevalent in this society or culture? How has the physical environment aided
in shaping the social environment? How do these social groups aid this society or
culture? What social environmental conditions exist in this society or culture? How
have these social environmental conditions been addressed or resolved?
Target Audience GQ
What is the social environment of the target audience? What types of social groups
are prevalent in the target audiences community? How has the physical environ-
ment aided in shaping the target audience? How do these social groups assist the
target audience? What social environmental conditions exist that affect the target
audience? What are the target audiences beliefs about their social environment?
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Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-9.pdf
Shin, H. B., & Bruno, R. (2003, August). Language use and English-speaking abil-
ity: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 29). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce,
Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18,
2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf
Simmons, T., & ONeill, G. (2001, September). Households and families: 2000 (Cen-
sus 2000 Brief No. 01-8). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics
and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.html
Singapore Department of Statistics. (2006, June). Singapore household balance
sheet: 2005 Update and recent trends. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.
singstat.gov.sg/pubn/papers/economy.html
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Retrieved July 11, 2008, 2008, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/
state_structure/64404.htm
Statistics Bureau of Japan. (2000). 2000 population census of Japan. Retrieved July
18, 2008, from http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/
Trumble, W. R., & Stevenson, A. (2002a). Shorter Oxford English dictionary on
historical principles (5th ed., Vol. 1). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press.
is prohibited.
Trumble, W. R., & Stevenson, A. (2002b). Shorter Oxford English dictionary on
historical principles (5th ed. Vol. 2). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press.
United Nations. (2003). World fertility report: 2003. New York: Author. Retrieved
December 27, 2007, from the World Wide Web at http://www.un.org/esa/popula-
tion/publications/worldfertility/World_Fertility_Report.htm
United Nations Statistics Division. (2007, September 28). 2007 Swaziland population
and housing census. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/de-
mographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/Swaziland/Swaziland_more.htm
United States Census Bureau. (2005). Summary fle 1: 2000 Census of population
and housingTechnical documentation. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://fact-
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Andorra. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/coun-
try/anportal.html
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China. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/coun-
try/chportal.html
Endnotes
1
These questions were informed by Marcelin, 2006.
2
This transportation system is the vision of Africans for Africa and supported
by the New Partnership for Africas Development.
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Chapter X
CBM Elements IV
anthropology of culture. Cultural history is covered in its entirety.
Cultural History
E8..Cultural.History.-.Narrative.representation.of.historical.events.
Cultural history covers these types of history:.artistic, agricultural, crime, disease,
economic, educational, ethnic, familial, gender, geographic, health, legal, linguistic,
political, racial, religious, reproduction, science, sexual intercourse, social, time
periods.
Cultural history is a narrative representation of events. This history is compre-
hensive in that it includes many of the histories that have been written by or about
a population. Histories serve to preserve the past, tell the stories of human beings,
record information, and chronicle a legacy. The point of building or researching a
cultural history, according to Burke (2004), is to explore new facets of history and
re-evaluate the old.
1
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A cultural history is a universal history that includes all information that is
discovered. This information can be gathered from a variety of sources including
primary source documents, secondary source documents, oral histories, interviews,
artifacts, and other forms of media. Within the larger society, histories may be
recorded or chronicled by historians, writers, scribes, or other persons who are
known to possess knowledge or who can interpret knowledge. Other histories may
be documented by local inhabitants. Locate histories written about the population
from people who live in and outside of the society or culture. Oral histories, that
are recorded personal narratives of everyday people, may also be acquired. These
histories aid in obtaining a balanced representation and can further authenticate
historical representations. If these histories do not exist, then this weakness may
become evident in the design. Access multiple media formats (pamphlets [e.g.,
religious, fraternal], radio, newspapers, magazines, books, television, documenta-
ries, local historical societies, etc.) to compile these histories. There are also other
methods for gathering historical data such as chronology, cliometrics, demographics,
genealogy, and historiography.
Artistic
An artistic history is represented through the creative expression evident in a society,
culture or a particular target audience. These forms of creative expression manifest
in a variety of forms such as dance, painting, music, theatre, and sculpture) that are
aesthetically pleasing to others. Art can serve a variety of functions in a society.
It is a form of artistic expression for the artist. The observer of the art receives
personal satisfaction. For example, many Westerners receive personal satisfaction
from attending musical concerts, dramatic plays and museum exhibits. (See Cultural
Aesthetics for more on art).
A societys longevity is represented in its art. Art serves to communicate the
ideologies of a society. This is exemplifed in many cultures where art is integral
to religion and politics. Artwork serves many religious and social themes, as it is
represented in temples, churches, and synagogues. Art may also serve as a form of
social control. In many ancient societies, the construction of ziggurats, pyramids,
temples and cathedrals were visual representations of Gods power and the power
of the societys rulers (Ferraro, 2004). Art may preserve or challenge the status
quo. In many societies, the ownership of art is a symbol of high status and thereby
preserves the status quo of art as something that is owned by the elite. When art
challenges the status quo, other dynamics of that society merge, such as political
strife and social reform. In Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, male youth engaged in spray paint-
ing the city with graffti. The youths outrage was that they did not have anything
to do in their spare time, and they were not allowed in the malls without a female
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companion. Saudi Arabia regulates a strict form of Islam. The graffti represented
protest for more of what youth in the West had in terms of basketball courts, soccer
felds, and the freedom to dress as they please. The most notorious of the taggers,
Abdullah Al-Alwani, a young man who calls himself X5, said in an interview
that he wanted to stand out from his friends. The youth regularly communicated
through chat rooms on the Internet and shared other photographs from graffti work
they admired (Ambah, 2007).
Stylistic conventions, as a form of artistic expression, can include signifcance in
colors, geometric designs, or abstract designs (Proimos, 2006). The use of geomet-
ric designs is readily apparent in the traditional artwork of Australian aborigines,
as they use dots that are confgured into geometric shapes. Figure 10.1 depicts a
computer generated example of this art work.
Art may represent any social, moral or religious values. Polynesian chiefs
adorn themselves with tattoos; these tattoos symbolize their status level and birth
right position (Ferraro, 2004). Examples of styles and other artistic representa-
tions include: body decoration (e.g., tattooing, painting and adorning the body with
jewelry, scarifcation); painting; weaving; basket making carving (with wood, ivory,
soapstone, bone, horn, marble, etc.); ceramic art; sculpting (e.g., metal glass, clay);
architecture; printmaking. Clothing and weapons are other examples of artistic
artifacts (Ferraro, 2004). Other art forms include: verbal arts (folklore, myths, leg-
ends); visual arts (flm, video); performance arts (theatre, dance, music). Writing
may also be seen as a form of art in a society.
Figure 10.1 Aborigine artwork
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Culture GQ
What is the history of art in this society or culture? What are examples of art in this
society or culture? Does art serve as a form of personal satisfaction? Does art serve
as a form of social control? Does art preserve or challenge the status quo? How do
artists perceive their art? How does society perceive the artist? Who decides what
is or isnt art (e.g., a professional art organization, general public, other artists)?
Whose interests does art serve in this society? Does a style of art exist? Does this
style represent any social, moral, or religious values? Who has access to art? Who
owns the artwork? Who creates the artwork? Is art an integral part of this society,
and if so, in what way? From what class level does the artist or artisan come? What
purpose does art serve in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What examples of art made by the target audience exist? Does art serve a form
of personal satisfaction for the target audience? Does art serve as a form of social
control for the target audience? Does the target audiences artwork preserve or chal-
lenge the status quo? How does the target audience perceive their art? How does the
target audience perceive the artist? Does the target audience possess a style of art?
Does the artistic style of the target audience represent any social, moral, or religious
values? Does the target audience have access to art? Does the target audience own
the artwork? Who in the target audience creates the artwork? Is art an integral part
of the target audiences culture and if so, in what way?
Agricultural
An agricultural history records the way of life that involves agriculture. Farming
consists of the cultivation of land, growing of crops, and tending of cattle.
There are fve categories for food procurement:
Food collection involves the hunting of animals and gathering of wild plants
in the natural environment. Generally, societies that engage in food collecting
have a low population density (i.e., the concentration of people within a spe-
cifc portion of a defned or per unit area) because increasing food collection
methods could result in destroying food sources. Food-collecting societies are
referred to as nomadic or semi-nomadic, meaning that they frequently move
to different locations to hunt for game and acquire vegetation (Ferraro, 2004).
In contrast, food producers are more sedentary.
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Horticulture involves the use of hand tools for farming (i.e., no machines or
animal-driven machinery), small land plots, and human labor. This type of
farming is the simplest, and it is usually characterized by the technique of
manually cutting down anything growing on the land, burning the land, and
then planting on the burned land. The types of crops attended to by horticultural
societies tend to be seed crops (e.g., barley, wheat, corn, rice oats), tree crops
(e.g., plantains, dates, fgs, bananas, coconuts), and root crops (e.g., potatoes,
yams, arrowroots, taro). However, horticulturalists may also supplement their
crops by engaging in hunting and gathering, raising domesticated animals
(e.g., pigs, goats, cows, donkeys, horses), and fshing (Ferraro, 2004).
Pastoralism, as a method of food production, involves raising domesticated
herd animals (e.g., cattle, yaks, goats, sheep) and using their products as a
source of food (e.g., milk, blood, meat). However, pastoralists may supple-
ment their crops with agriculture or grains. They may produce crafts for sale
or trade to obtain the foods they need. Livestock serves multiple functions in
that they provide bone (for tools and artifacts), skin (for clothing), urine (as an
antiseptic), and dung (for fuel, house building, and fertilizer). Livestock may
play many roles in a culture related to marriage, religion, and social control;
livestock may be exchanged as part of a marriage commitment or sacrifced
to gods. (Ferraro, 2004).
Agriculture is a more effcient form of cultivation because it uses animal power
(e.g., oxen, horses), mechanical power (e.g., tractors, reapers), and irrigation
methods to bring water to crops. Tending to agriculture requires a large in-
vestment in human labor and the purchase and maintenance of livestock and
machines (e.g., plows, mechanical pumps) (Ferraro, 2004).
Industrialization, in terms of food production, refers to the sources of energy
generated by technology. Early forms of these machines were waterwheels
and windmills. However, today, motorized equipment such as combines and
tractors are used. Modern agriculture has been infuenced by the science of
chemistrythat has increased productivity through the use of pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers (Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ
What land is used for the cultivation of agriculture in this society or culture? What
crops are planted, grown, or harvested? What animals are tended? Do animals serve
a purpose in this society or culture (e.g., food, protection, skin used for shelter,
recreation, worship)? What method of food procurement best describes this society
or culture? What foods are produced for mass consumption?
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Target Audience GQ
What land is used for the cultivation of agriculture by the target audience? What
crops are planted, grown, or harvested by the target audience? Does the target au-
dience tend any animals? What purpose do animals serve for the target audience
(e.g., food, protection, skin used for shelter, recreation, worship)? What foods are
eaten by the target audience? What method of food procurement is used by the
target audience?
Crime
Crime history chronicles actions that are prohibited by laws, rules, or codes gov-
erning a society, culture or particular target audience. Crime is a deliberate act to
commit an unlawful or unacceptable offense usually against an individual, group,
community, or state. These acts typically have consequences. Within a society,
crime or any system of criminal justice is included in an examination of its crime
history. The history of crime should be chronological and should accurately represent
data gathered through a variety of sources (Seklecki, 2006). In organizing a crime
history, there is a need to determine the chronological period and the geographical
area. A crime history may examine crime patterns, crimes against person or prop-
erty, characteristics of criminals, administers of the law, law enforcement, court
systems, indictments, trials, or punishments (Gibson, 1994). Blogging became a
criminal offense in Egypt because it allowed the open and critical discourse of
the countrys political structure and religious ideals. In 2007, Egyptian bloggers
were jailed for what were considered criminal acts, such as insulting the regime of
President Hosni Mubarak, criticizing the Islamic religion, and reporting on sexual
assaults against women (Lynfeld, 2007).
Culture GQ (Individual, System, Deviancy)
Individual
2
:
.
Who commits crimes in this society or culture? Why do certain hu-
man beings commit crimes? What is the reasoning behind criminal acts committed
by individuals? Are acts of crime gender specifc? What crimes are committed by
males? What crimes are committed by females? Are the penalties for crimes the
same for men and women? What crimes are committed by juveniles or teenage
youth? What punishments are specifc to youth who commit crimes? What groups
commit most of the crimes or deviant acts, and why might this be so?
What is the history of crime in this society or culture? What behavior is consid-
ered a crime? What behavior is considered illegal (e.g., practicing witchcraft)? Who
determines what behavior is a deviant act or a crime? What structure is in place to
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deal with offenders of crimes? Are some crimes more offensive than others, and
how is this determined? How does the society, culture, community, or nation view
a person with a criminal history? What terms are used to describe criminal acts
(e.g., homicide, theft, larceny, drug traffcking, assault, rape) What is the penalty
for crimes? What terms are used to classify crimes (e.g., misdemeanor, felony)?
What punishments are given for specifc crimes? What crimes are considered less
offensive? What crimes are stigmatized?
How does this society or culture determine innocence or guilt? In what facili-
ties, are those accused of crimes held or kept captive (e.g., prisons, jails, internment
camps, etc.)? Are there separate facilities for men, women, youth, and children? Is
there a means or system of repentance or reform? Is race a variable in determin-
ing those who commit crimes, those who are accused of crimes, or those held in
captivity? Is ethnicity a variable? Is class a variable? Are criminal trials part of this
system? Who administers the penal law? Who enforces law and how?
Deviancy:.What is believed to be the cause of deviancy in this society or culture?
Does social class determine deviancy? Does social interaction determine deviancy
(e.g., socialization with gangs or other deviant groups)? Does biology determine
deviancy (e.g., issues of mental health, genetic predisposition)? Does intelligence
determine deviancy? Are supernatural entities responsible for deviancy?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of crime for the target audience? What criminal acts have been
committed by the target audience? What penalties have been inficted upon the
target audience for committing crimes? Are acts of crime specifc to gender for the
target audience? What is believed to be the cause of the target audiences deviancy,
if any? How has the target audience been victims of crime? What does committing
a criminal act mean to the target audience? What does the target audience believe
to be the reason for criminal acts? What does the target audience believe about
crime in their society or culture?
Disease
Disease develops when there are new environments for contagion and exposure.
Contagion and exposure are increased with humans ability to travel interconti-
nentally, migration to different parts of the world, destruction of forests for land
appropriation, unprotected sexual activity, congested cities, and technological
developments. The medical technological development of soft contact lenses for
corrective vision caused an increase in eye infections attributed by the virus acan-
thamebiasis (Miller, 2002).
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Other types of infectious diseases prevalent in the history of diseases across the
planet Earth include: measles, typhus, smallpox, syphilis, leprosy, malaria, cholera,
and HIV/AIDS. Of note, cholera was spread through contaminated food and water.
Some diseases are caused or increased through construction and urban renewal;
for example, tuberculosis, schistosomiasis. Schistosomiasis is a disease where a
parasitic worm invades the blood system. It is known to crop up in environments
where new dam projects have been constructed (Miller, 2002).
Sickle cell disease (SCD) has traditionally been known as a disease that affects
only people of African descent. However, it is less a disease of race than geography.
This genetic mutation originally developed as a defense against malaria, and it is
found in climates that are tropical or subtropical (Whitsett, 2006, p. 7). Corsicans,
Greeks, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Sardinians, Sicilians, and Turks have
also been affected by SCD. The disease is contracted through both parents who are
carriers of the sickle cell trait. Modern treatments help to prolong the life of SCD
sufferers well into middle age (Whitsett, 2006).
Culture GQ
3
What is the history of disease in this society or culture? What diseases are most
prevalent or those that have caused the most destruction? What new infectious dis-
eases exist? How did these diseases develop? What were the causes of these diseases?
What social patterns contribute to the spread of disease? What cultural practices
contribute to the spread of disease? What environmental practices contribute to the
spread of disease? How has disease contributed to depopulation?
Has social inequality contributed to the spread of diseases? Have power differ-
entials between the wealthy and the poor contributed to the spread of diseases? Has
human error contributed to diseases of other humans and/or animals? What global
health programs are in place to curtail the worldwide spread of diseases? What lo-
cal health programs are in place to curtail the worldwide spread of disease? What
health care is available for those in need of medical services related to disease? Have
certain ethnic groups become targets of diseases? Are there natural, supernatural, or
mystical causes of disease? How is sickness and disease diagnosed by the society or
culture? Who are responsible for the containment of disease? Who are responsible
for the treatment of disease? Who are responsible for the spread of disease?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of disease for the target audience? What diseases most affect
the target audience? How is disease perceived and treated by the target audience?
What health care is available for the target audience in relation to the treatment of
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disease? What does the target audience believe to be the reason for the spread of
disease in their community?
Economic
An economic history
4
examines the path taken by the economy of a society or
culture. Inquiry into the economic history of a society or culture can focus on the
origins of economic development and periods of growth and development. This
examination should be an objective inquiry, meaning that personal perspectives
should be limited (Cameron & Neal, 2003).
Origins.of.Economic.Development:.The origins of economic development are a
history of the beginnings of an economy. Historical analyses give insight into solv-
ing contemporary economic problems. Knowledge of the past serves as a guide in
avoiding similar mistakes in the present and future. This inquiry provides further
insight into the nature of human behavior and social institutions (Cameron & Neal,
2003). Exploring human behavior looks specifcally at how individuals use their
limited resources. Human beings make decisions on what to buy and how much to
invest based on their limited resources. Societies have generally been concerned
with what commodities (i.e., goods and services) to produce and how much; how
to produce these commodities; and for whom these commodities should be pro-
duced. Individuals, businesses, organizations, states, nations, and communities
make decisions about what to produce and in what quantity. How to produce these
commodities is dependent on the level of industrialization and technological re-
sources of the society or culture. A more technological and industrialized society
may use mechanical and automated machines to produce products. Whereas in a
less machine-oriented society, production is human-made through human labor.
For whom to produce, refers to the distribution of commodities to the consumers
(OConnor & Faille, 2000).
Growth.and.Development:.An economy can be measured by its growth and de-
velopment. Growth is the increase in total economy size or the total production and
consumption of goods and services. Development looks at how changes affect the
form and type of economic organization and production (Edwards-Jones, Davies,
& Hussain, 2000). This is exemplifed in a society that changes from trading locally
to exporting out of their country, or from an agricultural society to a mechanically
industrialized nation. Issues related to development are interdisciplinary as they
intersect social and political contexts (Edwards-Jones et al., 2000). The economy
of the Roman Empire, for example, grew substantially through both internal expan-
sion and conquest, but it did not develop signifcantly beyond an agriculture-based
CBM Elements IV 183
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system centered on private land ownership amongst smallholders (Edwards-Jones
et al., 2000, p. 10).
Creating a timeline can guide the organization of the economic history narra-
tive. The timeline should document the economy of the society in terms of eco-
nomic growth and development. Table 10.1 illustrates the amounts and locations
of Indias gold reserve as recorded on March 31 of each year from 1891 through
1912 (Keynes, 1913).
Culture GQ
Select a historical period, historical event, or pattern in economic development.
What is the economic history of the society or culture? How old is the society or
culture? Create a timeline that represents the time and the year. The time category
represents the time period by age, period, empire, kingdom, era, or state (e.g., stone
age, Roman empire). The year category represents the year that the time period
covers historically (745 AD; 300 BC). Describe each time period and its path of
economic growth and development.
What type of economy exists? What type of society or culture exists (e.g., agri-
cultural, pastoral, industrial)? What animals are wild, domesticated, or harvested
for economic gain? What goods are made? What goods are sold? What goods are
traded? What goods are bartered? How is land used or allocated? Is there evidence
Table 10.1. Locations of Indias Gold Reserve (liers in million)
Note: Data are from Keynes (1913)
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
1897 1901 1905 1909 1913
t otal
in l ondon
in india
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of streets, roads, drainage systems, water supply, electricity, telephone wiring, and
so forth? Is there evidence of housing, and if so, what type of housing? What cities
exist? How many inhabitants occupy the land? Where do most of the inhabitants
populate (e.g., village, town, city)? Is the economy self-sustaining?
Issues:.Does religion factor into the economic system? Did industrialization
impact the society or culture? Did war impact the society or culture? Did any
social movements impact the society or culture?
Business:.What types of businesses exist (e.g., family, corporations)? What
types of economic organizations exist? Select one type of business: How are
fnancial resources distributed in the business? How does the business function
in terms of production, distribution, or service? Is there an economic system
in place?
Monetary:.What type of coinage exists? What type of monetary system ex-
ists? What are the historical origins of the monetary system? Who created
the monetary system? What materials were the coins or monies made from,
and in what year? How is coinage or the monetary system used?
Goods:.What products or goods are handmade? What products or goods are
manufactured? What products or goods are exported? What products or goods
are imported?
Target Audience GQ
What is the economic history of the target audience? How has the target audience
contributed to the economy in terms of land, labor, or capital? In what type of so-
ciety or culture does the target audience live? Does the target audience use animals
for economic gain? What goods are made by the target audience? What goods are
sold by the target audience? What goods are traded by the target audience? What
goods are bartered by the target audience? How is land used or allocated by the
target audience? Is there evidence of streets, roads, drainage system, water supply,
electricity, telephone wiring, etc. where the target audience lives? Is there evidence
of housing where the target audience lives, and if so, what type of housing? What
cities exist that are occupied only by the target audience? How many inhabitants
occupy the land where the target audience lives? Where do most of the target audi-
ence populate? Is the economy where the target audience resides self sustaining?
How does the target audience feel about their economic condition?
Issues:.Does the target audience contribute monies goods or services to reli-
gious institutions? Did industrialization impact the target audience? Did war
impact the target audience? Was the target audience involved in any social
movements that impacted the society or culture?
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Business:.What types of businesses are owned by the target audience? What
types of business do the target audience frequent and exchange monies, goods
and services? What types of economic organizations exist that assist the target
audience? How does the target audience acquire monies, or goods? Is there an
economic system in place within the communities of the target audience?
Monetary: What type of coinage or monetary system is acquired by the tar-
get audience? How does the target audience use the coinage or the monetary
system?
Goods: What products or goods are handmade by the target audience? What
products or goods are manufactured by the target audience? What products
or goods are exported by the target audience? What products or goods are
imported by the target audience?
Educational
An educational history describes the system of teaching, training, schooling, or
learning of a society, culture or target audience. References to formal and informal
schooling count as an educational history. A formal education means that there is
a structured system of education supported by the governing society or culture.
Informal schooling means that learning happens in a variety of semi-structured
settings such as home schooling; learning from home, family, friends, community;
organizations; businesses; and clubs. For technological and industrialized societ-
ies, the education of its people is an important element to sustain economic growth
(Guthrie, 2003).
Culture GQ
What is the history of education in this society or culture? How are people educated?
What system of formal education is prevalent? What is the structure of the formal
education system? What forms of informal education are prevalent? What does
education mean in this society or culture? Who can participate in this education?
How is instruction delivered? What is the instructional content? What instruc-
tional materials are used to educate the masses? What are the outcomes of formal
education (e.g., degree)? What are the outcomes of informal education (e.g., social
recognition)? In what location does learning take place? Is an education accessible
to all? What factors inhibit individuals from an education (e.g., class, race, ethnicity,
and gender)? What type of formal system of education exists? (e.g., public schools,
private schools, parochial/faith-based schools, military schools, boarding schools,
charter schools, alternative schools, race-based schools)? Who runs this formal
system of education? What type of informal system of education exists (e.g., home
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schooling)? What type of schooling exists for children at the various ages? What
type of schooling exists for adults? How is a formal education acquired? How is
education perceived by the society or culture? Is education infuenced by religion,
politics, social, moral, or other issues? Is training an educational path in this society
or culture? Is apprenticeship an educational path in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of education for the target audience? Does the target audience
participate in a formal system of education? Does the target audience participate in
an informal system of education?What does education mean to the target audience?
Who from the target audience can participate in this education? How does the target
audience feel about their educational opportunities? How is instruction delivered
to the target audience? What instructional content is used with the target audience?
What instructional materials are used to educate the target audience? What are the
outcomes of formal education (e.g., degree) for the target audience? What are the
outcomes of informal education (e.g., social recognition) for the target audience? In
what location does learning take place for the target audience? What factors inhibit
education for the target audience (e.g., class, race, ethnicity, and gender)? What type
of schooling is available for children at various ages? What type of schooling is
available for adults in the target audience? How is education perceived by the target
audience? Is apprenticeship an educational path for the target audience?
Ethnic
An ethnic history documents the common characteristics, shared history, and
identity of groups. These characteristics include national origin, language or reli-
gion. Ethnic histories aid in building an accurate representation of a group. Takaki
(1993) examined the merging of ethnic histories from the perspective of minority
people to determine the multidimensionality and intersections of these histories.
This means that an ethnic history recounts history from the people, by the people,
and for the people.
Yanow (1998) recounts the ethnic history of the Melungeons, who were initially
excluded from the category of White on the U.S. Census. The Melungeons are de-
scendents of the MoorsNorth African Arabs who settled in Portugal and Spain
and were subsequently expelled from these countries in 1492, 1497, and the early
1500s. Around 1580, a small group of Moors settled off the coast of South Carolina
and later migrated to the VirginiaTennessee border, where they have continued
to live for the past 200 years. The Melungeons intermarried with the Cherokee
Indians and other immigrants. The census originally listed them as free persons
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of color (The Herndon [VA] Observer, January 29, 1993, pp. 1, 4); however, by the
1990 Census, they were reclassifed as White. In this example, Yanow connected
the political fuctuations of racial and ethnic categories on the U.S. Census with
the right to choose ones ethnic identity.

Culture GQ
What ethnic groups are present in this society or culture? What is the population
within each of these ethnic groups? What common characteristics exist among these
ethnic groups? Which ethnic group is the most dominant? What is the ethnic history
of the dominant ethnic group? Are groups ethnic histories tied to race, religion,
politics, or social issues? Has there been any ethnic confict?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience identify themselves as an ethnic group and if so what
group and why? What are the common characteristics of the target audiences ethnic
group? Is the target audiences ethnic history tied to race, religion, politics or social
issues? What does the target audience believe about their ethnic history?
Familial
A family history is an account of the family ancestry and human relations in their
society or culture. This history is constructed with basic genealogical data and
histories about marriages, family, and kinships.
Genealogies: Genealogies offer a visual map of relationships that are usually
bound by blood or marriage. These relationships are more social than biologi-
cal. Genealogies include relationships of relatives on both sides of the family
(Barnard, 2004). A genealogy can include a variety of data and detail about
the ancestral lineage, births, deaths, marriage, divorce; widowed, spouses,
siblings, cousins, nieces/nephews, and other kinships. Some basic information
may include complete birth name (e.g., frst, middle, last, titles), birthplace
(e.g., hospital, city, state, town, county, date of birth), death (e.g., city, state,
town, county, date deceased, burial place), parents (e.g., mother, father, or
guardians full name), spouses (e.g., full names) and spouses children (e.g.,
full names, dates of birth). Figure 10.2 provides an example of a genealogical
map for Charles Dickens. The genealogical data can be plotted on a visual map
of ancestry lineage. The family is a social group that live a common residence,
maintain economic ties, and may raise a child or children. Members of this
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family may be bound by blood, rights, obligations, or commitments. For an
understanding of family relations or behavior, there needs to be an examination
of demographic data and social and cultural contexts. A demographic inquiry
allows a survey of a large number of family members in the past and across
generations. These demographic data provide an understanding of family
organization, structure and behavior. A family history includes a broad array
of subjects (e.g., marriage, childrearing, sexual behavior, intergenerational
relations, gender roles, emotions, interactions with kin, and interactions with
individuals outside the family/kinship circle). This inquiry extends to other
sociocultural contexts where the role of the family becomes signifcant such
as the workplace, school, or church. Likewise, the family is also impacted by
other macro-issues, such as urbanization and industrialization; these issues
could lead to increases in the household numbers as families are left with the
need to share housing with kin for affordability. A family history can extend
through the life process of a human being or human development from birth
to childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and to old age. The reconstruction of
the family history may require an examination of macro-socioeconomic issues
such as migration patterns, mortality, fertility, marriages, property ownership,
religion, inheritance, and community (Hareven, 1994).
Alternative.families:.Other types of familial or social organizations are adop-
tions and fostering of children. Adoption is a legal procedure for obtaining a
child. Individuals may adopt because of ones inability to have a child, to obtain
a male child or for a personal desire to have a child. The birth parent may also
choose to give up a child. The reasons vary across cultures. Examples include
a child conceived through premarital sex in a family that condones such be-
havior. In other cultures, a Maasai woman who has many children may give
one of her children to an elder with no children, neighbor or friend (Miller,
Figure 10.2. Charles Dickens genealogy
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2002). Fostering a child, is not as legally formal as an adoption; however it
requires the care of a child on a temporary or permanent basis.
Marriage: Marriage, broadly defned, is a socially permitted union between
two people (Ferraro, 2004). All societies have rules or familial norms for unit-
ing with a partner. Most societies have rules for marrying outside a certain
group and these rules are known as exogamy. In the US, it is inadvisable and
illegal to marry a frst cousin; beyond that, marriage can occur with other
distant relatives. There are also rules of endogamy where a person chooses
to marry within ones own group. In traditional India, Hindu castes believed
ritual pollution would result if a person married below ones caste (Ferraro,
2004, p. 201).
Kinships: Kinships are social relationships that may or may not be defned
by marriage or blood (Ferraro, 2004); individuals defned kinships as valued
relationships. Given this perception, kinships are open for interpretation
and application within a society or culture. Kinships are important to social,
economic and political structures (Schweitzer, 2004). The depth of kinship
relationships is that they can be defned across blood and marriage to gender,
generation, lineality, age, or family status.
Culture GQ
5

Birth: Who delivers the baby, during the birth of a child, in this society or
culture? Who is present during the birth? Who assists the mother after the
child is born? Who nurses the child? What roles did other family members
play in the birth of the child? Describe the birthing scene. Is there a period of
bonding between mother and child?
Marriage:.Is there a union, ritual or joining of two people in this society?
Describe this ceremony, ritual or joining. (The term marriage is used through-
out, replace with union if needed). What marriage relationships are accepted
in this society (e.g., male to female, same sex partners)? What are the social
benefts of marriage? Is age a factor in allowing marriage? Once married,
where does the married couple live (e.g., with husbands parents, near or with
relatives)? Marriage implies that there is a sexual relationship. Specify, the
sexual relationship or union between two people? When is sexual intercourse
allowed? When is sexual intercourse prohibited? Is marriage permanent in
this society?
Mates: What types of mate selections exist (e.g., arranged marriages)? How
many mates may a person have? The different types of marriage include
monogamy (marriage of one man to one woman), polygyny (marriage by
a man to two or more women at the same time), and polyandry (marriage
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by a woman to two or more men at the same time). Does any type of action
result in the dissolution of a marriage (e.g., divorce)? Is remarriage allowed
and under what conditions? What is the selection process for a mate? Who
makes the selection of a mate? How are physical features (e.g., skin color, hair
texture/length, height, weight) signifcant or not in mate selection? Is love
a prerequisite to marriage? How is mating regulated? How is reproduction
monitored and regulated? What prohibitions of mating with family members
exist? What rules exist that restrict marriages?
Family.relations: Describe the family relations. Who does the childrearing?
What is involved in childrearing? Does childrearing involve the adult providing
nourishment, shelter, and protection? If so, how is this provided? How does
the family provide support (e.g., emotional, shelter, education) to children?
What tasks do men perform in this family? What tasks do women perform in
this family? What forms of family structure exist (e.g., nuclear family [hus-
band, wife, children based on marital ties]). What forms of extended family
exist (two or more adults from different generations of a family who share a
householdbased on blood ties)?
Kinship: What kinships exist? In what ways are kinships categorized in this
society or culture (e.g., friends, partners, mother, daughter, foster parent)? What
is the purpose of adoption and fostering children in this society or culture?
What forms of adoption exist? Who are involved in the adoption of a child?
Who are allowed to adopt children? What forms of fostering children exist?
Who are allowed to foster children? What other forms of social bonding exist
(e.g., between child and godparent)?
Target Audience GQ
Birth: For the target audience, who assists in the birth of the child, and who is
present during the birth? For the target audience, who assists the mother after
the child is born, and who nurses the child? For the target audience, what roles
do other family members play in the birth of the child? Describe the birthing
scene. Is there a period of bonding between mother and child in the culture
Marriage: Is there a union, ritual, or joining of two people in the culture of
the target audience? Describe this ceremony, ritual, or joining in the culture of
the target audience. (The term marriage is used throughout; replace with union
if needed)..What marriage relationships are accepted in the target audiences
culture? For the target audience, what are the social benefts of marriage? For
the target audience, is age a factor in allowing marriage? For the target audi-
ence, once married, where does the married couple live (e.g., with husbands
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parents, near or with relatives)? Marriage implies that there is a sexual rela-
tionship. Specify the sexual relationship or union between two people in the
target audience. For the target audience, when is sexual intercourse allowed?
For the target audience, when is sexual intercourse prohibited? Is marriage
permanent in the culture of the target audience? How does the target audience
feel about marriage?
Mates: What types of mate selections exist for the target audience?) How
many mates may a person have in the target audience? Does any type of action
result in the dissolution of a marriage for the target audience (e.g., divorce)?
For the target audience, is remarriage allowed and under what conditions? For
the target audience, what is the selection process for a mate? Who makes the
selection of a mate for the target audience? Are physical features signifcant
or not in mate selection for the target audience? Is love a prerequisite to mar-
riage for the target audience? How is mating regulated for the target audience?
How is reproduction monitored and regulated for the target audience? What
prohibitions of mating with family members exist for the target audience?
What rules exist that restrict marriages for the target audience? How does the
target audience feel about mating?
Family.relations: Describe the family relations of the target audience. Who
does the childrearing in the target audience? What is involved in the rearing
of children in the target audience? For the target audience, does childrearing
involve the adult providing nourishment, shelter, and protection; if so, how is
this provided? In the target audience, how does the family provide support to
children? Within the target audience, what tasks do men perform in the fam-
ily? Within the target audience, what tasks do women perform in the family?
What forms of family structure exist in the target audience? What forms of
extended family exist in the target audience? How does the target audience
feel about their roles in family relations?
Kinship: What kinships exist in the target audience? In what ways are kinships
categorized within the target audience? What forms of adoption exist within
the target audience? In the target audience, who are involved in the adoption
of children? In the target audience, who are allowed to adopt children? What
forms of fostering children exist for the target audience? Who are allowed to
foster children in the target audience? What other forms of social bonding
exist in the target audience?
Gender
A gender history is a record of the sex of a human, animal, organism, or entity. The
gender of human beings is usually classifed as male and female. Typically, men
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and women differ based on biology. Some of those biological differences include
sex organs, body hair, body fat, muscle, and breast size. Men and women also differ
genetically; men have X and Y chromosomes, and women have two X chromo-
somes (Ferraro, 2004). Gender categories are specifc to each culture. In Thailand,
genders have been categorized as phuuchai (male), phuuyung (female) and kathoey
(transgender [male to female]; Miller, 2002; Winter & Udomsak, 2002).
Gender histories document social relations. These social relations are best
captured through examinations of the interactions between genders (e.g., male
to female, female to female) (Withers, 2006). Gender roles should be defned and
articulated
Examples of extreme forms of gender bias may manifest as infanticide, abuse,
mutilation, physical violence, or death (Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ
What genders are prevalent in this society or culture (e.g., male, female, hermaphro-
dites, androgynous)? How is gender classifed and by whom? Is gender neutral (i.e.,
there is no consideration for one gender or another)?.How do the genders perceive
each other? Who is assigned what roles? Are there social norms specifc to a gender?
Who assigns gender roles to whom? Is one gender dominant over another? Is one
gender exploited in any way; if so, how and why? What behavioral differences exist
between the genders? What behavior is similar between the genders?
Gender.roles:.If male and female are the gender roles, what work are men
expected to perform? What work are women expected to do (e.g., child care,
cooking, fght wars, clean house, hunt)? What roles do females typically per-
form? What roles do males typically perform? What roles do children (male
& female) typically perform? Does any type of gender stratifcation (i.e., one
sex plays a subordinate role to the other sex) exist in the roles of men and
women?
Gender.bias:.Does gender bias exist in social interactions? Does gender bias
exist in health care, employment, or other professions? Does gender bias play a
role in language use? Does gender bias exist in religion, politics, or any other
area of the society or culture? Does gender bias exist in terms of the birth of
a boy versus girl child?
Human.sexuality: In terms of human sexuality, what sexual behaviors are
accepted before marriage or union and within the marriage or union? What
sexual behaviors are considered taboo? Under what conditions should a person
abstain from sex? What perceptions exist about heterosexual (opposite-sex)
versus homosexual (same-sex) activity? Is heterosexuality openly discussed?
Is homosexuality openly discussed?
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Target Audience GQ
What genders are prevalent in the target audience? How is gender classifed for the
target audience and by whom? Is gender neutral for the target audience?.How do
the genders perceive each other within the target audience? Who is assigned what
roles in the target audience? Are there social norms specifc to a gender for the
target audience? Who in the target audience assigns gender roles to whom? Is one
gender dominant over another in the target audience? Is one gender, in the target
audience, exploited in any way; if so, how and why? What behavioral differences
exist between the genders in the target audience? What behavior is similar between
the genders of the target audience?
Gender.roles: If males and females are the gender roles in the target audience,
what work are men expected to perform? What work are women expected
to do in the target audience? What roles do females typically perform in the
target audience? What roles do males typically perform in the target audi-
ence? What roles do children (male & female) typically perform in the target
audience? Does any type of gender stratifcation exist in the roles of men and
women in the target audience?
Gender.bias:.Does gender bias exist in the social interactions of the target
audience? Does gender bias play a role in the way the target audience uses
language? Does gender bias exist in terms of the birth of a boy versus a girl
child for the target audience? Does gender bias infuence any other aspect of
the lives of the target audience?
Human.sexuality:.In terms of human sexuality, what sexual behaviors are
accepted before marriage or union and within the marriage or union for the
target audience? What sexual behaviors are considered taboo for the target
audience? For the target audience, under what conditions should a person abstain
from sex? What perceptions exist about heterosexual (opposite-sex) versus
homosexual (same-sex) activity for the target audience? Is heterosexuality
openly discussed by the target audience? Is homosexuality openly discussed
by the target audience?
Geographic
Geographic history is the study of the physical features of a planets surface. The
physical features include land, climate, rocks, air, water, sunlight, and geological
features. The biological features of the planet are living things such as humans,
plants, animals, and other species (Cooper, 2003).
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Land: Land is the solid crust of a planet. Land can provide food, shelter, and
cultivate plants and animals (Cooper, 2003). Typical examples of land surfaces
include desert, grassland, polar region, mountain habitats, tropical forests, and
temperate forests. Land can be measured in square miles and kilometers, and
its location can be recorded in terms of north, east, south, or west. Measures
of the miles, length, width, highest elevation, and lowest elevation can be
provided as part of land data. The use and value of land varies according to
its location. If land is a signifcant part of this society or culture, then the land
will be named. It could be named after someone or something signifcant to
the society. The history behind the naming of the land could be an important
historical fact. Land can be used for a variety of purposes, and this varies
based on the soil, space, utility, access, and so forth.
Climate: Climate is the cumulative weather patterns of a planet. The aspects
of a climate include air, temperature, wind, humidity, and precipitation. The
climate can be categorized in weather patterns such as rain, fog, snow, aridness,
sunshine, and ice. Planet Earths climate can be further defned according to
temperatures measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit (Cunningham, 2003).
Water: Water is the surplus of liquid that occupies a planet. Planet Earths
surface is covered by 71% water that comes from the worlds oceans and seas.
Other water formations include streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and ice from
the Arctic and Antarctic (Naseri, 2003). The geographic history of Anguilla
can be compiled with a focus on land, climate, water, and culture. Anguilla
is an island east of the Caribbean Sea and it is known as one of the United
Kingdoms territories. Anguilla covers 35 square miles and measures 3 miles
wide and 16 miles long. The Crocus Hill measures as the highest elevation
point on the island at 213 feet. The climate of Anguilla is sunny and very dry,
and temperatures average 80 Fahrenheit year-round. The vegetation is scarce
on Auguilla; this island is known for its natural resources of limestone and
coral. Although surrounded by water, the island has no rivers; there are a few
salt ponds that serve as producers of commercial salt (Arnold, 2001). (See also
Cultural Environment and Cultural Resources)
Culture GQ
Geographic:.What is the geographic history of the planet? What are the land
surfaces throughout the planet? What are the measurements of the planet?
What are the physical features of the planet? What are the biological features
of the planet? How much land covers the planet? How much of other liquid or
solid surfaces cover the planet? Is the planet inhabitable? What species inhabit
the planet?
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Land: Select a time period and land mass. What is the history of the land? Is
there a history of how the land was named? To whom does the land belong?
What are the physical features of the land? What are the biological features
of the land? What are the measurements of the land (square miles, length,
width, and highest & lowest points)? Where is the land located in terms of
north, east, south, and west? How is the land and its inhabitants (e.g., human
beings, species and other entities) connected? Does the land serve any social,
political, religious, or economic purpose?
Climate:.Select a time period. What is the history of the climate for the planet
or sections of the planet? What is the history of weather for the planet or sec-
tions of the planet? What is the history of the climate in terms of temperature?
How does the climate affect its inhabitants? Does the climate affect the lands
natural resources? Does the climate serve any social, political, religious, or
economic purpose?
Water: Select a time period. What is the history of water for the planet or sec-
tions of the planet? Is water delivered through climate changes (e.g., rainfall,
snow)? How does the supply or lack of water affect inhabitants of the planet
or sections of the planet? Does water serve any social, political, religious, or
economic purpose?
Target Audience GQ
Land: What is the history of the target audience to the land? Does the target
audience own any land? Does the target audience covet any land? On what
types of land surface can the target audience be found inhabiting? How has
the land infuenced the target audience and their behavior? Does the land serve
any social, political, religious, or economic purpose for the target audience?
What are the target audiences beliefs about the land they inhabit?
Climate: What is the history of climate conditions on the planet inhabited by
the target audience? What is the history of weather for the planet or sections
of the planet inhabited by the target audience? How has the climate infuenced
target audience members and their behavior? Does the climate serve any social,
political, religious, or economic purpose for the target audience? What are the
target audiences beliefs about their planets climate?
Water: What is the history of water in the area the target audience inhabits?
How has water infuenced the target audience and their behavior? Does wa-
ter serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose for the target
audience? What are the target audiences beliefs about the water that exists
on their planet?
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Health
Health history is the history of wellness, illness, disease, therapy, healing, and the
medicinal and restorative health needs of a society, culture or target audience. It
encompasses social, political, religious, and economic narratives.
To determine health history in a society or culture, there are many areas of inquiry
that may provide a more accurate picture of health and health care. They include
examining: the occurrence of disease and poverty; the occurrence of disease and
social class; death by disease and poverty; social health programs and wellness;
urbanization and health; economics and health; job related illnesses; poor environ-
mental conditions and health; substandard housing and health problems; wealth
and health; epidemics (e.g., plague, cholera, small pox, yellow fever, HIV/AIDS);
colonization and the spread of infectious disease; immigration and disease; rural
and city healthcare; the politics of health; and mental illness. The history of health
can address other issues pertinent to the infant, child, mothers, fathers, aging, school
wellness, and the physically challenged (Mayne, 1994).
The wellness of individuals, families, and communities in industrialized and
technologically advanced societies has been aided by public health programs,
policies and procedures, governmental or authority interventions, and improved
medical professionalism. These are areas for further examination. Another social
health issue is the examination of ethnicity and health. This history is tied specif-
cally to groups. The data may be undocumented; therefore, creative data-gathering
methods may be needed. Health histories can be gathered through hospital records,
insurance databases and archives, oral histories, legal documents, and community
newspapers (Mayne, 1994).
A societys health history can be captured in a variety of ways. Ethnomedicine,
as an example, is the study of a cultural groups perceptions of health and illness.
Each group has their own ways of how they understand and perceive the body in
relation to health and illness. The World Health Organization, through its publica-
tions and continued research, captures the health histories of wealthy and develop-
ing countries. As of 2008, some of those health issues of global concern include
the following: maternal, neonatal, and child mortality; HIV infections and deaths;
prevention and treatment of malaria; tobacco-related deaths and prevention; health
care inequities; and risk factors (World Health Organization, 2008).
Culture GQ
Select a time period. What is the health history of the society or culture? What
health issues exist in the society or culture? What health issues are most common?
What health crises have affected or continue to affect the society or culture? Is there
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evidence of genetically transferred health issues? Is there a health care system? Who
is allowed health care in this society? What are the costs of health care? What are
the societys or cultures perceptions about health and illness?
What other secular or religious practices are performed for the sake of health and
wellness? What health fears or phobias exist? Who are the healers (e.g., shamans,
midwives, herbalists, psychiatrists, or medical doctors)? What ways or systems of
healing exist? Who performs this healing on whom? What are the criteria needed
for becoming a healer? What drugs, medicines or medicinals are available in this
society? What substances are used for healing? What healing substances are natural?
What healing substances are artifcial?
What public health programs, policies or procedures have been implemented
in this society or culture, and what is the effectiveness? Have health interventions
been implemented in this society or culture, and what is the effectiveness? What
other health interventions have been implemented? Have the health issues of women
been addressed, and if so, in what way? Have the health issues of children been
addressed, and if so, in what way? Have the health issues of the working class been
addressed, and if so, in what way?
How have health care and medicine become tools of economic empowerment
or self-suffciency? How has history addressed the subject of ethnicity and health?
Are the medical needs of ethnic groups properly addressed? Do all ethnic groups
receive equal health services? How have ethnic groups been portrayed in these
histories? How does the health of this society or culture intersect with social,
political, religious, and economic issues?
Target Audience GQ
What health problems or issues exist for the target audience? How is the target audi-
ence treated in terms of their health? Are the health issues of this target audience
of concern to the dominant group? How are the health needs of the target audience
being addressed or articulated by the dominant culture? Determine the healthi-
ness of the target audience in relation to others in the society. Is there a health care
system available to the target audience? How many people in the target audience
participate in a health care system or receive health services? What health care or
health services are available for the target audience? What are the costs of health
care or health services for the target audience?
What are the target audiences perceptions about health and illness? What ill-
nesses (mental or physical) are specifc to the target audience? What other secular
or religious practices are performed for the sake of health and wellness for the
target audience? What health fears or phobias exist in the target audience? Who
are the healers in the target audience? What ways or systems of healing exist for
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the target audience? With the target audience, who performs this healing on whom?
For the target audience, what are the criteria needed for becoming a healer in the
community of the target audience? What substances are used for healing by the
target audience? How does the health of the target audience intersect with social,
political, religious, and economic issues?
Legal
A legal history relates to the law and captures the ideology that legal precedent and
formal doctrine results from the law (Knapp, 1994). Law is not simply an institu-
tionalized system of jurisprudence; it is a process that both refects and shapes the
arrangement of power relations in a society (Bardaglio, 1995, p. xvi).
Legal histories often intersect with political, economic, and social histories.
These histories are contained in primary documents relating to any and all court-
ordered situations. Data can be collected through the evaluation of statues, appellate
court opinions, law journals, legal treatises, bar association journals, and so forth.
(Bardaglio, 1995). Capturing a legal history requires a focus on the social effects
of the law; the social infuences of the law; attitudes, beliefs, and ideas about the
law; and the legitimacy of law within a society or culture (Knapp, 1994).
The history of the death penalty can be found in codes and laws dating back
before the birth of Jesus Christ. The punishments included beheading, stoning,
disembowelment, and to being eaten alive by wild animals. The crimes were varied
from cutting down trees to petty theft to murder. The death penalty was brought
to the United States during European colonization in the early 1600s. From this
point forward begins the documented history of crime and punishment of North
America (Phelps, 2003). One instrument of execution was the guillotineused in
the beheading of its victims. This device was used extensively by France during
the French Revolution (1789-1799), and in early periods of European history (see
Figure 10.3).
Culture GQ
What is the legal history of this society or culture? What law or legal systems exist
in the society or culture? How is the law or legal system structured and organized?
How do social issues shape the law? How do political issues shape the law? How do
economic issues shape the law? What events caused changes in the law to occur?
Who creates the law? Who enforces the law? What formal laws exist? What infor-
mal laws exist? Whom do these laws beneft? Whom do these laws repress? How
do these laws beneft the society or culture? How does law affect other institutions
or organizations (e.g., education, religion)?
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Target Audience GQ
What is the legal history of the target audience? How has the target audience been
affected by law? How has law protected the target audience? How has law repressed
the target audience? Does the target audience beneft from law? Has the target
audience created law, and if so, in what way? Has the target audience enforced
law, and if so, in what way? What laws are specifcally addressed to the needs or
behavior of the target audience? What events specifc to the target audience caused
law to change?
Linguistic
A linguistic history relates to the study of language or languages. Specifcally, it
examines the study of human speech. A linguistic history may also contain data of
how language was acquired, maintained, or lost. This history is usually recorded
in a timeline such as that demonstrated in Table 10.2.
Determining the linguistic history of a target audience means to understand
how language is power. The lingua franca, a common language of communication,
may be the language of power. The dominant group who are speakers of the lingua
franca may control communication, trade, wealth, and so forth.
The history of linguistic diversity has been one where the number of languages
worldwide has seen a decrease. In 2007, estimates indicate that approximately
Figure 10.3. Guillotine
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6,700 languages were still in use (Gordon, 2005)..The Internet enables language
maintenance through chat rooms, blogs, and e-mails. However, the maintenance
of a linguistic history requires speakers of that language to interact, communicate,
share, and spread their language. Maintenance can be achieved through the col-
lective documentation of the syntax, semantics, and meanings of a language in its
written and spoken forms (Furness, 2007). (See Cultural Language for more on
language.)
Culture GQ
What is the linguistic history of the society or culture? What languages are spoken?
How long have these languages been in existence? What is the lingua franca or
language of the dominant society? What is the level of fuency in reading, writing,
and speaking of the dominant culture? How is language acquired or lost? What level
of fuency is the group? What linguistic differences and/or similarities exist in the
society or culture? How does linguistic difference infuence the society or culture?
How are languages learned and taught? What languages are at risk of being lost?
What languages are people struggling to maintain?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of the target audiences language? How is language acquired
or lost for the target audience? What is the target audiences level of fuency, in
reading, writing and speaking? Is the target audience profcient in reading, writing,
and speaking? What linguistic differences and/or similarities exist in the society
and among members of the target audience? How does linguistic difference infu-
ence the target audience? What are the language needs of the target audience? Is
the target audience at risk of losing their language?
Table 10.2. Selected dates in the history of English
Dates Stages.of.English Dates.and.events.in.English.history
4491100 AD Old English 449 - Saxons invade Britain
10661500 Middle English 1066 - Normandy Conquest
15001800 Early modern English 1564 - Birth of Shakespeare
1800Present Late modern English 1800 - Scientifc and industrial revolution
CBM Elements IV 201
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Political
Political histories relate to the maintenance of social order. This social order is sus-
tained through the development of rules or customs that control behavior, resolve
disputes, and enforce order. However, each political system is distinct.
Political histories capture historical time periods, institutions, changes and in-
stability, or systems. These histories may reveal trends in an economy or patterns
of economic systems (e.g., feudalism, slavery, imperialism, or capitalism). Political
histories may also reveal phases of an economic system such as competitive,
monopoly and transnational capitalism (OHara, 1999, p. 862). This history is
also interdisciplinary, as it is diffcult to study unemployment without examining
the social issues that lead to joblessness. Important roles in a political history are
class, gender, and race/ethnicity and should be considered as part of any analysis
(OHara, 1999).
Political histories capture conditions such as unemployment, underemployment,
infation, poverty, and pollution.
Culture GQ
What political system is operating in this society or culture (e.g., democracy, so-
cialism, communism, nationalism)? Who runs this society or culture (e.g., presi-
dent, king/queen, governor, legislator, prime minister, chief)? How is social order
maintained? What individual institutions are important in this history? How do
institutions operate and change? What is the structure of the political economy?
How did this political economy evolve? What policies were recommended? What
political strategies were taken? How are the politics of this society or culture related
to status, rank, power, prestige, wealth, or authority?
How are political roles allocated? To what degree is the political structure inte-
grated with the social structure? How does the political structure work? Is leadership
formal or informal? Are there local leaders? What qualities does the leader possess
(e.g., honor, knowledge , hereditary prestige)? What affairs does the leader man-
age? How is the leadership acquired (e.g., selected, elected, inherited)? What is the
political structure? How much power does the leader or leadership possess? What
is the extent of the leaders authority? How much wealth does the leader/leadership
possess? Is the leader believed to possess supernatural powers?
Are taxes or any form of revenue collected? Is labor recruited for armies? Does
the ruling power have a right to use force? Is the society a large or small bureaucratic
organization? Are there institutions with administrative, legislative, or judicial
functions? Does the ruling power make laws? Does the ruling power administer
laws through multiple levels of bureaucracy? Does the ruling power enforce laws
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through police forces, militia, armies, rebels or national guards? What is the ide-
ology of the ruling powers? Do groups understand the role of the ruling society?
Is the ruling power characterized by many specialized political positions? What
roles or offces in these political positions carry out the task of law enforcement
and why? What roles or offces carry out tax collection? What roles carry out labor
recruitment? What roles or offces carry out tax collection? What roles carry out
protection from outside forces?
What forms of social control exist to curtail behavior (e.g., laws, prisons, po-
lice, military, courts)? What are the societys or cultures social norms (e.g., rules
of etiquette, rules of behavior)? What interactions exist between groups? Who
are the group leaders? How are groups engaged in the political process? How are
groups invested in the politics of this society or culture? Whose politics are valued
or devalued and why?
Target Audience GQ
Is the target audience involved in the politics of this society or culture, and if so,
in what way? How does the politics of this society or culture affect the target audi-
ence? Does the target audience have a leader? Does the target audience follow a
different political system than that of the society or culture? What institutions are
important to the target audience? How has the structure of the political economy
affected the target audience? What are the politics of the target audience? How are
the politics of the target audience related to status, rank, power, prestige, wealth,
and authority? Are political roles allocated to members of the target audience? Is
there a political structure at work among the target audience? Is leadership formal
or informal among the target audience? What qualities does the leader of the target
audience possess? What affairs does the leader of the target audience manage? How
is leadership acquired among the target audience? What is the political structure
among the target audience? How much power does the leader/leadership of the
target audience possess? What is the extent of the leaders authority for the target
audience? Based on the target audience, how much wealth does the leader/leadership
possess? Does the leader of the target audience possess supernatural powers? How
has the political structure integrated with the social world of the target audience?
What does the target audience think about their political leader and the political
structure?
Are taxes or any form of revenue collected among the target audience for their
issues? Is labor recruited for armies among the target audience? Does the ruling
power of the target audience have a right to use force? Is the target audience a
large or small bureaucratic organization or community? What are the functions of
members of the target audience in the organization? Does the leader of the target
CBM Elements IV 203
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audience make laws? Does the leader the target audience administer laws through
multiple levels of bureaucracy? Does the leader of the target audience enforce laws
through police forces, militia, armies, rebels, or insurgents? Who among the target
audience are members of this law enforcement (e.g., men, women, youth, children,
trained or untrained)? What is the ideology of the leader of the target audience?
Does the target audience understand the role of the ruling society? Is everyone in
the target audience in agreement with their internal leader? Is the leadership of the
target audience characterized by specialized positions? Who in the target audience
carries out the task of murder, bombings, or other tasks against humanity? Who
in the target audience carries out the collection of monies, revenue or other items?
Who in the target audience carries out protection from outside forces?
Within the target audience, what forms of social control exist to curtail behav-
ior (e.g., codes, rules)? What are the target audiences social norms (e.g., rules of
etiquette, rules of behavior)? What political interactions exist between target audi-
ence members? From the target audiences perspective, whose politics are valued
or devalued and why?

Racial
Racial histories are of or pertaining to race. These histories are specifc to groups
that have common attributes. Certain groups are defned by their racial histories.
The infusion of race into a society or culture is meant to support some groups and
divide others. Race can suggest difference and maintain inequality. Racial categories
serve to provide or deny access to education, housing, jobs, health care, public or
private goods and services, and so forth (Omi & Winant, 1994).
Adolf Hitler perpetuated the superiority of the German race as part of his racial
agenda. His ideas were documented in his 1924 manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle).
Hitlers beliefs of racial superiority continued as he became leader of Germanys
Third Reich in 1933. At Nazi rallies, supporters shouted Seig Heil (hail victory)!
The swastika was put on German fags, badges, and armbands (Fuchs, 2000). These
symbols became signs of Nazism and the racial history of Germany.
Culture GQ
What is the racial history of this society or culture? Is this racial history more po-
litically, socially, or economically centered? Are individuals categorized based on
race? What is the relationship between the races? Is one race of people considered
more superior than another and why? What racial group is considered to be inferior
and why? How is racial superiority perpetuated in this society or culture? Are there
artifacts, structures, environments, ideas, literature, languages, values, or behavior
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that supports racial superiority? What is the content of the written or spoken racial
histories of the dominant racial group?
Target Audience GQ
What is the racial history of the target audience? Is the racial history, of the target
audience, more politically, socially or economically centered? Is the target audience
classifed based on race? What is the relationship between the target audience and
the superior race? Within the target audience are there other racial divisions, and
what is the history of these divisions? Is the target audience considered superior
or inferior and why? How is racial superiority supported by the target audience?
How is racial inferiority supported by the target audience? How is racial superior-
ity resisted by the target audience? How is racial inferiority resisted by the target
audience? What is the content of the written or spoken racial histories of the target
audience?
Religious
Religious histories chronicle the practices of religion. There are many forms of
religion; however they all originate from a supernatural belief. Religion is a set of
beliefs in forces and beings that are supernatural. Religion assists in a variety of
functions including social and psychological. As a form of social function, religion
serves as a system of social control as it regulates acceptable and unacceptable be-
havior (Ferraro, 2004). For example, in the King James version of the Bible, the Ten
Commandants advocate rules for proper behavior by humanity. Religion can also
serve the social function of group unity. It helps people to see the commonalities
that exist between them; these commonalities are also shared through the bonding
practices, beliefs, and rituals associated with the religion. Group unity through
religion is exemplifed in ethnically ordered places of worship, such as Korean
Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, or Muslim mosques. Religion can also serve
psychological functions such as providing intellectual and emotional support. Intel-
lectually, religion functions as a source to answer the mysteries of life. (e.g., What
is my purpose in this life?) Emotionally, religion functions as a source of comfort
and way of coping with the challenges of life that we dont totally understand (e.g.,
death, accidents, illness, adversity; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ
6
What is the history of religion in this society or culture? What religions are most
prevalent in this society?.Which groups practice what religions? Can religious beliefs
CBM Elements IV 205
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be separated from the functioning of society? Is religion inextricably connected to
social reform or politics?
What religions are most prevalent in this society? What religious beliefs are held
by the society or culture? How does religion, or religious beliefs, function in this
society or culture? What social functions does religion serve? What psychologi-
cal functions does religion serve? How do these religious beliefs infuence human
behavior?
How do other supernatural elements function in this society? What does su-
pernatural mean in this society or culture? How are these supernatural acts or
events perceived? Who is involved with these supernatural elements (e.g., magic,
voodoo, sorcery, witchcraft, myths)? Can these religious activities be classifed in
another way (e.g., cult, ancestor worship, religious nationalism)?
What categories or systems of worship exist? How are these religions signifcant
to groups and the society or culture? What beliefs and practices are consistent with
these religions? Do other species or entities hold any signifcance in the religious
practices of this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of religion for the target audience? How does religion or religious
beliefs function for the target audience? What social functions does religion serve
for the target audience? What psychological functions does religion serve for the
target audience? How do these religious beliefs infuence the behavior of the target
audience? Are supernatural elements consistent with the target audiences religious
beliefs? How are these supernatural acts or events perceived by the target audi-
ence? Who, in the target audience, is involved with these supernatural elements?
What does the target audience believe to be the purpose of religious worship? Do
other species or entities hold any signifcance in the religious practices of the target
audience?
Reproduction
Reproduction patterns are highly correlated to physical environment, time period
in history, and the habits of a society. Basically, one cause affects something else.
Take for example, three generalized society types. In society A, where members
hunt and gather food and migrate frequently, population growth is low. This may
be attributed to the following factors: the heavy manual labor caused women to
spontaneously abort; the inconsistent diets of women caused stress, extended peri-
ods of breastfeeding stopped ovulation, infanticide, and induced abortions. Early
prehistoric groups whose population growth remained low for millions of years
provide evidence of such societies (Miller, 2002).
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In society B, the economic need to maintain an agricultural environment neces-
sitates the need for a large family. Additional labor is needed to tend the land and
animals, prepare food and market products. Therefore, population growth is high
(Miller, 2002). A 2006 example are the Hutterites, a communal people living in the
prairies of the United States. The Hutterites operate an agricultural society where
they raise livestock and produce crops (see http://www.hutterites.org).
In society C, a more industrialized culture, there is a decreased need for labor.
Therefore, these societies reduced population growth in a number of ways: Govern-
ment-regulated and -sponsored programs such as family planning; fewer children
are desired by middle- and upper-class people in a stratifed society; fertility and
mortality rates are higher among poorer people; and advances have been made in
medical science and technology related to birth control, fertility, and termination
(Miller, 2002). Since the founding of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, Chinas
population has doubled from 540 million to 1.3 billion people. From 1985 to 1990,
there were an estimated 23,000 live births in China each day. This rapid popula-
tion growth persuaded authorities that there was a need to reduce the population.
In 1982, the policy of a single child per couple was instituted, with incentives for
those who abided by the law and penalties for those who did not. The Single Child
Policy brought dramatic changes to the social, familial, and fnancial structure of
Chinese communities (McLoughlin, 2005).
Culture GQ
What type of reproduction patterns exist? How is reproduction patterns correlated
with the physical environment, time period in history, and the habits of a society?
What causes population growth? What causes a population to decline? Do women
have choices in terms of reproductive decisions? What choices do families have
in reproductive decisions? Is one gender preferred over another in terms of child
birth? For stratifed societies, how does the government infuence increases or
decreases in population growth? How is fertility controlled (e.g., family planning
programs; herbs that induce abortion; medicine that induces abortion; steriliza-
tion; self induced abortions; infanticide; medically prescribed birth control pills,
injections or devices)?
Target Audience GQ
What type of reproduction patterns exist among the target audience? Do women in
the target audience have choices in terms of reproductive decisions? What choices
do families, within the target audience, have in terms of reproductive decisions?
Within the target audience, is one gender preferred over another in terms of child
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birth? How is reproduction controlled among the target audience (e.g., birth control,
sterilization, abstinence)? What are the target audiences beliefs about reproduc-
tion?
Science
A science history is that studied or performed in the material world. Science his-
tory gets at the development of knowledge, skills, and disciplines. It might cover
the natural sciences including astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth sciences, and
physics, in addition to archeology, mathematics, medicine, paleoanthropology and
psychology. Technology might be defned per society or culture as that related to the
advancement of science such as the wagon wheel or the telescope. Men and women
can be credited as inventors or innovators of scientifc information or machines.
Science prefers inventions, innovations, philosophies, theories, techniques, systems,
methods and practices that advance inquiry, change dispositions, and alter our world
view. Scientifc discoveries are marked by denials, misunderstandings, rejections
and fnally acceptance. Some innovations remain failed and unknown. A science
history is made up of the knowledge and achievements of a society or culture. The
collection of this history is not linear but one intertwined into, through and beyond
the histories of human beings, other species and entities (Tallack, 2006).
A science history of the 21
st
century might be one marked by the invention of
cloned animals and plants for the purpose of human food consumption. In cloning,
the genetic material of one living organism is duplicated. The cloning of food for
human consumption remains taboo and a controversial subject in 2008. Advocates
see cloning as a way to mass produce the best quality farm animals such as goats,
pigs and cattle. Opponents view cloning as morally wrong and feel that scientists
are fooling with Gods creations (BBC News, 2006).
Culture GQ
How did science develop in this society or culture? What is the chronology of sci-
entifc developments? Are there branches of science in this society or culture that
further defnes a science history? What scientifc evidence exists? Who are the
scientists? Through what man or means is science created (e.g., medicine, medicine
men, concoctions, doctors, scientists, researchers)? What is categorized as science?
What advances in science exist in this society or culture (e.g., herbal medicine,
weapons, genetically engineered of food, gene therapy, and genetically modifed
organisms)? In what ways, is this society or culture infuenced by science? Identify
individual discoveries and the invention? Identify group discoveries and the inven-
tions? How have individual personalities infuenced the designs of innovations?
What challenges did these scientifc discoveries create?
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Target Audience GQ
How did science develop within the culture of the target audience? What is the
chronology of scientifc developments for the target audience? What scientifc evi-
dence exists related to the target audience? Who are the scientists among the target
audience? Through what man or means is science created for the target audience?
What is categorized as science for the target audience? What advances in science
can be credited to the target audience? In what ways, is the target audience infu-
enced by science? Identify individual discoveries and the invention of the target
audience? Identify group discoveries and the inventions of the target audience?
How have individual personalities infuenced the design of innovations made by
the target audience? What challenges did these scientifc discoveries create for the
target audience?
Sexual Intercourse
Sexual intercourse refers to the biological act of human reproduction between a
man and a woman. However, other artifcial means of insemination are available.
Females are fertile from the beginning of menstruation (typically occurring at 1214
years of age) to menopause (4060 years of age, depending on environment). Sexual
intercourse is dictated by each group; when intercourse should happen varies based
on age, class, ethnicity, race, and gender (Miller, 2002). The frequency of sexual
intercourse is also dictated by each groups culture.
Culture GQ
7
Through what means are women impregnated (e.g., sexual intercourse, artifcial
insemination)? What are the reasons a woman would be infertile? What are the
ramifcations if a woman is infertile? What are the reasons a man would be infertile?
What are the ramifcations if a man is infertile? At what age should females engage
in sexual intercourse? Under what conditions should females engage in sexual
intercourse? At what age should males engage in sexual intercourse? Under what
conditions should males engage in sexual intercourse? How does class infuence
sexual intercourse? How does race/ethnicity infuence sexual intercourse? How does
gender infuence sexual intercourse? What is the frequency of sexual intercourse?
Does the culture limit or prohibit sexual intercourse? If there are limits to sexual
intercourse, what are the reasons behind this limitation? Is there any relationship
between the frequency of sexual intercourse and fertility? How is reproduction
controlled (e.g., birth control, sterilization, abstinence)?
CBM Elements IV 209
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Target Audience GQ
Through what means are women impregnated (e.g., sexual intercourse, artifcial
insemination) in the target audience? What are the reasons a woman may be infertile
in the target audience? What are the ramifcations if a woman is infertile in the target
audience? What are the reasons a man would be infertile in the target audience?
What are the ramifcations if a man is infertile in the target audience? At what age
should females engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? Under what
conditions should females engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? At
what age should males engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? Under
what conditions should males engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience?
How does class infuence sexual intercourse for the target audience? How does
race/ethnicity infuence sexual intercourse for the target audience?
How does gender infuence sexual intercourse for the target audience? Is there a
frequency of sexual intercourse allowed by the culture of the target audience? Does
the culture of the target audience limit or prohibit sexual intercourse? If there are
limits to sexual intercourse for the target audience, what are the reasons behind this
limitation? Is there any relationship between the frequency of sexual intercourse
and fertility for the target audience?
Social
Social histories examine the social aspects of human behavior. It broadly covers
groups of people from all areas of life, including social class, race/ethnicity, age,
and gender. Social histories may focus on how the activities, beliefs, values, and
behaviors of groups affect history. This history targets macro-forces within a soci-
ety or culture and how the macro forces cause change. Macro- issues may look at
population growth, revolutions, wars, social mobility, religion, politics, or social
structure. The focus is an examination of processes rather than individual events
or people (Stearns, 1994).
Culture GQ
What is the social history of this society or culture? What groups of people live in
this society? What is the history of these groups in terms of social class, race/ethnic-
ity, age, and gender? How has the society or culture been affected by these social
histories? What macro-forces have affected this society or culture? How have these
macro-forces caused changes to the society or culture? How have the activities,
beliefs, values, and behaviors of groups infuenced history?
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What role do pets play in this society or culture? How do other species and
entities ft into this social environment? What pets exist in this society or culture?
How do pets (e.g., cats, dogs, birds) ft into the social environment?
Target Audience GQ
What is the social history of the target audience? Where does the target audience
live, and what is the target audiences social history in this society or culture? What
is the history of the target audience in terms of social class, race/ethnicity, age, and
gender? How has the target audience been affected by these social histories? What
macro-forces have affected the target audience? How have these macro-forces
caused changes in the target audience? How have the activities, beliefs, values,
and behaviors of other groups infuenced the target audience? What pets exist in
the social environment of the target audience? What role do pets play in the lives
Time Periods
Each period in history holds a space in time. A timeline can be plotted along a con-
tinuum to accurately document moments in history, providing a quick analysis of
data. The kinds of data gathered about histories may include ages (e.g., Paleolithic,
Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze), movements (e.g. antiglobalization civil rights,
international human rights, labor), events (e.g., wars, apartheid, genocides, fam-
ines), natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes), or acts
(e.g., conquests, subjugations, colonizations). Table 10.3 provides a brief timeline
of worldwide earthquakes; each one holds a space in time.
Table 10.3. Deadly worldwide earthquakes from 2004 to 2008
8
Date Location Earthquake
magnitude
Casualties
May 12, 2008 Sichuan, a province of China 7.9 69,000+
August 15, 2007 Ica, a coastal province of Peru 7.9 519
July 17, 2006 Undersea, the southern coast of Java 7.7 650
May 27, 2006 Java, the Indonesian island 6.2 5,782
April 1, 2006 Western Iran 6.0 70
June 8, 2005 Kashmir and southern Pakistan 7.6 74,000+
March 28, 2005 Nias, an Indonesian island 8.7 1,300
December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean 9.3 229,000+
CBM Elements IV 211
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Culture GQ
What time periods are signifcant in the history of this society or culture? What
ages, movements, events, acts, or natural disasters are signifcant to the history of
this society or culture? How does this history change the future? What does this
history mean to the future?
Target Audience GQ
What time periods are signifcant in the history of the target audience? What ages,
movements, events, acts, or natural disasters are signifcant to the history of the
target audience? How does this history change the future for the target audience?
What does this history mean to the future of the target audience?
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World Health Organization. (2008). World health statistics. Geneva, Switzerland:
Author. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from http://www.who.int/publications/en/
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Yanow, D. (1998). American ethnogenesis and the 1990 census. In C. J. Greenhouse
(Ed.), Democracy and ethnography: Constructing identities in multicultural liberal
states (pp. 105-120). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Endnotes
1
There questions were informed by Miller, 2002.
2
These questions were informed by Gibson, 1994.
3
These questions were informed by Marcelin, 2006.
4
Cliometrics is the quantitative study of economic history that applies econo-
metric and statistics to studying economic history (Pearce, 1994).
5
Many of these questions were informed by Miller, 2002 and Ferraro, 2004.
6
Many of these questions were informed by Ferraro, 2004.
7
Theres questions were informed by Miller, 2002.
8
Data gathered from electronic newspaper articles in the BBC News. (2007).
Deadly history of earthquakes [Electronic Version]. BBC News. Retrieved
September 3, 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/2059330.stm and
other online newspaper sources.
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Chapter XI
CBM Elements V
anthropology of culture. Cultural knowledge, Cultural language, Cultural physiol-
ogy, Cultural relations and Cultural resources are covered.
Cultural Knowledge
E9..Cultural.Knowledge.-.What.is.known.and.what.one.comes.to.know.
Cultural knowledge examines what is known and what one comes to know (Thomas,
2001). It is the acquisition, learning, translation, transfer, teaching, recording, docu-
mentation, preservation, creation, accessibility, use, and application of knowledge
Most of what anyone knows is cultural knowledge (DAndrade, 1995, p. xiv).
Over the course of a humans life, they learn a wealth of knowledge. Humans store
and pass on this knowledge from generation to generation. This cultural knowledge
is contained in words, narratives, artifacts, and human experiences (Dougherty,
1985).
1
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Knowledge can be thought of as that which is known or acquired. Known knowl-
edge can be innately a part of an individual. For example, Confuciuss followers
believed that certain exceptional individuals possessed intrinsic knowledge and
that they were born with this knowledge (Thomas, 2001, p. 54). Acquired knowledge
is learned through a variety of sources; however, it varies from culture to culture.
Some common examples of acquired knowledge are lived experience, modeling
others, and instruction (e.g., schooling, apprenticeship). In some cultures, dreams
are believed to be a source of knowledge because dreams can reveal the future
and guide life choices. Visions are considered a way of acquiring knowledge. For
example, many Great Plains Indian tribes practice the ritual of vision quest. In this
ritual, information is sought to determine an individuals sacred name, guiding
spirit, and other knowledge.(Thomas, 2001).
Culture GQ
What is the history of knowledge in this society or culture? How does a human
being acquire knowledge? How is knowledge learned by human beings? How is
knowledge translated to the human being? How is knowledge transferred from
one human being to another human being? How is knowledge taught to the hu-
man being? Through what means is knowledge recorded? Through what means is
knowledge documented? Through what means is knowledge preserved? Through
what means is knowledge created? How is knowledge made accessible? How is
knowledge preserved by the human being? How is knowledge learned by human
beings? Who within the society or culture creates this knowledge? How is this
knowledge validated? Who has access to this knowledge? How is this knowledge
used and applied? What is the logic or reasoning behind this knowledge? When
does knowledge become information? How do individuals know what they know?
What forms of technology have been used to acquire, learn, translate, transfer,
teach, record, document, preserve, create, access, use, and apply knowledge? How
is knowledge used as power in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of knowledge as it pertains to the target audience? How is
knowledge acquired by the target audience? How is knowledge learned by the target
audience? How is knowledge translated to the target audience? How is knowledge
transferred from one target audience member to another? How is knowledge taught
to the target audience? Through what means is knowledge recorded by the target
audience? Through what means is knowledge documented by the target audience?
Through what means is knowledge preserved for the target audience? Through
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what means is knowledge created by the target audience? How is knowledge made
accessible to the target audience? How is knowledge preserved by the target audi-
ence? How is knowledge learned by the target audience? Who within the target
audience creates this knowledge? How is this knowledge validated by the target
audience? Who has access to the knowledge generated by the target audience?
How is knowledge used and applied by the target audience? What is the logic or
reasoning behind this knowledge? How does the target audience know what they
know? For the target audience, what forms of technology have been used to ac-
quire, learn, translate, transfer, teach, record, document, preserve, create, access,
use and apply knowledge? How has the target audience participated as producers
of theories, recipients of theories, or participants in the formulation of knowledge?
Is knowledge used to empower or control the target audience, and if so, in what
way? How does the target audience feel about their ability to access, create, or
acquire knowledge?
Cultural Language
E10..Cultural.Language.-.Language.form,.content,.use,.and.meaning.
Cultural language refers to the system used to communicate the spoken sounds of
humans. Humans can create language, use language, and communicate through
symbolic forms (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). All languages have a system of
grammar. Grammar comprises the sounds, sound patterns, words, word units, word
meanings, and the rule systems of a language. If a human being speaks a language,
then they know the grammar of that language. No language is superior to another
language (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2003).
The study of language provides the tools to deconstruct and reconstruct a language.
The components of a language can be divided into three areas: form (phonology,
morphology, & syntax), content (semantics), and use/meaning (pragmatics). Form
includes those parts specifc to sounds and symbols such as phonology (speech
sounds), morphology (word structures), and syntax (word order). Phonology is the
study of speech sounds or phonemes in a language, and phonemes are the smallest
unit of sound.that has meaning. Morphology is the study of the structure of words
in a language and to study the structure of words means to examine its morphemes.
Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaningful speech. Syntax.refers to the rules of
word order and sentence structure of a language (Owens, 2005). Content examines
semantics or word meanings and the meanings of words in the context of other
words (Fromkin et al., 2003). Use refers to pragmatics; this means the multiple
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ways in which language is communicated (Owens, 2005). Pragmatics also refers
to the context and circumstances that can affect the meaning a language conveys
(Fromkin et al., 2003).
The role of language in societies is important to the landscape of culture. Lan-
guages infuence people, places, commerce, globalization, ideologies; therefore, it
serves as a building block of societies. By example, as of 2007, Singapores Speak
Good English Movement
2
demonstrates a move to restrict and, in some ways, elimi-
nate Singlish, a language mixture of English, Tamil, Malay, Mandarin Chinese,
and other Chinese dialects. In 1999, then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong believed
that the use of Singlish would jeopardize Singapores goal of being a frst-world
economy. This ongoing literacy movement to speak good English is directed
at all members of the community, from children to retail sales clerks (Almenoar,
2006; Mydans, 2001).
A comparison of Singlish and English is offered to exemplify this language
movement, followed by a brief overview of how the components of language can aid
in deconstructing and reconstructing but ultimately understanding a language:
Singlish: What time start?
English: What time does the event begin?
In looking at the phonemes in the Singlish question, the sounds would be pho-
netically written as follows in English: e.g., /hw/ // /t/ /t/ // /m/ /st/ /r/ /t/. The
morphemes in the Singlish sentence are the words what time start. The syntax of
the Singlish sentence may be correct for Singlish, but it is incorrect for English,
because it does not follow the rules of syntax or word order. In English, sentences
must contain a noun phrase and a verb phrase. The sentence What time start?
does not have a verb phrase.
If the purpose of semantics is to determine the meanings of words and the
relationships of words, then the Singlish sentence does convey meaning. In this
example, the speaker of Singlish wants to know the time in which something starts.
The meaning becomes unclear as to what that something is referring to given the
question. The semantics of the Singlish sentence breaks the English rule system. In
the Singlish sentence, the pragmatics of the sentence does not fully communicate its
meaning in English, because the meaning is incomplete. Singlish may be perceived
as an informal dialect that should be spoken in ones personal circles; however, in a
formal English-speaking situation, a person may misinterpret the meaning and will
need to know specifcally what what references. With pragmatics, as described
by Fromkin et al. (2003), the context and circumstances can affect the meaning
that a language conveys.
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Dialects. The variations in a language are called dialects, and dialects are
classifed as languages. Dialects vary based on factors such as geographical
location, class, race, accent, pronunciation, and syntax. In China, for example,
Cantonese and Mandarin are classifed as dialects of Chinese because of their
mutual writing system, and both dialects are spoken in the same country
(Fromkin et al., 2003; Haviland, 1987).
Codeswitching. Codeswitching is also very much a part of human interac-
tion and communicating across cultures and contexts. To codeswitch means
to consciously or unconsciously change dialects or language in the same
conversation (Fromkin et al., 2003; Haviland, 1987).
Examples.of.language.use. In Hong Kong as of 2007, the characteristics and
activities of men remain the dominant norm for language practices. Linguistic
sexism is prevalent in youth who speak Hong Kong English. Males prefer
to use he as the generic term. Females tend to use the pronouns he and
she more than men. However, youth in general agree with moving toward
the use of the nonsexist, inclusive they. This change in language practices
is seen as a way to neutralize linguistic sexism (Lee, 2007). African Ameri-
cans created semantic terms and concepts (e.g., hip, cool, dig, cat, and rap)
that became part of mainstream American culture in the 1970s (Smitherman,
1977). When the hip hop music revolution came around, African Americans
again creatively used language to express who they were and what they were
doing. They created a form of music called Hip Hop and they engaged in an
act called rapping. Prior to this, these terms were not part of American
popular culture.
Culture GQ
What is the history of language in this society or culture? What language(s) is(are)
used to communicate? Where is this language derived from? How is this language
formed? What is the phonology of this language? What is the morphology of this
language? What is the syntax structure of this language? Is there anything signif-
cant about the form, content, or use of this language? How is this language usually
acquired? Is language deeply rooted in this society or culture, and if so, in what
ways? What is the native language? What is the lingua franca (i.e., a common lan-
guage for speakers of different languages that is used internationally for commerce
and communication)? Have any languages been banned or restricted? Are there
words that are taboo or unacceptable to speak? Are there words that are taboo or
unacceptable to write? Is there a concern about language loss or losing a language
due to lack of speakers of a language? How important is multilingualism? What
dialects of the language are spoken? Who speaks these dialects? How are individu-
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als who speak these dialects perceived? Do individuals engage in codeswitching?
What languages are used in codeswitching? How are individuals who codeswitch
perceived? How is language used? How is the language connected to other social,
political, economic, or religious issues?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of language for the target audience? What language(s) is(are)
used by the target audience to communicate? Where is the target audiences lan-
guage derived from? How is the target audiences language formed? What is the
phonology of the target audiences language? What is the morphology of the target
audiences language? What is the syntax of the target audiences language? Is the
target audience concerned about losing their language? Has the target audience
produced words or other language forms that became part of the culture? What ways
are used by the target audience to communicate with each other? Does a common
language exist between the target audience, and if so, what is this language? How is
this language viewed by the dominant culture or society? How does the society or
culture classify the language (e.g., language, dialect, pidgin, slang, colloquialism)?
What is the perception of the language spoken by the target audience? How is the
language of the target audience connected to other social, political, economic, or
religious issues?
Cultural Physiology
E11..Cultural.Physiology.-.The.physiological.characteristics.of.a.
human.being,.other.species.or.entity.
Cultural physiology is the physiological characteristics of. a human being, other
species or entity. These characteristics are the features or qualities that make things
distinguishable from other things.
The cultural physiology of the target audience should be expressed in physical
terms (e.g., human; female; 5 feet, 8 inches tall; blue eyes; olive skin). Also, any
distinguishing features (e.g., tattoo of a rose on right shoulder, one eye), move-
ments (e.g., limp, sway), sounds, and smells can be added if important to the overall
physiology.
The human composition can be defned based on measurements. Measurements
consistent with humans should measure the size, composition, and proportions of the
body (e.g., height, weight, circumference of the chest, head, waist, lower and upper
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abdomen, forearms, wrists, hips, thighs, calves, and ankles; lengths of the arm, leg,
torso, and foot; skin folds on the forehead, torso, thighs, and arms (McLorg, 2006).
The physiology of humans can be used to determine the percentage of body fat and
body density; and to examine nutrition, infections, disease patterns, mortality, and
physical activity. For example, the physiology of an individual may change when
migrating from a cold climate to a warm climate (McLorg, 2006).
3
The characteristics of a human being are one section of a much more com-
prehensive classifcation. Table 11.1 provides a physical classifcation example to
defne the physical structure of human beings or other human like species. This
table can be adapted to include other species and entities. A more comprehensive
Table 11.1. Physical Classifcation
Classifcation Description
Species Android
Gender male
Age 28
Skin shade pearly tan
Skin texture synthetic rubber
continued on following page
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Table 11.1. continued
Hair manufactured nylon
Color Dark Brown
Texture (straight, kinky, curly) straight
Length 2 inches
Growth none
Density (thick, thin) thin
Style (bangs, ponytail, bob) short crew cut
Face
Skeletal structure humanoid
Eyes (width apart, color) 4 inches, green
Mouth (shape) oval
Nose (shape) long, low nostrils
Forehead one crease
Torso muscular
Thighs muscular
Arms average muscular
Smells very acute
Sounds human like, very acute
Movements human like, but highly adaptable
Garments
Type (pants, shirt, blouse, etc.) jeans, fashionable
Color blue
Fabric (cotton, wool, synthetic) cotton
Style (conservative, uniform) modern chic
Distinguishing marks hart tattoo on right hip. branding of model
Other speaks top 50 languages
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taxonomy could include the physiological, emotional, cognitive/intellectual, so-
cial, geographic, linguistic, environmental, and psychological. All of these areas
are design factors in CBM Elements. However, Cultural physiology is specifc to
physical characteristics only.
Culture GQ
What groups are in this society or culture? What are the physiological character-
istics of specifc individuals in these groups? What are the measurements of these
physiological characteristics?
What species are in this society or culture? What are the physiological character-
istics of these species? Describe the physiology of individuals, species, organisms,
plants, and so forth that contribute to the cultural physiology of the planet.
Target Audience GQ
What are the physiological characteristics of the target audience? What measure-
ments identify the physiological characteristics of the target audience? What
physiological characteristics distinguish the target audience from other groups?
Are the measurements of the target audience in any way biased or stereotypical?
Describe or illustrate the differences in physiological characteristics of individu-
als within the target audience. How would the target audience describe themselves
physiologically?
Cultural Relations
E12..Cultural.Relations.-.The.relationship.of.one.being.to.another.being.
Cultural relations refer to the relationship of one being to another being. These
relations cut across societies and cultures; groups and individuals; and humans,
other species and entities. Cultural relations across societies and cultures have
involved fostering relations related to economic, scientifc, technological, artistic,
and political developments. Cultural relations across groups and individuals gets
at how one being relates to another being.
Cultural relations involves the study of human beings and their relationships
among and between organisms. This means, mans relationship to man; mans re-
lationship to womwn, children, etc. and humans relationship to the other animals
and organisms.
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Culture GQ
Society/culture: What forms of cultural relations exist between this soci-
ety and other societies? What forms of cultural relations exist between this
culture and other cultures? How do economic relations with other societies
or cultures assist in cultivating cultural relations? How do political relations
with other societies or cultures assist in cultivating cultural relations? How
do technological and scientifc relations with other societies or cultures assist
in cultivating cultural relations?
Dominant.group
4
: How does the dominant group in this society or culture
relate or interact with other groups? Does the dominant group trust other
groupswhy or why not? Does the dominant group have conficts with any
other groupswhy or why not? Does the dominant group like any other
groupwhy or why not? Does the dominant group dislike any other groupwhy
or why not? Does the dominant group admire any other groupwhy or why
not? Does the dominant group disrespect any other groupwhy or why not?
Who does the dominant group interact with on a daily basis and in what way?
Does the dominant group interact with the target audience, and if so, in what
way? Does the dominant group interact with individuals who are minority
group members, and if so, in what way? Has the dominant group committed
aggressive acts against any group, and if so, why? Has the dominant group
committed violent acts against any group, and if so, why? How has ethno-
centrism impacted cross-cultural relations? How are cross-cultural relations
cultivated in this society or culture?
Species: How do humans relate to other species on the planet? Do humans
worship other species; if so, why? Do humans consume other species; if so,
why? Do humans hunt their own species and why? Under what conditions
have humans consumed their own species? What species are considered pets
for humans and why?
Target Audience GQ
Society/culture: What forms of cultural relations exist between the target
audience and other societies? What forms of cultural relations exist between
the target audience and other cultures?
Dominant.group: How does the dominant group relate or interact with the
target audience? Does the target audience trust other groupswhy or why
not? Does the target audience have conficts with any other groupswhy or
why not? Does the target audience like any other groupwhy or why not?
Does the target audience dislike any other groupwhy or why not? Does the
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target audience admire any other groupwhy or why not? Does the target
audience disrespect any other groupwhy or why not? Who does the target
audience interact with on a daily basis and in what way? Does the target audi-
ence interact with individuals from other minority groups, and if so, in what
way? Has the target audience committed aggressive acts against any group and
why? Has the target audience committed violent acts against any group and
why? How are cross-cultural relations cultivated by the target audience?
Species: How does the target audience relate to other species on the planet?
Does the target audience worship other species and why? Does the target audi-
ence consume other species and why? Does the target audience hunt their own
species and why? Under what conditions has the target audience consumed
their own species? What species are considered pets by the target audience
and why? What species are considered consumable by the target audience?
Cultural Resources
E13..Cultural.Resources.-.The.use.and.cultivation.of.resources.
Natural resources are non-human-made resources that come from the planet Earth.
These resources are limited and are considered nonrenewable. Nonrenewable re-
sources cannot be replenished; once they are completely used up, they cannot be
replaced (Cooper, 2003). Examples of nonrenewable resources include oil, coal,
natural gas, and other minerals. Renewable resources can be renewed or renew
themselves as long as they are not completely destroyed (e.g., forests, soil, and fsh;
Cooper, 2003).
Agriculture
Agriculture serves as a source of fber and food production. Traditionally, agricul-
ture accounted for much of the economic development and wealth. However, more
industrialized and technological societies rely less on agriculture for economic
growth (Brouwer, 2006). Less industrialized countries view agriculture as a source
of food, capital, trade, and labor (Taylor, 2004).
The demand by Western societies for cash crops such as sugar, tea, coffee,
cocoa, tobacco, and heroin have led to the global destruction of ecosystems (Fer-
raro, 2004, p. 142). Other examples that have led to the demise of ecosystems and
environmental degradation are the demands of hardwood, drillings for fossil fuels
(i.e., coal and oil), and metals (Ferraro, 2004). As reported by the New Partnership
for Africas Development, in 2007, poor soil is noted as one of the major reasons
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Africa cannot meet its demand for food. As a result, 204 million people suffer from
malnutrition and hunger (Madamombe,.2007).
Forestry
Forestry involves the growing, maintenance, and harvesting of trees. The removal
of trees can cause changes to the ecosystem (Ritchie, 2003).
Minerals
Mineral extraction (mining) is the removal from the environment of nonliving/
nonrenewable resources. The more industrialized the society or culture, the more
likely the demand for minerals. Minerals that come from the earth offer some type
of social purpose or fnancial value; however, they remain scarce resources. Ex-
amples of minerals derived from the earths crust include: oil, natural gas, nickel,
coal, aluminum, helium, methane, zinc, copper, gravel, stone, sand, jade, diamonds,
and rubies (Bridge, 2006).
Energy
Industrialized societies are dependent on energy. On the planet Earth, that energy
in many cases is generated by fossil fuel (i.e., gas, oil, and coal) sources that are
nonrenewable. Therefore, there is a need for a clean, environmentally safe, inexhaust-
ible energy that can replace nonrenewable sources. By example, the United States
relies on fossil fuels for 85% of their commercial energy. The long-term demand
for fossil fuels by world markets will not meet the supply. It is estimated that given
the Earths demand for natural sources of energy that supply will run out within a
century or so (Cunningham, 2003, p. 458). Additionally, these fuels have become
environmental pollutants. Coal emits greenhouse gases that have resulted in global
warming (Cunningham, 2003). Oil spillage into oceans results in biological and
property damage (Canevari, 2006). Natural gas used in car engines contributes to
air pollution (Ziegler, 2006).
Cleaner and sustainable sources of energy can be developed using existing tech-
nologies. This is exemplifed in wind power, wave power, ocean tidal, solar heating
and heaters, photovoltaic energy (produces electricity from sunlight), hydropower
(generates electricity from moving water) and biomass (recycles renewable sources
into energy). The main problem with these alternative forms of energy is that they
disperse and are not instantly available sources of energy (Cunningham, 2003).
The use of solar power energy is supplying electricity to rural parts of Africa.
This move to solar power began in the 1990s and was further supported through a
CBM Elements V 227
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2001 framework initiative titled The New Partnership for Africas Development.
For homes that are too far away from electrical grids, solar power is one alterna-
tive to providing electricity. Solar power is a renewable and clean source of energy
and can prove a valuable economic resource in rural parts of Africa (Madamombe,
2006).
Russia covers 13.1% of the Earths surface and is considered the largest country
on the planet. Size alone makes Russia an important natural resource, as it houses
large quantities of diamonds, wood, coal, oil, and natural gas. Untouched wild
forests cover 23% of Russias landscape. The climate is mild to cold in most of the
country. Russia produces few agricultural products, according to 2000 fgures;
those products grown include sugar beets, vegetables, potatoes, and grain crops
(Shvidenko, 2006).
Culture GQ
5
Agriculture: What agriculture exists in this society or culture? How is
agriculture used? Does agriculture serve an economic, political, or social
purpose? What problems related to agriculture exist? How is the society or
culture resolving these problems?
Forestry: Do forests exist in this society or culture? How is forestry used?
Does forestry serve an economic, political, or social purpose? What problems
related to forestry exist? How is the society or culture resolving these prob-
lems?
Minerals: What minerals are extracted from the planet? What minerals are
used? How are minerals used? Do minerals serve an economic, political, or
social purpose? What minerals are used for economic value? What problems
related to minerals exist? How is the society or culture resolving these prob-
lems?
Energy: What sources of energy are used in this society or culture? How is
energy used? Does energy serve an economic, political, or social purpose?
What problems related to energy sources exist? How is the society or culture
resolving these problems?
Natural.resources: Identify and defne the natural resources. How are these
resources used and applied? How has this population adapted to their natural
environment? How has the natural environment been impacted by human
beings behavior and activities? How has the culture infuenced the natural
environment? For example, people who live in colder climates may engage
in certain behaviors specifc to the climate, such as eating larger amounts of
food and engaging in more physical activity (Ferraro, 2004). Are humans and
nature living harmoniously? Are humans abusing nature, and if so, in what
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way? How has nature responded to humans abuse? What natural disasters
exist? Were these human-made disasters.(e.g., oil spills in ocean) or.natural
disasters (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes). How has the
demand for natural resources infuenced this society or culture? What global
environmental changes are affecting human life? What global environmental
changes are affecting plant life? What global environmental changes are af-
fecting the planets life?
Target Audience GQ
What is the target audiences role in the preservation of cultural resources? How
has the target audience contributed to the problems associated with the cultural
resources?
Agriculture: How is agriculture used by the target audience? Does agriculture
serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What
problems related to agriculture exist for the target audience? How is the target
audience resolving agriculture problems?
Forestry: How is forestry used by the target audience? Does forestry serve an
economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What problems
related to forestry exist for the target audience? How is the target audience
resolving forestry problems?
Minerals: What minerals are extracted from the planet by the target audi-
ence? How are minerals used by the target audience? Do minerals serve an
economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What minerals
are used for economic value by the target audience? What problems related
to minerals exist for the target audience? How is the target audience resolving
mineral extraction problems?
Energy: What sources of energy are used by the target audience? Does energy
serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What
problems related to energy sources exist for the target audience? How is the
target audience resolving energy problems?
Natural.resources: How are natural resources used by the target audience?
How has the target audience adapted to their natural environment? How has
the natural environment been affected by the target audience and their be-
havior/activities? How has the target audience been affected by the natural
environment? Are the target audience and nature living harmoniously? Is
the target audience abusing nature, and if so, in what way? How has nature
responded to any abuse by the target audience? What human-made or natural
disasters were the results of errors made by the target audience? How has the
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demand for natural resources infuenced the target audience? What global
environmental changes are affecting the target audience?
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Lee, J. F. K. (2007). Acceptability of sexist language among young people in Hong
Kong. Sex Roles, 56, 285-295.
Madamombe, I. (2006, October). Solar power: Cheap energy source for Africa.
Africa Renewal, 20(3), 10-11.
Madamombe, I. (2007, January). Woman storekeeper boosts Malawi farming. Africa
Renewal, 20(4), 13-16.
McLorg, P. A. (2006). Anthropometry. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthro-
pology, 1, 196-197. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mydans, S. (2001, July 1). Nations in Asia give English their own favorful quirks.
New York Times, p. 1.
Owens, R. E. (2005). Language development: An introduction. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Ritchie, L. C. (2003). Forest management. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A.
Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham, & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclo-
pedia (3rd ed.), 1, 589-599. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale.
Shvidenko, A. (2006). Russia. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earths changing land: An
encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 2, 515-520. Westport, CT: Green-
wood Press.
Smitherman, G. (1977). Talkin and testifyin: The language of Black America. Bos-
ton: Houghton Miffin Company.
Taylor, J. E. (2004). Agricultural economics. In A. Kuper & J. Kuper (Eds.), The
social science encyclopedia, 1, 18-19. New York: Routledge.
Thomas, R. M. (2001). Folk psychologies across cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Ziegler, E. N. (2006). Mobile source pollution. In J. R. Pfaffin & E. N. Ziegler
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of environmental science and engineering (5th ed.), 2, 701-713.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Endnotes
1
See the work of cognitive anthropologists for more on how cultural knowledge
is acquired through experience and implemented based on this acquisition
(Dougherty, 1985).
CBM Elements V 231
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2
For more information access the web page of the Speak Good English Move-
ment http://www.goodenglish.org.sg/SGEM/.
3
The defnition of cultural physiology for humans is borrowed from the anthro-
pological term anthropometry which means measuring the size and proportions
of the human body.
4
The questions in this dominant group section are informed by the work of
Segall, et al., 1999).
5
Some of these questions were informed by Bortman et al. (2003) and Ferraro,
(2004).
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Chapter XII
CBM Elements VI
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the psy-
chology of culture. All of the design factors related to psychology are covered.
The Psychology of Culture
Cultural beliefs & values
Cultural experiences
Cultural ideas
Cultural identity
Cultural interests
Cultural misconceptions
Cultural ways
This section, the psychology of culture, draws from cognitive anthropology and
cultural psychology that focus on cognitive, psychological, and social realms. Cul-
ture affects the psychology of human existence (DAndrade, 1995) in its ability to
confgure the mind of human beings. Human beings use their minds to negotiate
and make sense of the world. Whether part of a society, culture, or group, human
beings search for shared meanings with others and an understanding of self. These
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meanings are best understood in their cultural contexts; therefore, culture is at the
core of creating, understanding, and being human (Bruner, 1996).
In psychology, models of culture focus on explaining processes of the mind
(DAndrade, 1990; Quinn, 1987; Schank & Abelson, 1977). Similarly, the psychol-
ogy of culture examines what is going on in individuals mind that infuences their
actions (DAndrade, 1995). Exploring the psychology and cognition of individuals
assists in framing experiences, providing meaning to experiences, exploring the
reasoning process, and understanding the outcomes of behavior (Quinn & Holland,
1987).
The psychology of culture also presupposes that the individual is a transporter
of culture. (DAndrade, 1990). This means that, among individuals, there is great
variability in terms of how they function psychologically. In measuring these items,
those with the most frequent consistency can be treated as representative of the
groups culture. Therefore, items can be determined to be shared by the group or
unique to the individual or group (DAndrade, 1990).
Schema is shared knowledge. Among groups, there are shared cognitive schemas
or understandings. These shared cognitive schemas are obvious but only to members
of the group. For example a television announcer yells, Touchdown! This means
that a football team has scored, except this has little meaning to individuals who
do not understand football. Information shared among a group is not made explicit
because the knowledge is already known (DAndrade, 1990, 1987). This means that
target audiences will have shared knowledge and information that is understood
only by members of their group.
DAndrades (1990, 1995) folk model of the mind proposes that humans notice
their mental states and processes; this, in turn, infuences behavior. One of the
characteristics of a mental state is the principle of cause; this means certain events
are thought to bring about other events (DAndrade, 1987, p. 117). This means
that what a human sees, hears, tastes, smells, and feels is caused by events and
things outside the mind. Inside the mind of a human what they believe, remember,
or know is processed in the mind. Therefore, mental states and processes happen
internally (inside) and/or externally (outside) of the mind. In looking at CBM Ele-
ments, several design factors could be categorized as having properties of a mental
state or process.
CBM Element Inside/outside of the mind
Cultural beliefs Inside the mind
Cultural values Inside & outside the mind
Cultural experiences Inside the mind
Cultural ideas Inside the mind
Cultural identity Inside the mind
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Cultural interests Inside the mind
Cultural misconceptions Inside the mind
Cultural ways Inside & outside the mind
These elements are defned, described, illustrated, and addressed in terms of
society, culture and the target audience. Guiding questions that address the society
and culture are broadly based, allowing for a surface review of the psychology of
societies and cultures. Target Audience GQ are specifc to the group or individuals
in the group.
Cultural Beliefs and Values
E14..Cultural.Beliefs.and.Values.-.Beliefs.(shared.truths);.
Values.(shared.ideas).
Cultural beliefs are those shared truths of a society, culture, or group. Cultural values
are those shared ideas of a society, culture, or group. Belief is related to what is,
and value is related to what should be (Pepitone, 1994, p. 141). These ideologies
inform thinking, acting, and understanding.
Cultural Beliefs
Beliefs are formed through personal experience, secondary sources, and inferring
information (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To believe is a human function (Pepitone,
1994). Beliefs are concepts about persons, places, things, and processes. The believer
legitimizes the belief. Therefore, belief is a signifcant variable in predicting human
behavior. Supernatural beliefs have had the greatest impact on the human species.
These beliefs are nonmaterial or nontangible because they cannot be verifed through
methods of social and physical science. Supernatural beliefs are embedded in an
individuals concepts about society, race, ethnicity, morality, religion, secularity,
or paranormality (Pepitone, 1994). An example of a religious belief system is
Shamanism; it is practiced throughout the world (Fridman, 2004, p. xi). Shaman-
ism originated in Eurasia, Siberia and Mongolia. Shamanism is not a fxed religion.
This spiritual practice is guided by an omniscient specialist or shaman who aids in
connecting the spirit world with believers for the good of all (Fridman, 2004). In
Mongolia, the Buryats practice shamanism. This spiritual practice also manifests
as a way of dealing with the changing economy and the fall of socialism. Buryats
attribute the turmoil in their culture with the return of angry spirits who seek ret-
ribution for their social, political, and religious sins (Buyandelgeriyn, 2007).
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Cultural Values
Values are the ideals, principles, or standards of an individual, group, or society.
Values evolved historically from the various social and economic contexts in a
society (Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Those planned and unplanned
life experiences of human beings help to shape ones values. Values are learned and
internalized early in the life of a human being (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Values are learned through teachings from family and instructors, preached from
religious fgures, conveyed by political fgures, and communicated through media.
The ethics and morals of a society or culture are expressed through the value-driven
behavior of individuals and groups (Segall et al., 1999).
In 2000, Hong Kong published curriculum reform papers listing over 100 values
of importance in educating children in schools. Now this number has dwindled
down to 5 key values: commitment, national identity, perseverance, respect for oth-
ers and responsibility. The goal of instilling values education is to further develop
childrens sense of national identity and their global connectedness (South China
Morning Post, 2008).
Culture GQ
Cultural.beliefs: How are beliefs formed in this society or culture? What are
the beliefs of this society or culture? How do beliefs infuence human behav-
ior? Are beliefs connected to religion or spirituality? Are beliefs connected
to social interactions? Are beliefs connected to political or economic issues?
Whose beliefs are more dominant? Does gender infuence beliefs?
Cultural.values: How are values developed in this society or culture? What
are the values of this society or culture? How do values infuence human be-
havior? Are values connected to religion or spirituality? Are values connected
to social interactions? Are values connected to political or economic issues?
Whose values are more dominant? Does gender infuence values?
Target Audience GQ
Cultural. beliefs: What are the beliefs of the target audience in regards to
religion, spirituality, social interaction, politics, economics, and so forth?
How did the target audience come to these beliefs? How have beliefs infuence
the behavior of the target audience? Whose beliefs are more dominant in the
target audience? Does gender infuence the beliefs of the target audience?
Cultural.values: What are the values of the target audience in regards to re-
ligion, spirituality, social interaction, politics, economics, and so forth? How
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did the target audience come to these values? How do values infuence the
behavior of the target audience? Does gender infuence the values of the target
audience? How are the beliefs and values of the target audience different than
the dominant culture?
Cultural Experiences
E15..Cultural.Experiences.-.The.interpretation.of.the.world.from
.inside.and.out.
Cultural experiences are the interpretation of ones world from inside and outside.
This interpretation is inside the community (e.g., family life, social gatherings) and
outside the community (e.g., freedom, racism, discrimination, politics, housing,
education, work). Our cultural experiences shape and are shaped by our worldviews,
the way we perceive our lives, our experiences and those of others (Vasquez, Han,
De Las Fuentes, 2006, p. 443).
Cultural experiences are guided by what people say about their experiences.
Information about cultural experiences can be attained through personal narratives,
reports, or oral histories. These narratives can be used to understand the: who, what,
why, and how of the individual or group experiences and align these interpretations
to macro-social, political, cultural, and economic issues. These narratives must
be considered in terms of the social setting or social context in which the event,
situation, or telling happens (Hollan, 2001). For every cultural experience, there
is a story or storyteller, and such stories are situated in a context or setting that is
infuenced by macro-conditions. Narratives are also infuenced by who is telling
what to whom and under what circumstances (Hollan, 2001, p. 54); therefore,
multiple methods of capturing psychological experiences are needed. Individuals
or groups are asked about their experiences versus the experiences inferred from
artifacts and observations. This approach can be conducted through interviews,
focus groups, or any person-centered method.
Cultural experiences are guided by what people do in their everyday lives and
their interpretation of these actions. It is those experiences specifc to their living
and existence (Hollan, 2001) that are of interest. To obtain these data, requires
following the individual or group as they engage in actions and activities that for-
mulate their daily lived experiences. This means to capture, feelings, thoughts, and
intentions requires documentation through recordings (audio, video, photography),
observations (feldnote collection), and asking the individual or group. In essence,
the active engagement of the individual or group is needed (Hollan, 2001).
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As an example, the Toraja of South Sulawesi, Indonesia engage in a funeral
ceremony where waterbuffalo are slaughtered competitively by the adult men. The
ceremony improves the status of men in the community. Hollan (2001) observed
Nenena Tandi, one of his informants, engaging in behavior that he believed in-
dicated that Nenena was monitoring portions of the buffalo distributed to each
family. However upon interviewing Nenena, Hollan and Wellenkamp (1994)
found Nenena angry about the ceremonial process because Nenena believed the
ceremony no longer yielded the fnancial gains the adult men expected and that
the adult men were foolish to believe they would get rich. Through conducting the
interview, Hollan and Wellenkamp (1994) obtained a more accurate interpretation
of this cultural experience as one where mens status was not improved, which
refected negatively on the status of men in the community.
Culture GQ
What are the cultural experiences of individuals or groups in this society or culture?
What issues outside the community shape how individuals or groups interpret their
world? What social issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world?
What economic issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What
religious or spiritual issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world?
What political issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What
environmental issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? How
do other issues (e.g., sexism, poverty, racism, housing, discrimination) shape how
individuals or groups interpret their world?
Target Audience GQ
What are the cultural experiences of the target audience? What issues outside the
community shape how the target audience interprets their world? What social is-
sues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What economic issues
shape how the target audience interprets their world? What religious or spiritual
issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What political issues
shape how the target audience interprets their world? What environmental issues
shape how the target audience interprets their world? How do other issues (e.g.,
sexism, poverty, racism, housing, discrimination, etc.) shape how the target audi-
ence interprets their world? What does the target audience say about their cultural
experiences? What actions does the target audience take that shapes their cultural
experience? How does the target audience interpret their cultural experience? What
are the target audiences feelings and thoughts about their lives?
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Cultural Ideas
E16..Cultural.Ideas.-.The.use.and.meaning.of.ideas.and.perceptions.
Cultural ideas.refer to the use and meaning of ideas and perceptions. John Locke
proposed that ideas and perceptions are the same things (Locke, 1805). Ideas and
perceptions come from the mind as in a thought. An idea is a thought initiated by
any external or internal stimulus. A perception is a thought initiated by the physical
senses of what one sees, smells, feels, tastes and hears (DAndrade, 1987). There-
fore, cultural ideas and perceptions can be thought of as those which are created
and taken in by the mind.
Cultural ideas can have form and content. These ideas can take the form of
printed matter or hypertext. The content of cultural ideas is as diverse as the societ-
ies, groups, and individuals that use and create meaning from these ideas. Cultural
ideas can be shared patterns of thinking, or schemas. Cultural ideas can be both
universal and culturally specifc (DAndrade, 1990, p. 110).
13
When repeatedly
used, cultural ideas can become part of the way individuals or groups think and
thereby infuence their actions (Carpenter, 2005).
In creating the theme park Universal Studios Japan, in Osaka, Japan, consider-
ations for combining American and Japanese business cultures were paramount.
All departments in Universal Studios Japan had to consider the cultural implica-
tions of making an American company pleasing to Japanese tastes. To accomplish
this task, the company held focus groups to obtain cultural ideas in making an
American theme park more Japanese. The cultural ideas included changing the
language of the Wild, Wild, Wild West stunt show from English to Japanese. The
majority of the food items would come from Japan, and food portions decreased;
however, American foods such as pizzas and hot dogs were in larger proportions.
Souvenirs included more household items, stationary products, and candy. The goal
of using cultural ideas was to obtain the Japanese idea of the American product
(Emmons, 2001, p. 113).
Culture GQ
What are the cultural ideas in this society or culture? Are there shared patterns
of thinking? What cultural ideas are universal? What cultural ideas are culturally
specifc? Through what form are cultural ideas mediated (e.g., radio, television,
Internet, print, etc.)? How are cultural ideas generated within this culture? Does
gender infuence whose ideas are valued and accepted? What biases exist or not in
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the use and application of ideas? For example, are womens ideas valued; if so in
what contexts (e.g., childrearing) and if not in what contexts? Are mens ideas val-
ued; if so in what contexts (e.g., sport s) and if not in what contexts? Are childrens
ideas valued? Are children allowed to voice their opinions in conversations with
adults? What happens to the best ideas?

Target Audience GQ
What are the cultural ideas of the target audience? Are there shared patterns of
thinking for the target audience? What cultural ideas are culturally specifc to the
target audience? How are cultural ideas generated by the target audience? Does
gender infuence whose ideas are valued and accepted in the target audience?
What biases exist, if any, in the use and application of ideas? Within the target
audience, are womens ideas valued? Within the target audience, are mens ideas
valued? Within the target audience, are childrens ideas valued? What is the target
audiences perception about life? How did the target audience come to these ideas?
What continues to infuence these ideas for the target audience? How have the ideas
of individuals in the target audience infuenced their behavior?
Cultural Identity
E17..Cultural.Identity.-.Distinguishing.qualities.of.a.human.being,.
other.species.or.entity.
Cultural identity refers to the distinguishing qualities of a human being, other spe-
cies or entity. Within the social and cultural contexts of a society or culture, human
beings embrace identities as a way to defne self, individuality, or other uniqueness.
Identity is also defned in terms of sameness. Individuals who share a sameness or
commonalities are associated with or by societies, cultures, communities, or group
identities (Byron, 1998). In the Folona region of Mali, West Africa, women partici-
pate in the family tradition of making pots out of wet clay.
1
Each potter marks their
pot with a sign; this signature and the tools of the pottery trade are handed down
from mother to daughter. This sign identifes the individual potter and has come to
be seen as a mark of artistry, identity, and heritage (Frank, 2007).
The maintenance of a cultural identity begins with the strengthening of cultural
traditions and boundaries and prohibiting of borrowing elements from other cultures.
This can be seen in the maintenance of language, clothing, and eating customs (e.g.,
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food taboos; Ferraro, 2004). Language serves as a form of national identity when
it is chosen as the exclusive language of a people and excludes all other languages.
National language guides legal and political discourse (Ferraro, 2004). Clothing is
also signifcant to group identity. Groups may wear the same garb to signify their
allegiance (Ferraro, 2004). Although there are many sects, male followers of Hassidic
Judaism, a religious movement, typically wear black suits with long jackets called
a rekel during the Jewish work week of Sunday through Friday (Cohn-Sherbok &
Cohn-Sherbok, 1997). Across cultures eating customs aid groups in maintaining
ethnic identities in the kinds of food eaten, manner in which food is eaten and how
often food is eaten. The sharing of food supports group unity and social relations.
Thit Cho or dog meat is a kind of food found eaten by some Vietnamese in Hanoi,
Vietnam; thit cho is believed to bring good luck. It is considered a delicacy by some
and only eaten during the lunar month. Restaurants serve thit cho as a sausage; in
thighs or legs; grilled, stewed, fried; and sandwiched between sliced bread (The
Nation, 2004).
Culture GQ
Defne the cultural identity of this society or culture. How do individuals defne
their identities? Within individuals, is there the presence of self, individuality, or
uniqueness? How does the society or culture defne its cultural identity? What
societies share a cultural identity, and how is it defned? What groups share a cul-
tural identity, and how is it defned? What communities share a cultural identity,
and how it is defned?
Target Audience GQ
Defne the cultural identity of the target audience. How do individuals within the
target audience defne their identities? How is self, individuality, or uniqueness
expressed in the target audience? How does the target audience defne its cultural
identity? What other groups or communities share a sameness with the target
audience, and how are they defned? What conclusions can be drawn about the
individuals in the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in
the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in comparison
to others in the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in
relation to others outside the target audience?
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Cultural Interests
E18..Cultural.Interests.-.Deeply.personal.desires,.wants,.wishes.
Cultural interests are deeply personal desires, wants, or wishes (DAndrade, 1990).
Desires, wants and wishes are not controllable. There can be a few or many. Desires,
wants and wishes can be held in the mind and acted upon immediately or never
(DAndrade, 1987). Human behavior is motivated by deeply held personal desires,
wants, and wishes. What motivates one individual to act on a cultural interest and
another to just dream is the mystery of human nature.
Cultural interests may run counter to values, family, group, community, or so-
ciety. However, they are strongly held, deeply personal, private, and even secret.
Cultural interests can be something done during recreational time, free time,
private time or that is of general interest. The individual acquires this desire by
exposure to something within their life experiences, an innate ability, or their human
curiosity for the unknown. These cultural interests defne the individual. They are
learned through their exposure to cultures and personal experiences.
Cultural interests must be examined through human behavior or individualized
interviews that get at psychological and cognitive processing. Cultural interests
are more likely to be implicit than explicit. A Chinese girl who grows up in China
may want to know what it is like to live in America. This is an unspoken interest;
nevertheless, it exists for her.
Culture GQ
What are the cultural interests of the society or culture? What is the society or
cultures view of individuals with secretly held cultural interests? Is there a punish-
ment for holding cultural interests that counter to those of the society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
What are the desires, wants, or wishes of the target audience? What are the personal
desires, wants, or wishes of individuals in the target audience? Are the cultural in-
terests of the target audience publicly known? Are the cultural interests of individu-
als in the target audience private or secretly held? Is there a penalty for harboring
cultural interests that run counter to the target audience, culture or society?
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Cultural Misconceptions
E19..Cultural.Misconceptions.-.Untruths,.myths,.stereotypes.
Cultural misconceptions are untruths, myths, or stereotypes about an individual,
group, community or culture. These misconceptions take on a life of their own
as they are translated and passed on to others for amusement, out of fear, lack of
knowledge, to record a historical moment, or maintain an oral history. Most fall
between an intentional lie and the truth.
Untruths are lies, fabrications, or other falsehoods that sound like truth because
of its retellings. These are based on real people and real events, but the content of
the conversation becomes exaggerated or distorted, given its retellings. Spreading
untruths, like gossip, rumors, or hearsay, is an act that an individual performs for
the beneft of self. It is based on information that becomes distorted through idle
talk (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002a, p. 1129). Engaging in untruths is a social act
that requires the beneft of an audience, and it is performed daily. Participating in
untruths forms the social milieu of the group, affrms group behavior and member-
ship, maintains the groups history and morality, controls rival cliques and compet-
ing individuals. Partaking in untruths is about the promotion of ones self-interests,
aspirations, and idle talk about others. Untruths, enacted by individuals, defne the
group and serves to promote social control by setting parameters for the group and
boundaries of group membership.
2
Lies and liars can be found in ancient to contem-
porary texts. There are four ancient texts of Hinduism (Atharva Veda, Rig Veda,
Sama Veda, Yajur Veda). The Vedas contain rituals, hymns, and incantations from
ancient India. The Artharva Veda is estimated to have been written around 1000
B.C.; this Veda contains prayers, charms, hymns, and spells. In Book 8 Hymn III,
A Prayer for the Destruction of Demons, they describe the fate of a liar as follows:
Let arrows pierce the lair in his vitals (Griffth, 1895).
Myths are traditional stories about persons, actions, or events that may involve
nature, heroes, heroines, ancestors, or supernatural beings. Societies have used
myths to rationalize traditions, customs, and beliefs; maintain values and behav-
iors; explain the unexplainable; defne the relationship between humans and their
gods; and curtail human fears of failure, death, and the unknown. Myths validate
and explain the origins of human existence (DAmato, 2006). The myth of creation
or how the world began can be found in literature, art and oral stories of many
cultures. Theories, hypotheses and ideas of creation have been created by groups
like the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Sumarians, Babylonian, Hawaiian, Asian,
African, Native American, Mayan and others. Commonly known myths of creation
are published in religious texts like the Quan (Koran) that states god created the
universe and all of humanity, and there is only one creator.
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Stereotypes are predetermined, oversimplifed ideas or images of the character-
istics that exemplify an individual, group, or situation; these beliefs are often shared
by members of a group or a society. Stereotypes complicate the behavioral disparities
among all groups (Sowell, 1994). These perceptions are speculative and usually used
to describe racial and ethnic minorities. Stereotypes attached to a group of people
usually reference derogatory issues such as hygiene (e.g., dirty), intelligence (e.g.,
stupidity), behavior (e.g., loud, violent), language (e.g., broken English), race (e.g.,
inferiority), ability and skills (e.g., lazy, late), genetic (e.g., mental performance,
physical structure, intellectual potential, skin color), or environmental (e.g., people
who live in ghettos are poor and stupid; Sowell, 1994). A 21st-century stereotype
of Arab women relates to the perception that they are submissive, silent, and veiled.
This stereotype is being challenged by Egyptian women who are dedicated to
advancing the roles of women in all aspects of the culture. Egyptain women are
battling to eliminate stereotypes; this is evident by the 16,000 Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) in Egypt that seek to improve womens health, legal and
religious rights, and education (Golia, 2007).

Culture GQ
Untruths: What untruths exist in this society or culture? Do individuals engage
in untruths? How does the engagement in untruths support group dynamics?
Does the society or culture promote the behavior of engaging in untruths in
any way? In what ways does engaging in untruths beneft the individual and
group?
Myths: What myths exist in this society or culture? How do these myths
validate or explain the origins of human existence? Are these myths specifc
to any group or culture? How do these myths promote, maintain, support, or
validate the society or culture?
Stereotypes: What stereotypes exist in this society or culture? What stereotypes
are specifc to individuals, groups, or situations? How have stereotypes com-
plicated the behavioral disparities among all groups? How do these stereotypes
describe racial and ethnic minorities? Are these stereotypes derogatory, and
if so, in what ways? How does the society or culture support stereotypes?
Target Audience GQ
Untruths:. What untruths exist about the target audience? Have these un-
truths affected individuals within the target audience or the target audience?
Do individuals from the target audience engage in untruths? How does the
engagement in untruths support or hurt the target audience? Does the target
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audience promote the behavior of engaging in untruths in any way? In what
ways does engaging in untruths beneft the target audience? What does the
target audience think about these untruths?
Myths:. What myths exist about the target audience? Have these myths af-
fected individuals within the target audience or the target audience? Are these
myths specifc to any individual in the target audience or the target audience?
How do these myths promote, maintain, support, or validate the target audi-
ence? What does the target audience think about these myths?
Stereotypes: What stereotypes exist about the target audience? What stereo-
types are specifc to individuals in the target audience or the target audience?
How have stereotypes complicated the behavior of the target audience? Are
these stereotypes derogatory, and if so, in what ways? How does the target
audience support these stereotypes? What does the target audience think about
these stereotypes?
Cultural Ways
E20..Cultural.Ways.-.Behaviors,.norms,.feelings.
Cultural ways refers to an individuals or groups ways of life, thinking, acting,
feeling, and seeing. These ways are labeled terms such as behaviors, norms, prac-
tices, habits, activities, feelings, skills, techniques, or methods Cultural ways of
life can be learned, inherited, taught, shared, or passed down. Human beings learn
the patterns or ways of thinking, feeling, acting, doing, and seeing early in life
(Hofstede, 1991). This cultural programming begins from birth and continues as
humans interact with their environment (Hofstede, 1991, p. 235). To change ones
ways of doing, takes much deprogramming.
There is some crossover in the defnitions of these terms. However, provided are
generic descriptions and relevant examples of behaviors, folkways, norms, habits,
activities, and feelings/emotions.
Behaviors
Human behavior is shaped by culture (Shweder, 1990), and culture infuences human
behavior (Segall et al., 1999). Behaviors follow the debate of nature versus nurture.
In nurture, behaviors are learned through the environment. For the human child,
this socialization starts with exchanges between family, interactions with peers, and
through modeling the behavior of others (Seklecki, 2006). In nature, behaviors are
based on biology. The hypothesis that boys are more aggressive than girls because
CBM Elements VI 245
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of their biological make-up or chromosome variation supports the reasoning as to
why there are differences in behavior. Therefore, it has been argued that behavior
can be infuenced by nature (biology) and nurture (environment; Seklecki, 2006).
In Japan, the act of committing suicide is a long-held behavior intended to save
face amid public humiliation. Toshikatsu Matsuoka, Japans minister of agriculture
allegedly hanged himself by a door hinge in his home. Matsuoka was scheduled to
address Parliament and answer to charges of misappropriation of monies and poor
management (Fackler, 2007). The behavior of committing suicide has been shaped
and infuenced by Japanese culture.
Folkways
Folkways are those things handed down from one generation to the next. This may
be in the form of traditions. Traditions include the transmissionmost often, verbal
transmissionof customs and beliefs. Folkways refer to the traditional behavior or
ways of life of a group. These customs and actions are characterized by the ways
people act, eat, dress, bathe, and so on. Folkways maintain the cultural values and
behaviors of a group because they are passed down from generation to generation.
Deviations from the folkways do have repercussions, but they are usually considered
minor and can be corrected. Examples of folkways include the way we save money,
the methods used for preserving food, the way a preacher orates a sermon, the games
we play, the sharing of recipes, the names given to children, and the way we mourn
our dead (Dilly, 2006). In Finland, Christmas has become a time of celebration
and feast. Christmas replaces kekri, which is a traditional feast celebrated at the
end of farming season. An old kekri tradition, that is now a part of the Christmas
celebration, is tin casting, a method of foretelling the future (Jarvenpa, 2001)
Norms
Norms are expected rules or standards of behavior. They provide order to a society
in that they restrain and control behavior. Norms vary to some degree from society
to society and group to group (Myers, 1999; Siegetsleitner, 2006). For example,
rules of etiquette vary across cultures, a foreigner visiting Japan may feel uncom-
fortable when asked to remove their shoes at the door or are shown how to pour tea
(Myers, 1999). Individuals comply with these norms in order to be accepted and
not viewed negatively. Violation of norms depends on the norms importance in the
society or culture; character of the individual violating the norm; and the degree
of the discrepancy. Depending on the society or culture, violations may result in
punishments, hostility, demands to change, or other negative penalties (Forsyth,
1999). By example, for many Lao, the act of cremation is the norm. Burials are
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reserved for persons with whom death happens by an unnatural manner. Through
cremation, there is a rebirth of the spirit (Evans, 2001).
Habits
Habits are behaviors that are done frequently and repeatedly and are often un-
conscious. The act of grooming can be considered a habit because it is a behavior
replicated by human beings, domestic animals and wild animals. Primates engage
in the act of self-grooming for the purpose of cleaning their fur (Paciulli & Law-
son, 2006). Humans engage in the habitual act of self-grooming to clean their
bodies. Another common habit infuencing children, teens, adults and the elderly
is cigarette smoking. The World Health Organization estimates that the number
of smokers will increase because the worlds population is expected to increase 2
billion people by 2030. Humans engage in this pandemic habit 15 billion times a
day (Mackey & Eriksen, 2007).
Activities
Activities include a variety of collective activities such as ceremonies, events,
and rituals (Hofstede, 1991, p. 8). The act of burying the human body in a grave is
a ritual practiced in many cultures. Burials serve to demonstrate a shared social
behavior, a belief in the afterlife and fnalize the human connection between the
living and dead (Happe, 2006). Another example of a ritual is the Salah or ritual
prayer. After a person becomes a Muslim and declares their Shahadah (testimony
of faith), the Salah must be performed at a specifc moment fve times a day. The
Salah should be performed at a mosque in congregation. However, if no mosque is
nearby the prayer may take place at home, school, work, or other location (Mon-
sutti, 2001).
Feelings/Emotions
Emotions are the primary motivators of human behavior. Human life is driven by
emotions and feelings (Matsumoto, 1994). Feelings are in many ways connected
to sensations of the body (e.g., hunger, pain, or anger; Ryle, 1949). Feelings are not
under an individuals complete control. They can cause an individual to do irrational
things. Feelings are triggered by outside events (DAndrade, 1987). Researchers
have examined three aspects that may infuence emotions: (a) physiological, (b)
cognitive, and (c) social and cultural.
16
Physiologically, this perspective implies
that there are as many physiological changes as there are emotional states. For
example, the stimulus of a hand touching a hot pan from the oven should elicit the
CBM Elements VI 247
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Figure 12.1. Face of a child
emotional reaction of pain, heart racing, sweating, and the physical sign of the hand
turning red or blistering. Cognitively, this perspective implies that an individual
considers their physical circumstances and based on this determination elicits the
appropriate emotion. For example, anger may be elicited when an individual is held
responsible for someone elses actions, or anxiety may be elicited when a negative
situation holds an uncertain outcome. The social and cultural perspective seeks to
determine whether basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear)
are universal or culture-specifc. For example, does the facial expression of a child
smiling translate into the emotion of happiness cross culturally (see Figure 12.1)?
Culture GQ
Behaviors:. What are the behaviors of this society or culture? What behaviors
are considered acceptable? What behaviors are considered unacceptable? How
are behaviors learned? Does biology infuence behavior? Does the environment
infuence behavior? How are these behaviors viewed by other cultures?
Folkways: What are the folkways of this society or culture? What folkways
are handed down from generation to generation? How do the folkways main-
tain the cultural values and behaviors of the dominant group? How are these
folkways viewed by other cultures?
Norms: What are the norms of this society or culture? How do the norms
provide order to this society or culture? How do norms restrain or control
behavior? Are there violations for breaking norms? How are norms supported
(or not) by individuals in this society or culture? How are these norms viewed
by other cultures?
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Habits: What are the habits of individuals in this society or culture? How
do these habits maintain order or control behavior? Are there violations for
breaking habits? How are these habits viewed by other cultures?
Activities: What are the activities of this society or culture? How do these
activities maintain order or control behavior? Are there violations for not engag-
ing in these activities? How are these activities viewed by other cultures?
Feelings/emotions: What are the feelings of individuals in this society or cul-
ture? What are the emotions of individuals in this society or culture? Describe
the individuals emotional disposition. How are emotions affected by social
relations? How are these emotions viewed by other cultures? What terms are
used to describe feelings in this society or culture? What terms are used to
describe emotions in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
Behaviors:. What are the typical behaviors of the target audience? What
behaviors are considered acceptable to the target audience? What behaviors
are considered unacceptable to the target audience? How are behaviors of the
target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent
patterns or forms in the behavior of the target audience? Does biology infu-
ence the behavior of the target audience? Does the environment infuence
the behavior of the target audience? Are the behaviors of the target audience
individualistic?
3
What behaviors of the target audience are collective, meaning
that individuals gather in groups (e.g., rally, protest)? How are the behaviors
of the target audience viewed by other cultures?
Folkways:. What are the folkways of the target audience? What folkways are
handed down from generation to generation for the target audience? How do
the folkways of the target audience maintain the cultural values and behaviors
of the dominant group? How are the folkways of the target audience learned,
taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the
folkways of the target audience? How are the folkways of the target audience
viewed by other cultures?
Norms:. What are the norms of the target audience? How do the norms provide
order for the target audience? How do norms restrain or control the behavior
of the target audience? Are there violations for breaking norms for the target
audience? How are norms supported or not by individuals in the target audi-
ence? How are norms of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed
down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the norms of the target audi-
ence? How are the norms of the target audience viewed by other cultures?
CBM Elements VI 249
is prohibited.
Habits: What are the habits of individuals in the target audience? How do
these habits maintain order or control behavior for the target audience? Are
there violations for breaking habits within the target audience? How are the
habits of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are
there consistent patterns or forms in the habits of the target audience? How
are the habits of the target audience viewed by other cultures?
Activities:. What are the activities of the target audience? How do these activi-
ties maintain order or control the behavior of the target audience? Are there
violations for not engaging in these activities for the target audience? How are
the activities of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down?
Are there consistent patterns or forms in the activities of the target audience?
How are the activities of the target audience viewed by other cultures?
Feelings/emotions: What are the feelings of individuals in the target audience?
Describe individuals within the target audiences emotional disposition. How
are the emotions of the target audience affected by social relations? How are
the emotions of the target audience viewed by other cultures? How are the
emotions of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are
there consistent patterns or forms in the feelings or emotions of the target
audience? What terms are used to describe the feelings of the target audience?
What terms are used to describe emotions in the target audience?
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Endnotes
1
The pots serve a variety of functions such as jars for storing and cooling water,
cooking, dishes, and incense holders/burners (Frank, 2007).
2
Adapted from research on Gossip (Rapport & Overing, 2000; Emler, 1999).
3
Hofstede (1991) describes 4 areas to identify the dimensions of culture; they
include power distance, collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus
masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance.
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Chapter XIII
CBM Elements VII
science of culture. The following design factors are covered in this chapter: Cultural
anomalies, Cultural cultures, and Cultural futures.
The Science of Culture
Cultural anomalies
Cultural cultures
Cultural futures
Cultural infnities
Cultural nature
This section, the science of culture, draws from key concepts in the felds of physi-
cal science, biological science, earth science, ecology, futures research, and cross-
cultural studies to explore the scientifc nature of humanity and the possibilities of
cultural futures. The science of culture seeks to assist human beings in adapting
to their environment so that living can be achieved. This scientifc way of thinking
cuts across the natural, cultural, social, physical, and biological. Science is one of
many ways of interpreting human reality (White, 1949).
CBM Elements VII 255
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Scientifc models of culture focus on theorizing about the anthropology of sci-
ence (Darwin, 1859). Similarly, the science of culture examines anthropological
topics within the context of science. This move to study the anthropology of science
is presented in the contemporary works of Strathern (1992) and Traweek (1988).
Strathern (1992) examined the nature and social conditions of reproductive tech-
nologies as it relates to kinships. Traweek (1988) offered an ethnographic study of
science and scientists by examining the life and culture of particle physicists. This
developing research in the anthropology of science brings with it an examination of
cultural practice[s] that are needed in the design of ICTs (Franklin, 1995, p. 179).
This means that scientifc inquiry is not limited to the sciences, as there are social
aspects of science that also need further exploration (Plotkin, 2003).
. The Elements are defned, described, illustrated and addressed in terms of
society, culture and the target audience. Guiding questions that address the soci-
ety and culture are broadly based, allowing for a surface review of the science of
societies and cultures. Target audience GQ are specifc to the group or individuals
within the group.
Cultural Anomalies
E21..Cultural.Anomalies.-.Happenings.that.promote,.initiate,.or.
force.cultural.change.
Cultural anomalies refer to happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change.
All societies change and are changed by cultural anomalies. Forces of nature and
humanity have brought about cultural changes (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005).
Forces of Nature
Forces of nature contribute to cultural change. These forces can be human made or
nature made. Forces of nature change both the physical and environmental nature
of cultures. Plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms, and people are changed. The
physical structure of the planet is changed. Forces of nature permanently, in many
cases, alter the future of humankind. Human-made forces are many times inter-
sected by nature, and nature intersects with humans; this cross of forces explodes,
forever changing history.
Humans need for space, food, shelter, and wealth is forcing environmental
changes to the planet Earth; the long-term results of these changes are unknown.
Deforestation has transformed the natural structure of habitats. Almost half of tropical
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forests have disappeared. The excessive harvesting of trees alters the taxonomic
composition and structure of forests (Ehrlich & Kremen, 2001, p. 384). The clearing
of forests for crop production decimates ecosystems, in that plants and animals are
subject to extinction. The conversion of forests to human-made infrastructures such
as roads, highways, malls and housing serves as another source of transformation
of habitats. The building of dams changes the temperature of water and its fow
pattern. The Aswan High Dam built in Bilharzia, Egypt made possible the produc-
tion of irrigation canals; these canals became breeding grounds for disease causing
parasites. The toxifcation of water ways such as oceans, streams and lakes inter-
feres with marine life and the production of fsh for human consumption. Similarly,
the dumping of sewage into oceans has created dead zones where marine life can
no longer live because of low oxygen levels (Ehrlich & Kremen, 2001). Irrigation
has increased in order to cultivate wet rice, burn biomass; reclaim wetlands, and
reuse landflls; however, these increases in irrigation account for rising emissions
of methane into the atmosphere, resulting in greenhouse gas emissions that affect
the heat balance of the earth (Geist, 2006).
The mystery of Earth is evident by the host of natural and what seems like un-
natural phenomena that plague the planet. Tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and
earthquakes have become commonly known natural disasters. The 2005 tsunami
in Sri Lanka, Colombo killed an estimated 30,000 people. In 2005, an earthquake,
registering 7.6 on the Richter scale, killed 73,000 in Kashmir and southern Paki-
stan. A twister hit Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1996, killing an estimated 400 people
and injuring 33,000.
Other forces of nature include those characterized as natural, biological, chemical,
nuclear, and radiological. Asbestos is a natural mineral that occurs in fbrous form;
long-term exposure to asbestos causes cancer and other asbestos-related diseases
and illnesses. The Ebola virus, found in the Republic of Congo in 2005, incubates
for 2 to 21 days, causing illness or death in humans and other species who become
infected (World Health Organization, 2007). Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning
remains a killer of humans who accidentally or intentionally inhale CO fumes from
car or houseboat exhausts (Greenberg, 2006). In 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear explo-
sion in Ukraine sent a radioactive cloud into the air, contaminating an area where
400,000 people lived; besides the immediate deaths, radiation-related illnesses like
thyroid cancer and circulatory diseases remain evident amongst children and adults
in 2002 (Kinley, 2006). In the year 2000 in Samut Prakarn, Thailand (3 dead and
7 injured) and 1996 San Jose, Costa Rica (up to 17 dead), reported cases of contact
with Cobalt 60 a radioactive material illustrates that these materials were deadly
even with short term exposure (Greenberg, 2006).
is prohibited.
Forces of Humanity
Cultural anomalies attributed to the forces of humanity are human-made. These
might include cultural diffusion (borrowing, acculturation, appropriation) and
invention.
Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the proliferation of technology, products, ideas, or behavior pat-
terns from one culture into another. Cultural diffusion happens when two cultures
come in contact with each other (Ferraro, 2004). This diffusion is prevalent in both
physical and electronic forms. The physical form of diffusion happens in face-to-
face interactions of individuals and groups. The sharing of cultures also takes place
through the electronic forms of mass media. Individuals who interact with radio,
television, books, magazines, flms, electronic news groups, or arcades share a
culture. Individuals or groups who follow the same movie stars, televangelists, or
religious leaders (e.g., the Roman Catholic Pope) share a culture without meeting
face to face (Fiske, 1999). The three commonly known classifcations of cultural
diffusion include borrowing, acculturation, and appropriation.
Borrowing: Borrowing is the mutual exchange of cultural elements. The
exchange is very selective in that only items that provide some type of func-
tion or harmony with a society would be accepted. For example, mens hair
dye would not be accepted in a society that views aging as a status symbol
(Ferraro, 2004).
Acculturation: Acculturation occurs when there is contact between a dominant
and subordinate culture. The diffusion involves the complete restructuring of
a culture, usually with the most dramatic changes to the subordinate culture.
This process can occur through force or subtly through the implementation
of education or economic programs that support the adoption of the dominant
cultures beliefs and practices (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002). Acculturation
impacts both the group and the individual. The group may experience changes
that are biological, physical, economic, social, or political. Psychologically,
the individual may experience changes in identity, values, behavior, emotions,
pathology, or adaptation (Graves, 1967). The experience of acculturation may
be signifcant to the group; however, individuals vary in their perceptions and
participation of this change (Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). This
means some individuals may choose to quickly acculturate into a culture be-
cause they believe it will improve their society (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002).
The end result of acculturation is cultural pluralism, meaning that groups from
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a diversity of backgrounds learn to live together. However, there is inequality
in power, numbers of groups, economic wealth, and political authority (Segall
et al., 1999)..
Appropriation:.The term appropriation is used in many contexts to describe
the taking or acquisition of cultural resources as ones own. Within societies
and cultures, appropriation
1
is usually the taking of technology and science
for economic or military gain (Smelser, 1992). Appropriation has been broadly
defned across social, political, economic, gender-related, and historical con-
texts. Koreas B-Boys have captured international attention and fame and
are credited with the spread of Koreas popular culture in Asia. These youth
perform.break dancing, dance movements originating with African American
and Latino youth in New York City. The appropriation of this dance has come
to redefne youth culture and performance art (Ju-yeon, 2006).
Invention
Invention refers to any new product, idea, or pattern of behavior that comes from
a society or culture (Ferraro, 2004). New inventions promote cultural change. The
creative wherewithal of a society of culture comes from its human capital; who are
the core of its natural resources. Human beings are the designers who create the
inventions or innovations that move a society or culture forward in terms of tech-
nological advancement. Inventions and innovations can be found across disciplines
from the sciences to social sciences. In 1990, French biochemist and endocrinolo-
gist tienne-mile Baulieu, Georges Teutsch (a French chemist), Alain Blanger
(a French chemist), and Daniel Philibert (a French physicist and pharmacologist)
engineered and innovated the use of RU-486 as the frst abortion pill. RU-486
prevents a fertilized egg from attaching to the womb of the human female uterus.
Although RU-486 was the frst commercially available drug of its type, the use
of an abortion pill was opposed by right-to-life advocates. The drug has been ap-
proved for use by China and France. RU-486 is believed to be a potential drug for
other health conditions such as breast cancer, tumors, and glaucoma (Smith, 2002).
In the social sciences, invention is seen as innovation. In the late 1950s, Stanford
University educators Dwight W. Allen, Robert Bush, and Kim Romney invented
microteaching as a simulated teaching practice for preservice and in-service
teachers. Microteaching provided teachers with a safe laboratory environment in
which to practice a variety of instructional methods and techniques and obtain
feedback to improve instruction. This professional training has been implemented
worldwide (Allen & Wang, 2003).
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Culture GQ
Diffusion: What forms of diffusion exist in this society or culture? Which
group is considered the dominant group? Which group is considered the
subordinate group? Did the diffusion take place by force or was it subtle?
How did diffusion take place (e.g., education, colonization, economic)? Is it
possible to determine where one culture started and the other ended? What
beliefs of the dominant culture were adopted by the subordinate culture? What
practices of the dominant culture were adopted by the subordinate culture?
Has diffusion changed the society or culture? How do individuals and groups
react to cultural diffusion? What similarities among cultures can be attributed
to cultural diffusion? Who decides what things are diffused into a culture?
Borrowing: What artifacts have been borrowed from other cultures? What
ideas have been borrowed from other cultures? Is this borrowing mutual
between the two cultures?
Acculturation: How did acculturation impact the society or culture in terms
of the biological, physical, economic, social or political? How did acculturation
impact the individual in terms of identity, values, behavior, emotions, pathol-
ogy, or adaptation? Which individuals were able to adapt quickly and why?
Which individuals had diffculty with the adaptation and why? What aspects
of the culture illustrate the inequalities that exist between the dominant and
subordinate groups?
Appropriation:. What has been appropriated by other cultures from this
society? What has this society appropriated from other cultures? Has any
technology been appropriated? Has any science been appropriated? Has this
appropriation crossed social, political, economic, gender, artistic, or histori-
cal contexts, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation benefted the society,
and if so, in what way? Has appropriation been a negative to the society, and
if so, in what way?
Invention:. What new products have been invented by human beings in this
society or culture? What innovative ideas have been created by human beings
in this society or culture? Is there a new pattern of behavior that has developed
in this society or culture? Have these inventions benefted or conficted with
this society or culture? Have these innovations benefted or conficted with
this culture? Has this new pattern of behavior benefted or conficted with this
society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ
Diffusion:.What forms of diffusion are most prevalent in the culture of the
target audience? Is the target audience considered a dominant or subordinate
group? For the target audience, did the diffusion take place by force or was
it subtle, and how did diffusion take place (e.g., education, colonization, eco-
nomic)? Is it possible to determine where the dominant culture started and the
target audiences culture ended? What beliefs and practices of the dominant
culture were adopted by the target audience? Has diffusion changed the target
audience and if so, in what way? How do individuals in the target audience
respond to the cultural diffusion?
Borrowing: What have other cultures borrowed from the target audience?
What artifacts have been borrowed by the target audience from other cultures?
What ideas have been borrowed by the target audience from other cultures?
Is this borrowing mutual between the other culture and the target audience?
Acculturation:. Did acculturation impact the target audience biologically,
physically, economically, socially or politically? Did acculturation impact
individuals in terms of identity, values, behavior, emotions, pathology, or ad-
aptation? Which individuals in the target audience were able to adapt quickly
and why? Which individuals in the target audience had diffculty with the
adaptation and why? What aspects of the culture illustrate the inequalities
that exist between the dominant culture and the target audience?
Appropriation:.What has been appropriated by other cultures from the target
audience? What has the target audience appropriated from other cultures? Has
any technology been appropriated by the target audience? Has any science
been appropriated by the target audience? For the target audience, has this
appropriation crossed social, political, economic, gender, artistic, or historical
contexts, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation benefted the target audi-
ence, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation been a negative to the target
audience, and if so, in what way?
Invention: What new products have been invented by the target audience?
What innovative ideas have been created by the target audience? Is there a
new pattern of behavior that has developed by the target audience? Have these
inventions benefted or conficted with the target audiences culture? Have these
innovations benefted or conficted with the target audiences culture? Has
this new pattern of behavior benefted or conficted with the target audiences
culture?
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Cultural Cultures
E22. Cultural Cultures - The scientifc identifcation of cultures,
worlds,.ecosystems.
Cultural cultures is the scientifc identifcation of cultures, societies, worlds, and
ecosystems. In understanding the existence of human beings, other species, or
entities, it requires the broad examination of galaxies; solar systems; planets; land,
water, and air masses; and other known and unknown habitats. Cultural cultures
can begin with identifcations based on the physical sciences, biological sciences,
and ecology. In the study of physical and biological sciences, there are overlapping
concepts and ideas. The following provides a general overview of these disciplines
for extended research and investigation. Throughout, various forms of visual
languages have been used as examples to demonstrate methods of displaying and
recording data (Botturi & Stubbs, 2008).
Physical Science
The physical sciences
2
typically include astronomy, chemistry, physics, and earth
(McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005).
Astronomy
Astronomy is the scientifc study of the cosmos or universe and all of its objects.
This may include the study of planets, comets, the sun, moon, stars, interstellar
clouds, asteroids, and unknown objects (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology, 2005). The astronomical fndings of societies and cultures
vary greatly depending on agrarian versus industrialized cultures and the time pe-
riod in history. The Skidi Pawnee Indians of Nebraska, USA followed a religious
system based on observations of their physical environment. The Skidi created star
charts that documented 17 constellations, 26 stars, and 5 planets (Frazier, 1979).
Similary, scientists all over the world continue to document the nearest planets and
our evolving solar system. Figure 13.1 illustrates the relationships of the planets
to the sun. There are nine known planetsMercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (although Pluto has recently been reclassifed
as a dwarf planet, here it is included among the planets)and other small bodies.
Table 13.1 provides a planet profle of the Earth and Saturn to demonstrate one way
to study Earth in comparison with another planet.
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Culture GQ
Has this society or culture participated in the study of astronomy in any way? What
is the history of this society or cultures involvement with astronomy? What are the
fndings of this society or culture in terms of astronomy? What new technologies
have been discovered and used? Are these astrological fndings signifcant to the
functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How has this astrological
data become a part of the society or culture? In what ways are this astrological data
Figure 13.1. Sun to planet relationship
Table 13.1. Planet profle
Earth Saturn
Mass (in kilograms) 5.98 10
24
5.69 10
26

Diameter (in kilometers) 12756 120660
Average distance from Sun (in kilometers) 149,597,890 1,426,725,200
Rotation period (length of day in Earth days) 23.93 hours 10.2 Earth hours
Revolution period (length of year in Earth
days)
365.26 29.46
Mean surface temperature (K) 281 88
Atmospheric components 78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% argon
97% hydrogen
3% helium
0.05% methane
Surface materials Basaltic and granitic rock and
altered materials
Not known
Rings None 270,000-km diameter
Note. Data are from NASA (2007). K = Kelvin scale.
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used? Who uses this astrological data and for what purpose? What is the signifcance
of advances in astronomy in terms of global economics and power? What is the
signifcance of astronomy in terms of social, political, or religious considerations?
How does astronomy impact the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ
Has the target audience participated in the study of astronomy in any way? What is
the history of the target audiences involvement with astronomy? What are the fnd-
ings of the target audience in terms of astronomy? Are these astrological fndings
signifcant to the larger society or culture? How have the astrological data of the
target audience become a part of the society or culture? In what way and for what
purpose is this astrological data used by the target audience? How does astronomy
impact the lives of the target audience?
Chemistry
Chemistry is a science that deals with matter and its composition, structure, and
properties. It specifcally examines the changes in matter and its energy. This
defnition refers to chemical changes and physical changes. A physical change is
a change from a liquid to solid, like the change from water to ice. The water is
unchanged. The process of rusting iron is a chemical change in that the metal is
consumed as it reacts with air in the presence of water to form the new substance,
iron oxide (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005,
p. 431). Between 400 and 1400 A.D, Alchemists practiced alchemy an early form
of modern chemistry. Alchemy was both an experimental and philosophical sci-
ence (Redgrove, 1922). Alchemists sought to change base metals (e.g., lead) into
gold, discover The Elixir of Life to extend life or prolong death, and create cures
for diseases (Redgrove, 1922). The beginning of the feld of chemistry is credited
to innovators just before the French Revolution. In the late 1770s, French Chem-
ist Antoine Lavoisier experimented with theories about the chemical reactions of
oxygen and was one of the authors in naming chemical substances (McGraw-Hill
Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005; Redgrove, 1922).
Culture GQ
Has this society or culture participated in the study of chemistry or alchemy? What
is the history of this society or cultures involvement with chemistry or alchemy?
What are the fndings of this society or culture in terms of chemistry or alchemy?
What new technologies have been discovered and used in relation to chemistry
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or alchemy? Have the fndings from chemistry or alchemy been signifcant to the
functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How has the chemistry
or alchemy data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses the chemistry
or alchemy data and for what purpose? What is the signifcance of advances in
chemistry or alchemy in terms of economics and power? What is the signifcance
of chemistry or alchemy in terms of social, political, or religious considerations?
How does chemistry affect the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ
Has the target audience participated in the study of chemistry or Alchemy? What is
the history of the target audiences involvement with chemistry or alchemy? What
are the fndings of the target audience in terms of chemistry or alchemy? What new
technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to chemistry
or alchemy? Have the fndings from chemistry or alchemy been signifcant to the
target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is
chemistry or alchemy used by the target audience? How does chemistry affect the
lives of the target audience?
Physics
Physics concerns an understanding of how the natural world is structured and of-
fers explanations for natural phenomena. Specifcally, physics examines motion,
matter, force, energy, and their relations to each other. Motion means the movement
of objects. Everything in the universe is affected by motion. Motion can determine
distance (how far) and speed (how fast). Motion can be described in terms of position,
distance, velocity, speed, time, and acceleration. Matter refers to substance. Fluids,
for example, are considered matter (e.g., water, honey, oil, tar, air). Gas takes the
shape of its container. Liquids maintain a volume and also take on the space of its
container. Solids maintain a fxed volume and shape. Plasma, a gas, maintains an
electrical charge. Force means the push or pull. Force can be described in terms of
mass, weight, or friction. Energy means an object can produce a change in itself
or in its surroundings (Zitzewitz & Neff, 1995, p. 197). Energy can be described in
terms of power (Zitzewitz & Neff, 1995). Types of energy include: kinetic (object in
motion), potential (stored energy), heat, thermal, nuclear, and nature (wind, ocean).
Other considerations in the feld of physics are sound and light.
When thinking about physics and culture, the following questions could be
asked:
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How does motion function in this society or culture?
How does matter function in this society or culture?
How does force function in this society or culture?
How does energy function in this society or culture?
How does sound function in this society or culture?
How does light function in this society or culture?
In this sense, physics plays a part in the construction of a virtual world or the
analysis of an existing world. The depth of knowledge of the area of physics de-
pends on the project. Given its complexity, this overview cannot take on all that
physics is and can be. However, consider the futuristic science-fction flm, The
Matrix: Revolutions (2003): Zion, a human city below ground, is under attack by
octopus-like robotic machines. Neo, the main character, battles with himself and
Mr. Smith, a computer virus, to discover a way to end the war between humans
and machines. In this flm, motion is altered in both the virtual world and in the
physical world. In the virtual world, motion seems to slow down and speed up;
characters fght, move, and operate at different speeds. In the perceived physical
world, motion seems normal. Matter is redefned as characters use a telephone
to dial into and out of the digital matrix. Upon picking up a specifed telephone,
the consciousness of the characters is uploaded through the computer system. The
characters consciousness changes matter in the uploading and downloading process.
Characters are physically stronger in the matrix; the hand-to-hand combat demon-
strates the manipulation of force. The space ships operate off of.electromagnetic
energy that spews from round cylinders beneath the ships. Similarly in the Chinese
language flm Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), characters defy gravity.
Fighting scenes consist of characters that spin, fy backwards and forwards, scale
structures, balance on tree limbs, and dance from rooftop to rooftop. The physics
involved in these movies provide creative ideas for the design of virtual worlds and
the analysis of physical worlds.
Culture GQ
Has this society or culture participated in the study of physics? What is the history
of this society or cultures involvement with physics? What are the fndings of this
society or culture in terms of physics? What new technologies have been discovered
and used related to physics? Have the fndings from physics been signifcant to the
functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How have the physics
data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses physics data and for what
purpose? What is the signifcance of advances in physics in terms of economics and
power? What is the signifcance of physics in terms of social, political, or religious
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considerations? How does physics affect the lives of human beings, other species,
or other entities? How does motion, matter, force, energy, sound, and light function
in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ
Has the target audience participated in the study of physics? What is the history
of the target audiences involvement with physics? What are the fndings of the
target audience in terms of physics? What new technologies have been discovered
by the target audience in relation to physics? Have the fndings from physics been
signifcant to the target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for
what purpose is physics used by the target audience? How does physics affect the
lives of the target audience? How do motion, matter, force, energy, sound and light
function in the target audiences world?
Earth Science
Earth science is the study of the Earths origin, nature, evolution, behavior, and
its place in the solar system (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology, 2005). All parts of the Earth act and react in a cyclical motion. Those
parts can be classifed as lithosphere (solid crust), atmosphere (air), hydrosphere
(water surfaces), and biosphere (living organisms). There are many subfelds for the
study of earth sciences that present further in-depth areas of study such as geology,
geophysics, geochemistry, oceanography, paleontology, petrology, mineralogy,
stratigraphy, and climatology).
Studying the science of earth can serve to help humans survive future natural
disasters. By example, seismologists in Australia are studying the seismic waves-
peed variation in the Earth to monitor earthquakes in Japan, Fuji, Taiwan and New
Guinea. Recording stations are buried under ground with recording devices; this
seismic imaging looks below the surface deep into the Earths lithosphere (The
Canberra Times, 2007).

Culture GQ
Has this society or culture participated in the study of earth science? What is the
history of this society or cultures involvement with earth science? What are the
fndings of this society or culture in terms of earth science? What new technologies
have been discovered and used related to earth science? Have the fndings from
earth science been signifcant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so,
in what way? Have the earth sciences data become a part of the society or culture?
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Who uses the earth sciences data and for what purpose? What is the signifcance
of advances in earth sciences in terms of economics and power? What is the sig-
nifcance of earth sciences in terms of social, political, or religious considerations?
How does earth science affect the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ
Has the target audience participated in the study of earth science? What is the his-
tory of the target audiences involvement with earth science? What are the fndings
of the target audience in terms of earth science? What new technologies have been
discovered by the target audience in relation to earth science? Have the fndings
from earth science been signifcant to the target audience, and if so, in what way?
In what ways and for what purpose is earth science used by the target audience?
How does earth science affect the lives of the target audience?
Biological Sciences
The biological sciences are the study of all aspects of living organisms. The main areas
of study in biology are botany (the study of plants), zoology (the study of animals),
and protistology (the study of one-celled organisms). Within these areas, topics for
further examination of organisms can include: evolution, origins/history, develop-
ment, structure, reproduction, function, behavior, growth (McGraw-Hill Concise
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005) and physiology/anatomy..
Human H5N1 Avian infuenza infection is a virus that is found in the droppings,
secretions, respiratory and blood of infected birds. Humans are infected by coming
into physical contact with contaminated birds. The concern of the World Health
Organization is the investigation and preparation for an infuenza pandemic. The last
infuenza pandemics were in 1957 and 1968 killing 1 to 4 million people respectively.
The 3 prerequisites for an infuenza pandemic is 1) the emergence of a new virus
susceptible by all humans, 2) the viruses ability to duplicate and cause disease in
humans, and 3) human to human transmission of the new virus. As of 2008, the
frst two prerequisites have been fulflled (World Health Organization, 2008).
Culture GQ
Has this society or culture participated in the study of biological sciences? What is
the history of this society or cultures involvement with the biological sciences? What
are the fndings of this society or culture in terms of the primary areas of botany,
zoology, protistology? What new technologies have been discovered as it relates to
biological studies? Has the fndings from the biological sciences been signifcant
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to the functioning of the society or culture, if so in what way? Has the biological
sciences data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses the biological data
and for what purpose? What is the signifcance of advances in Biology in terms of
economics and power? What is the signifcance of biological sciences in terms of
social, political, or religious considerations? How does biological science impact
the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ
What is the history of the target audiences involvement with the feld of biological
sciences? What are the target audiences fndings in terms of biological sciences?
What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to
the biological sciences? Have the fndings from biological sciences been signifcant
to the target audience, if so in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is
biological science used by the target audience? Are the biological sciences a dis-
cipline the target audience must learn about? How does biological science impact
the lives of the target audience?
Ecology
Ecology examines the relationships between organisms and their environment (Cun-
ningham, 2003a). It is one of the main branches of biological science. An ecological
community is composed of species and populations that interact in a common area.
Species are those organisms that are able to interbred and produce offspring that are
fertile. Within a defned geographical area, a population includes every member of
a particular species. This defned ecological community is an ecosystem. Added to
the study of species, populations, and communities should be inquiry into the rela-
tionships between living organisms and their physical environment (Cunningham,
2003a). For an ecosystem to function there must be biodiversity; this means that
there must be a diversity of species and an abundance of those species in a defned
community (Freedman, 2003).
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is an inclusive unit of all organisms within a specifc
area or boundary. The structure, function and development of an ecosystem
can be studied. The horizontal structure of an ecosystem is how an area looks
from abovesimilar to a satellite view of the earth. Figures 13.2 and 13.3 pro-
vide both perspectives for a visual comparison and clarifcation. These visual
images provide the basis of studying how a species is distributed throughout
a given area, other surrounding vegetation and rocks, and nearness to water
sources (Gorham, 2003). Ecosystems function in an organizational pattern
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that demonstrates the processing of matter and energy amongst organisms in
a community. Through photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy that
is converted into energy rich organic matter. Green plants are consumed by
herbivores (plant eating animals). Herbivores are eaten by carnivores (ani-
mals that eat other animals). Carnivores eat other carnivores. This sequence
of plant producers and animal consumers creates a grazing food chain that
continues to become a complicated web where energy and materials are passed
along (Gorham, 2003, p. 427). Detritus is a second type of food chain made
up of organisms that metabolize and breakdown dead organisms or waste
products into inorganic chemicals. Beetles and Earthworms are detritivores;
and bacteria and fungi are examples of decomposers. Humans use the graz-
ing food chain; where as the forests consume much of the detritus food chain
(Cunningham, W. P., 2003b; Gorham, 2003). Figure 13.4 provides an example
Figure 13.3. Vertical structure in ecosystems
Figure 13.2. Horizontal structure in ecosystems
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of marine life food chain. Development is a third aspect in which to study
an ecosystem. This aspects looks at how the ecosystem changes over time,
taking into consideration climate, soil, land, colonization by other plants and
animals, natural disasters (e.g., fre, food), and/ human error.
Culture GQ
Ecology: Has this society or culture participated in the study of ecology? What
is the history of this society or cultures involvement with ecology? What are
the fndings of this society or culture in terms of the primary areas of ecol-
ogy? What new technologies have been discovered as it relates to ecological
studies? Have the fndings from ecology been signifcant to the functioning of
the society or culture, and if so, in what way? Have the ecology data become
a part of the society or culture? Who uses the ecology data and for what pur-
pose? What is the signifcance of advances in ecology in terms of economics
and power? What is the signifcance of ecology in terms of social, political,
or religious considerations? How does ecology affect the lives of human be-
ings?
Ecosystem:.Defne the area of the ecosystem. What is the structure of the
ecosystem? How does the ecosystem function? How did the ecosystem de-
Figure 13.4. Marine life food chain. Adapted from Sir Alister Hardy Foundation
for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) Education Pages (2007)
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velop? Have humans negatively affected the ecosystem, and if so, in what
way? Has any new element been introduced to the ecosystem that is causing
it to collapse or the death of species? What animals live in the ecosystem?
What plants live in the ecosystem? What insects live in the ecosystem? What
other organisms live in the ecosystem?
Target Audience GQ
Ecology: What is the history of the target audiences involvement with the feld
of ecology? What are the target audiences fndings in terms of ecology? What
new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to
ecology? Have the fndings from ecology been signifcant to the target audi-
ence, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is ecology
used by the target audience? Is ecology a discipline the target audience must
learn about? How does Ecology impact the lives of the target audience?
Ecosystem:. Does the target audience live in an ecosystem? How does the
ecosystem function with the target audience as its inhabitants? Has the target
audience negatively affected the ecosystem, and if so, in what way?
Cultural Futures
E23..Cultural.Futures.-.That.which.is.to.come.
Cultural futures refers to that which is to come. To study the future means planning
and improving the well-being of humankind and providing the means to sustain
human life (Bell, 1997). This requires anticipating crises, fnding resolutions to
crises, creating strategies for resolving situations, preparing contingency plans for
crises, and planning for alternative futures (Metafuture, 2007). Present crises on the
planet Earth include: natural disasters (e.g., tsunamis, earthquakes), human-made
disasters (e.g., oil spills, air pollution), health epidemics (e.g., bird fu, HIV/AIDS),
education (e.g., illiteracy), chemical disasters, poverty, starvation, wars, biological
warfare, and terrorist acts.
Given these crises, determining that which is to come is futures thinking.
Futures thinking is necessary for all societies, cultures, groups, and individuals.
Cultural futures explore three ways to begin futures thinking: (a) projections, (b)
scenarios, and (c) intentions.
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Projections and Scenarios
Projections and scenarios about the future can be made for a society, culture, or
target audience. Cultural futures is not based on predictions. It is an examination of
alternative versions of the future that can be considered to be probable or possible
given the society, culture, or target audience. Facts are based only on the present
and past. The future does not exist; however, it is constructed through qualitative
and quantitative methods of futures research.
Projections are probable or possible situations that a society, culture, group,
or individual believes could occur in the future. The projection is based on facts
from the past or present, and the topic question usually elicits a limited response. A
hypothetical example is If A remains constant and B increases at a constant rate,
then within 30 years C will occur (Textor, 1990, p. 202). If chemical emissions
remain constant and air pollution increases at a constant rate, then within 30 years
there will be no ozone layer. Projections provide quantitative data (Textor, 1990).
Scenarios are narratives of probable or possible situations that a society, culture,
group, or individual believes could occur in the future. The scenario is based on
facts from the past or present, and the topic question usually elicits many projec-
tions. Scenarios are multifaceted, as they consider human beings, living conditions,
public response, and other issues related to the economic, political, and social im-
pacts of futures thinking. Embedded within a scenario may be the process in which
change happens from the present to the future. Scenarios provide qualitative data
(Textor, 1990). A leader of a world health association, in making a speech about
the HIV/AIDS crisis, could say the following statement: What I hope will happen
is that scientists come up with a cure for HIV/AIDS and that we can do away with
the Molotov cocktail of prescription drugs.
Data.Collection:.Projections and scenarios are gathered from individuals. The in-
dividual can make future projections and scenarios alone or act on behalf of a group
or as part of a group. Multiple groups of individuals can act as part of a consortium
that informs the society or culture of their projections and scenarios (Textor, 1990).
Data are gathered from the individuals future projections and scenarios about the
society, culture, or target audience. The individual knows what exists based on what
they see, hear, smell, taste, and feel as this is the present. Also, the individual should
have knowledge of the past based on multiple primary and secondary data sources
and from multiple perspectives. The individual has a set of ideas and images about
the probable or possible future and their preferences for one hypothetical future
over another (Textor, 1990). Ultimately in the making of projections and scenarios
the individual shares their hypotheses with others.
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Intentions
Projections and scenarios ft perfectly with larger social issues; however understand-
ing the individual requires further introspection into their personal futures thinking
or intentions. Individuals have their own personal goals for the future. This may
be stated as an individuals intentions. The individual may intend to, plan to,
mean to, or aim to do something in the future. Goals for the future are also
stated as what the individual will do. The individual may be determined to do
something in the future (DAndrade, 1990). An individual might state, I plan to go
to college. This is futures thinking. Intentions . . . [have] . . . desired future states
of affairs, but in an intention the decision to act has been made (DAndrade, 1987,
p. 121). A high school graduate may make the following statement to his friends:
I plan to go to the university next semester.
Question Prompts
Projection (society/culture) These questions should not be obvious.
If A remains constant and B increases at a constant rate, then within _____years,
C will occur.
If A increases at a constant rate and B remains constant, then _______ will oc-
cur.
If A is improved and B increases at a constant rate, then __________ will oc-
cur.
Scenario (society/culture/target audience)
What ought to happen . . . .
What will happen . . . .
What can happen . . . .
What I hope will happen . . . .
What I fear might happen . . . .
What I consider most likely to happen . . . .
What I believe can happen given the support of . . . .
Intentions questions for individuals (personal)
I intend to . . . .
I plan to . . . .
I mean to . . . .
I aim to . . . .
I am determined to . . . .
Note. Questions are adapted from DAndrades (1987, 1990) and Textors (1990)
work.
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To determine whether futures thinking works, the responses presented should be
(a) non-obvious, (b) creative in determining causes and effects, (c) plausible ideas,
and (d) solutions based on short- and long-range goals (Textor, 1990).
Culture GQ
How has this society or culture planned for its cultural future; specifcally, what
steps have been taken? Who is in charge of planning the future of the society or
culture? If planning for the future is not a concern of this society or culture, what
does this mean? What are some basic assumptions that can be made about the future
of this society or culture?
Projections/Scenarios:. What projections can be made about the future of
this society or culture? What projections can be made based on the follow-
ing issues (public policy; environment; energy; health; technology; social,
political, religious, economic, population growth; science; land use; art; etc.)?.
What scenarios can be made about the future of this society or culture? What
scenarios can be made based on the following issues (public policy; environ-
ment; energy; health; technology; social, political, religious, economic, issues;
population growth; science; land use; art; and so forth).
Target Audience GQ
How has the target audience planned for their cultural future; specifcally, what
steps have been taken? Who is in charge of planning the future of the target audi-
ence? If planning for the future is not a concern of the target audience, what does
this mean? What are some basic assumptions that can be made about the target
audiences future?
Projections/Scenarios: What projections can be made about the future of
the target audience? What projections can be made about the target audience
based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health;
technology; social, political, religious, economic, population growth; science;
land use; art; and so forth)? What scenarios can be made about the future of
the target audience? What scenarios can be made, about the target audience
based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health;
technology; social, political, religious, economic, population growth; science;
land use; art; and so forth)?
Intentions: What are the personal futures thinking of individuals within the
target audience? How do these individual intentions affect the target audience
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as a group? Are personal futures intentions allowed by the target audience or
the society/culture? How does individualized futures thinking interfere with
or support projections? How does individualized futures thinking interfere or
support scenarios?
References
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Endnotes
1
See Eglash (2004) for a more elaborate examination of how indigenous peoples
have reinterpreted, reinvented and adapted technologies.
2
Meteorology and mineralogy are also part of the physical sciences; however
they have been excluded for brevity.
CBM Elements VIII & Training 279
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Chapter XIV
CBM Elements VIII &
Training
science of culture. The following design factors are covered in this chapter: Cultural
infnities and Cultural nature. Also, the fnal area of CBM Training is covered in
its entirety.
Cultural Infinities
E24. Cultural Infnities - Those things without limits: time,
space,.distance.
Cultural infnites are those things without limits such as time, space, distance,
dimension, speed, and numbers. They are unending entities. The term entity
within this context means something that functions on its own. They pre-exist and
pre-date human beings. Human beings have little control over cultural infnities.
Time, space, distance and dimension are discussed as Cultural infnities.
1
Time
and space are discussed based on their practical applications with human beings.
Distance is examined for its mathematical and practical properties. Two perspec-
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tives on dimension are presented the polaric dimension and spirit world. The po-
laric dimension is seen as a universal law to human existence. The spirit world is
explored as an alternative universe.
Time
Time is a preexisting entity that humans have been forced to adopt and adapt to
as part of our existence. Time affects how humans experience our world. Humans
participate in time as they do things such as eat, sleep, play, travel, work, and
attend events (Hall, 1983). In this case, time is examined for its physical versus
mathematical properties. Time is defned for how it functions, how it is oriented,
and how it is paced.
How Time Functions
Every culture is bound by human-made time frames. This means that, in practice,
time functions as humans direct it; in theory, time is really against human beings
and our existence. Time runs counter to humans because, as humans age, we can-
not regain time or beat time. Humans manipulate time to best utilize this entity
during ones lifetime. These time frames direct what period of time to work, how
fast to work, how long to work, and how to be idle. These functions of time have
been described as clock time, event time, and wait time.
. Clock.Time:.Much of the modern world is ruled by clock time. With clock
time,
2
individuals, groups, and societies are bound by the mechanical clock and
have schedules with beginning and ending periods. The pace of existence is
regulated, monitored, guided, and controlled by clock time. The speed at which
people move and perform is dictated by the obligation to meet a scheduled time.
The tempo of clock time is fast, because it is monitored by the second, minute,
and hour. A meeting starts at 9 a.m. and ends at 10 a.m.; a task is started and
ended within a specifc time period.
3
School bells in U.S. public schools signal
the start of the school year; however, these bells are heard through the day
to signal the change of classes, the beginning or end of lunch, and the end of
the school day. School bells are holdovers from the factory bell system used
during the Industrial Revolution. Clock time is very much engrained in the
American structure, and early indoctrination conditions humans to be clock
oriented.
. Event.Time:.Event time is driven by activities more so than time. An activity
ends when there is mutual agreement that the activity is over. The schedule is
spontaneous, allowing the freedom to determine ones behavior. People oper-
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ating by event time see it as a way of life similar to those operating by clock
time. With event time, activities dictate the day (Levine, 1997). An activity
may continue on until another activity sparks interest. There is a stronger focus
on human interactions than timed schedules.
4
Event time cultures may also
focus on the natural time of nature to guide their activities. As an example, a
local report in the March 21, 2007, Beijing Youth Daily fnds that primary and
middle school students in China are not getting enough sleep, because they
are under pressure to succeed academically. Youth attend school from sunrise
to sunset and on Saturdays. Although the government has stipulated 9 to 10
hours of sleep for these youth, it is believed that school headmasters are not
abiding by these rules. Beijing Youth Dailys primary concern is the health of
these youth for themselves and for the nation (Beijing Review, 2007).
. Wait.Time:.Time may also function as wait time. With wait time, someone
is waiting for someone else or something else. People wait for things they
value, such as waiting to enter an event or ceremony (e.g., concert, church)
or eating at a trendy restaurant. Waiting is also affected by the economics of
supply and demand. If there is little supply, the demand goes up; if there is a
great supply, the demand goes down. People may wait in line for food when
the supply is low and demand is high. Status, power, and self-worth dictate
who waits. The higher a persons status their time is deemed more valuable.
Therefore, they will not wait long, but people will wait longer for them. The
lower a persons status, the less valuable their time may seem. This lower
status may result in a longer wait time, or their self-worth may be deemed
lower, so they can wait longer. However, the opposite may be the case in other
cultures. In some Brazilian cultures, people who show up late are perceived
to be more successful or have greater status than those who arrive on time.
People with the monetary means can buy out their wait time. The well off or
wealthy can have others do the waiting for them. Those with power control
those who wait. The powerful may have other people wait to legitimize or
acknowledge their power and prestige (Levine, 1997). In October 12, 2007,
Russian President Vladimir Putin and two U.S. Delegates (Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice and Defense Secretary Robert Gates) scheduled a meeting
to plan the installation of missile defenses in Eastern Europe. President Putin
kept the U.S. delegates waiting 40 minutes at his dacha. After the wait, Putin
seemed to mock the U.S. missile defense plan as something Russia could not
support, and then Putin kept the meeting going for far longer than scheduled
(Shanker & Myers, 2007). In this example, the powerful waited for the more
powerful.
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Culture GQ
How does time function in this society or culture? If the culture is guided by clock
time, what activities are scheduled and why? Who participates in clock time? How
does clock time infuence the society or culture? If the culture is guided by event
time, what activities dictate the day and why? Who participates in event time? How
does event time infuence the society or culture? If the society is guided by wait
time, what activities involve waiting? Who participates in wait time? Who does
not participate in wait time? Who waits for whom? How is the society or culture
infuenced by wait time? During what events, ceremonies, or activities do people
wait? Who are paid to wait for others? How do those with power control who
waits? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why individuals
or groups wait?
Target Audience GQ
Clock.time: How does time function for the target audience? Does the target
audience participate in clock time? If the target audience is guided by clock
time, what activities are scheduled and why? Does everyone in the target
audience participate in clock time? How does clock time infuence the target
audience? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why the
target audience participates in clock time? How does the target audience feel
about clock time?
Event.time:.Does the target audience participate in event time? If the target
audience is guided by event time, what activities dictate the day and why?
Does everyone in the target audience participate in event time? How does
event time infuence the target audience? Are there social, political, economic,
or religious reasons why the target audience participates in event time? How
does the target audience feel about event time?
Wait.time: Does the target audience participate in wait time? If the target
audience is guided by wait time, what activities involve waiting? Who in the
target audience participates in wait time? Who in the target audience does not
participate in wait time? Who in target audience waits for whom? How does
wait time infuence the target audience? During what events, ceremonies, or
activities does the target audience wait? Are there social, political, economic,
or religious reasons why the target audience waits? How does the target audi-
ence feel about waiting?
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How Time is Oriented
Cultures operate by different or varied temporal orientations. Where cultures inter-
sect, cultural characteristics interact to reveal each groups temporal orientations
(Levine, 1997). It is at this intersection that there is much confusion and awkward-
ness between cultures. Levine (1997) proposed that there is a type of temporal
illiteracy between clock-time and event-time individuals (p. 188). Clock-time
individuals seek to maintain their superiority in mastering time; therefore, event-
time individuals must assimilate to clock time. When this assimilation does not
happen, there is cultural confict and miscommunication. Event-time individuals
who refuse or do not understand the assimilation to clock time are unsuccessful in
clock-time societies. However, it may be best if event-time individuals enculturate
themselves into clock time and vice versa.
Considering temporal orientations has implications for teaching, learning, and
communicating. If the temporal orientations of young children are considered in the
learning process, teachers are less likely to impose their orientations onto children.
Instead, teachers could use this as an opportunity to teach children the time orienta-
tions consistent with schools, schooling and the dominant culture. This may mean
teaching several short lessons on how the day is scheduled and what the children
are expected to be doing throughout the day. This guidance should be continued
until children learn their new time orientation.
In terms of learning, there needs to be more fexibility in designs to help learn-
ers adapt to the time orientation specifc to the learning context and technology.
An e-learning environment may make considerations for the variety of temporal
orientations. The time orientation used should be explained to learners visually,
orally, and in writing. Learners could be given the fexibility to respond in the e-
learning environment within a longer time period initially until everyone learns
the new time orientation. As the course progresses, response times are increased
in pace with the achieved time orientation.
Culture GQ
What is the time orientation of this society or culture? Is time measured by seconds,
minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years? Is there a past, present, and future
sense of time? Is time tied to nature? What causes cultural conficts or miscom-
munication related to time orientations? Are there cultural conficts between home
and school, home and work, or home and society?
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Target Audience GQ
What is the time orientation of the target audience? What cultural conficts or mis-
communications related to time orientation exist between the target audience and
other groups? Are there cultural conficts, related to time orientations, between the
target audience and schools, work, or society? What allowances in terms of time
orientation could better meet the needs of the target audience?
How Time Is Paced
Human beings experience the fow of time or the pace of time in patterns or rhythms.
The pace of a society may be measured by several indicators such as walking speed,
speed of performance in work tasks, concerns with checking time, rate of speech
patterns, eating habits, driving speed, maintenance of schedules, and time urgency;
Levine, 1997). Levine (1997) found that the pace is faster in societies that are eco-
nomically viable, industrialized, individualistic, colder, and highly populated.
Whereas pace refers to speed, duration refers to the length of time of an event.
Duration is a psychological experience based on perception (Levine, 1997, p.
27). Human beings may perceive the duration of time based on the sun, feelings of
body fatigue, or timepieces. Individuals perceive time differently (Levine, 1997).
Humans create, use, and experience our own time from moment to moment (Kern,
1983). Time can seem to move slowly or quickly. Westerners use the colloquium
time fies when you are having fun to mean that time speeds by quickly when
one is enjoying an event. In addition to enjoyable perceptions of time, time can be
perceived to move slowly when an individual is anxiously awaiting something. Time
may be perceived to move quickly when an individual is engaged in an interesting
or challenging task or when there are multiple events (Levine, 1997).
The duration of time experienced by prisoners of war becomes very much a
psychological experience. Physically and mentally tortured prisoners often mention
their perceptions of time as altered, in that they are unable to recall the present day
or time. Dr. Ashraf al-Hazouz, an Egyptian-born Palestinian, recalled his experi-
ence as a prisoner in Libya. He received electrical shocks, beatings, and injections
of what he believed to be the HIV virus. Dr. Hazouz said that he was hung upside
down with his hands tied behind him. This extended and extensive physical torture
attributed to his sense that time blurred (Brunwasser, 2007).
Culture GQ
5
What is the pace of time in this society or culture? How do individuals experience
time? How do groups experience time? What is the pace of time when individuals
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work? What is the pace of time when individuals go home? What is the pace of time
when individuals have down time or leisure time? Is time tied to the pace of work? Is
time tied to holidays, feasts, or celebrations? Is time tied to religion? Is time tied to
the political structure of the society? How has technology infuenced time? Is time
tied to nature, and if so, in what way? How has time infuenced social relations?
What is the tempo of time? Are there divisions of time? Does time infuence the
speed of production? Does time infuence the output of products or goods? Does
time infuence the distribution of goods? Are there moments or events where much
time is spent idle? Is time tied to the political structure of the society or culture? Is
time bought or sold (e.g., work, slavery)? Does time infuence economic gain? Are
there any uniform durations of time? How is time divided from sunrise to sunset?
How have changes in the political structure infuenced uses of time? Is time tied
to political or social reform? Is time tied to economic constraints or gains? How is
time spent? How is free time spent? Has the use of time changed attitudes? How
do individuals use time? How do groups use time?
Target Audience GQ
How does the target audience perceive the pace of time? What is the pace of time
when the target audience works? What is the pace of time when the target audience
is at home? What is the pace of time when the target audience has down time or
leisure time? For the target audience, is time tied to holidays, feasts, or celebrations?
For the target audience, is time tied to religion, politics, technology, nature, or social
relations? What is the tempo of time for the target audience? Are there divisions
of time within the target audiences day to day practices? Does time infuence the
speed of production, output of products or goods, or the distribution of goods for
the target audience? Are there moments or events, for the target audience, where
much time is spent idle? For the target audience, is time bought or sold? Does time
infuence economic gain for the target audience? For the target audience, is time tied
to political or social reform? How does the target audience spend their free time?
Space
Space is a preexisting entity that humans have been forced to adopt and adapt to
as part of human existence. The term entity within this context means something
that functions on its own.
Human beings use space, occupy space, invade space, and create space. Space
is an entity humans manipulate for their land use, population control and migration.
Given humans inability to live on other planets and the limitations of space travel,
humans are confned to and imprisoned on the planet Earth. Therefore, humans
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make use of this space as a territorial possession. Humans assign ownership to
space. Humans worship land as space. Humans kill other humans and beasts over
space. Space is limited. For humans, space is a valuable resource with tangible and
intangible properties.
Space and human interaction can be examined holistically or through research-
based thematic categories. Holistic means investigating space as a whole and its many
layers of human complexity (Stake, 2000). This requires looking at how humans
move through unknown spaces, interact with people, occupy spaces where they
live and work, invade crowded spaces, and create spaces when room is available
or not. Hall (1966) categorized space thematically as intimate, personal, social,
or public. The fndings of Halls research are based on Western values; however,
these data can be used as markers for comparisons with other cultures. Intimate
space is very close in proximity because the other persons physical being is felt to
be overwhelming. This closeness is felt in hugging, kissing, lovemaking, or close
contact sports. Intimate space can be less than 6 inches or as close as 6 to 8 inches
(see Figure 14.1). Personal space is within touching distance or arms length. Close
friends may interact at this distance. This space can span a distance of 1.5 to 4 feet.
In social space, no one touches another person or expects to be touched by another
person. Social spacing is typical in business or social functions. This space can span
a distance of 4 to 12 feet. In public space, persons are far enough to hear but not see
the detail in their face. This spacing is the acceptable distance for public speaking.
Public space can span a distance of 12 to 25 or more feet. In Libya, space is used
to extend social customs between males and females. Men own the public spaces
and they alone travel the streets, mosques, shops and cafes. Women live and work
Figure 14.1. Space and distance zones
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in the compound areas. In Libya, the public and private spaces carry customary
gender signifcance (Dalton, 2001).
The behavior of human beings in and around space is conditioned by ones cul-
ture. Understanding the space or spacing patterns of groups can aid in designing
architectural and urban developments, living spaces, products, and services. Every
society or culture has its unique spatial needs. Determining those needs minimizes
cultural incompatibility and conficts. Architects often use urban planning to un-
derstand how people will live in and around space.
Culture GQ
How is space intimate, personal, social, or public in this society or culture? What
are the social customs of spacing in this society or culture? Are the social customs
of spacing different for men versus women? Is spacing gender specifc and why (e.g.,
women walking behind men)? Are the social customs of spacing different for family
members versus strangers? How is spacing sociopolitical (e.g., walls separating the
rich from the poor, train tracks that separate one town from another)? What are the
economic implications of spacing for the society or culture? How is spacing used
in religious or spiritual ceremonies? How is spacing used to geographically divide
groups (e.g., the building of segregated subdivisions for the poor (like shanties and
projects); sitting in the back of the bus based on race)? How is spacing used to di-
vide racial and ethnic groups? How is spacing used in politics? How do individuals
move and travel through space? Do individuals from the dominant group occupy
space differently from those in subordinate groups? How do architectural and urban
developments use spacing? How is spacing used inside individuals living spaces?
How do family members and extended family use living space? How is space used
as a psychological weapon or tool?
Target Audience GQ
How is space intimate, personal, social or public for the target audience? What are
the social customs of spacing for the target audience? Are the social customs of
spacing different for men versus women in the target audience? Is spacing gender
specifc for the target audience and why? Are the social customs of spacing dif-
ferent for family members in the target audience versus strangers? How is spacing
sociopolitical for the target audience? What are the economic implications of spacing
for the target audience? How is spacing used in religious or spiritual ceremonies
for the target audience? How is spacing used to geographically divide the target
audience? How is spacing racially or ethnically signifcant to the target audience?
How is spacing used to politically distance or unite the target audience? Describe
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the architectural and urban developments where the target audience resides. How
is spacing used inside the living spaces of the target audience? How is space used
as a psychological weapon or tool that affects the target audience?
Do individuals in the target audience touch people as they walk? Do individuals
in the target audience greet people as they walk through their town, village, or city?
Do individuals in the target audience stop and converse? How do individuals greet
each other in the target audience? Describe the spacing of interactions with the target
audience. Describe how individuals in the target audience move within the space
of their community. Describe how individuals in the target audience move within
the space of their society or culture. How does the target audience view the space
that divides them from others in their society or culture? For the target audience,
does spacing in general create negative or positive feelings? How has the target
audience been spaced from those in the dominant culture?
Distance
Distance is a mathematical description of the spatial length between two objects,
microscopic organisms, or other points of signifcance; it is a human made utility
with infnite possibilities. Given the mysteries of the universe, distance may never
be fully measured because of its infnite nature. The measurement of distance serves
useful mathematical functions such as measuring, joining, estimations or determin-
ing speed. Distance also serves purposeful functions such as to show separations
or the length of time between two things or objects (Darling, 2004; McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Mathematics, 2003).
As of 2008, the distance from China to the borders of Washington state in North
America is roughly 5,736 miles or 9,231 kilometers. This distance reveals the path of
a toxic cloud that traveled from thousands of coal-burning plants. The sulfur dioxide
produced through coal combustion is said to be a health hazard for local inhabitants
and an environmental problem for the world (Bradsher & Barboza, 2006).
Culture GQ
What mathematical functions does distance serve in this society or culture? What
practical functions does distance serve in this society or culture? How are groups
in the society distanced from each other? Does distance play, as a mathematical
property, a role in politics, religion, economics, housing/urban renewal, or social
relations?
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Target Audience GQ
What mathematical functions does distance serve for the target audience? What
practical functions does distance serve for the target audience? How are groups in
the society distanced from the target audience? Does distance , as a mathematical
property, affect the target audience in terms of politics, religion, economics, hous-
ing/urban renewal, or social relations?
Dimension
A dimension refers to a self-sustaining space or spatial dimension. There are many
representations of dimension; however most involve the manipulation of space.
Polaric:. Although there are many representations of dimensions, this section
deals with the Polaric Dimension as elaborated in Chapter II. By incorporating the
polaric dimension under cultural infnities it is now part of the model. The polaric
dimension is an entity of the universe. It operates by a universal law of communal
balance. The polaric dimension refers to the need for equilibrium within and among
all that there is in the universe. This equilibrium is manifested through opposites or
interdependence. Opposites operate complementary in the polaric dimension. They
are not in opposition to one another, but they need one another. Interdependence
translates as a semiotic relationship where the energy of one entity is sustained by
the energy of another. The energy can decrease or increase in either entity; however
through interdependence they remain in balance (Chung-yuan, 1975; Maciocia,
1989). This harmonizing relation creates and maintains equilibrium. When there
is equilibrium, the polaric dimension functions properly.
Culture GQ
How does the polaric dimension function in this society or culture? Is the society
or culture bound by the polaric dimension? What are examples of how the polaric
dimension functions? Is the society or culture infuenced by the polaric dimension?
How do individuals respond to the functioning of the polaric dimension? Does the
polaric dimension carry any signifcance in terms of religion, social interactions,
politics, beliefs, values, so forth. (For example, are religious beliefs bound by posi-
tives or negatives such as a god or devil? Are social mindsets bound by positive and
negative thoughts?) What beliefs exist that maintain this polaric dimension)?
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Target Audience GQ
How does the polaric dimension function for the target audience? Is the target
audience bound by the polaric dimension? What are examples of how the polaric
dimension functions in the lives of the target audience? Is the target audience
infuenced by the polaric dimension? How do individuals, in the target audience,
respond to the functioning of the polaric dimension? Does the polaric dimension
carry any signifcance in terms of religion, social interactions, politics, beliefs, or
values for the target audience?
Spirit.World:. The physical world is very real to human beings because of our abil-
ity to touch, taste, see, hear and smell; these experiences provide concrete evidence
that the physical world exists. The virtual world is that created to alter humans
reality and provide education, amusement or pleasure through the stimulation of the
senses. Again, these experiences provide concrete evidence that the virtual world,
although fctional, maintains an existence or occupies a space. The spirit world is
much more diffcult to prove its existence with concrete evidence. Although there
are movies and television series about other worlds, the existence of the spirit world
is questioned by humans. Given this, it does not mean that the spirit world does not
exist. The belief in a supernatural being, higher power, or deity, is based on faith;
faith holds more intangible versus tangible properties. If humans have faith, this
is a belief in the spirit world. The spirit world can be defned as anything that does
not exist in the physical world. It could be seen as a complementary realm to the
physical world; therefore fulflling the polaric dimension. Given these properties,
the spirit world is another design factor to consider.
Culture GQ
Is there an acknowledged spirit world in this society or culture? Is there an unac-
knowledged spirit world in this society or culture? Who or what inhabits this spirit
world (e.g., ghost, ghoul, apparition, specter, phantom, poltergeist, soul, entity,
and so forth)? What is known about the spirit world? What descriptions are used
to explain the spirit world and the entities within it? Who from the physical world
interacts with the spirit world? What happens during interactions between the
spirit and physical worlds and why do these interactions happen? Is the spirit world
associated with religion or does it exist on its own? What practices are related to
connecting to the spirit world (e.g., channeling, faith healing, fortune telling, s-
ance, spirit possession, or reincarnation)? How is the spirit world made real in the
physical world (e.g., fctionalized movies, sances, psychics, medium, etc.)? How
has the spirit world infuenced this society or culture? What aspects of the physi-
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cal world validate that a spirit world exists? How has the spirit world infuenced
human beings? What interactions between the spirit and physical worlds emotions
are involved when there are discussions or references to the spirit world?
Target Audience GQ
Is there an acknowledged spirit world for the target audience? Is there an unacknowl-
edged spirit world for the target audience? From the target audiences perspective,
who or what inhabits the spirit world? From the target audiences perspective, what
is known about the spirit world? How does the target audience explain the spirit
world and the entities within it? Who in the target audience interacts with the spirit
world, and what happens during these interactions? Is the spirit world associated
through religious practices of the target audience, or does it exist on its own? From
the target audiences perspective, what practices are related to connecting to the
spirit world (e.g., channeling, faith healing, fortune telling, mediumship, sance,
spirit possession, or reincarnation)? From the target audiences perspective, how is
the spirit world made real in the physical world? How has the spirit world infuenced
the target audience? What aspects of the target audiences physical world validate
that a spirit world exists? From the target audiences perspective, what emotions
are involved when there are discussions or references to the spirit world?
Cultural Nature
E25..Cultural.Nature.-.Intrinsic.characteristics.of.a.human.being,.
other.species.or.entity.
Cultural Nature refers to those intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species
or entity. What makes a man a man? What makes a woman a woman? What makes
a bird a bird? What makes a cell a cell? What makes a hurricane a hurricane? These
are the characteristics of a human being, other species or entities cultural nature.
It is what it is because of its nature. It is distinguished by these characteristics and
others of similar characteristics may fall under this category. Birds, by example, may
behave differently; however the innate characteristics remain consistent through.
Or does the line between what an organism is and should be blur? The hydra is a
cnidariana multicellular aquatic animal that reproduces asexually by producing
a daughter polyp in an adjacent bud (Panno, 2005). In this example, the notion that
animals must have partners to fertilize them for reproduction is suspended. Every
living thing has a unique, prescribed nature that makes it what it is. Humans may
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look differently but they are still human. Hurricanes may react different but they
are still hurricanes. Cells may mutate but they are still cells.
Humans inhabit the planet Earth and are one of many organisms that makeup the
biosphere of live systems. As such, humans and other organisms are dependent on
the proper functioning of the planet (majs, 2006). Humans share common biology
and behavior. Humans are aware of their humanness; this means that they are aware
of themselves. They have an identity. Humans recognize that they are part of the
dominant species on the planet. Their self awareness means that they are cognizant
of how others see them. They can evaluate themselves and their behavior and this
is what makes them human. Like self awareness, human beings possess language
and intelligence. Language sets human beings apart from other species. Although
other species communicate, their language of communication is not as extensive
or sophisticated as human languages. No other species on earth can communicate
in both a written and spoken language. Intelligence is another characteristic that
situates humans in another classifcation than most other species. Human evolution
documents the development of human intelligence from the humble beginnings of
early homosapiens (Baumeister, 2005). Human beings can think and learn.
Human beings also have certain needs. Sex is a biologically natural activity
practiced by most (though not all) species, especially large mammals (Baumeister,
2005, p. 4). The rules or codes of sexual conduct are guided by the society or culture.
Sex for humans means many things; however for most species it serves as a means
to replenish the population. Therefore, reproduction maintains the evolutionary life
of a species (Baumeister, 2005). Humans are also a very social species. Humans
prefer to live among others of their own kind to living alone (Myers, 1999; Segall,
Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Many species of animals rely on group interaction
to survive their physical environment. A pack of wolves may travel together and
kill their prey together. The physical environment must supply living organisms
with certain resources to survive. For humans, this means air, food and water. The
food cycle of animals maintains the ecological system and proper functioning of
nature (Baumeister, 2005).
Culture GQ
What is the cultural nature of this society or culture? What types of human beings
exist? What types of species exist? What other types of entities exist? What are the
biological characteristics of human beings, other species or entities? What are the
environmental characteristics of human beings, other species or entities? Are these
characteristics typical of the human being, species or entity or out of the ordinary?
What characteristics are those that human beings, other species, or entities possess?
What things are needed for survival by human beings, other species or entities?
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Target Audience GQ
What is the cultural nature of the target audience? What types of human beings
exist in the target audience? What other types of species exist in the target audi-
ence? What types of entities exist in the target audience? What are the biological
characteristics of human beings, other species or entities in the target audience?
What are the environmental characteristics of human beings, other species or entities
in the target audience? For the target audience, are these characteristics typical of
human beings, other species or entities or out of the ordinary? What characteristics
are specifc to the target audience? What things are needed for the target audience
to survive on their planet?
CBM Training
Depending on whether it is an educational institution or business, the education of
employees falls under the area of Training (Tr1-Tr2).. Specifcally, the people (e.g.,
instructors, employees) who will be using the product should receive product train-
ing as needed. Culture-based training is specifc training necessary for the design
team to be informed about the target audience; this training is based on information
from preliminary data (e.g., focus groups, surveys), CBM Elements, community
representatives, and the cultural expert. Training is another phase in providing full
management of the project.
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Tr1. Product Training. Provide Training of the Product as needed.
Tr2. Culture-Based Training. Provide Training That is Culture Based,
Incorporating CBM Elements and Interactions with Cultural Expert
and Target Audience.
Tr1. Product Training. Provide Training of the Product as Needed.
Product training informs instructors, practitioners, and others about the product.
The content covered includes all the culture-based information gathered, including
meeting the learning needs of the target audience.
In addition to content, the organization and management of materials can be
part of this product training. Instructors need to know how to organize and manage
materials; monitor learner progress; establish a positive learning environment; foster
an atmosphere for success; provide a safe, supportive, nonthreatening environment
for learning and growing; and develop dispositions to support and respect learners
identity and self-esteem. Instructors who fail to achieve the desired level of cultural
sensitivity should be retrained and/or reassigned.
Tr2. Culture-Based Training. Provide Training That is
Culture-Based Incorporating Content Information from
CBM Elements and Interactions with the Cultural Expert
and Target Audience.
CBM Elements training consists of the comprehensive coverage of societies, cul-
tures, and target audiences. Most of the information for culture-based training is
gleamed from CBM Elements, the community representative, the cultural expert,
and the target audience.
There should also be opportunities to interact with the target audience during
training or feld tests. This social time is important in helping team members get
to know those who will be using the products they design.
References
Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning and social
life. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
Bradsher, K., & Barboza, D. (2006, June 11). Pollution from Chinese coal casts a
global shadow [Electronic version]. The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2008
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from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/11/business/worldbusiness/11chinacoal.
html
Brunwasser, M. (2007, August 2). Doctor recounts imprisonment in Libya [Electronic
version]. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/world/
europe/02doctor.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1
Chung-yuan, C. (1975). Tao: A new way of thinking. New York: Harper & Row,
Publishers.
Cross, G. (1994). Time. In P. N. Sterns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp.
751-753). New York: Garland Publishing.
Dalton, W. G. (2001). Libya. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and
their cultures, 3, 1290-1303. New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
Darling, D. (2004). The universal book of mathematics: From abracadabra to
Zenos paradoxes. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. (1983). The dance of life: The other dimension of time. Garden City, NJ:
Doubleday.
Kern, S. (1983). The culture of time and space 18801918. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Levine, R. (1997). A geography of time: The temporal misadventures of a social
psychologist, or how every culture keeps time just a little bit differently. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers.
Maciocia, G. (1989). The foundations of Chinese medicine: A comprehensive text
for acupuncturists and herbalists. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Marcelin, L. H. (2006). Diseases. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Anthropology,
2, 750-751. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
McGraw-Hill dictionary of mathematics. (2003). McGraw-Hill dictionary of math-
ematics (2nd ed.). (2003). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Myers, D. G. (1999). Social psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill College.
Panno, J. (2005). Animal cloning: The science of nuclear transfer. New York: Facts
On File, Inc.
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Shanker, T., & Myers, S. L. (2007, October 13). Putin criticizes U.S. offcials on missile
defense [Electronic version]. The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://
www.nytimes.com/2007/10/13/world/europe/13russia.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
Sleep day, sleepy students. (2007, April 5). Beijing Review, 50(14), p. 4.
majs, J. (2006). Nature. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 4, 1700-
1702. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stake, R. E. (2000). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
qualitative research (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Yanow, D. (1998). American Ethnogenesis and the 1990 Census. In C. J. Greenhouse
(Ed.), Democracy and ethnography: Constructing identities in multicultural liberal
states (pp. 105-120). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Endnotes
1
Alfred Gell (1992) poses that human beings have no control over time.
2
See Halls (1983) work on monochronic and polychronic time for a similar
interpretation.
3
Hall (1983) refers to people who usually like to focus on one activity during
a given time period as monochromic or M-time schedulers.
4
Hall (1983) would refer to people who engage activities in this way as poly-
chronic or P-time cultures.
5
These questions were informed by Cross, 1994.
Section III
Case Studies Using the
Culture-Based Model
Section III offers case studies using the culture based model (CBM) and some fnal thoughts
in the concluding chapter. There are four realistic case studies that connect with CBMs
CARD framework. The frst case study details how to use CBM in the custom development of
an educational product. This chapter provides details in using the management and design
components of CBM. The second case study demonstrates adding on to an existing video
game. This chapter looks at how CBM Elements is used when designing for the physical and
virtual worlds. The third case study shows how to use CBM when re-engineering an existing
e-learning environment. This chapter details some aspects of this process. The fourth case
study focuses on implementing a diagnostic evaluation for an e-learning Web page. This
chapter provides two examples of diagnostic evaluations as research design specifcations
and an ethnographic instrument. Specifcally, the chapter evaluates in some detail a Web
page from the Library of Congress and provides an example of how to record this data.
Overall, these case studies seek to help designers enhance their design thinking, examine
and assess ICTs, and develop a culture-based mindset to design.
There are many other ways of using CBM; however this sampling provides designers
with a place to start. The creation of a complete CBM guide is not the goal of these chapters.
The goal of these chapters is to give designers the beginning seeds to build culture-based
information and communication technologies (ICTs).
The presumption is that only those with an interest in game design may read the chapter
on that topic. Only those with an interest in research may read the chapter on research.
Therefore, the basics of how to use CBMs ID-TABLET are reiterated at the beginning of
each chapter.
All forms of ICTs are not covered. However, it is contingent on the creative ingenuity of
designers to adapt these practical examples to their personal projects.
The Conclusion, Chapter XIX, offers some forward thinking about culture, design and
the feld of instructional design. It further makes connections to CBMs interdisciplinary
applications.
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Chapter XV
Case Study of an
Educational Product
Instructional design includes the production of educational products such as soft-
ware, Web-based environments, video games, videos, flms, and print technologies.
Educational software for school-aged children in the United States has been on the
decline since 1999, when it peaked at $605 million; in 2005, estimates of retail sales
were at $128 million (Wong, 2006). However, higher education has seen an upsurge
in software that aids colleges and universities in managing teaching and learning
information. The future of educational product development for children and adult
learners needs a resurgence of energy and innovative instructional designs can be
at the forefront of this rebirth.
Project goal: Custom development
Design goal: Custom development of an educational product
(software)
Target Audience: Latino youth, ages 8-12, in US public schools
(Specialized)
Production stage: Pre-production
The basic goal of constructing an instructional design should be to produce a
product that helps the target audience fulfll the intended learning outcomes. CBM
Case Study of an Educational Product 299
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is adaptive in that it can be used in conjunction with traditional instructional design
models or on its own. The model does operate with similar components of ADDIE. For
example, Analysis=Brainstorming, Design=Inquiry, Development=Development,
Implementation=Team and Evaluation=Assessments. However, CBM is not linear;
it allows the designer to start at the point most conducive to the project.
Step.1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project
begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-On). In any
area where the answer is yes, that area should be reviewed and implemented as
part of the design process. This process might proceed as follows:
.
. Inquiry:.Does.the.project.need.monitoring.for.design.and.development.
issues?.Review the Inquiry questions briefy. Given that this is a custom de-
velopment, all Inquiry areas are needed.
. Development:.Have.all.the.problems.been.solved?.Review the Development
area. All of the design factors in this area are necessary.
. Team:.Will.the.team.have.to.be.trained.or.replaced? Review the Team area
briefy. In this custom development, team, recruitment and collaboration are
needed.
. Assessments:.Does.the.project.need.evaluating.or.re-evaluating? Review
the Assessments area briefy. Evaluations are an important aspect of custom
developments, especially those designed to produce learning outcomes.
. Brainstorming:. Does. the. project. require. more. planning?. Review the
Brainstorming area briefy. In this project, Brainstorming is essential to a
custom development.
. Learners:.Does.the.project.require.meeting.the.needs.of.learners? Review
the Learners area. In this case, establishing the needs of learners is basic to
an instructional design.
. Elements:. Does. the. content. need. to. be. revised,. reviewed. or. recreated?
Elements determine the aspects of a culture that exist in a design and those
that do not exist. This has implications for further development of the ICT
and to identify areas where the ICT can be enhanced. In the case of a Custom
Development, content must be developed, and Elements guides this process.
Therefore, Elements are essential to the project.
. Training:.Will.training.be.needed.for.the.team.or.trainers?.Review the
Training area briefy. Training of the design team is required with a special-
ized design.
Step.2: Organize the production process and methodically work through the areas.
Within CBM, the terms preproduction, production and postproduction are used
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Table 15.1 CBM ID-TABLET production schedule
Preproduction Production Postproduction
Inquiry
I1. Genre X X
I2. Framing X X X
I3. Omission X X
I4. Backgrounding X X
I5. Foregrounding X X
I6. Visual representations X X X
Development
D1. TACCT design specifcations X X
D2. Mass distribution formats X
D3. Effective technology X
D4. Diversify ICT format X
D5. Understand target audience X X X
D6. Explore environmental individual/group X
D7. Quality design X X
D8. Authenticate product X
D9. Control for interference X X
D10. Model the product or process X X
Team
T1. Cultural expert X X X
T2. Enlist educators X X X
T3. Culturally informed team X X X
Assessments
A1. Multiple evaluation options X X X
A2. Assess the assessment X X X
A3. External review X X X
A4. Culture-specifc assessments X X X
Brainstorming
B1. Financial support X X X
B2. Pilot studies/feld tests of product X X
B3. Assess communitys response X X X
B4. Community representative on team X X X
B5. Investigate target audience X X
B6. Refect & assess learning goals X X X
B7. Affordable design X X X
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Table 15.1 continued
B8. Meet needs of target audience X X X
B9. Discuss & consider cultural context X X X
B10. Present & consider outcomes X X X
Learners
L1. Extend learning X X
L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn X X
L3. Empower & engage learners X X X
L4. Teach proactive learning X X
L5. Identify educational objectives X X
L6. Culture-specifc instructional strategies X X
L7. Enrich instructional content X X
L8. Adapt instruction to learner X X
L9. Plan for instruction X X
L10. Enculturate the learner X X
Elements
E1-E12...The anthropology of culture. X X
E13-E19 The psychology of culture X X
E20-E25 The science of culture X X
Training
Tr1. Product training X X
Tr2. Culture-based training X
to divide the periods at which work should be performed. However, as with any
production, multiple things are happening simultaneously. Table 15.1 provides a
timetable of the areas of the model that focus on the specifc production periods.
This table aligns with custom development, add-on, and re-engineering ICTs.
There is no production schedule for a diagnostic evaluation. Next, the eight areas
of the ID-TABLET are outlined and then discussed in relation to what happens
during preproduction, production, and postproduction. Given that this is a custom
development, begin with Brainstorming and then simultaneously build the team;
however this chapter describes the areas of the ID-TABLET in relation to the order
of the acronym. This section specifcally details what should be done during
each stage of CBM, whereas the defnitions and descriptions in previous chapters
described what it is.
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Inquiry
The design team uses the Inquiry area by reviewing the appropriate questions dur-
ing the scheduled points in the production process. These questions are reiterated
throughout several meetings to bring the project back into alignment with its overall
goal and to limit bias. As the production evolves, the design changes, and many
times the needs of the target audience gets lost in the process. These questions help
keep the team on track by assessing and reassessing the design process.
Preproduction (I1, I2, I6)
Ask these questions during preproduction and production. Review questions
to keep project on task.
Production and Postproduction (I1I6)
Ask these questions during production and postproduction. Review questions
to keep project on task. These questions help align the project to one that is
culture-based versus technical.
Development
Development considers those features that are important in the overall development
of the product. This area supports both new and existing products. For a custom
development, begin with D2D10 of Development. The team methodically goes
through each factor, gathers data, engages discussions, offers considerations, and
implements production of the project. As data are obtained, enter it into the CBM
guide, KMS, wiki, website, or other repository system.
Preproduction (D2D5, D7D10)
D2. Mass Distribution Formats. Research into the target audience could
reveal a need to produce the product in other mass distribution formats
or to totally change the format. Data need to be obtained about the target
audiences accessibility and equity in purchasing and using the product.
The locations of accessibility for distribution and individual access
should be known. An estimation of the number of hours it might take a
beginning, intermediate or advanced learner to master the content of the
product could be plotted along a timeline. Specifcally, how many hours
of use would it take for a beginner, intermediate, or advanced learner to
master the content of the educational software if this is a consideration?
If the target audience has access and equity, then they will be able to
master the content. If the target audience has access but no equity in the
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number of hours on task, then they will not master the content. This in-
formation aids in determining what changes may need to be made before
the production begins. For example, maybe allowances for an advanced
learner need to be considered and heightened in the overall design. If
there is no equity in use for the target audience, should the product be
produced at all?
D3. Effective Technology. Research the most effcient and effective technol-
ogy that will provide the target audience with content and knowledge
that surpasses other competing products. In this case, software has been
determined to be the most effective form of technology for the delivery
of the instructional content.
D4. Diversify ICT Format. Research the formats of ICTs that the target au-
dience has access and equity and that they are mostly likely to use. To
diversify the ICT format, considerations should be made as to whether
the content of the software should also be made available in a printed
format, web-based environment, or video game. The goal is to provide
more than one avenue to the instructional content so that the target audi-
ence can use their greatest strengths to acquire knowledge.
D5. Understand Target Audience. Gather preliminary data about meeting the
educational needs of the target audience. Use these data to begin discus-
sions about how to integrate the learning styles of the target audience
with the needs of the project.
D7. Quality Design, D8. Authenticate Product, D9. Control for interference.
Continue to aim for quality and an authentic product.
D10. Model the Product or Process.Discuss the type of prototypes, sketches,
storyboards, and visual languages that will be needed. Determine a
time frame and the amount of detail needed at each stage of production.
Map out the path to the learning outcomes. The creation of these models
should be in collaboration with the design team during brainstorming
sessions or other development meetings.
Production (D5D7, D9, D10)
D5. Understand Target Audience. Use the preliminary data and data from
CBM Elements to enhance work performed during production. Make
sure facts about the target audience are accurately represented.
D6. Explore Environmental & Individual/Group Cultures. The essence of
culture can be captured by balancing both macro- and micro- perspectives.
This is the purpose in examining environmental and individual/group
cultures. Determine whether there is more of a focus on culture as an
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environmental or individual/group concept. Alternatively, the balanc-
ing of culture is expressed explicitly in CBM Elements as the Culture
GQ and Target Audience GQ. These questions represent the two sides
of anthropological, psychological, and scientifc research and practices
that addresses cultures.
D7. Quality Design and D9. Control for Interference. Continue to aim for
quality and an authentic product.
D10. Model the Product or Process. Create prototypes of the educational
product. All icons and graphics should be sketched, discussed, and
determined to be generic or specialized. Map out the process that learn-
ers take in navigating the software and in meeting learning outcomes.
Specifcally, identify through some visual language how information is
acquired or learned.
Postproduction (D5)
D5. Understand Target Audience. Examine whether the target audience
has been accurately represented. Check for bias, stereotypes, and other
mistakes related to design, content, language, symbols, color, and so
forth.
Team
Team focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes
a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. The team
leader hires the team based on their commitment to fulflling the needs of the cli-
ent and the target audience. A commitment to understanding and learning about
the target audience is needed to be a team member. Team members without this
commitment may not have the conviction or commitment needed or may have an
aversion to the target audience. This can be a problem in the long run. The team
leader may question the individual about what they know about the target audience,
how they feel about working with the target audience, and the re-education that
is required to be part of the team (See CBM Interview Questions for Team at the
end of this chapter). The Team area guides the hiring of the design team members
and educates the team about the target audience. These are nontraditional actions,
as the design team engages in a somewhat comprehensive education of the target
audience as specifed under Training. Nurturing a team of highly skilled individuals
(Gustafson & Branch, 2002) is extremely benefcial to the design process.
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Preproduction (T1T3)
T1. Cultural Expert(s). Begin by identifying local people who can be potential
cultural experts. Their knowledge of the target audience must meet with
the needs of the project.
T2. Enlist Educators. Local educators with expertise in the target audience
can provide insight into families, communities, and academic achieve-
ment. Investigate the community through local schools or community
centers that can provide some preliminary data. Ultimately, these people
will have to be interviewed. The interview questions used by Team may
be useful in obtaining an authentic perspective of the candidate.
T3. Culturally Informed Team. Recruitment of team members should begin
early. If team members are already selected, then the training and buy-in
are important. Team members who do not respect, accept, or value the
target audience may not lend much to the team; they will cause prob-
lems and stunt production. Beware of hidden attitudes, prejudices, and
perceptions of team members. These negative dispositions run counter
to developing a culturally informed team.
Production and Postproduction (T1T3). Team members should work collectively
in trying to understand the needs of the target audience. This type of work
setting should be viewed as an opportunity to learn about other people beyond
ones social circle. If the team sees this as an educational work experience,
this may bring the team closer to being culturally sensitive and conscious.
Assessments
Preproduction (A1-A4)

A1. Multiple evaluation options/A2. Assess the Assessment. If there are learning
outcomes, some form of internal and external assessment provides data
to the client and that the learning outcomes proposed have been achieved.
In examining and designing assessments, consider the learning outcomes
that are being measured. Decide whether these learning outcomes should
be measured. Determine the testing methods (e.g., short answer, multiple
choice, essay, fll-in) that are most appropriate in measuring these learning
outcomes. Gather research examples of internal assessments that may
be modifed to include in the educational software. Another option is to
research examples of external assessments that measure many or most
of the learning outcomes expected in this software.
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A3. External Review. Determine whether there will be reviews from an
outside agency.
A4. Culture-Specifc Assessments. Assessments that are culture-specifc adapt
to the target audience. In designing these assessments, frst, believe that
it is possible to design alternative assessments that are culture-specifc.
Second, begin with the goal to create something totally different than
what exists in terms of the types of exams (e.g., short answer, multiple
choice, fll-in) that currently exist on the market. Gather the learning
outcomes embedded in the software. Collect the information on the target
audience as learners through CBM Learners. Take into consideration the
information from CBM Elements about the target audience. Compile an
assessment based on this collective information.
Production and Postproduction (A1A4)
A1. Multiple evaluation options, A2. Assess the Assessment. Given all of the
data, decide what should be continually assessed. Some type of ongoing
assessments should be implemented throughout the project to determine
whether the product actually teaches some content. Determine further
what it is that the product teaches. Given that this is an instructional
product that may be used in schools or for other educational purposes,
feedback from the community can provide insight into its viability as a
product. This may work best as a focus group of community members,
educators, and local school teachers.
A3. External Review. If money is available, a formal external review can be
administered by an educational research agency.
A4. Culture-Specifc Assessments. Design an assessment based on the infor-
mation gathered in preproduction. This assessment should be creative,
and it should be acceptable to the target audience. The target audience
should have opportunities to feld test the assessment before it is totally
integrated into the educational software.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of
the design process. In this area, the team leader prepares for the production process
by reviewing the design factors specifed under Brainstorming. These areas are
thoroughly discussed and actions taken to make sure that they are in place. Several
brainstorming sessions may be needed. The collection of this information is impor-
tant in meeting the needs of the target audience, limiting revisions and mistakes
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in the design process, and creating culture-based ICTs. According to Kelley and
Hartfeld (1996), brainstorming sessions offer the design team an opportunity to
come up with ideas about the clients problem, and most fnd these sessions interest-
ing. The extent of the Brainstorming sessions with CBM should be as extensive as
needed. Engaging in discussions that cover a breadth of information, states Kelley
& Hartfeld (1996), takes more time in the preproduction stage, but it saves time in
the fnal stages of production.
Preproduction (B1, B3B10)
B1. Financial Support. Many educational projects suffer from under funding,
and the limitations of funding are also evident in the designs. If funding
the project is a concern, research multiple funding sources for all levels
of the design process.
B3. Assess Communitys Response. The team uses the Assessments area to
strengthen the validity of the design, provide evidence of the products
effectiveness, and evaluate the goals set for the target audience. This
area is a tool to check and balance design specifcations. Hold a focus
group or solicit the communitys opinion about the product. Focus groups
consist of a small number of individuals, usually four to eight, and a fa-
cilitator who asks questions. The purpose of the focus group is to obtain
multiple opinions, beliefs, and experiences about a topic or issue. Some
individuals may feel more comfortable speaking in a focus group than
one on one. Focus groups allow for the collective interaction of human
beings. The data collected during the focus groups are the participants
verbal responses, their body language in response to the questions, and
their conversations and interactions (Madriz, 2000). This may seem
insignifcant; however, there are examples in education, business, and
industry where some type of evaluation could have saved products from
disaster. It is important to get at the multiple meanings and messages
projected by the product (Young, 2008a).
B4. Community Representative on Team. Locate the community representa-
tive. This person is versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience.
The community representative and the cultural expert can be the same
person. Their role in authenticating the product is crucial to the design
process. The team must be open-minded to their input and accepting of
their opinions as a member of the team.
B5. Investigate Target Audience to Authenticate Product. Provide the team
with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. Given that this is
an educational software product, preliminary data should be collected in
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terms of teaching and instruction. This information provides the basis to
begin building the foundation of the design. BrainstormingB5 provides
details on the collection of data and cultural informants.
B6. Refect and Assess Learning Goals. Refecting on learning goals refers
to determining the best methods and strategies to deliver information to
the target audience and retrieve feedback. It requires refection because
this allows the team to think about what may work best and similar
instances where things did not work. Assessing learning goals requires
much forethought in how assessments will be conducted to determine
whether learning is occurring.
B7. Affordable Design. One of the frst goals should be to provide an afford-
able design that considers the fnancial investment the target audience
may have to spend. This type of consideration is also important to the
longevity of the product. If the target audience cannot afford the product,
than the needs of the target audience have not been met. The objective
should be to make these considerations early in the design process and
monitor design changes that may result in price increases.
B8. Meet Needs of Target Audience. Specifcally, map out how the product
best meets the needs of the target audience in terms of instruction and
learning. Determine how knowledge and information are gained through
the design of the educational software. Map out how the product best
meets the needs of the target audience in terms of culture. Determine
how the culture of the target audience is supported through the design.
If there are problems in initial testing, these are areas for changes in the
design, not the target audience. Address cultural issues as those that the
design must address and adjust to them versus trying to change human
behavior.
B9. Discuss and Consider Cultural Context. This discussion is very broad.
It may begin with an information session provided by the cultural expert
and team members involved in researching the target audience. This
discussion should cover a historical background of the target audience
in the location or locations where the product will be distributed. If the
target audiences are Taiwanese people who live in Taiwan and Taiwanese
people who live in the United States, there will be some differences in
historical background, social interactions, and so forth. The similarities
and differences should be part of this discussion. CBM Elements guides
the collection of these data. All areas should be discussed in relation to
how it infuences the overall design and development of the product.
Taiwanese people in the United States may have different educational
expectations and needs than Taiwanese people who live in Taiwan. In this
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example, there are two groups; therefore, a CBM guide may be needed
for each group.
B10. Present and Consider Outcomes. The learning outcomes of the target
audience must be defned and addressed. Learning outcomes are defned
in terms of short- and long-term goals. Determine how learning is ac-
quired through short incremental steps that lead to the long-term goal.
Then determine how these incremental steps are assessed or monitored
throughout the software. The main discussion should revolve around
defning the learning outcomes and implementing design aspects that
enable these outcomes.
Production (B1B10) and Postproduction (B1B4, B6B10)
Return to brainstorming during the production and postproduction to check
that all design factors have been addressed. Determine what ideas the team
began with during brainstorming. Examine the fnal product. Determine where
the design shifted or changed for better or worse. Make decisions on how to
avoid problems that came up during the production process.
Learners
In using Learners, the design team determines the type of learning environment
they want to create. Then they decide which design factors can aid them the most
in achieving these goals. The team meticulously reviews the design factors and
descriptions, working through each one and returning to others as needed.
Preproduction (L1L10)
An instructional design should consider all the design factors under the area
of learners. However, the point at which they should be considered depends
on the project. All of the design factors should be reviewed during the pre-
production stage. They may not be implemented until production; however,
preproduction should provide ideas for the types of learning activities and
structure needed throughout the project. Decisions can be made now in terms
of the type of instructional strategies that will be included in the design of
the educational software. In this preproduction stage, all plans for learning,
teaching, and instruction should be discussed, reviewed, and sketched.
Production (L1L10) and Postproduction (L3)
Throughout production go back to the instructional strategies or methods that
are supported by research, focus groups, surveys, and other data. Determine
whether the values of the target audience have been addressed in the product.
Decide whether the educational objectives were achieved in the fnal prod-
uct.
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Elements
Elements address the overall design needs of the project. Determine which elements
are most appropriate given the project. For an instructional design project, creating
a CBM guide of information relevant to E1E19 is necessary to provide a culture-
based design. A culture-neutral or generic design focuses more on the culture GQ.
A culture-specifc or specialized design focuses more on the target audience GQ.
However, reviewing both culture GQ and target audience GQ may be applicable
for some projects.
In this case study, the goal is to provide a specialized educational software product.
Specialized inquiries require the use of qualitative research methods for data collec-
tion. An ethnography is a more in-depth method of qualitative research. Conducting
an ethnographic study of a society requires an evaluation of their cultural elements
(Dray & Siegel, 2005). Who are the people we seek to study? What do they know?
How did they come to be? From the 25 design factors under Elements, members of
the design team engage in a collection of written and graphic data collection about
the target group. This information should be housed in a format (e.g., KMS, website)
accessible to all team members. The information gathered is not stereotypical but
authentic representations of the target audience. With the goal of creating products,
Foucault, Russell, and Bell (2004) successfully implemented ethnographic methods
in fnding out about their target audience, Chinese consumers. The team of designers
began with one goal in mind trying to build an understanding of the target audience.
The feld work consisted of visiting and interacting with the target audience in their
country. Then, through mediated immersion, the design team gathered nonfction
materials that documented the target audiences history and culture, and they used
videography to create video documentaries of the history of the region (Foucault
et al., 2004, p. 1482). Additional data about the target audience were obtained from
local researchers who had engaged in their own ethnographic data collection of the
target country that included feld notes, presentations, and photographs. Foucault
et al. (2004) also enlisted local users of their product to provide concept feedback
and consumer information and to be cultural informants. Throughout this study,
the collection of cultural artifacts consisted of books, political objects, religious
items, and technology. This ethnographic data collection and analysis served to
provide a more realistic understanding of the target audience and ultimately aided
in authenticating the products design (Young, 2008b).
Ethnographies provide rich examples of the human experience and helps re-
searchers study people (e.g., social interactions), places (e.g., organizations) and
things (e.g., technology) (Harvey & Myers, 1995). This type of ethnographic data
gathering is time consuming, as the inclusion of culture is not a simple task. There
will be more initial preparation and education that will save time and costs later in
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the production process. Consider the loss involved in creating a product that does
not fulfll the needs of the target audience. On the other hand, consider the number
and high quality of products that can be created based on the data collected.
Preproduction and Production (E1E25)
Begin by researching the design factors in the anthropology of culture. These
design factors provide a comprehensive portrait of the society or culture and
the target audience. The design factors in the psychology of culture should be
completed when there is a need to understand the cognitive aspects of human
behavior. Alternatively, why people do what they do and why people think
what they think. The science of culture should be completed when there is
a need to understand humans adaptation to their environment. Select the
design factors that are most appropriate given the target audience and the
project timetable. It is almost impossible to determine which design factors
and sub-factors will be most useful given the project. Completing the infor-
mation in all of the design factors yields the most comprehensive database of
information on a society, culture or target audience. Excluding some design
factors means that something is missing. However, if those design factors are
not detrimental to the project, then they can be left out. Only the design team
can determine how complete the CBM guide should be, given the short- and
long-term goals of the project and future projects. Time, money, and future
intent should be taken into consideration. It is diffcult to say that a project will
only need Elements (E1E10), because then you only have half of a culture.
The fnal product may also refect the missing pieces. It is best to carefully
select from as many design factors that are relevant to the project as possible
and have a balance in all related areas.
Training
The design team uses the Training area to plan for the postproduction handling
of the product and to educate the design team members about the target audience.
If training materials have been prepared, their proper implementation should be
followed up in this area. The design team engages in discussions and maintains a
progress report of the product for future reference. The planning and implementa-
tion of training for the design team happens in this area. The design team may not
be involved in product training. However, this is an opportunity to learn about the
product from the perspective of the instructor or trainer who may be informing
learners about the product. In addition to content, the organization and management
of materials can be a part of this product training. The designer and design team
participate in culture-based training in order to receive a comprehensive knowledge
of the target audience.
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Preproduction (Tr1)
Determine whether product training is needed once the project is completed.
If so, there may have to be a training module or course developed to address
these needs. The extent of the training, materials, and number of days of
training should be included in the preliminary budget.
Production (Tr2)
The culture-based training happens between the preproduction and produc-
tion stages. Once data has been gathered for CBM Elements, these data are
delivered instructionally to the team. The goal of the training session is to
better inform team members about the culture of the target audience and aid
them in making design decisions that are generic or specialized.
Postproduction (Tr1)
If the product does not warrant product training, then this stage is not needed.
However, for those products that do, this training should have been budgeted
and discussed in preproduction. The planning for product training should be
underway at this point in the schedule. Determine the content of the train-
ingmodule, seminar, or course; number of days of training; and materials
needed. Determine whether any follow-up training or assessment will be
needed beyond this training.
CBM Interview Questions for Team
The following interview questions have been adapted from two psychological scales
1

(Table 15.2). The questions meet the needs of a cross-cultural audience. There are
10 questions. They have not been tested, nor have they gone through any evalua-
tions of their validity. These are possible interview questions that focus on issues of
bias and equity in team members. Each question is placed on a 5-point Likert-type
scale on which 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, and 5
= strongly agree. Interviewees should circle the most appropriate answers. These
questions are meant to elicit the most culturally unbiased and equitable answers.
For Questions 15, the interviewee should answer in the affrmative with agree
or strongly agree. Questions 610 should be answered with disagree or strongly
disagree. These responses reveal a person who has perspectives and attitudes that
are more culturally unbiased. Interviewees with serious biases should probably
be eliminated and not hired. Alternatively, if the person is truly needed, he or she
should be involved in the collection of data for the CBM guide; this will provide
the person with an opportunity for hands-on learning about the target audience.
Step.3: Review the areas of CBMs ID-TABLET as needed to reinforce all aspects
of the project.
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A custom development is about starting from scratch and trying to get the design
right from the start. In this case study, the goal of creating a specialized educational
product for Latino youth relies mostly on knowing the needs of the target audience.
The more learner focused the more specialized this product becomes. Specialized
designs make a product much more culturally relevant, culturally responsive,
culturally mediated, cultural accommodating, cultural compatible or culturally
sensitiveand less so multicultural. Multicultural designs are more generic in
nature addressing the needs of the many versus the needs of a few. Specialized
designs foster a more intimate relationship with the target audience. The closer
the design is to lived experiences of the target audiencethe more specialized a
product. Truly specialized products get at the race or ethnicity of the target audience
along with other cultural aspects; otherwise these products remain more generic
than specialized.
In this case study, there is also a focus on meeting the needs of the learner.
Knowledge is constructed that best suits the learner and learning situation. This is
consistent with constructivist theories and methods of research (Bednar, Cunning-
Table 15.2 CBM Team Interview Questions
CBM.Interview.Questions
Strongly.
disagree
1
Disagree
2
Not.sure
3
Agree
4
Strongly.
agree
5
1. I am open to the various roles
that men and women may have in a
society or culture. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I try not to impose my values on
others. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I believe everyones culture should
be valued. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I am open to learning about diverse
ethnic and racial groups. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I enjoy being around people of
diverse ethnic and racial groups. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I feel that my culture should be the
dominant culture. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I believe there is no racism. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I do not see color. I see people. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I prefer to work with people like
myself. 1 2 3 4 5
10. We live in a fair and equal society
or culture. 1 2 3 4 5
TOTAL POINTS ___ OF 50
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ham, Duffy & Perry 1992; Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Bruner, 1985; Resnick,
1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). CBM Learners suggests establishing a comprehensive
knowledge of the learner before applying particular learning theories and methods.
This practice guards against imposing the designers perspectives of learning onto
the learner without knowing the learner.
References
and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence
of learning. Educational researcher, 18, 32-42.
Bruner, J. (1985). Models of the Learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5-8.
Dray, S. M., & Siegel, D. A. (2005). Sunday in Shanghai, Monday in Madrid?!:
Key issues and decisions in planning international user studies. In N. Aykin (Ed.),
Usability and internationalization of informationtTechnology (pp. 189-212). Mah-
wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Foucault, B. E., Russell, R. S., & Bell, G. (2004, April 2429). Techniques for
research and designing global products in an unstable world: A case study. Paper
presented at CHI 2004: The Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems,
Vienna, Austria.
Harvey, L. J., & Myers, M. D. (1995). Scholarship and practice: The contribution
of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap. Information Technology &
People, 8(3), 13-27.
Kelley, D., & Hartfeld, B. (1996). The designers stance. In T. Winograd (Ed.),
Bringing design to software (pp. 63-80). New York.
Madriz, E. (2000). Focus groups in feminist research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lin-
coln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.), (pp. 835-869). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Lee, R. M., Duran, G., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction
and initial validation of the color-blind racial attitudes scale (CoBRAS). Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59-70.
Ponterotto, J. G., Burkard, A., Rieger, B. P., & Grieger, I. (1995). Development
and initial validation of the Quick Discrimination Index (QDI). Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 55(6), 1016-1031.
Resnick, L. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.
VanPatten, J. (1989). What is instructional design? In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa
(Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training
(pp. 16-31). New York: National University Continuing Education Association.
Wong, M. (2006, August 7). Educational software makers try again after getting
schooled. The Associated Press State & Local Wire.
Young, P. A. (2008a). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy.
In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research
on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London: Routledge.
Young, P. A. (2008b). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of
Endnote
1
The CoBRAS scale and the Quick Discrimination Index were reviewed; how-
ever these scales are more relevant to western values. Therefore, questions
have been modifed to appeal to a cross-cultural audience (Neville, Lilly, Lee,
Duran, & Browne, 2000; Ponterotto, Burkard, Rieger, & Grieger, 1995).
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Chapter XVI
Case Study in
Game Design
The global game industry expects substantial growth in the next decades. Massive
multiplayer online games (MMOG) are expected to skyrocket from the $3.8 billion
reported in 2006 to $11.8 billion by 2011 (Olausson, 2007). The video game industry
is expected to grow at an annual rate of 9.1%, or from a $31.6 billion in 2006 to
$48.9 by 2011. Serious games are the new growth area. These games are report-
edly not for entertainment purposes and are being developed by and for industries
such as government, education, health, and business (Scanlon, 2007). Given these
fgures, the role of game design will have global implications for groups of people
around the world. Therefore, design and development must meet the challenges of
this technological revolution.
Project goal: Add-on
Design goal: Adding on to an existing video game design
Target Audience: Youth; ages 12-18; US, China & Japan (specialized)
Production stage: Preproduction
In an Add-on, additions are made to existing products. The goal could be to
enhance the design or make the product more culture-specifc. The objective here
is to evaluate what exists in the design and use CBM as a guide in adding on to the
Case Study in Game Design 317
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pre-existing design. The reason for this add-on is to revamp the video games design
into a more comprehensive culture, integrate human emotions into characters, and
make real the virtual.
This example is stylized after a commercial flm that became a video game.
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The best way to demonstrate an add-on is to build a CBM guide. Therefore, several
examples of what may be included are demonstrated.
Step.1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project.
Begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-On). In any
area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered. This process
might proceed as follows:
issues?. In determining the answer to this question, work with the Inquiry
area. Review the Inquiry questions briefy. Read the following Genre ques-
tions: I1a. What ICTs are being used and why? and I1b. Which ICTs are more
effective given the content? These questions are relevant and acceptable for
use in the project. The next set of questions under Framing asks the following:
I2a. Who is the target audience? and I2b. How is the content presented to
the target audience? These questions are needed to keep the project focused.
Review the questions under Omission that ask the following: I3a. What has
been intentionally omitted and why? This selection of questions is important
to providing a balanced design, so they are acceptable. Next review the ques-
tions for Backgrounding such as: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This is
a relevant question because what ever is hidden in the design is important to
determining whether bias exists. Review the Foregrounding questions like:
I5a. What is emphasized and why? In maintaining an objective design this
question is needed and the other questions under this design factor. Finally,
review the Visual representations questions: I6a. How do the visual representa-
tions frame the product? Given that game design is mostly about the visuals,
the questions in this area are defnitely needed.
.Development:.Have.all.the.problems.been.solved?..Review the Develop-
ment area. All of the design factors in this area need revisiting at some point
in the project; therefore, all areas of Development are valid.
. Team:. Will. the. team. have. to. be. trained. or. replaced? Review the Team
area. In this add-on, a culturally sensitive team is needed.
the Assessments area. Determine and gather any assessments that were con-
ducted on the project during any aspect of the previous production. If this
applies, the assessment may need to be re-evaluated.
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. Brainstorming:.Does.the.project.require.more.planning?.Review the Brain-
storming area. Brainstorming the new add-ons means this area is needed.
. Learners:.Does.the.project.require.meeting.the.needs.of.learners? Review
the Learners area. This project focuses solely on entertainment; therefore, the
Learners area is not needed.
. Elements:..Does.the.content.need.to.be.revised,.reviewed,.or.recreated?
Briefy review the Elements area. Elements determine the aspects of a culture
that exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for
further development of the ICT and identifes areas where the ICT can be
enhanced. In the case of an add-on, this area is needed to further fesh out
the existing culture and build on the fctional virtual world.
Training area. Training of the design team is needed because of the focus on
specialized target audiences.
Step.2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Begin with the
management areas that include: Brainstorming, Team, Development, Assessments,
and Training. Documenting data into the CBM guide is demonstrated in Tables
16.116.5. This data maybe recorded in a KMS, wiki, website, etc. where all team
members have access and input.

The areas of CBM ID-TABLET to be used in the design of these video games
include:
Inquiry (all design factors)
Development (all design factors)
Team (all design factors)
Assessments (all design factors)
Brainstorming (all design factors)
Learners (not applicable)
Elements (all design factors)
Training (all design factors)
CBM Guide: Video Game Entries
Preproduction: July 1, 2008
Step.3:.Ask and answer the Inquiry questions throughout the production process.
The answers can be recorded in writing and orally through repeated meetings and
discussions. The collection of notes or minutes of production meetings should best
serve any project.
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Table 16.1. CBM Guide Brainstorming Entry
Brainstorming
B1. Financial support
All funding is secured through postproduction.
B2. Pilot studies/Field tests of product
Pilot studies with members from the community are expected to be conducted during each quarter
of timeline. Final dates have not yet been determined.
B3. Assess communitys response
Community response to the existing game has been receptive with Western audiences. Non-Western
audiences had some diffculty in interpreting icons, graphics, character motivations, and so forth
and became nonresponsive to the existing game. Therefore, the add-ons serve to enhance this
product, make a better game, and broaden the target audience.
B4. Community representative on team
A community representative versed in Asian cultures is on the team to address the needs of Chinese
and Japanese youth culture.
B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product
The target markets are the United States,. China, and Japan, with a specifc focus on American,
Chinese, and Japanese youth.
B6. Refect & assess learning goals (Not applicable)
B7. Affordable design
The new products price is expected to increase from $20 to $23. Given the add-ons, this is
unavoidable. However, this product is still considered competitive, given the price increase and the
presence of other similar video games. In terms of affordability, the video game market has prices
at a set point, and decreasing prices drastically may hurt market value and projected sales.
B8. Meet needs of target audience
Video games are exploding in youth cultures around the world; the product is capitalizing on this
boom, with a focus on national and international audiences.
B9. Discuss and consider cultural context
The cultural contexts are being researched and shared with team members as part of the culture-
based training. These data have been gathered based on CBM Elements and provides information
relevant to the target audiences.
B10. Present and consider outcomes
Determine the goals of the video game. There should be immediate, midrange, and long-range goals
(Bates, 2004) in addition to smaller incremental goal setting that is achievable by the user of the
game.
Table 16.2. CBM Guide Team Entry
Team
T1. Cultural expert
The cultural expert and the community representative are the same person.
T2. Enlist educators (not applicable)
T3. Culturally informed team
The team received some training; they learned about American, Chinese, and Japanese youth culture.
However, the Elements portion of the CBM guide is under development; upon its completion the
team expects ongoing training during the production stage.
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Table 16.3. CBM Guide Development Entry
Development
D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT)
design specifcations.
A TACCT table of the present design specifcations is expected to be conducted to determine where
the existing product is most focused (i.e., technical, aesthetic, content, culture, or target audience).
On the basis of this determination, more focus will be given to making the product more specialized
for the intended target audiences, which may require three different video games with similar
content, but specialized features. TACCT can guide this process.
D2. Mass distribution formats
The video game format already has a mass market and distribution avenues. Issues of access can
be better addressed to allow poor and minority youth access even if they can not afford the game
consoles. This is under review.
D3. Effective technology
The video game format is at present the most effective format.
D4. Diversify ICT format
Games can be targeted to a variety of hardware platforms that include: PC, console, mobile phone,
and handheld devices (Bates, 2004). Printed video game publications are called strategy or game
guides. Strategy guides, sold in commercial stores, have been created for many of the most popular
video games. These strategy guides include information on the technical specifcations, strategies,
storytelling, motivation, objectives, game structure, historical background, character demographics
and history, player viewpoints, and the games functions (Thompson, Berbank-Green, & Cusworth,
2007).
A strategy guide can be published in conjunction with this revised version. The development of the
game for a PC is an option that will allow access to other youth who do not own a game console.
Also, making the game accessible as a MMOG is an option. Other alternative nominal-cost markets
are being considered.
D5. Understand target audience
Some preliminary data from the pre-existing product gave the team an understanding of this youth
culture; however, additional information is being gathered for further training. The plan is to take
the existing product and add on, branching out into three different versions specialized for the three
youth markets.
D6. Explore environmental and individual/group cultures
In addressing both of these areas, the project will involve gathering data about the following:
American youth culture and video gaming
Chinese youth culture and video gaming
Japanese youth culture and video gaming
D7. Quality design
Creating a quality product is part of the work done in this company. The frst product met this
standard, and these revised versions are intended to do the same.
D8. Authenticate product
Given the three directions needed for the target audiences, three specialized games must be
developed. To authenticate the games, cultural considerations for each group must be represented
in the design of the products. The goal is not to offend with inappropriate content but to support and
acknowledge the designated culture.
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D9. Control for interference
Interference is monitored through adherence to CBMs ID-TABLET.
D10. Model the product or process
Pre-existing sketches were made of the game. The add-ons require additional sketches as needed.
Table 16.4. CBM Guide Assessments Entry
Assessments
A1. Multiple evaluation options
Pilot studies should provide data in terms of the publics perception of the product. These pilot
studies are expected to be conducted in America, China, and Japan with youth ages 1218.
Improvements are going to be made based on this feedback.
A2. Assess the assessment (not applicable)
A3. External review (not applicable)
A4. Culture-specifc assessments (not applicable)
Table 16.5. CBM Guide Training Entry
Training
Tr1. Product training
Product training is planned on an as-needed basis.
Tr2. Culture-based training
The team has been given background information about the target audiences. The cultural expert
has provided some insights into youth cultures in America, China, and Japan and their interactions
with video games. This is one of the reasons for moving to three different versions of the video
game. The data from CBM Elements, when completed, should provide specifc information to
further inform the team.
Step.4: Determine the pros and cons of internationalized (generic) versus localized
(specialized). A generic design is one that can be used by all the youth in the differ-
ent countries, with little to no changes. Typically, the localization efforts of games
have been minimal. Publishers may make considerations that include language
translation, not hard coding text boxes, the length of animations for cut scenes to
match lip-syncing with second-language dialogue, organizing of source codes in
fle folders based on categories such as text or images, and changes to the stories
content (Bates, 2004). These considerations are somewhat haphazard and do not
probe the depths of specialized designs.
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Step.5: Apply CBM Elements to the design. Within game design or any fctional
design, content development takes on a double-edged approach of addressing the
physical and virtual worlds. In addressing the physical world, determine who is
the target audience or users of the product and gear the product towards their
needs. This means that the selected components of CBM that deal with the physical
world should be applied as done in Tables 16.1 -16.5. In this case study, the goal is
to create three specialized products from a generic product. The target audiences
are American, Chinese, and Japanese youth. Use CBM Elements to acquire data
about the cultures of these youth groups. Apply CBM Elements separately to each
culture. Choose those design factors under CBM Elements that best serve to en-
hance content development. Then create a CBM Guide for American youth using
CBM Elements, create a CBM guide for Chinese youth using CBM Elements, and
do the same for Japanese youth culture. These separate guides provide a resource
for building future products.
In addressing the virtual world, determine the add-ons needed to enhance the
products design. Use CBMs ID-TABLET. Use Inquiry and Elements for content
development. Look at CBM Elements to fesh out and build onto the existing video
game environment. The checklist of design factors and subfactors may look like
the following example:
CBM ID-TABLET - Elements
Cultural aesthetics
Art
Beauty
Cultural artifacts
Cultural capital
Production
Distribution
Consumption
Next, apply CBM Elements to the existing information in the video games.
Record this information into the CBM guide for the video game, The Phases of
Purgator. This guide is a repository of existing information about the video game,
and it contains all the new data that will be added or considered in the develop-
ment of the new versions of the video game (bold italics). When adding on to an
existing video game, a combination of a diagnostic evaluation and design applica-
tions happens. First, evaluate what data exist in the video game. This means input
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information based on the design factors into the CBM guide. Second, using the
teams creativity, add on to the existing design to build a more complete culture.
The add-on areas are illustrated in bold italics..The fnal result is the rebuilding of
the content for the video game. This content can then be transferred from the CBM
guideThe Phases of Purgator into the video game animated format. Adding on
specialized content with the target audience should be considered throughout this
process; however it is not explicit in these examples.
This case study example of the CBM guideThe Phases of Purgator is provided
for the following design factors: Cultural Physiology; Cultural History and Cultural
Artifacts. These illustrate add-ons in content development using CBM Elements.
CBM GuideVideo Game Entries:
Pre ProductionJuly 3, 2008
The Phases of Purgator
Storyline:.It is the year 3500 A.Z., and Zillians are pursing a galactic genocide
of other worlds. Hominids,
2
human like species, are on the verge of extinction as
Zillians convert the strong into Zillians and annihilate the weak. Purgatorees are
the only race immune to the Zillians conversion methods, so they are taken as
slaves by the Zillians. Purgator, a warrior, fghts to free his people and annihilate
the Zillian Empire.
E11. Cultural Physiology: Phases of Purgator-Purgator
The following is a taxonomy of the main character Purgator. Table 16.6 outlines
the cultural physiology of Purgator.
E8. Cultural History: Phases of Purgator
The following is a Cultural History for the video game Phases of Purgator. This
narrative provides a comprehensive history to further develop the story in a virtual
environment.
Racial/ethnic: Zillians are converted humans and other species. This race is made
up of other races. Zillians never existed before 3350 After Zunderverse (A.Z.). Once
hominids and other mind-thinking species are converted to Zillians, their previous
existences are erased. The common characteristics of Zillians are that they are
converted peoples and entities from around the world. Many Zillians develop
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sunken eyes, deteriorating skin, and raspy voices. It is said that Zillians are the
universes Zomads.
Political:.Zillians are ruled by the entity forces of the Zunderverse. The Zunder-
verse is a modern-day version of a devil; it is the essence of pure evil. The leader
of the Zillians, Lord Zikon, is controlled by the Zunderverse; his mind is not his
own but that of the entity within. The Zillian leader possesses supernatural powers
because of his status as the physical leader of the Zunderverse.
Zillians political ideology is KILL TO LIVE. LIVE TO KILL All Zillians
must kill or else they are killed by other Zillians. The political structure is or-
ganized by rank according to the number of organisms a Zillian kills. A Zillian
with the most individual kills can become Lord. Anyone can become Lord by
killing the residing Lord.
The leader is the Lord Zikon, who has absolute power. He seeks domination
across planetary systems, worlds, species, and entities. The second in command is
Ziffno. The captain of the armed forces is Zuko. The captain of indoctrination is
Ziffer. Social order is maintained through the threat of death. Also, Zillians are very
devoted to their worship of the Zunderverse. Through their faith, the Zunderverse
maintains its power.
Table 16.6. Cultural physiology of Purgator
-Name: Purgator
-Species: Purgatoree
-Location: Purgatoria planet
-Gender: Some form of male
-Characteristics: Aggressive;
agile; unemotional; resourceful;
thinks quickly; no social
relationships; chameleon-like
imitator of organic objects and
beings; able to mimic behaviors
and sounds of animals and other
species; psychic
-Physical: Purple eyes; Muscular,
strong body frame
-Language: Persian
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Social:.Zillians do not associate with anyone outside the Zillian race. Any non-Zil-
lians are enemies, and they are assimilated or annihilated. Interactions with other
species or entities are only for the purpose of assimilation and annihilation. The
Zillians destroy entire worlds, leaving only debris. The aggressive actions of Zil-
lians are known and feared across universes. When the location of the Zillians
is known, hominids and species either stay and . ght or abandon their worlds.
These actions have caused other races of hominids, species and entities to unite
against the Zillians. However, no single or collaborative action has been suc-
cessful in stopping the Zillians Galactic Genocide.

Linguistic: All Zillians speak Zinglish. Once converted, newcomers speak,
read, and write the Zinglish language. All other languages are lost through the
conversion.
Educational: Zillians learn through oral stories, gatherings to discuss military
domination tactics, and through the conversion. Zillian males tell stories of
their military feats. No other stories are heard or told. The conversion machine
educates Zillians of their history, lives, and the legacy of their Galactic jour-
neys. This education repeats every month when Zillians receive their monthly
re-conversion.
Gender: Males and females are the genders in this culture. Males are dominant and
the females serve as fgureheads to males. Males kill. Females serve the empire,
their mate and the Zunderverse. Asexual species become servants to all. Sexual
intercourse, for the purpose of male gratifcation only, is initiated by the male
only.
Family: Zillians do not refer to themselves as a family. They consider themselves
a tribe. Unions are allowed between species only for the purposes of servitude and
sexual gratifcation. Children are not allowed. Zillians become sterile when con-
verted. Male Zillians may have multiple mates of different species but never from
the same species. Female Zillians serve males. Females who are not subservient
become slaves. Zillian unions are short, given that no one expects to live long.
Religious: Zillism is a religious doctrine founded during the period of Creation
1000 Before Zunderverse (B.Z.) (See Figure16.2). Zunder was a spiritual entity
worshiped by hominids, beasts and other consciously living beings. This entity
was showered with good thoughts, goodness, and gifts. By 3000 B.Z., other
religious doctrines and religions gained favor because of the migrations of spe-
cies and entities from other galaxies and worlds. Zillism was not as favored a
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religion so Zunder through its psychic powers had his followers exile all species
who believed in other religions. Zunder grew angry over the years as its people
continued to leave the planet for other worlds and other religions. By 3250 B.Z.
other livable planets manifested across the universe, more species left their faith
in Zillism and Zunder behind. Over 100 years Zunder grew angry. Around 3350,
Zunder turned evil as its followers were so few and powers fading because of its
lack of psychic energy. Zunder cursed the universe for an eternity creating the
Zunderversea world where only evil dwells. Zunder sought to rule through
hominid form so its followers were brainwashed to follow its evil doctrines. Over
a period of 150 years, the followers of Zunder annihilated each other until one
victor remained Zikon. Through Zikon, Zunders power manifests in hominid
form and this begins the period of Galactic Genocide (3500 A.Z.). All conquered
people are converted and become known as Zillians. Zillism is now practiced by
all Zillians. Zillians chant and this chant becomes a ringing message of worship
to the Zunderverse. This chant is repeated throughout the day to generate power.
The chant is written as follows:
Zunder lives and breathes
Only Zunder evil can rule
Only Zunder can conquer
Zunder is and can
Only Zunder evil can rule
Only Zunder can exist
Zunder always and ever
This psychic energy keeps the Zunderverse alive and well in its physical coun-
terpart Zikon, the leader of the Zillian people. As long as the Zillians worship
the Zunderverse, Zikon will always have supernatural powers. In their day to
day interactions Zillians are reminded by leaders and captains who say, PRAISE
TO ZUNDER. Zillians who die through battle are believed to transcend to the
Zunderverse making the group even stronger. It is believed that through death
eternal life will be Zunder.
Artistic: Zillians have created the Zilliopolis, a monumental statue of the Zillism
religion. It serves as a reminder to all Zillians of their faith and duty. Zilliopolis sits
in the shaft of their spaceship of the same name (see Figure 16.1).
Health: Zillians remain strong, healthy, and youthful through re-conversion.
They believe that Only the Strong Live. The injured and weak of other races
are killed for sport. Disease is not a part of Zillians history. Death is inevitable.
is prohibited.
If the Zillians encounter a world full of sickly people, they annihilate the whole
planet, fearing the spread of disease. Disease is a sign of weakness; it is worse
than death.
Science: Scientists and knowledge are appropriated from other worlds.
Agriculture: Nutrients are provided by the Conversion machine, which Zillians
frequent monthly to continue their lifelong indoctrination. No food is needed.
Technological: Technology is acquired from every planet to achieve universal domi-
nation. This technology comes in the form of technologically advanced species and
machines. Examples: Zasi-deads, Zensors. Zasi-deads are used as communication
devices to retrieve information from non-Zillians. Zensors are used as devices that
can locate the heat and blood signatures in human beings. Zillians have appropriated
state-of-the-art traveling, tracking, navigational, and computerized equipment to
conquer galaxies and universes.
Time.Periods: The Zillian Timeline records the last 2500 Hundred years (see
Figure 16.2). The periods are represented as Before Zunderverse (B.Z.) and After
Zunderverse (A.Z.). Before the Zunderverse, worlds were dominated by religious
supremacy. Every planet dictated their actions and activities through religion.
By 3250 B.Z., there was a planetary evolution. New planets appeared across
Figure 16.1. Zilliopolis Interior
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Figure 16.2. Zillian timeline
History: The Purga is the signature weapon for
the Purgatoree people who live on the planet Purga-
toria. The blade should only be touched by someone
who plans to use it. The purga is designed to ft the
elongated hands of the Purgatoree people.
Design:
Form-The Purga measures 15 inches in length.
The entire knife is hand carved. The catacombs and
fnely carved blade make this knife a unique char-
acteristic of the Purgatoree people. The top handle
of the blade measures 6 inches. The remainder of
the blade itself measures 9 inches.
Style- The Purga refects the artistic lifestyle
of Purgatoree culture. The Purgatoree people are
artisans of metal. This explains why the blade is
half artistic sculpture and half sword.
Content- At the tip of the handle, every Purga
carries the symbol of freedom which looks like the
fames of a torch.
Material: Purga knives are made of a heavy
metal. This heavy metal can only be found on planet
Purgatoria.
Construction: The heavy metal of the Purga is
intricately thinned as it is carved into a weapon.
The heavy metal is made soft and then carved with
a barrow tool.
Function: The Purga serves only one function.
It is a weapon for killing. The catacombs and tip
of the knife hold poison that seeps into its victims
blood stream. The knife traditionally was used for
hunting species for food consumption.
Table 16.7 Cultural artifacts: Purga blade
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galaxies. Hominids, other species and entities migrated to the various planets to
live, travel, and trade. Then in year 3350, Zunder creates the Zunderverse. The
year is now 3500 A.Z., the period of Galactic Genocide. Zunder infltrates the
human psyche with the mission to destroy this plethora of planets and restore
order to the universe.
E2. Cultural Artifacts: Phases of Purgator
The following is an entry for Cultural artifacts-purga blade. Table 16.7 outlines the
aspects of this tool.
Step.6: Continue to follow CBM ID-TABLET for management and design throughout
the production process.
Step.7: Make the creative changes to the video games per the add-on specifca-
tions.
Add-ons are meant to enhance existing products. In this case study, the content
of the video game is dramatically altered from generic to specialized. The change
comes with a focus on three different target audiences that ultimately yield dif-
ferent data. The video games are made more culture-specifc than culture-neutral.
Specialized designs make a product much more culturally relevant, responsive,
accommodating, compatible and sensitive to the needs of the target audience.
References
Bates, B. (2004). Game design. Boston: Thomson Course Technology.
Field, T. (Producer), Williams, W. (Producer), Womark, D. (Producer), Zakk, G.
(Producer), & Twohy, D. (Director). (2004). The Chronicles of Riddick. United
States: Universal Pictures.
Olausson, M. (2007). Games industry transformed as one-third of games software
revenues will be generated online by 2011 [Electronic version]. Strategy analytics:
Insights for success. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.strategyanalytics.
net/default.aspx?mod=PressReleaseViewer&a0=3569
Scanlon, J. (2007, August 13). Getting serious about gaming [Electronic version].
Business Week. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.businessweek.com/in-
novate/content/aug2007/id20070813_756874.htm
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Thompson, J., Berbank-Green, B., & Cusworth, N. (2007). Game design course:
Principles, practice, and techniquesThe ultimate guide for the aspiring game
designer. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, Inc.
Endnotes
1
Aspects are adapted from the feature flm The Chronicles of Riddick (Field,
Williams, Womark, Zakk, & Twohy,, 2004).
2
Hominids means species who appear to be human or have a human like
form.
Case Study in E-Learning 331
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Chapter XVII
Case Study in E-Learning
The future of e-learning is wide open in terms of innovations in software, hardware,
instructional content, and teaching practices. Recent innovations in software have
been instrumental in the development of rapid e-learning that allows the creation of
podcasts and vodcasts (video podcasts) in 2 to 3 weeks versus 4 to 5 months (Weekes,
2007). Hardware such as PDAs, mobile phones, and pocket PCs provide new avenues
in mobile e-learning. Businesses view e-learning as a way to train employees locally
and worldwide. Student enrollment in distance education courses in U.S. colleges
and universities increased from 2.3 million in 2004 to 3.2 million in 2006 (Allen
& Seaman, 2006). It appears that the delivery of instructional content through e-
learning will continue to be another growth area in the new millennium.

Project goal: Re-engineer
Design goal: Re-engineer an existing e-learning course
Target Audience: Adult learners, ages 22-55, in Egypt, Italy, and India
(generic)
Production Stage: Pre-production
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Re-engineering is suitable for a product or on-line environment where part or
most of the design can be revamped. This means that re-engineering requires mak-
ing major changes related to coding, restructuring, and rebuilding. Re-engineering
assists in modifying and reconceptualizing the e-learning system. The task of re-
engineering involves examining, recording, and analyzing the pre-existing system
or product. This may begin with observing learners, documenting the behavior of
learners, and evaluating learners before and after using the e-learning system. As
an example, a tracking system may be implemented to evaluate an existing e-learn-
ing system. The tracking system can analyze when learners are moving forward
with tasks, need to review tasks, or continue to error out on tasks (Iksal, Barr,
Choquet, & Corbire, 2004).
With re-engineering, there should be technical and culture-based considerations.
These considerations may focus on isolating the software coding for the technical
context and culture-based context. The goal is to allow future re-engineering to
be added to the e-learning system on the basis of technical-only or design-only
specifcations (Hoft, 1995; Taylor, 1992).
In applying CBM to an e-learning system, the following steps can be taken.
Step.1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project.
Begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-on). In any
area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered. The process
might proceed as follows:
issues?.In determining the answer to this question, work with the Inquiry area
by reviewing the questions related to Genre, such as the following: I1a. What
ICTs are being used and why? and I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given
the content? These questions may be relevant in an e-learning environment
where learners receive content in on-line and printed form. Review the fol-
lowing questions: I1c. Is the project affordable to the target audience, given
the ICTs used? and I1d. How have ICTs infuenced the design of the product?
Both of these questions are relevant to re-engineering and an e-learning en-
vironment. Framing questions ask the following: I2a. Who is the target audi-
ence? and I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? These
questions are needed to keep the project focused. Omission questions ask the
following: I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? This line of
questions is important in providing a balanced design. Backgrounding ques-
tions ask the following: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This is a relevant
question because whatever is hidden in the design is important in determining
whether bias existed or still exists. Foregrounding questions ask the following:
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I5a. What is emphasized and why? In maintaining an objective design, this
question is needed. Then, review the Visual Representations questions: I6a.
How do the visual representations frame the product? This type of question
is defnitely required.
. Development:.Have.all.the.problems.been.solved?..Review the Development
area. All of the design factors in this area are probably needed, because much
of the project requires redoing or rethinking the development process.
. Team:. Will. the. team. have. to. be. trained. or. replaced? Review the Team
area. In this Re-engineering, a cohesive team is needed.
the Assessments area briefy. Determine and gather any assessments that were
conducted on the project during any aspect of the previous production. This
re-evaluation can support future assessments.
. Brainstorming:. Does. the. project. require. more. planning? Review the
Brainstorming area. Some brainstorming of how the re-engineering should
proceed is required; therefore, this area should be included.
.Learners:.Does.the.project.require.meeting.the.needs.of.learners? Review
the Learners area briefy. Given that this is an e-learning environment, Learn-
ers is needed.
. Elements:.Does.the.content.need.to.be.revised,.reviewed,.or.recreated?
Review the Elements area. Elements determine the aspects of a culture that
exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further
development of the ICT and identifes areas where the ICT can be enhanced.
In the case of re-engineering, this area is needed to start anew in redefning
the society, culture, or target audience.
Training area briefy. Although this is a generic product, some culture-based
training of the design team is needed to refocus the team.
Step.2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Methodically
work through management areas that include Brainstorming, Team, Development,
Assessments, Learners, and Training. Design areas include Inquiry and Elements.
Documenting data into the CBM guide is demonstrated in Tables 17.117.6.
The areas of CBMs ID-TABLET to be used include:
Inquiry (most design factors)
Development (all design factors)
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Team (all design factors)
Assessments (all design factors)
Brainstorming (all design factors)
Learners (all design factors)
Elements (all design factors)
Training (all design factors)
Brainstorming
B1. Financial support
All funding is secured through postproduction.
B2. Pilot studies/feld tests of product
Field tests with users of the e-learning Web site can be scheduled at different intervals of the
production. Dates are yet to be determined.
B3. Assess communitys response
Community response to the e-learning environment is not necessary because the audiences for
this e-learning Web site are paying customers/students.
B4. Community representative on team
In this case, a community representative is an international graduate student in the education
program.
B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product
The target audience consists of adult learners aged 2255 who live all over the world. Some
data can be collected using ethnographic methods; as ethnography has been used in systems and
requirements engineering (Martin & Sommerville, 2005).
B6. Refect and assess learning goals
The learning goals are consistent with the e-learning course titled The Foundations of Teaching.
Students will learn the foundations of the teaching profession.
B7. Affordable design
The course is priced at $140 U.S. dollars per credit for this three-credit course. This price is
comparable with the university on-campus fees.
B8. Meet needs of target audience
This e-learning course is meeting the needs of students, as it is one in a series offered for teaching
certifcation. However, other concerns of students are expected to be assessed via a questionnaire
mid-year and at the end of the course.
B9. Discuss and consider cultural context
It has been established that the students who take this course live in Egypt, Italy, and India, and
they are all female. Therefore, the team is gathering data on these populations. These data are
expected to be gathered based on CBM Elements E1E20 and the building of a brief CBM guide
related to the target countries and student population.
B10. Present and consider outcomes
The learning outcomes of the course are that students demonstrate a good-to-excellent knowledge
of the course content. These outcomes are measured with exams delivered throughout the
semester and the fnal project.
Table 17.1.CBM Guide Brainstorming Entry
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Table 17.2. CBM Guide Team Entry
Team
T1. Cultural expert
The cultural expert and the community representative are the same person; in this case, it is a
graduate student.
T2. Enlist educators
The professors of this course are available to explain content and instructional practices. They can
provide course information, facilitate student interactions, and curtail other problems encountered
with the Internet e-learning environment.
T3. Culturally informed team
Team training in Egyptian, Italian, and Indian culture is expected based on data gathered from
CBM Elements. Understanding the role of gender in an e-learning environment is an important
aspect of this training.
CBM GuideE-Learning Entries: Pre Production
Step.3: Ask and answer the Inquiry questions throughout the production process.
The answers can be recorded in writing or orally through repeated meetings and
discussions. However, some notes of meetings best serves any project.
Step.4: Determine whether the product will be internationalized (generic) or local-
ized (specialized). Although this is a re-engineering of an existing e-learning Web
site, the design is generic. The Web site is to be used by students in the different
countries with little to no changes. Typically, the localization efforts may consist
of changes in language translation, graphics and icons, color, layout, and the
formatting of felds and objects (Aykin & Milewski, 2005).
Step.5: Apply CBM Elements to the Web site as needed. Given that the Web site
will probably be more generic than specialized, focus on the culture GQ.
Step.6:..For the software engineer, software developer or e-learning designers,
they must be familiar with the target audience so that their architecture considers
culture as specifed by the needs of the project. With re-engineering, the software
must be re-analyzed to determine whether the product can be made generic or
specialized. Software needs to be fexible enough to handle multiple specialized
designs (Aykin, 2005). Aykin proposed the following items in creating more special-
ized or localized software:
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Development
D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT)
design specifcations.
A TACCT table is administered to the existing e-learning Web site to determine where there is more
emphasis. The following is an example of an analysis of an e-learning Web site using the TACCT design
specifcations. The original goal was to provide an e-learning support site that incorporated variables
related to culture, because this was a site used by students from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Ten design
guidelines or specifcations were used to match the media as outlined in the TACCT table.
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Design specifcations T A C CB TA
1. Multiple instructional methods and
resources specifc to student back-
grounds and characteristics
x Generic x
2. Interchangeable functions for
students and instructors to meet target
audiences learning styles
x Generic x
3. Choice in media selection (print
materials must have a cultural ft)
x Generic
4. On-line support with supplementary
course materials
x Generic
5. Supplementary media and resources x Generic
6. Minimize technical profciency
required
x Generic
7. Limit text on the screen, provide mul-
tiple communication confgurations
x x Generic
8. Multiple tool choices (Communica-
tion: Cultural considerations -- style,
tone and language set by users)
x Generic
9. Multiple choices in course lengths,
times and assessment methods
x Generic
10. Considerations for technological
skill levels of learners and instructors
x Generic x
Table 17.3. CBM Guide Development Entry
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The design specifcations charted into the TACCT table revealed that the Web-based course focused more
on technical features than aesthetics, content, culture-based, or target audience design specifcations. The
technical features aided in providing functionality to the course site. Aesthetics was considered in only one
design specifcation; this may have been due to other limitations, such as money or timing. Content was
referenced in one design specifcations. Students and instructors were considered in Design Specifcations 1,
2, and 10; however, these considerations were generically applied across groups and were not specialized to
any particular ethnic group. An examination of the culture-based design specifcations indicated that culture
was generically applied throughout the design, and it was not specialized. Design specifcations were geared
toward a mostly generic target audience. There were considerations for culture-specifc design specifcations
but not the full implementation. This is exemplifed by Design Specifcation 2, where learning styles needed
to be addressed through a variety of strategies (e.g., constructivist), and Design Specifcation 8 suggests that a
variety of tool choices allow users to set the style, tone, and language of communication. The learning styles
of users and communication styles, tone, and language of the users moved more toward specialized design
specifcations as specifed by the culture-based circumference (Chapter II); however, these design specifcations
were not specifc to a target audience. Two culture-based design specifcations were not clearly defned. Design
Specifcation 3 recommends that print materials must have a cultural ft; however, cultural ft is neither clearly
articulated nor defned. Also in Design Specifcation 1, student backgrounds and characteristics should be
considered in the design; however, the specifcs of which aspects of student backgrounds and characteristics
need further clarifcation. It is apparent from the TACCT table that the design guidelines contain a limited
degree of culture-specifc design specifcations and more culture-neutral design specifcations. The results
indicate that the goal of providing a culture-based e-learning support site was successful; the website turned
out to be more culture-neutral than culture-specifc.
D2. Mass distribution formats
The format of the course is Web based. An on-campus course is also available; however, this is
the online version. Issues of access have been a concern for some students. Courses are delivered
asynchronously; students access the course and the course content during their own availability.
D3. Effective technology
The online course is an effective format for reaching diverse student populations.
D4. Diversify ICT format
The Internet is the fastest and most effcient way to deliver course content. Other formats under
consideration are a series of podcasts that students can return during the length of the course to
review class lessons.
D5. Understand target audience
The data from CBM Elements and some preliminary data from the pre-existing product will
provide the team with an understanding of this student population.
D6. Explore environmental and individual/group cultures
In addressing both of these areas, the project team expects to gather data about the following:
Egyptian culture and e-learning, Italian culture and e-learning, and Indian culture and e-learning.
D7. Quality design
Creating a quality product is always the goal. The hope in re-engineering this on-line Web site is
to better meet the growing needs of the university and students and to expand course offerings.
D8. Authenticate product
The goal of this project is to maintain the generic style of the Web site but to also consider
culture in the design specifcations. This means that design specifcations can be tailored to meet
the needs of the target audiences. Some options include selecting the language displayed in the
user interface, podcast translations, and closed captions in the language of ones choice during
asynchronous instructor-led lessons.
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D9. Control for interference
Interference is neutralized by following guidelines in the ID-TABLET.
D10. Model the product or process
Visual languages of how learners may use the Web site are expected to be drawn to provide clarity
in the re-engineering process. There is an increased focus on usability and on management of the
Web site and user preference (Gibson, 2006).
Table 17.4. CBM Guide Assessments Entry
Assessments
A1. Multiple evaluation options
To address user concerns about the Web site and improving usability, an e-mail address for on-
line concerns and complaints is expected to provide instructors and students on-line feedback
and technical assistance. Instructors administer a survey related to the e-learning Web site
midsemester and at the end of the semester. These external evaluations should provide ongoing
feedback for course content and on-line maintenance and upgrades.
A2. Assess the assessment
The effectiveness of the concerns and complaints and the midsemester and yearly evaluations are
expected to be evaluated periodically for there effectiveness.
A3. External review (not applicable).
A4. Culture-specifc assessments (not applicable)
Table 17.5. CBM Guide Learning Entry
Learning
L1. Extend learning
Extended learning opportunities are provided by instructors of the course. Instructors monitor
student progress through exams, instructional activities and other assignments.
L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn
Instructors are expected to differentiate opportunities to learn by providing a diverse learning
environment. This means integrating content in multi-media formats to address the various
learning modalities and enhance the course overall. Differentiation is addressed in the instructors
delivery of instruction in that it is delivered asynchronously and synchronously allowing students
to work in many ways with the instructor. Instructors are encouraged to provide more than one
way of learning the subject matter. Given that the population of students is all female, instructors
are expected to participate in training session. This is part of the training to be acquired through
CBM Elements and other resources. Instructors provide refections of their experience with the
e-learning course and students provide feedback.
L3. Empower & engage learners
Instructors are encouraged to provide engaging opportunities to learn. This requires some
creativity as this assignment or activity can be generated by the instructor or student. One creative
project is to have students generate a slide show of what they believe to be the foundations of
teaching. These projects are expected to be accessible to all students for peer review.
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L4. Teach proactive learning
The e-learning environment is very conducive to proactive learning in that students can readily
review subject matter. The introduction of podcasts or videocasts with instructors lessons can
provide greater learning in that students will be able to restart, go back, skip forward. The e-learning
environment allows students ready access to their peers. Attention is given to student questions
through the asynchronous delivery of the course.
L5. Identify educational objectives
The learning objective is to provide students with content knowledge related to the courseThe
Foundations of Teaching.
L6. Culture-specifc instructional strategies
Although the culture of the students is important to the overall design of the e-learning environment;
the goal is to maintain a culture- neutral learning environment. Unfortunately, this may require that
students adapt to the teaching style of the instructor.
L7. Enrich instructional content
In order to consider aspects of the students lives, instructors encourage students to integrate their
projects with research based on the educational situations in their respective countries. Online
chats and discussions also center on these diverse educational experiences. Instructors then bring
discussions to some common ground to elaborate on the subject matter.
L8. Adapt instruction to learner
Given that this is a college level course, students are expected to be able to read and understand
college texts. If they do not, they are encouraged to seek additional help to improve their writing and
reading before entering the graduate program. Supplemental materials are provided for advanced
learners to delve deeper into the subject matter.
L9. Plan for instruction
Given that this is an e-learning course, instructors develop a syllabus that plans out what students
are expected to learn and the assignments that aid in this learning. Instructors consult with students
at the beginning of the course to determine their level of access to the textbook, internet, library,
software, etc. Adjustments to the course are made early on to provide a more equitable learning
environment.
L10. Enculturate the learner
The course description, syllabus and graduate school inform students about the type of learning
experience they are to receive. Based on this information, students make choices in deciding to take
the e-learning course at this institution or another.
Table 17.6. CBM Guide Training Entry
Training
Tr1. Product training
The team is given product training as needed.
Tr2. Culture-based training
Background information on the target audience is expected to be part of the training. The Cultural
expert provides some insights into Egyptian, Italian, and Indian cultures and the role of e-learning in
the respective countries. The data from CBM Elements should provide specifc information to further
inform the team.
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One set of course code
A single bug-tracking system
Isolated localizable resources, including dialogs, macro-language, status bars,
messages, menus, prompts, toolbars, and sounds
Localizable elements such as time, date, currency, address, names, and so on
that are not hard coded and should support different character sets
Buffers large enough to handle translated text in cases where the text ex-
pands
Character parsing that is not limited to Latin script
Code clearly marked, showing what must and must not be translated
Content that is presentable in users language and character set
User input that can be received in the users native language and character set
(Aykin, 2005, pp. 1415).
Every re-engineering situation is different. Therefore, it is diffcult to predict
the steps that should be taken.
Step.7: Continue to follow CBM ID-TABLET for management and design throughout
the production process.
Step.8:.Make creative changes to the e-learning Web site.
Re-engineering refers to the process of recoding, restructuring or rebuilding.
In this case study, the goal of creating a generic e-learning environment for adult
learners who live in diverse parts of the world relies on making minimal consider-
ations for ethnically diverse groups. The focus is more on technical, aesthetic, or
content related design specifcations. The generic focus allows for the sustainability
of the institutional structure and the learner must in turn adapt to the e-learning
environment.
References
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (November 2006). Making the grade: Online education
in the United States, 2006. Retrieved October 5, 2007. from http://www.sloan-
c.org/publications/survey/index.asp
Aykin, N. (2005). Overview: Where to start and what to consider. In N. Aykin (Ed.),
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
is prohibited.
Aykin, N., & Milewski, A. E. (2005). Practical issues and guidelines for interna-
tional information display. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of
information technology (pp. 21-50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publishers.
Collis, B. (1999). Designing for differences: Cultural issues in the design of
WWW-based course-support sites. British Journal of Educational Technology,
30(3), 201-215.
Gibson, C. (2006). Web site engineering in the real world. Paper presented at the
ACM SE 2006: 44th ACM Southeast Conference, Melbourne, FL.
Hoft, N. L. (1995). International technical communication: How to export informa-
tion about high technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Iksal, S., Barr, V., Choquet, C., & Corbire, A. (2004, December 13-15). Compar-
ing prescribed and observed for the re-engineering of e-learning systems. Paper
presented at the IEEE Sixth International Symposium on Multimedia Software
Engineering, Miami, FL.
Martin, D., & Sommerville, I. (2005). Ethnography and the social structure of
work. In D. Besnard, C. Gacek & C. B. Jones (Eds.), Structure for dependability:
Computer based systems from an interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 169-188).
London: Springer.
Weekes, S. (2007, January 23). Rapid E-Learning. Training and Coaching Maga-
zine.
Endnote
1
This has been adapted from a study by Collis (1999). Collis (1999) wanted to
incorporate culture-related variables in the design of a WWW-based course
support site that would be used by students from a variety of ethnic back-
grounds (p. 202). Ten design guidelines were created to match the media; as
outlined in TACCT Table under design specifcations. The fndings revealed
that the website was more culture neutral than cultural specifc as this was the
original goal sought by Collis. If Collis wanted a more specialized product,
the e-learning website needed more culture-specifc design specifcations.
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Chapter XVIII
Case Study in Research
Research is seen as a bad word, more work and lots more money. However, research
is a good thing to do and engage in before, during and after product development.
Researching products or services can actually save money and time. Businesses
usually refer to this as front end marketing (Weisman, 2007). There needs to be
more research before the development of products and a stronger focus on meeting
the needs of target audiences.
A diagnostic evaluation serves as a meter for researching information in ICTs.
There are two ways to use CBM for diagnostic evaluations. The frst is to use CBM
to research design specifcations, and the second is to use CBM as an ethnographic
instrument. There may be other ways to use CBM as a diagnostic tool; however
these two methods are offered in this chapter.
Example 1: Research Design Specifications
Project goal: Diagnostic evaluation of an e-learning Web site
Design goal: Obtain an overview of the Library of Congress main
Web page as a portal for the Web site
Case Study in Research 343
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Target audience: General public, any age, generic
Production stage: Postproduction
This is a diagnostic evaluation conducted to determine the design specifcations
in an existing e-learning Web site.
Step.1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project. In
any area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered.
Inquiry:.Does.the.project.need.monitoring.for.design.and.development.
issues? In determining the answer to this question, review the Inquiry area.
Review the Genre questions: I1a. What ICTs are being used and why?and
I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? These questions are
not applicable to a diagnostic evaluation of an existing e-learning Web site.
However, the last question is applicable: I1d. How have ICTs infuenced the
design of the product? Also, Genre only covers preproduction and production,
and the analysis of a pre-existing Web site is postproduction. Briefy review
the next set of questions under Framing: I2a. Who is the target audience? and
I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? These questions will
need to be asked and answered as part of the diagnostic evaluation. Framing
is also listed as something done in postproduction. Next, read the questions
under I3. Omission: I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? These
Omission questions are important to the analysis of this e-learning Web site.
Omission is also listed as something performed in postproduction. Review the
Backgrounding questions: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This question
is useful because whatever is hidden in the design of the e-learning Web site
is important in determining whether bias exists. Backgrounding is also listed
as being performed in postproduction. Review the Foregrounding questions:
I5a. What is emphasized and why? This is defnitely a question needed for a
diagnostic evaluation of an ICT because it addresses what exists on the Web
page. Foregrounding is also listed as something performed in postproduc-
tion. Last, review the Visual Representations questions: I6a. How do the
visual representations frame the product? Given that the Internet is a visual
medium, this question seems a relevant question to this evaluation. Visual
Representations are also listed as being performed in postproduction. From
this review of CBM Inquiry, it is apparent that a quick way to use the Inquiry
questions is to determine the projects stage of production. Then select those
design factors relevant to preproduction, production, or postproduction.
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Development:.Have.all.the.problems.been.solved?.Review the Development
description and design factors. D1. is the only factor relevant to diagnostic
evaluation. All the other design factors, under Development, focus on prepro-
duction and production.
Team:. Will. the. team. have. to. be. trained. or. replaced?. Review the Team
section. In this diagnostic evaluation, no team members are needed. One
designer or researcher can conduct this evaluation.
Assessments:.Does.the.project.need.evaluating.or.re-evaluating? Review
the Assessments section. Determine and gather any assessments that were
conducted on the project during any aspect of the production. These data can
be used in the fnal analysis. No additional assessments are available in this
area.
Brainstorming:.Does.the.project.require.more.planning?.Review the Brain-
storming section. In this project, no additional planning is needed; therefore,
Brainstorming will not be used as part of the evaluation.
Learners:.Does.the.project.require.meeting.the.needs.of.learners?.Review
the Learners section briefy. Learners relates to the preproduction and pro-
duction process. However, the design factors can be adapted for a diagnostic
evaluation. Guiding questions for Learners may ask the following, regarding
the e-learning Web page:
1. How were opportunities for advanced or extended learning provided?
2. How were learning opportunities differentiated?
3. How were learners empowered or engaged?
4. How were learners encouraged to improve their own learning?
5. What were the educational or learning objectives?
6. How were instructional strategies specifc to the target audience?
7. How was instructional content expanded beyond the subject matter?
8. How was instructional content adapted to the needs of learners?
These questions can provide some insight into the existing ICTs goals of
instruction, learning, and teaching. There can always be additional questions
to meet the needs of the project. In an examination of the Library of Congress
Web page, this area seems not applicable.
Elements:.Does.the.content.need.to.be.revised,.reviewed,.or.recreated?.
Briefy review the Elements. Elements determine the aspects of a culture that
exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further
development of the ICT and to identify areas where the ICT can be enhanced.
In this case, the evaluation of an e-learning Web page involves exploring what
exists in the design and those things that do not exist. The following guiding
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questions can help in the process of reviewing CBM Elements as a diagnostic
evaluation. These questions can be adapted; they are just guides to exploring
the design specifcations. Read E1. Go to the defnition of E1 if needed for
further clarifcation. Then answer E1 in relation to the e-learning Web site.
This process should continue through to E25. In this case, CBM Elements can
be used to evaluate the entire Library of Congress Web site; however, given
that the purpose of this analysis is to provide an overview of the Library of
Congress main Web page, this area will be excluded.
E1. What cultural.aesthetics are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E2. What cultural.artifacts are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E3. What cultural.capital is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E4. What cultural classifcations are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E5. What cultural.communications are represented in the e-learning
Web site?
E6. What cultural.demographics are represented in the e-learning
Web site?
E7. What cultural.environments are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E8. What cultural.history is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E9. What cultural.knowledge is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E10. What cultural.language is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E11. What cultural.physiology is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E12. What cultural.relations are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E13. What cultural.resources are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E14. What cultural.beliefs.and.values are represented in the e-learning
Web site?
E15. What cultural.experiences are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E16. What cultural.ideas are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E17. What cultural.identity is represented in the e-learning Web site?
E18. What cultural.interests are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E19. What cultural.misconceptions are represented in the e-learning
Web site?
E20. What cultural.ways are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E21. What cultural.anomalies are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E22. What cultural.cultures are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E23. What cultural.futures are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E24. What cultural infnities are represented in the e-learning Web site?
E25. What cultural.nature is represented in the e-learning Web site?
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Training:.Will.training.be.needed.for.the.team.or.trainers? Review the
Training section briefy. No training will be needed in this diagnostic evalu-
ation of an e-learning Web page.
Step.2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Begin the
evaluation of the e-learning Web page. Use the defnitions of the design factors
under the Inquiry area to guide the narrative description.
The areas of CBMs ID-TABLET to be used include:
Inquiry (all design factors except I1: Genre)
Development (D1 only - TACCT table)
Team (not applicable)
Assessments (no additional assessments available)
Brainstorming (not applicable)
Learners (not applicable)
Elements (for in-depth assessment, not used in this analysis)
Training (not applicable)
Case Study of E-Learning Web Page Using CBM
The following is a case study of the Library of Congress e-learning Web page (www.
loc.gov/index.html; also see Figure 18.1). This Web page was chosen because of its
stability and the possibility of its longevity on the Internet. Also, the copyright
and permissions provided more fexibility than other sites. The defnition of an e-
learning environment varies; however, in this context, it is an on-line environment
where learners can access and interact with content information In this case, the
Library of Congress Web page meets this defnition. This diagnostic evaluation
begins with CBMInquiry and the questions most relevant to this examination
of design specifcations.

I1. Genre aids in the selection of ICTs.
I1d. How have ICTs infuenced the design of the product?
The ICTs have infuenced the design of the Library of Congress e-learning Web
page. Specifcally, this is an Internet-based Web page that allows interaction
by clicking on the links to relevant resources or using the search function. It
is an interactive encyclopedia, library, gift shop, and educational resource.
The Internet allows histories and information access to be readily available.
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Figure 18.1. Library of Congress Web page. Courtesy of the Library of Congress
I2. Framing assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective.
I2a. Who is the target audience?
The target audience is generic in that the focus is anyone who can read and
understand the English language. The main Web page lists examples of their
possible audience; that includes: kids, families, librarians, publishers, research-
ers, teachers, and visitors.
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I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience?
From the main Web page, the content is presented in a three-column format
with a main heading across the top. There are rows of links in every column.
The main graphic window scales across the second and third columns. There
are fve different images fashing with topics that may be of interest to the
target audience.
I2c. What is the content presented?
The content presented across the top heading includes Ask a Librarian, Digi-
tal Collections, and Library Catalogs. The search box provides a space for
inputting text to locate a particular subject or topic on the Web site. In the left
column, there are resources for kids, families, librarians, publishers, research-
ers, teachers, and visitors to peruse. Content related to the General Information
heading covers information about the library, an events calendar, jobs, and
fellowships, supporting the library, and shopping in the on-line store. Even
more library resources are offered. There are links to the following places
or information: the American Folklife Center, audio materials (Braille), the
Copyright Offce, the Copyright Royalty Board, the Kluge Center, the Law
Library of Congress, Poetry, and other research centers. All of the links un-
der each heading are listed in alphabetical order so that there is no order of
importance but just order of information. There are several links that end this
column; they include RSS (really simple syndication), a blog, podcasts, and
e-mail updates. RSS allows the delivery of news feeds to computers and other
devices where the Internet can be accessed. This is a subscriber only feed
flled with library content. A blog web page is maintained by LOC to provide
snippets of historical and local news to the surrounding community. The blog
is maintained by one author. Podcasts provide links to audio and visual links
related to library events, book authors, movies, flms, television, and other
sound recordings. E-Mail Updates provide access to another window where
an individual can input their e-mail address to sign up for updates related to
the library. The content listed, in column one, makes the individual aware
that there is so much more to the Library of Congress than just books. The
frst category of resources gives the impression that there is something on this
e-learning Web site for everyone, regardless of who you are or your purpose.
General Information contains basic information for moving through the site
and highlights data that may interest a frst-time visitor to the Web page. Then
there is the heading More Library Resources, which indicates that there is so
much more information out there and more places to explore. There are several
centers and other resources for learning and building ones knowledge base.
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The main graphic window displays seven links along the top edge. The frst
fve are related to the images that are fashing and the content behind the link. The
links, in no particular order, include the following. In parentheses, I have included
the by-lines of each fashing image:
1. American Memory (provides free and open access to historical maps, photos,
documents, audio and video)
2. Exhibitions (presentations of treasures from our collections, past and pres-
ent)
3. Thomas (in the spirit of Thomas Jefferson, legislative information from the
Library of Congress: current and historical)
4. Global Gateway (multilingual resources on world culture)
5. Veterans History (frst-hand accounts of veterans and people on the home
front)
The last two links are for preview and next. This main window serves as a ca-
veat to the target audience accessing this Web page. The fashing link and images
attracts the individual to read the link and click on the link for more information.
This active window animates an otherwise inanimate page of data. The content
presented is hip. The data are about the present and the future. Given the continu-
ing Iraqi war in 2007, Veteran History relates to those interested in learning and
hearing more from the troops who have returned home. It is an appeal to a topic
that is on the minds of many people, both nationally and internationally.
The middle column carries the Library Highlights. There are small boxed im-
ages with links beside the images. Library Highlights features contents related to
the following: The National Book Festival; Hispanic Heritage Month; Wise Guide
to loc.gov (features educational resources); Places in the News (locations from
map collection); Webcasts from the Library; and Today in History. The Library
Highlights section offers things to do and to see. For the frequent visitor to the Web
page, the content is interesting and highlights some of the best in what the Library
of Congress has to offer patrons. Another heading in the middle section is Popular
Topics & Collections, the content includes the Civil War, Thomas Jefferson, The
Great Depression, the U.S. Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the
Bill of Rights. For historians, students, teachers, and history buffs, information on
popular periods in the United States and primary source documents is made read-
ily available. It appears that the most popular and interesting topics are located in
the middle column.
In the last column, the frst heading provides News from the Library. The links
access announcements; outreach efforts; Constitution Day on September 17th; Rep-
resentative Xavier Becerra, a speaker during Hispanic Heritage Month; and More
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News and Events This online news is up to date, easily accessible, and provides
the Library of Congress with its own electronic newsletter. The next heading is
Library at Work; in this section, the Library of Congress highlights the work the
library is doing for the community and what is being done to preserve data. The
links include Lifelong Literacy, Audio-Visual Conservation, Chronicling America,
and Digital Preservation. Literacy is what the Library of Congress is all about, and
the literacy campaign provides public service announcements to the community.
The maintenance, development, and accessibility of audiovisual materials are other
examples of how the Library of Congress functions. Chronicling America is a link to
newspapers from 1900 to 1910 and much more. Digital preservation is what libraries
do on a daily basis, but they also offers information on what the general public can
do to preserve knowledge for history. This last heading provides an overview of
the many fascinating functions at the library. The Library of Congresss process of
preserving American history is important for future generations. The links provide
content and entry into the discovery of histories past and present.
The last thing in the third column is a countdown calendar in days, hours, and
minutes for one of the Library of Congresss biggest yearly eventsthe National
Book Festival. This is a great way to get patrons who visit the Web page excited
about what is to come..The Library of Congress does not just house the books of
authors; it offers the public an opportunity to meet their favorite book authors, listen
to book readings, browse, read, learn, and just have fun.
I2d. Is the content appropriate for the target audience and why?
Yes, the content is appropriate for the target audience, who appears to be a
generic target audience who understand the English language. The written
language seems to be at a reading level appropriate for their audience.
I2e. Where, within the products design, is this content most appropriate?
The content seems most appropriate for the Library of Congress. Given that
the Library is trying to reach a broad target audience, the content seems to
cover a diversity of ages, professions, audiences, disciplines, interests, topics,
events, and technologies.

I2f. Why is this content appropriate?
The content is appropriate because the Library of Congress is a library,
and libraries usually do not just house informationthey also disseminate
information. Libraries should promote literacy, and this is what the Library
of Congress advocates according to its main Web page. Given the size and
prominence around the world, the Library of Congress should exhibit the best
in content and literacy acquisition.
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I3. Omission - helps in assessing a design.
I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why?
The Library of Congresss Web page, not the site as a whole, seems to be in-
tentionally omitting international perspectives. This may be the case because
of their focus on Americans and American history. Another aspect omitted is
critical social and political commentary. The Web page is straight-laced, and
there are no politics or opinion apparent. Although there is a blog, the entries
are dry and informational. A third aspect that may have been intentionally
omitted is accessibility of the content in other languages. From the main page,
it is not apparent that the content of the Web site is available to people who
read in a language other than English. Last, controversy has intentionally
been omitted, because that may offend visitors of the Web page. The more
mainstream the Web page; the less likely it will offend.
I3b. What has been unintentionally omitted and why?
The Library of Congress may have unintentionally omitted all voices in
America. There is diversity in the opinions and dispositions of Americans
across class levels and racial and ethnic groups. A library houses knowledge
that is recorded in some medium; however there may be many untold stories
that have not made it to the public press or communications media. These
grassroots voices are sometimes left out of American history.
I3c. What has not been considered? and I3d. Will these omissions be detri-
mental to the project and why?
Although the focus of the Library of Congress is to serve as a research re-
source for Congress, as the world continues to embark on globalization, so
can the Library. This may be good for Americans who seek to learn about
other countries and other people. The Library can be one conduit to bridging
globalized e-learning.
I4. Backgrounding - helps in providing a balanced design.
I4a. What has been backgrounded?
Backgrounded and implicit is the Eurocentric faade of the Web structure.
Backgrounded and explicit is that the technology requires a human being to
interact with it. The fashing images, text, color and graphics make for an
explicit array of visually interesting things awaiting the inquisitive patron.
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I4b. Is backgrounding intentional or unintentional and why?
This backgrounding is intentional but not detrimental to the Web page. Given
that the Library of Congress is an important institution in the United States,
international audiences probably expect the Westernized focus.
I4c. Will this backgrounding be detrimental to the project?
The backgrounding is not detrimental to the design. In this case, the design
is pre-established and widely accepted.
I5. Foregrounding helps in providing an objective design.
I5a. What is emphasized and why?
The available library resources are emphasized through an abundance of
information on the main page. The purpose seems to be to give the patrons
many choices to locate something of interest to them.
I5b. Is this what should be emphasized?
Yes, the focus on information is what should be projected in the Library of
Congress Web page.
I5c. How does this emphasis infuence the overall design?
The emphasis on the library resources has a Western slant. This lets patrons
know that the fow of information, text directionality, colors, and so forth will
be geared toward a Western audience. Therefore, when accessing the Web
page, patrons are prepared for the content, language, and images.
I6. Visual Representations assists in conveying meaning.
I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product?
The graphics and text are arranged symmetrically on the Web page in a
three-column format. The main graphics window crosses the second and
third columns and is set at 1 inches 3 inches. Below the main graphics in
the second column, small picture like icons accompany the text links. These
visual representations correspond with the adjacent text links. Therefore,
the visuals and text complement each other. This also makes it easier for the
patron to get an idea of the visuals that may accompany the link.
I6b. How do visual representations assist in the instructional process?
The visual representations assist in conveying information about the link. This
information offers the target audience the ability to pinpoint choices and to
make informed choices.
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I6c. Who is portrayed in these visual representations? and
I6d. What is portrayed in these visual representations?
The graphic representations that fash in the main graphic window are specifc
to their headings.
1. American. Memory.. The visual is a close-up shot of the cover of the
Jackie Robinson comic book.
2. Exhibitions. The visual appears to be an art gallery with spotlights
highlighting the framed pictures and posters of years past.
3. Thomas. The visual is a tight head shot of Thomas Jefferson in brown
sepia tone. The background is darkened so that the headlines appear
clearly.
4... Global.Gateway..The visual is a small rowboat of men arriving on the
shores of an island. In the background are four other ships with sails.
5. Veterans.History. The visual is the top of a dresser with a laced dolly.
There is a picture of a young man in a military uniform. Beside him are
three open cases, with a military medal in each case.
The variety of visual representations is intended to meet the needs of a broad
audience. The faces of Jackie Robinson and Thomas Jefferson are familiar
to many Americans. The other visual images provide interest to the eye, and
they make the patron want to read and review the fashing images in the main
graphic window.
In column 2, under the heading Library Highlights, small iconic pictures
precede the text links. The National Book Festival 2007 has a small image of
a camel that appears to be on the front page of a picture book. The Heritage
Month icon is unrecognizable. The Wise Guide to loc.gov. icon appears to be
a corner of a red picture frame with a head-and-shoulder clip of a fair-skinned
man. The Webcasts from the Library icon is unrecognizable. The Places in the
News icon is a picture of an old world map. The Today in History icon appears
to be a head-and-shoulder shot of Abraham Lincoln and a young boy. These
icons add visual interest to a page that has a lot of text. In terms of layout, the
icons in the second column on the left balance the visual symmetry of the
page.
I6e. What purpose do the visual representations serve?
The visual representations serve to highlight special activities, events, services,
and content of the Library of Congress. The icons provide graphic interest to
the Web page and distract the visitor from the fact that there is a lot of text.
The fashing graphics in the window provides visual interest. The visitors
eyes are drawn to the window immediately on entering the Web page.
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I6f. Are inappropriate visual representations in the design?
There are no inappropriate visual representations that are apparent from the
main Web page.
I6g. Where are visual representations placed in the product?
The visual representations are in the top corner of the Web page and the second
column.
I6h. Why were these visual representations selected? (not applicable)
The Library of Congress is not a typical library, as it houses a wealth of knowl-
edge about the American culture. The layout and content of the Web page
let the public know about the multitude of opportunities for enlightenment
that are available in and around the Library. This appears to be an e-learning
webpage just based on the content.
Step.3: CBM Development D1 TACCT table is another way to provide a diagnostic
evaluation. TACCT (technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audi-
ence) features can be used for decision making and evaluations. TACCT provides
a way of categorizing and assessing large data sets specifc to product design.
In an e-learning environment, these data can be recorded directly into a TACCT
table, or the data can be derived through a diagnostic evaluation of the e-learning
environment. This is demonstrated in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1. TACCT Table for the Library of Congress
Design specifcations T A C CB TA
ICT On-line Web-based page x x Generic
Main design window (fashing images, multiple topics) x x Generic
Pictures as icons x x Generic
Resources for x Generic x
General Information x Generic
More Library Resources x Generic
Library Highlights x Generic
Popular Topics & Collections x Generic
New From the Library x Generic
The Library at Work x Generic
The 2007 National Book Festival (time log) x Generic
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Design specifcations can be anything that is part of the design: content, words,
phrases, photos, graphics, pictures, animation, functions, text, links, layout, evalu-
ations, navigation, or media (Degen, Lubin, Pedell, & Zheng, 2005). Anything that
brings content to an empty space is a design specifcation.
The TACCT table is a quick way of assessing an ICT. It is meant to provide some
preliminary data to improve the design of the ICT and determine the direction to
proceed. It is not an in-depth evaluation tool. It provides a surface evaluation of
ICTs.
Technical features focus on functionspecifcally, making the technology
work or work better. The technical features of the Web page are that it is an online
web page that offers interactive links and search features. Aesthetic features are
visual; they improve the appearance of the design and the technology. Aesthetics
are limited to the main design window and the icons. Although the text could be an
aesthetic feature, in this case, most of the text is the same size and color and does
not seem to emphasize any particular information. Content features incorporate
subject matter; this is information stored in the technology. There is a heavy focus
on content. The Web page is geared toward a generic audience and is more culture
neutral or internationalized. Target audience features focus on a general audience.
In this case, the target audience is broad and generic as it includes: kids, families,
librarians, publishers, researchers, teachers and visitors.
Step.4: Use the preliminary data gathered to make design adjustments or to further
enhance the existing design. In each step above, more analysis can be offered;
however it depends on the goals of the project. An examination of the entire Web
site may yield much more data.
Example 2: Ethnographic Instrument
Project goal: Diagnostic evaluation of a society and a target audience
Design: Collection pertinent to the country of Ireland and
its people
Target audience: General public, any age, U.S.A., generic
Production stage: Postproduction
When using CBM as an ethnographic instrument, the focus is on the ID-TABLET
guiding question: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed, or recreated? This
diagnostic evaluation uses CBM Elements as a framework in which to analyze a
society, culture, or target audience.
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Step.1: Determine the design factors of CBM Elements that will be used for the
project. If the goal is to develop more of a generic design, then there should be a
focus on CBM Elements Culture GQ. The Culture GQ directs the researcher in
disclosing the intricacies of the society or culture. If the goal is to develop a spe-
cialized design, then there should be a focus on CBM Elements Culture GQ and
Target Audience GQ. The Target Audience GQ directs the researcher in disclosing
the intricacies of human beings in this society or culture. Through this analysis,
the data collection is comprehensive in covering anthropological, scientifc, and
psychological perspectives about this society, culture, and target audience.
What design factors under the anthropology of culture will be completed? What
design factors under the psychology of culture will be completed? What design
factors under the science of culture will be completed? The order in which the de-
sign factors are completed should not matter. It is probably best to begin with the
anthropology of culture and then proceed to the psychology of culture.

Step.2: Gather data in all forms of ICTs. Media of all types should be collected,
including data from interviews, photographs, videos, documentaries, feld notes,
government studies, books, magazines, newspapers, and so forth. Conduct ethno-
graphic methods in gathering information about the society or culture. As data
are gathered, they should be inputted into the CBM guide, so that the process is
properly managed. An example of an entry into the CBM guide for Cultural History
may appear as follows (See Table 18.2):
Table 18.2. Cultural History: Ireland Entry
CULTURAL.HISTORY
Defnition: Cultural history is a narrative representation of events. This history is comprehensive in that it
includes many of the histories that have been written by or about a population.
Types. of. history: artistic, agricultural, crime, disease, economic, educational, ethnic, familial, gender,
geographic, health, legal, linguistic, political, racial, religious, reproduction, science, sexual intercourse,
social, time periods.
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E8. Cultural HistoryIreland
Post Production-November 14, 2008
Step.3: Use the Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ to gather further data specifc
to the society, culture, or target audience.
Step.4: Use the data collected to complete this ethnographic portrait.
Agricultural.
As of the year 2000, Ireland had 141,500 operational farms, many family owned and operated. Irelands
land size is measured at 6.9 million hectares. Forestry and agriculture account for 5.5 million hectares
of this land area. The largest percentage of agriculture is allocated to grass (hay, silage, and pasture), at
80%, followed by grazing (11%) and crop production (9%). The production of beef and milk accounts
for 58% of the industry output. The maintenance and harvesting of animals is a large part of Irelands
agricultural production. There are 13 million poultry, 6.5 million cattle, 4.8 million sheep, and 1.8 million
pigs (Ireland: Information on the Irish State, 2007b).
Economic
The economic forecast for Ireland, as advocated by the minister of fnance in 2006, is one of growth. More
than 2 million people are employed. Unemployment is at a low of 4.4%. The primary goal of the govern-
ment is to create more jobs and expand the economy through the development of business and industry
(Ireland: Information on the Irish State, 2007a).
Ethnic.
The majority of people identify as Irish; however, some identify as Irish of British descent. This latter
group has been referred to as West Britons or Anglo-Irish. Another ethnic group is the Travellers, who are
recognized by their professions as traders, entertainers, and artisans. Other small ethnic groups manage
to maintain their national identities, such as the Chinese, Pakistanis, and Indians (Wilson, 2001).
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CBMs ID-TABLET can be used in various ways to accomplish the task of a
diagnostic evaluation. The design factors provide a comprehensive total of factors,
and this can aid designers and researchers in providing the most thorough picture
of a society, culture, or target audience. The Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ
can be adapted as needed to meet the assessment or evaluation needs of a project.
Additional design factors not covered in CBMs ID-TABLET can be added on and
should not interfere with the structure of the framework.
A diagnostic evaluation serves to provide the designer or researcher with a basis
to begin exploring humans and their humanity. It is a journey to understand, gain
knowledge, and access another human beings world. This process is an adventure
and should be seen as such.
References
Degen, H., Lubin, K. L., Pedell, S., & Zheng, J. (2005). Travel planning on the web:
A cross-cultural case study. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization
of information technology (pp. 313-343). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
ates Publishers.
Ireland: Information on the Irish State. (2007a). Budget 2007. Retrieved July 18,
2008, from http://www.budget.gov.ie/2007/default.html
Ireland: Information on the Irish State. (2007b). The Department of Agriculture &
Food. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/
Weisman, R. (January 14, 2007). Why good products fail: Skimping on market
research can prove a fatal faw [Electronic Version]. The Boston Globe. Retrieved
July 18, 2008 from http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2007/01/14/why_
good_products_fail/
Wilson, T. M. (2001). Ireland. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and
their cultures, 2, 1091-1103). New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
Conclusion 359
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Chapter XIX
Conclusion
Culture works as a design construct. It is apparent that there are many factors op-
erating to make this happen. First, the nature of culture in design is dynamic and
maintains an interactive relation with its parts. Second, the inclusion of culture must
be a design decision from the onset. Third, producing culture-based ICTs means that
the needs of the many and the few are considered throughout the design process.
Finally, designing with culture in mind is a creative process.
The exploration of culture as a design construct is truly an interdisciplinary
pursuit. This text situates culture in the feld of instructional design; however the
roots of culture can be found sprouting across disciplines. That said, the feld of
instructional design provided an ideal foundation for this work because of its focus
on how humans learn and designing products for these learners. The research in
learning theory and child development offered the foundations to mental develop-
ment, understanding how children think, methods of teaching and learning, and the
social impact of learning (Dewey, 1897; Lay, 1903; Thorndike, 1903). Behaviorists
broadly examined how behavior infuenced learning; this scholarship later trans-
formed into cognitive approaches to learning (Aebli, 1951; Piaget, 1954; Skinner,
1954). Learning theories gave way to theories pertinent to the design of instruction
such as Bruners (1966) theory of instruction, Ausubels (1960) theory of cognitive
structures, and Gagns (1962b) theory of knowledge acquisition. The systematic
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design procedures aided in the management of military projects (Johnson, 1989;
Richey, 1986; Seels, 1989) and later in solidifying the discipline of instructional
systems design. Early instructional designmodels supported task analysis, systems
development and instructional systems (Gagn, 1962a; Silvern, 1967); most in an
effort to improve or understand human learning in parallel to ICTs. Constructivists
continued in the search to improve teaching and learning by connecting the learner
to their environment by authentic or real world situations (Bednar, Cunningham,
Duffy & Perry, 1992; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Culture, it was discovered,
infuenced learning and how learners acquire new knowledge (Bruner, 1996; DuBois,
1903; Vygotsky, 1978). Theories, methodologies and practices relevant to learning
and culture became defned as multiculturalism, culturally responsive, culturally
relevant, culturally mediated, cultural accommodation, cultural compatibility, and
cultural congruence among others (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Banks & Banks, 2003;
Gay, 2000; Hollins 1996; Jordan, 1984; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Overall, this history
provided a foundation in terms of approaches to understanding how humans learn,
systems and processes of design, the role of assessment in teaching and learning
and the infuence of culture on learning.
Theory and methodologies of teaching and learning provide a basis but where
does the designer begin. What should be added or deleted? How does the designer
make a product culturally relevant, culturally sensitive, or culturally compatible? If
a product is multicultural, it is by its nature generic because it is meeting the needs
of multiple cultures or many cultures not one isolated culture. These theories and
methodologies are implicit when it comes to design. The design process is explicit
when there are specifc design specifcations such as those in CBM. Viewing culture
as a design construct gets at the creativity needed to transform theory and methods
into its practical applications.
Designers & Learners of the Future
The designer of the future should be able to embrace multiple ethnic and racial
groups and truly become a culture-based designer. This designer might be versed
in creative and research skills in order to provide multiple talents to clients. He or
she might be profcient in technological skills.
To prepare for this role, designers might ask themselves: How can I better serve
the client and my target audience?, What about myself do I need to change to grow
as a designer? and What can I learn from others?
The learner of the future should be multilingual and multi-talented. They are
profcient in speaking, reading, and writing two or more languages. Socially savvy
in meeting and working with people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds and
operating in both national and international circles. They exhibit a comfortable
Conclusion 361
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manner in working with all people. The learner of the future is able to adapt to a
variety of learning situations and views learning as a life long process.
Thinking about the designer and learner of the future has implications for the
type of design work that should be done in the coming decades. This means that
design thinking must translate into design doing. It also means that the develop-
ment of products and services might beneft from some futures thinking and futures
designing.
CBM is a call for the production of products that can transform todays learner
into tomorrows. There is a great need for design to catch up with technology. Only
through more creative design thinking can this happen. The inclusion of special-
ized designs and the improvement of generic designs are two ways to begin this
journey.
Some Final Thoughts
There is so much more to say and so much that was unintentionally omitted. In
particular, the work in the felds of Information Systems, HCI, Intelligent Tutoring
Systems and Intelligent User Interfaces is innovative in researchers and designers
search to better understand the human to technology connection. The mapping of
models of culture to societies is a common methodology of this research; however
do all cultures ft into these categories? CBM can enable these felds to defne versus
label cultures. Once defned through the construction of CBMs framework, the
building of culture-based products can be successfully implemented.
Within CBM, it is inevitable that certain aspects of the nature of culture in design
have been excluded. Only through further analysis of how culture has manifested
in anthropology, sociology, psychology, biology and other disciplines can elabora-
tion be achieved. CBM is a dynamic framework that possesses the ability to alter,
update, and grow in signifcance. This means that additions and deletions could
and should be made within dynamic models. The goal is to provide designers with
a framework to guide the design process so that more structured and inclusive
examples of learning, design, culture, and technology are produced.
Gustafson & Branch (2002) support the notion that there is enough room within
the fundamental concept of instructional design to incorporate many emerging
theories and philosophies of learning as well as advances in the technology avail-
able for design, development and delivery of instruction (p. xv). CBM is consistent
with these goals. Further research is needed on why cultural models for learning
have not gained full inclusion in the feld of instructional design. If models do not
follow the ADDIE structure, are they excluded on this basis? Do models of culture
have to be validated by certain researchers and practitioners before they are truly
accepted?
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Alternative instructional design models can meet the needs of a technologi-
cally advanced society. This type of modern research provides designers with the
tools to meet the needs of learners and users for decades to come. I advocate for
a broadening of what has come to be known as instructional design models and
a more inclusive representation of the histories of instructional technology and
instructional design (Young, 1999, 2001).
If knowledge is globalized, then the inclusion of culture within the design of
ICTs would seem a natural course. As it stands in many western circles, culture
seems an abstract concept devoid of design considerations, confused in teaching
situations, and tolerated as a learning strategy. In a globalized society, culture would
be at the forefront of learning and design. Scholars around the world are trying to
fgure out how to internationalize and localize design (Aykin, 2005; Edmundson,
2006). Therefore, it is imperative that designers fnd a space for this work in the
new millennium.
To design culture-based ICTs means to reinvent and reconstruct technologies
thereby broadening ones perspectives and conceptions of reality. It means that we
are valuing other peoples culture-based ideologies and their humanity. We are
including and accepting their versions of history. It means to step outside of what
feels comfortable and learn, understand, and explore other peoples perception of
reality. Its a beautiful thing.
References
Aebli, H. (1951). Didactique psychologique. Application la didactique de la
psychologie de Jean Piaget [Psychological didactics. The application of Piagets
psychology to didactics]. Neuchtel, Switzerland: Delachaux & Niestl.
Aykin, N. (2005). Usability and internationalization of Information Technology.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Au, K. H., & Kawakami, A. J. (1994). Cultural congruence in instruction. In E.
R. Hollins, J. E. King & W. C. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching diverse populations:
Formulating a knowledge base (pp. 5-23). Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press.
Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of
meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(5), 267-272.
Banks, J. & Banks, C. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of research on multicultural edu-
cation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Conclusion 363
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and the technology of instruction: a conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The Talented Tenth. In The Negro Problem: A series of
articles by representative American Negroes of To-day (pp. 33-75). New York:
James Pott & Co.
Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the
design and delivery of instruction. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research
for educational communications and technology (pp. 170-198).
Edmundson, A. (Ed.). (2007). Globalized e-learning cultural challenges. Hershey,
PA: Information Science Publishing.
Gagn, R. M. (1962b). The acquisition of knowledge. Psychological Review, 69(4),
355-365.
Gagn, R. M. (1962a). Introduction. In R. M. Gagn (Ed.), Psychological principles
in system development (pp. 1-10). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc..
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Hollins, E. R. (1996). Culture in school learning: Revealing the deep meaning.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
sociation.
Jordan, C. (1984). Cultural compatibility and the education of ethnic minority
children. Educational Research Quarterly, 8(4), 59-71.
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Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African
American Children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lay, W. A. (1903). Experimentelle didaktik ihre grundlegung mit besondere ruck-
sicht auf muskelshen, wille und tat (Experimental didactics: Its foundations, with
some considerations of muscle sense, will and action). Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto
Nemnich.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books.
London: Kogan Page.
Seels, B. (1989). The instructional design movement in educational technology.
Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of teaching and the art of learning. Harvard
Education Review, 24(1), 86-97.
Silvern, L. C. (1967). Systems analysis and synthesis applied to occupational instruc-
tion in secondary schools. Los Angeles: Education & Training Consultants, Co.
Thorndike, E. L. (1903). Educational psychology. New York: Lemchke and Buech-
ner.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological
Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedmans Torchlight
An African American contribution to 19th century instructional technologies.
Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698.
Young, P. A. (1999). Roads To Travel: A historical look at African American con-
tributions to instructional technology. Unpublished Dissertation, University of
California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA.
About the Author 365
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About the Author
Patricia. A.. Young, PhD, is an assistant professor in Literacy Education at the
University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Dr. Young earned her PhD in education:
language, literacy and culture from the University of California Berkeley. She
received her Master of Science degree in education with an emphasis in curriculum
and reading from California State University Hayward and a Bachelor of Fine
Arts degree in communication arts with a specialization in television production
from New York Institute of Technology. Her current research involves the
implementation of the Culture Based Model as a design construct and mapping the
model to a variety of interdisciplinary uses. Her research also examines the history
of instructional design and technologies made by and for African Americans.
366 Index
Copyright 2009, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of IGI Global is prohibited.
I ndex
A
add-on 47
ADDIE 299, 361
ADDIE process 6
Aebli, Hans 3
African Americans, designed by and for
39
age demographics 143
agricultural history 177
Agriculture 178, 225, 227, 228, 229, 3
27, 358
agriculture 178
anomalies, cultural 255
anthropological 1, 9, 49, 83, 115, 231,
255, 304, 356
anthropological perspectives 10
art 104
artifacts, more on 113
artistic history 175
assessments 305
assets demographics 144
astronomy 261
Ausubel 359
B
B. F. Skinner 3
backgrounding (production & postproduc-
tion) 61
Banathy, Bela H. 5
Barson, John 5
beauty 106
behaviors 244
biological anthropology 11
biological sciences 267
birth demographics 144
Bruner 359
C
CBM, brainstorming 80
CBM, development 65
CBM, elements 100, 126, 215, 232
CBM, how does it work 45
CBM, how do you manage 50
CBM, learners 88
CBM, team 73
CBM, what can it do 39
CBM, what is 37
Index 367
CBM, where did it come from 39
CBM, who would use 40
CBM, why is it intercultural 52
CBM guide 50
CBM inquiry 55
CBMs, components 40
CBM training 293
chemistry 263
child study movement 2
Claparde, Edouard 1
climate 161
clock time 280
cognitive apprenticeship 8, 92
cognitive learning theory 3
communication 8, 34, 35, 43, 50, 56,
66, 68, 71, 82, 85, 98, 118,
126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,
132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138,
139, 140, 161, 167, 199, 219,
292, 297, 327, 336, 337, 341
communications, for cultures 127
communications, for target audiences 130
communities 168
component display theory 7
conceptual Perspectives 12
construction 112
constructivist 7, 8, 37, 90, 92, 313, 337
constructivist theories 8
consumption 118
content 110
crime history 179
cultural aesthetics 104
cultural anomalies 255
cultural anthropology 11, 101, 122, 140,
249, 252
cultural arti-facts 107
cultural beliefs 234
cultural beliefs and values 234
cultural capital 115
cultural classifcation 120
cultural communications 126, 345
cultural cultures 261
cultural demographics 142
cultural environment 160
cultural futures 271
cultural history 46, 102, 103, 174, 356
cultural ideas 238
cultural identity 239
cultural infnities 46, 102, 134, 254, 279
cultural interests 241
cultural knowledge 215
cultural language 200, 217
cultural misconceptions 242
cultural nature 291
cultural physiology 46, 102, 103, 215,
220, 223, 324
cultural relations 46, 102, 103, 215, 223
cultural remnants 39
cultural resources 46, 102, 103, 215, 225
cultural values 235
cultural ways 244
culture, anthropological perspectives 10
culture, anthropology of 103
culture, as a design construct 359
culture, conceptual Perspectives 12
culture, defnitions of 25
culture, in perspective 28
culture, in the design process 37
culture, mapping to instructional design
and ICTs 13
culture, perspectives and concepts of 9
culture, polaric dimension of 31
culture, psychology of 232
culture, qualifying in design 27
culture, science of 254
culture, sociological perspectives 10
culture-based training 294
Culture GQ 49, 54, 101, 105, 106,
108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116,
117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 129,
131, 132, 135, 136, 138, 143,
144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150,
151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157,
158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165,
166, 168, 177, 178, 179, 183,
185, 187, 192, 194, 196, 198,
200, 201, 203, 206, 207, 209,
211, 216, 219, 223, 224, 235,
237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 247,
259, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267,
270, 274, 282, 283, 287, 288,
289, 290, 292, 304, 356, 357,
358
368 Index
cultures, communications for 127
cultures, cultural 261
cultures, scientifc identifcation of 261
culture specifc instructional strategies 95
D
data collection 48, 49, 74, 82, 83, 143,
148, 272, 310, 356
death demographics 145
demographics, cultural 142
density 146
design 109
design, qualifying culture in 27
designers, of the future 360
design process, culture in the 37
development 302
Dewey, John 2
diffusion 257
dimension 289
dimension, Polaric 289
disease 180
disease demographics 147
distance 288
distance education
9, 15, 38, 52, 71, 331
distribution 117
dyads/pairs 167
E
e-learning 331
e-learning Web site, using CBM 346
early instructional design models 4
earth science 266
ecology 268
economic history 182
economics, of a society or culture 115
education achievement demographics 147
educational history 185
educational objectives, identify 95
educational product development 298
educational software 33, 302, 305, 306,
307, 308, 309, 310
elements 310
mile Durkheim 10
energy 226
ethnic history 186
ethnicity 148
ethnographic instrument 355
event time 280
F
family 149
family history 187
Field tests 44, 77, 80, 319, 334
folkways 245
food collection 177
forces of humanity 257
forces of nature 255
foregrounding (production & postproduc-
tion) 62
forestry 226
form 109
formal structures 168
framing (preproduction, production &
production) 57
Franz Boas 10
G
Gagn, Robert 4, 259
gender history 191
genre (preproduction & production) 56
geographic history 193
growth demographics 150
H
Hall, G. Stanley 2
health history 196
Henri Wallon 3
history, crime 179
history, cultural 174
history, economic 182
history, educational 185
history, ethnic 186
history, family 187
history, gender 191
history, geographic 193
history, health 196
history, legal 198
history, linguistic 199
history, science 207
horticulture 178
human-made world 164
Index 369
I
ID-TABLET 40, 299, 317
ID-TABLET: Inquiry, Development, Team,
Assessments, Brainstorming, Learn-
ers, Elements, and Training 38
incarceration demographics 152
income demographics 153
industrialization, in terms of food produc-
tion 178
innovation in learning, birth of 1
inquiry 302
instruction, plan for 96
instructional content, enrich 95
instructional design 298
instructional design, Marxists psycholo-
gists 2
instructional systems design 22, 360
instructional systems development (ISD) 3
intentions 273
intercultural communications 30
internationalization 28, 29, 30, 33, 34,
35, 86, 314, 340, 341, 358, 362
interview questions 312
invention 258
ISD 7
ISD, instructional systems development 3
J
James M. Cattell 2
John Flanagan 3
K
knowledge, cultural 215
knowledge management systems (KMS)
50
L
language, cultural 217
language demographics 154
language of communication 131
Lay, Wilheim A. 1
learner, adapt instruction to 96
learners 309
learners, empower & engage 93
learners, of the future 360
learners and learning, assessing 6
learning, differentiation in 92
legal history 198
Leslie Briggs 3, 7
linguistic anthropology 11, 139
linguistic history 199
Luria, Alexander R. 3
M
marital status demographics 155
massive multiplayer online games
(MMOG) 316
material 111
media technology 91
Merrill, M. David 7
Meumann, Ernst 1
migration demographics 156
mineral extraction 226
MMOG, massive multiplayer online games
316
mobility demographics 157
modeling 20, 35, 37, 66, 216, 244
models of culture 30, 31, 103, 233,
255, 361
models of culture, what they do 30
N
narrative representation of events 174
natural world 161
non-verbal communication 130
norms 245
O
omission (production & postproduction)
59
opportunities to learn, differentiate 91
P
pastoralism 178
Phases of Purgator, cultural artifacts 329
Phases of Purgator, cultural history 323
Phases of Purgator, video game 323
physical anthropology 11
physical environment, types of 160
physical sciences 261
370 Index
physics 264
physiology, cultural 220
Piaget, Jean 3
Polaric dimension 289
polaric dimension, of culture 31
political histories 201
proactive learning 94
process approach, beginnings of 3
Product-oriented models 38, 39
product development
8, 38, 40, 78, 298, 342
production 115
product training 294
projections and scenarios 272
project management 9, 40, 54, 67
psychological perspectives 11
Purgator, preproduction 323
Q
question prompts 273
R
race demographics 158
racial histories 203
rapid prototyping 8
re-engineering 332
Reigeluth 3, 7, 8, 20, 21
relationship, of one being to another being
223
religious histories 204
reproduction patterns 205
research design speci.cations 342
S
Scandura, Joseph M. 7
scenarios, projections and 272
science history 207
semiotics 136
sex demographics 159
sexual intercourse 208
sickle cell disease (SCD) 181
signs & symbols 136
Silvern, Leonard C. 5
Singlish 218
size demographics 160
small groups 167
Soban 114
social environment 167
social groups 122
social histories 209
social tradition 10
society, defnition of 100
sociological 9, 10, 17, 23, 24
sociological perspectives 10
space 285
spirit world 290
Stein 7, 8, 21
stratifcation 120
structures 165
style 110
support structures 168
symbols 138
systems approach 3, 5, 7
systems development 3, 4, 5, 15, 360
systems oriented model 38
T
target audience 8, 14, 30, 31, 37,
4097, 101139, 144199,
200244, 248275, 282298,
300339, 343, 344360
target audience, in e-learning design 335
teaching and instruction 92
team 304
technology 165
temporal 126, 134, 162, 283, 295
temporal communications 133
Tennyson 3, 6, 7, 8, 17, 21, 22, 23
theory of cognitive development 3
theory of cognitive structures 359
theory of instruction 359
theory of knowledge acquisition 359
Thorndike, Edward Lee 2
time 280
time, clock 280
time, event 280
time, how it is paced 284
time, linear or cyclic 134
time, wait 281
time periods 210
training 311
training, culture-based 294
Index 371
training, product 294
transforming theories 7
U
Using Knowledge Management Systems
50
V
verbal communication 131
videoconferencing 9
video game design 33, 316
video games 51, 298, 317, 318, 319,
320, 321, 322, 329
video production 38
videotapes 49, 83, 107
visual 4, 6, 16, 42, 43, 63, 64, 65, 66,
67, 71, 72, 79, 91, 94, 104,
123, 126, 129, 135, 136, 139,
140, 166, 175, 176, 187, 261,
268, 275, 303, 304, 317, 333,
343, 348, 352, 353, 354, 355
visual communication 135
visual representations (preproduction, Pro-
duction & post production) 63
Vygotsky, Lev 2, 11
W
wait time 281
writing 1, 3, 16, 91, 92, 97, 98, 126,
127, 128, 132, 133, 134, 139,
200, 219, 283, 318, 335, 339,
360

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