Electromagnetic Induction in the Earth

Lectures Notes Aarhus 1975

Ulrich Schmucker and Peter Weidelt

Laboratoriet for anvendt geofysik Aarhus Universitet

E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c I n d u- n i n t h e E a r t h ctio Contents

1 . I n t r c d u c t i o n , bas5.c e q u a t i . o n s

1.1 G e n e r a l i d e a s 1.2. Basic equations

o 2. E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n i r ~ n e - d i n i e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s 2. ? 2.2. 2.4. 2.6.

. The y e n e r a i

solution f o r a layered structure

F r e e modes o f d-ecay Particular source f i e l d s P r o p e r k i e s o f C ( W ,K ) struc-tures

2 - 3 . .Ca.lculation of t h e TE-field

2 , 5 . D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n C ( w ,K)

3 . I.4odel c a l c u l a t i o n s F o r two-dimensional

3.1 General equations 3.2, A i r - h a l f - s p a c e and c o n d u c t o r as b a s i c domain 3 , 3 . A~lomalous s l a b a s b a s i c domain

3.4.

Anoinalous r e g i o n a s b a s i c domain

4 . Model. c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h r e e - d i w e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s

4-7. I n t r o d u c t i o n

4.2.
4.3.

I n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n metb-06 The s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e mndell-iny p?:obl.em

5. C o n v e r s i o n formu:lae f o r a t~~7o-d:i1aensi.ol1alT E - f i e l d 5.1

. Separation

formulae

5.2,

C o n v e r s i o n f o r m u l a e f o r t h e f i e l d components o f a two.-dimensional YE-fri.el-il a t t h e s u r f a c e o f a one-dimensional s t - r u c t u r e

6. Approaches t o t h e i n v e r s e p r o b l e m o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i a d u c t i o n by l i n e a r i z a t i o n

6.1.

The B a c k u s - G i l b e r t method
6. 1 . I . 6.1.3.

Lntroiiuction
.

..G ,I . 2 . The l i n e a r i n v e r s e prol~l.em

The n o n ~ l i n e a ri n v e r s e p r o b l e m

6.2.

Generalized matrix inversion

6 . 3 . Derivation of t h e k e r n e l s of t h e 1-inearized i n v e r s e p r o b l e m of e l e c t r o m a g l ~ e t i ci n d u c t i o n
6.3.1. The. o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l

case

6.3.2.
6.4.

Pa.rtial. d e r i v a t i v e s i n two and t h r e e diniensions

Q u a s i - l i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e one-dimensional i n v e r s e p r o b l e m of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i . 0 ~(Schlfiucker's Psi-algoritlun)

7,

B a s i c c o n c e p t o f g e o m a g n e t i c and m a g n e t o t e l l . u ~ i c depth sonding 7.1. 7.2. 7.3, Gelleral c h a x a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e method The d a t a and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e r n a l m a t t e r which a r c i n v o l v e d E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave p r o p a g a t i o n and d i f f u s i o n through uniform do~nains Appendix t o 7 . 3 . P e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f v a r i o u s . t y p e s of geomagnetic v a r i a t i o n s and t h e o v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f conductivity within t h e Earth

7.4.

8. Cats c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s

8.1.
8.2. 8.3. 8.4.

Instruments O r g a n i s a t i o n and o b j e c t i v e s o f f i e l d o p e r a t L o n s S p e c t r a l arlaLysis o f ge0magneti.c' i n d u c t i o n d a t a D a t a a n a l y s i s i n t h e t i m e domain, p i l o t s t u d i e s

9. D a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as t h e b a s L s o f s e l e c t e d models 9 . 1 . Layered h a l f - s p a c e
9.2.

Layered s p h e r e t h i n s h e e t abo-$e layelred s u b s t r u c t u r e

9 .'3. Non-uniform

9 . 4 Non-uniform Layer a b o v e l a y e r e d s u b s . b r u c t u r e

10. Geo;?hysical and g e o l o g i c a l r e l . e v a n c e o f g e o r n a g n e t i c i n duk.kion s t u d i e s

11. R e f e r e n c e s f o r g e n e r a l r e a d i n g

1. - Introduction. basic I.. - 1.. General. i d e a s -

equations

The fo1.lowing rnodel

j.s

t h e b a s i s ~ f a l e1ectromagne'ti.c lne-thods l

which t r y t o i n f e r t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y stl2ucture i n t h e E a r t h ' s s u b s u r f a c e from an anal.ysis o f t h e n a t u r a l o r a r t . l f i c i . a ~ l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s u r f a c e f i e l d : On o r above t h e s u r f a c e o f -the E a r t h

i s s i t u a t e d a tine-dependent
F, -

e l e c t r ' o m a g n e t i c s o u r c e . By F i i r a d a y ' s
1. -

1.a.w t h e t i m e - v a r y i n g i n a g n e t i c f i e l d - i n d u c e s a n e l e c . t r i c a 1 f i e l d 1 3
which d r i v e s w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r a c u r r e n t

By k i n p 5 r e ' s law

t h i s c u ~ , r e n th a s a m a g n e t i c f i . e l d which a g a i n i s an i n d u c i n g ageri-t, a n d s o o n . Hence, t h e r e i s t h e c l o s e d c h a i n induction __I_ E -> l5 .-source -.

*mp.res law

//

0 1c: . ' 1 . to

The m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r f s s i o n o f t h i s c l o s e d c h a i n i s a s e c o n d o r d e - r ~ a r t ? . a l d i f f e r e n - t i a : l e q u a t i o n r e s u l t i n g a f t e r t h e e1iminati.c.n of . two f i e l d q u a n t i t i e s from t h e two f i r s t o r d e r e q u a t i o n s

1 + 3 and

A t t h e s u r f a c e t h e ~ l e c t r o r n a g n e t i cf i e l d o f t h e s o u r c e i s d l . s t u r b c d by t h e i n t e r n a l f i e 1 . d ~ .T h i s di.sirurbance d e p e n d s on t h e conduc'ti-<it!:
' s t r u c . t , ~ r eand c o n t a i n s information w h i c h must b e r e v e a l . e d . I t i s a m a t - t e r o f -the p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i v e which s u r f a c e da-ta have t o be measured a n d how -the i n f o r m a t i o n i s e x t r a c t e d from them. The i n d u c e d cu17rents t r y -to e x p e l t h e e x t e r n a l f i e 1 . d froin t h e coi?c!vic t o r l e a d i n g t o a d e c r e a s e o f t h e electromagnetic f i e l d a~i.lili.tude w.i.-th dep-th. The a v a i l a b l e p e r c o d r a n g e arid a v e r a g e c o n d u c t i . v i t y de-terinine 'the d e p t h r a n g e o f a p a r , - t i - c u l a r method. F o r a u n i f o r ~ mh a l f - s p t l c e w i t h c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r ~ c s i s t i v i t yp = l / a t h e p e n e t r ~ t i o nd e p t h (dec;:y

on l / e ) i.s appro;:ir:ia.tel.y
p = 0. 5

,'p,w l i e ~ c -F>.

i n Ian, p i n

Rln,

and '1" i n s e c .

(2.3)

A1~Lernativel.y p = 30. Eqs,

m, w h e r e

T in

h.

( l b1

( l a , b ) c a n a l s o be u s e d as a r u l e o f thumb i f p v a r i e s w i t h

d e p t h and a n a v e r a g e r e s i s t i v i t y i s i n s e r t e d . The n a t u r a l m a g n e t i c s o u r c e f i e l d s o f t h e i o n o s p h e r i c and magnetos p h e r i c c u r r e n t s o f f e r p e r i o d s a p p r o x i n i a t e l y between 0 . 1 s e e and 20 p e r m i t t i n g c r u s t a l and u p p e r m a n t l e s u r v e y s down t o a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 800

1000 km. On t h e o t h e r s i d e p e r i o d s between 0 . 9 1

and 0.002 s e c a r e most commonly u s e d f o r Sounding of? -?he f i r s t 300 c with a r t i f i c i a l f i e l d s . E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c methods a r e a p p l i c a b 1 . e f o r t w o o b j e c t i v e s :

1) ~ n v e s t i g a t i o no f t h e change o f c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h d e p t h , i n p a r . t i c u l a r d e t e c t i o n and d e l i n e a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r f a c e s m a r k i n g

a change o f s t r a t i g r a p h y o r t e m p e r a t u r e .
2 ) I n v e s t i g a t i o n of l a t e r a l c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r i a t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r

s e a r c h f o r l o c a l r e g i o n s wiCh abnormal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s ( e . g . meta1lj.c o r e d e p o s i - t s , s a l t domes, sedimeni-dry' b a s i n s , z o n e s o f eleva-ted t e m p e r a t u r e ) . .The r e s u l t s o f t h e f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e o f t e n used. t o c o n s t r u c t

a normal. c o n d u c t i v i - t y model f r o m which l o c a l d e v i a t i o n s a r e measure1

I n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f i e l d s t h e c:-.ange o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d q u a n t i t i e s b o t h w i t h f r e q u e n c y and w i t h p o s i t i o n a r e u s e d . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g .the d e p e n d e n c e on t h e p o s i t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e l a t e r a l reso1.u-tion and t h e d e p e n d e n c e on f r e q u e n c y g i v e s t h e r e s o lu-tion with depth.

1.2.

D a s i c e q u a t ions

L e t - b e .the p o s i t i o n v e c t o r and l e t r

H, g,

2nd + he t h e vectoi-s o f I throughout:, t h e 11.2) (1.3)

. .

t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d , e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d and curl-2n.t d e n s i t y , ~ ? e s p e c t i v e l y . Using S I u11.i.-ts and a vacuurrl p e r m e a b i l i t y pertinent equations a r e c u p l - = - i- L H I -e CUI?].' - = --kt H E
0

0-

'- = 0 1 C div - = 0 !i

(l.4)
(1.5)

A l l f i e l d q u a n t i - t i e s a r e f u n c t i o n s o f p o s i t i o n _r and t i m e t . Al.so tl:c ( i s o t r o p i c ) c o n d u c t i v i . - t ) ~ i s a f u n c . t i o n o f p o s i t i o n . -e 3,s t h e u I

c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f t h e e x t e r n a l c i l r r e n t s o u r c e s b e i n g d i f f e r e n t from 0 o n l y at s o u r c e p o i n t s . The d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t c 0-E i s g e n e r a l l y neglected i n induction s t u d i e s . This i s j u s t i f i e d as follows: within t h e c o n d u c t o r .the conduc-tion c u r r e n t UC e x c e e d s t h e displ.acement c u r r e n t e v e n i n t h e c a s e o f ].owest p e r i o d s ( 0 . 0 0 1 s e c ) and h i g h e s t 5 2 r e s i s 1 : i v i t i e s ( 1 0 Rm) s t i l l 1 0 t i m e s . I n t h e vacuum where .the conduction c u r r e n t i s absent t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e , displacsment c u r r e n t merely i n t r o d u c e s a s l i g h t phase s h i f t o f t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s . f o r i n t h i s c a s e t h e s o l u t i o n o f ( 1 . 2 ) and ( 1 . 3 (including a t t h e RFIS o f ( 1 . 2 ) ) a r e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves, e . g.

--

, t h e p l a n e wave e i ( k * r - u ~ ) where w i s t h e a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y and -k .- t h e wave v e c t o r a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n . The p h a s e

d i f f e r e n c e between P

and P2 i s
lj ,& t

- PI

4,/
.
Ax
P2

MAX = -- coscl
C

.Z

i n t h e very p e s s i m i s t i c

c a s e o f Ax = 1000 km and T = l s e

H .I - a r ~ d-

c a n h e e l i m i n a t e d fPonl (1.. 2

(1.4).

It r e s u l t s

L----6!t
using C1.2) g i v e n by

Induction equation

I
is
(1.7)

and ( 1 . 4 ) t h e e l e c - t r i c a l c h a r g e d e n s i t y p(1') div - = E

p =
i.e.

c0 E

g r a d I.oga,

t h e r e i s c h a r g e a c c u m u l a t e d i f a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d compunclnt :

p a r a l l e l t o t h e gradj.en.t. o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i - k y . P h y s i c a l l y ' t h i s i s cl.ear,, s i n c e t h e normal. componen-t o f .the c u r r e n t d e n s i t y i s c o n t i nuous w h e r e a s t h e c h a r g e s accoun-i: f o r t l - ~ e o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s c o n - t i c n u i t y of t h e normal electri.cal. f i e l d .

The e 1 e c t r i c a : L e f f e- o f t h e c h a n g e s i s vel?y i m p o r t a n t . They modify ct

by a - t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n .the ' c u r r e n - t f l o w ; i n p a r t i c u l . a r s u r f a c e

c h a n g e s d e f l e c - t t h e c u r r e n t l i n e s i n s u c h a way t l l a t t h e norinal c u r r e n t coriiponent v a n i s h e s a-t t h e s u r f a c e . Iil c o n - t r a s - t t h e magnetj-c e f f e c t i.s o f t h e ordel- o f t h a t o f t h e disp1acemel-i-t c u r r e n t and can be n e g l e c t e d .

2 . E1ectromagneti.c i n d u c t i o n i n I-di.mensiona1 structures

2.1.

The q , e n e r a l s o l u t i o n

The f o l l o w i n g v e c t o r a n a l y t i c a l . i d e n t i t i e s a r e u s e d i n t h e s e q u e l

(A i s a v e c t o r , div curl - = 0 A c u r l grad

$ a scalar).

(2.1) (2.2)

+
+

= 0

d i v ( A + ) = @ d i v A -1. c u r l C --+ ) = A curlA

&

grad

41

(2.3)

Ax g r a d @

(2.4)
(2.5)

curl"+- = g r a d divA -

- AA -

I n t h i s c h a - p t e r i t i s assumed -1-hat t h e e l . e c . t r i c a 1 c o n d u c t i v i t y o i s a f u n ~ t i o no f d e p t h z ( p o s i t i v e d o w n w a ~ d s )on1.y. I n t h i s c a s e -the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e c o n d u c t o r can be r e and $ N ( ~ ) d e n o t i n g t h e e l e c p r e s e n t e d i n t e r i x of two s c a l a r s L t r i c and magr,e"ric. t y p e o f s o l u t i o n . T h e s e f i e l d s a r e d e f i n e d a s . follows IS t h e vector i n z-direc-tion):
% '

O n u s i n g t11.e. ident::.t)i- c u r l C $-) = '-z x gl~adC, Cfrom ( 2 . 4 ) 1 , i - t i s s e @ ! z . t h a t -the ?$-type solu.!:ion h a s n o n a g n e - t i c z.-component and .the E - t y p e s o l u t i o n has no e l e c t r i c a l z-component. .-

The e l e c t r i c f i e l d o f t h e E-type s o l u t i o n i s t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e p l a n e s

= c o n s t . IIence, 2-t i s c a l l e d a TE-mode. ( t a n g e i ~ t i a l-- : ! e c t r i c ) . Cone v e r s e l y t h e M-type s o l u t j . o n i s name3 a TM-mode.!!~ r e q u i r e d from ( 1 . 5 ) -the 111agnetic f i e l d . o f b o t h modes i s s o l . e n o i d a l ( i . e . divl-I = 0 ) . I n 6

a d d i t i o n t h e E - f i e l d o f t h e TE-mode i s a l s o s o l e n o i d a l . . In t h i s mode t h e r e i s n o a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c h a r g e , a l l c u r r e n t f l o w i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e (x,y)-plane. ldow we h a v e t o d e r i v e t h e d i f f e r e n . t i . a l e q u a t i o r ~ s f o r t h e s c a l a ~ s

GE and $M. The T E - f i e l d ( 2 . 8 a , b ) s a t i s f i e s a l r e a d y

It r e m a i n s t o s a t i s f y
~ u 1 ~ l .= 0 H~ Using ( 2 . 5 ) ,
(2.2),

(1.. 3 )

(1.5).

g*.

and ( 2 . 4 )

it r e s u l t s

from which Eollows

( f o p if a f i a x = 0
.

and

af/ay

:0

and

fi.0 f o r x,y

->

-,

then f = O ) .

From - t h i s e q u a t i o n fol.lows w i t h t h e same argurnc1-i-ts

lil

urliform domains,

( 2 . 9 ) and ( 2 . 1 0 )

a g r e e . Using ( 2 . 9 ) ,

(2.10),

( 2 . 5 ) , and ( 2 . 4 ) t h e TE- and TM-fields sources a r e

1 1

i n t h e vacuun o i l t s i d e t h e

--M

= 0,

H -E = g r a d az'
--

wL

-PI

11:

= grad -

aL

(2.12

0 .

E -.E = y O-z x g r a d $E

. ..

Fields on-tside t h e conductor

II

The v a r i . a b l e s x , y , Let f o r

a n d t w h i c h d o n o t e x p l i c i . t l y o c c u ~i.n ( 2 . 9 )

and ( 2 . 1 0 ) c a n b e s e p a r a - t e d f r o m Q E a n d

OM by e x p o n e n t i a l f a c t o r s .

OE o r OM

where

-+
x

,-.
K

and

K~

= K

(2.14a,l

Then ( 2 . 3 ) and ( 2 . 1 0 ) m a d

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n o f ( 1 . 2 ) - ( 1 . 5 ) f o r a. o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f a TEt o t a l f i e l d t h e n r e a d s i n c o m p o n e n-..--t s .-.: and T M - f i e l d . The

= -Co$ ay

a20E M ) + --- ~ ax;)

(2.15a)

H
H

Y
z

a a e QE = - -(uQ ) + ax M ay a z
=
-(-

(2.15b)

a
ay2

(2.15~

ax2
axaz

- 1 E x - o
E

a " ~ l $ ~ )-

WE

a~
"8,

(2.16a)

E~

a - (-ax2

a
O )M : ay

G e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f fie1.d components

A t a l > . o r i z o n t a l di.scon-l-inuity t h e t a n g e n t i a l . c o m p o n e ~ ~ fo f - a n d s E H
a n d i l l e ndriaal. con~ponenl: o f I 1
Z

t h e j ~ u n p o f a p ; l r t i c u l a T q u a n t i - t y , Theil f r o r r ~ ( 2 . 1 5 ~ ) ]?OF )Iz

., 7 1 3= -

ayaz

"0

ax

(2.16b)

(2.16~

arc c o i i t i n u o u s . L e t

[ ]

deno-te

[ Jsatisfies $

t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l Lapl-ace e q u a - t i o n , i s bounded

and \rani-shes a t i n f i n i t y b e c a u s e o f t h e f i n i t e e x t e n t o f t h e s o u r c e s . Hence, f r o m L i o u v i . l l e L s t h e o r e m o f f u n c t i o n t h e o r y continuous. D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g (2.15a) with r e s p e c t [Q,] = 0, i . e .

@C

t o x and ( 2 . 1 5 b ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o y and a d d i n g we i n f e r a l o n g t h e same l i n e s t h x t

a $ C/ a z

j.s c o i l t i n u o u s . C o n v e r s e l y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

C2i15a) w i t h r e s p e c t t o y and ( 2 . 1 5 b ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o x and s u b t r a c t i n g one o b t a i n s o Q Mc o n t i n u o u s . Fina1l.y d i f f e r e n t i a t e ( 2 . 1 6 a ) w i t h r b s p e c - t t o x and (2.1.6b) w i t h r e s p e c t t o y and a d d . I t r e s u l t s t h a t ('licr) a(oQ r ) / a z i s con.tinuous ! Summarizing:
01

34M / 2 z i s c o n t i n o u s

i f cf t e n d s t o a c o n s t a n t v a l u e a t b o t h s i d e s .

a~
M
1 - -az a

+EJ

continuous

Conti.nuity c o n d i t i o n s

I
k.bLrJ
ingab;

T h i s r e s u l t shows t h a t t h e TE- and TM-field s a t i s f y d i s i o i n l boundary c o n d i t i o n s . Hence, t h e y a r e comp1etel.y i n d e p e n d e n t and n o t coupled. Frc~n( 2 . 1 7 ~ ) f o l l o w s
@

( z = 4-0) = 0

(2.18;

T h i s boundary c o i l d i t i o l l h a s a s e r i o u s drawback f o r t h e T M - f i e l d :

A s a r e s u l t w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r n o TM-field c a n b e e x c i t e d by
external sources.

From ( 2 . 1 8 ) f o l l o w s v i a ( 2 . 1 3 ) f M ( o ) = 0. N o w

K.iultip:lyi.ng ( 2 . 9 a ) by ~

f a n d i)n t ~g r a t i n g o v e r z f r o m 0 Co z, ~ e

i n t e g r a - t i o n by p a r t s yj-elds i n v i r t u e o f f M ( o ) = 0

From ( 2 . 2 0 ) and ( . 2 . 1 9 ) . fo1.3.oi..ls f o r yet?]. Er,equencies

d -- IufM12> dz O t h e o t h e r hand f n f (z)

0 .
-t

has t o tend t o a l i m i t f 0 r . z 0, O- z < - , <

m.

Iience,

i . e . t h e r e i s no e x t e r n a l l y e x c i t e d TM-mode. Outsi.de t h e c o n d u c t o r -the e l e c t r i c a l TM-field d o e s n o t v a n i s h j.n g e n e r a l . S i n c e $I

a@ /az M

= 0 f o r z = + o . The b o u n d a r y c o n d i - t i o n (2.1.7d) t h e n r e q u i r e s
ag,laz

P!

v a n i s h e s i n s i d e .the c o n d u c t o r we h a v e

that also

= 0

f o r z = -0.

(2.213

L e t ~ ~ ( x , y ,t), be t h e T M - p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s o u r c e . I t i s a s c l u z 1 5 e t i o n o f &$IM = 0 ( ( 2 . 1 0 ) ) . Then t h e mi.rror p o t e n t i a l $ E ( x , y ,-z;t) s a t i s f i e s a l s o ( 2 . 1 0 ) , and t h e t o t a l T W - p o t e n t i a l s a t i s f y i n g ( 2 . 2 1 ;

is
e e qlM(x'y,z,t) = $IM(x,y,Z,t) + OPf(x,y,-z,t),
z < 0.
(2.22)
-PI

A c c o r d i n g t o ( 2 . 1 1 b ) and ( 2 . 2 1 ) t h e hor4.zonTal componen.ts o f E

v a n i s h a-t z = - 0 , w h e r e a s t h e v e r t i c a l . compo:~en-t i s t w i c e t h e ver3-t i c a l component o f t h e s o u r c e f i e l d . A t t h e s u r f a c e z = -0 t h i s compo:ient i s t h e o n l y i n d i c a t i o n o f since according t o (2.11a) c a l l y i n . z - 0. <

&

TM-part 05 t h e s o u r c e f i e l d ,

t h e m a g n e t i c TM-field v a n i s h e s i d e n t i - -

W may r e t a i n a s t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t of t h i s s e c t i o n t h a t i n e
..

a h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r a t i f i e d conduc'tor? a l l c u r r e n - t f l o w i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e s o u r c e i s i n h o r i z , o n t a l p l a n e s and t h a t one s c a l a r f u n c t i o n C ) is s u f f i c i e n t t o represent a l l f i e l d s relevant f o r the in$ E ducti-on p r o c e s s .

2 . 2 F r e e modes o f decayWhereas e x t e r n a l f i e l d s c a n e x c i - t e o n l y t h e TE-mode w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e r e e x i s t f r e e modes o f c u r r e n t d e c a y f o r b o t h TEand TM-fields, Consider t h e t y p i c a l p o t e n t i a l

where @ a n d f s t a n d f o r

OE, $M a n d

f,,
L

fM, respectively.

F i r s t it

w l l l b e shown t h a t t h e decay c o n s t a n t s B ( e i . g e n v a l u e s ) must be

p o s i t i v e q u a n t i t i e s . I n s e r t i n g ( 2 . 2 3 ) i n ( 2 . 9 ) and ( 2 . 1 0 ) we obtain fECz) = .
{ K ~

f 3 ~ ~ 0 ( z f)E ( z ) , ' l

(2.24)

where

K'

K' -1X

K'.

The e j - g e n f u n c t i o n s h a v e -to s a t i s f y t h e boundary

conditions

fE =

(km)

= 0,

f ( t o ) = 0, M

fr(m) = 0 M

(2.26)

If t h e r e i s a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r a t f i n i t e d e p t h d t h e n
fE(d) = 0, Multiplying ( 2 . 2 4 ) from
-m

fi(d) = 0

(2.2Ea)

to

+m

and ( 2 . 2 5 ) by f " a i d o f " a n d i n t e g r a t i n g o v e r z ' E M and 0 t o -, r e s p e c t i v e l y , we o b t a i n on i n t e g r a t i n g

by p a r t s and u s i n g ( 2 . 2 6 )

Hence, a l l decay c o n s t a n t s f3 a r e r e a l and p o s i t i v e . The c u r r c n t f l o w f o r TE-decays i s i n h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s , w h e r e a s t h e TM-decay c u r r c n t s flow predominantly i n v e r t i c a l p l a n e s . Example : u = O

0

z - 0

0,-

a ) TM-mode From ( 2 . 2 5 1 , (2.26); (2.26a) foll.ous

M ( 0 ) = 0 y i e l d s f M [ z ) = s i n y z , w h e r e a s f' ( d ) = 0 r e q u i r e s cosyd=O. M

Hence,

The u n n o r m a l i z e d e i g e n f u n c t i o n s a r e

Theye e x i s t s a l s o a n e l e c t r i c a l (po-ten.tj.al) f i e l d o u t s i d e t h e conductor. Find it!

b ) TE-mode -

From ( 2 . 2 4 ) , "CZ) = K " fE f;[z)+Y.'f E

(2.251,

( 2 . 2 6 ~ 1 ) follows

fd), < 0 Z
0 < z < d,
. . y 2 .-f3000

(z)=O,

K2

with f (-m) E

= 0,

f E , f c c o n t i n u o u s a c r o s s z = 0 , f ( d l = 0.

Then f ( d ) = 0 l e a d s t o t h e e i g e n v a l u e c o n d i t i o n

casyd For
:I

-I-

( a / y ) s i n y d = 0.

= 0 t h e ei.genval.u.es z g r e e w i t h t h o s e o f 'i'JI, F o r 1:c1 << 1

approximately

Tor, a c u r r e n t sys-tern i n t h e upper, n a i l t l e o f t h e E a r t h wi-!:h d=5OO km I I ! ~= 50 am, t ! ~ e g r e a - t e s t - decay - t i n e i s a p p r o x j . m a t e l y I / f i , .I ' l O 11ijn. =

The TE-decay s y s t e m s o c c u r a s t r a n s i e n t s t o f i t t h e i n i t i a l cond i t i o n s , e.g, whcn s n e x t e r n a l f i e 2 . d i s s w i t c h e d o n .

2.3,

C a l c u l a t i o n o f f,Cz)

f o r a layered structure

L e t .the h a l f - - s p a c e c o l l s i s t o f L u n i f o r m l a y e r s w i t h c o n d u c t i v i - t i e s t h e upper. edge o f l a y e r m b e i n g a t h (h = 0 ) . L e t ul., u 2 , -", u L n~ 1 t h e index 0 r e i e r t o t h e a i r half-space.

0

=o

hl=O

Then g i v e n i n z < 0 t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s o u r c e

w e have t o s o l v e ( 2 . 9 a ) .
h~-l

i.e.

L- l

f E ( z ) = . { ~ " t i w a (iz ) ) f E ( z ; . " ~

0

With t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s

and .the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t 11

I* 1

-, we

have

I n Eq.. ( 2 . 3 3 ) h
t

> 0 i s -the h e i g h t o f t h e lo!<est s o u r c e p o i n - t .

S i n c e t h e r e a r e n o upward t r - a v e l l i n g waves i n t h e l a s t l a y e r , and E b o u n d a r i e s y i e l d s t h e baclcward r e c u r r e n c e 1 - e l a t i o n s With t h e s e s t a r t i n g v a l u e s t h e c o n - t i n u i t y o f f

BL=O.. The c o l l s t a n t 6 w i l l b e s o a d j u s t e d t h a t r 7 c a n c h o o s c 1 3' I 8e 3; .

fi

across

with the abbreviation

"

+ -1

-2 '

? : 1 gm = - exp{i.a m ( 1 1 l 2

m,

m = L-I

..., 1 .

Having computed

u : ,

Eqs.

( 2 . 3 2 ) and ( 2 . 3 3 ) y i e l d

& = f ; / B o . Thus the f i e l d i s s p e c i f i e d . ~f w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n f ( 2 ) f o r z -. O o n l y , it i s n o t n e c e s s a r y <

t o calculate B :

and 6" s e p a r a t e l y . I n s t e a d o n l y t h e r a t i o m

ym

- nm / -- +

B ;

i s r e q u i - r e d . Because o f

(2.33)
4% Z

ar?d (2.32)

fE (z) i s g i v e n by

( z ) = f-{e
0

-KZ

+ y e
0

), O - - z < h s <

where y 0 i s o b t a i n e d r e c u r s i v e l y f r o m t h e r a t i o ( 2 . 3 4 a ) / (2.341s) , i.e.

s t a r t i n g w i t h yL = 0.

2.4.
,

~ a r t i c u l ' a rs o u r c e f i e l d s X t h e s e q u e l o n l y f i e l d s w i t h a p e r i o d i c time f u n c t i o n n e x p ( i w t ) a r e c o n s i d e r e d . For any f i e l d q u a n t i t y . A ( s , t ) + , we w r i t e A ( - w ) w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g r, t h a t t h e r e a l o r imaginary p a r t of A ( g , t ) exp(iwl;) i s meant. Furthermore, s i n c e o n l y t h e TE-mode i s of i n t e r e s t we s h a l l d r o p t h e s u b s c r i p t "E".

Nota -t i o n : -

I n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n an a l g o r i t h m f o r t h e c a l . c u l a t i o n of t h e $-potent i a l i n a l a y e r e d h a l f - s p a c e h a s been g i v e n . A s i n p u t o c c u r s f e ( ~ , K ; w )= f i (Krw) x p ( - K Z ), tIie r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s o u- c e potene r

t i a l . i n t.he wave-nurnber follows t h a t f- ( K , w)

0

- a$/az

s p a c e . Frolu ( 2 . 1 2 a ) , i . e . 13=grad ( a @ / a z )

i s t h e magnetic s c a l a r p o t e n t i a l . Between

and t h e s o u r c e p o t e n t i a l

be ( 2 , ~ e x i s t )

t h e f o l l o w i n g reci:1

(2.35)

SS ie(r,w)e

dx dy

- . -

General f i e l d

I f I$ i.s symmetrical. wi.th r e s p e c t t o a v e r t i c a l a x i s , i . e . f u n c t i o n of r = (x" +y2)1'2 o n l y , e4s..

------

@ is a

(2.35) and (2.36) s i m p l i f y to :

I n t h e d e r i v a t i o n of (2.35a) and (2.3Ga) t h e c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s

were r e p l a c e d by c i r c u l a r . p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s

x = rcos0, y = rsin0,

> :

= KCOS$,

K~

~siilq

and u s e was 1nad.e of t h e i d e n t i t y

2n - i ~ c r c o s (8-$1

J e
0

~ B = eJ
0

-iKrcU c's8d0-2.fcos ( ~ r c o s 0 ) c i 0 = 2 n ~ (icr)

0 0

1 1

2. f o l l o v i s t h a t i f 4 i s f u n c t i o n o f r=(x2-I-Y 1 / 2 ) 2 1/2 t h e n f o i s a f u n c t i o n o f K = (I:* f K ) I n c e r t a i n c a s e s (e.cj.

Froin ( 2 . 3 5 a ) ,

(2.3Ga)

example h! b e l o w ) , i t i s on1.y p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e p o t e n t i a l on t h e c l r l j - n d r i c a l a x i s ( r = o ) i n c l o s e d form. Then ( 2 . 3 5 a ) r e a d s

Eq.

(2.35b) c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a L a p l a c e - T r a n s f o r m

f o r which t h e

inversion is

where

i s . a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e a l c o n s t a n t ( t h u s t h a t a l l singill.arj.e t i e s o f 41 ( o , z ) a r e a t t h e l e f t of z = E ) . S i m p l e r wou.ld b e t h e u s e
E

of a t a b l e of Laplace t r a n s f o r m s . The s p e c t x a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e i s now c a l c u l a t e d . f o r s i m p l e sou-rces :

'

&) Vertica.:L m a g n e t i c dipo1.e , -

Locate t h e d i p o l e a t r

! = 4

Mz. When i t i s p r o d u c e d by means o f a s m a l l c u r r e n t l o o p t h e n c u r r e n t x a r e a o f t h e l o o p . ($5 i.s p o s i t i v e i f t h e di.rect:ion o f

sys::.em, and n e g a t i v e e l s e . )

-0

= (o,o,-h),

ki - o and l e t i.ts moment b e >

the c u r r e n t forms w i t h - a r i g h t - h a n d e d 2

From t h e s c a l a r p o t e n t i a l

follows

S i n c e 4 shows c y l i n d r i c a l symmetry, t h e resu1.t

v7e

o b t a i n front ( 2 . 3 S a ) on u s i n g

V e r kical. m a g n e t i c d i p o l e

b ) CLrcular c u r r e n t loop L e t a and I b e t h e r a d i u s and t h e c u r r e n t o f t h e l o o p . The p o t e n t i a l h a s c y l i n d r i c a l syr~.nlctry,but c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y means o f simp1.e f u n c t i . o n s o n l y o n the. a x i s r = 0. F o r t.he n~omentwe assume t h a t : t h e c u r r e n t l o o p i s i n t h e p l a n e z = o. F o r s y m n e t r y r e a s o n s t h e r e i s o n l y a Hz component on t h e a x i s .

Biot-Savart's

law y i e l d s
I

whence '

I a h 6

c4

1 a 2 A8
I

4n ( z 2 + a ) 3/2 2
.

ILZ =

. .

I a2

l\roli
Vcm)

xZ =

2 ( z 2 - k a2 ) 3 i 2 a2+e/az2. Kence i n t e g r a t i n g t w i c e on u s i n g

-av/az =
ie(m)

..

= 0 =

we o b t a i n

Now w e h a v e t o s o l v e (2.35b) , i.e.

Looking u p i n a t a b l e o f L a p l a c e t r a n s f o r m s :

Sf t h e p l a n e of t h c l o o p i s z = - h I 1 - 0 , t h e n a si1npl.e c h a n g e 1 > of o r i g i n yiel-ds

Circular current loop

I n t h e 1 i r n l . t a -+ o , I

+ m, -

M = va2 I

fixed,this leads t o the result,

( 2 . 3 7 ) for t h e v e r t i c a l ~ n a g n e t i cd i p o l e (51 ( x ) =x/2 -I- 0 ( x 3 ))

C) l maqnetj-c d:ii>ole -I I o r P z o n t a%--

IIere M = M -- and s -

a$ -az

-e

'

'

7 . -

Ms

,$ 2 =

. .

M ::

'

'

41iR3

4n R (R->z-l-11)

With t h i s r e s u l t , s u p p r e s s i n g al.1 f u r t h e r d e t a i l s t h e e v a l . u a t i o n o f (2.35) v i e l d s

d) Line current -C u r r e n t I a t y = 0, z = -h. It r e s u l t s t h e s c a l a r p o t e n t i a l

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g s o u r c e f u n c t i o n i s

Line c u r r e n t

The d e l t a f u n c t i o n . 6 (KX ) o c c u r s s i n c e t h e r e i s no d e p e n d e n c e on x .
6 ) "P1:arie
'

---

wave"' (-l e m e n t a r y \ i n d u l a - L e d ' f i e l d ) e

'

Assun:e a wavenumher rc t e n t i a l be

w and l e t t h e s c a l a r m a g n e t i c s o u r c e po-

l e a d i n g t o a magnetic f i e l d
H~ = H

c o s ( v y ) e0

1~1"

l I e = ; - T J si-n ( p l y ) e
Z
0

- 1 ~ 1 1z

sgn(w).

IIence, and

"e Q

--

I{o

2 8 ' ~ ~ f--.(~) =
0

--s i n (wy) e-

Iw(z

j.w

1 1
~5~

~ ( K ~ ) ' { ~ C+w) K
Y

6 ( ~ -w)} ,

Elementary undulated f i e l d

tghen t h e s o u r c e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as e l e m e n t a r y h a r m o n i c . f i e l d , a s i n t h i s c a s e , t h e F o u r i e r i n t e g r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (2.35) cori>plicates things only.

w e o b t a i n a u n i f o r m s o u r c e f i e l d i n y-d.i.rection For t h e i n d u c t i o n p r o c e s s a s t r i c t l y uniform s o u r c e f i e l d i s u s e l e s s s i n c e o n l y a v e r t i c a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d component i n d u c e s . Hcnce w must b e n o n - z e r o , n o m a t t e r how s m a l l . I f w e c o n f i n e o u r a t t e n t i o n

In the limi-k w
+

t o a f i n i t e p a r t o f t h e i n f i n i t e horizontal. plane, t h e dimensions of t h a t p a r t being smaller than l / l w ( , t h e n -. r m a l l y w e may p u t fo -.w = o and c a n p r o f i t from t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e r e s u l t i n g equa-

t i o n s . Such a s o u r c e f i e l d i s c a l l e d a -i - u n i f o r m quas

fie1.d. To t h e

u n r e a l i s t i c uniform f i e l d belongs t h e s o u r c e p o t e n t i a l

which can no l o n g e r b e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t e r m s o f

(2.35)

2.5 -- .

D e f i n i t i o n of t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n C (10, --

K)

The TE-potentia.1 i s

With t h i s p o t e n t i a l w e d e f i n e as t h e b a s i c t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n f o r a h a l f - s p a c e w i t h one--dimensional c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e

Note t h a t f depends on

s e p a r a t e l y v i a , the Y f u n c t i o n a s an a m p l i t u d e f a c t o r . I n t h e r a t i o f / f l t h i s f a c t o r
K X

and

d r o p s o u t and it remains o n l y t h e dependence on

K =

v,
Y

since

f i s a s o l u t i o n of (2.9a), i.e.

H w can C be determined from a. knowledge o f t h e s u r f a c e e l e c t r o o magnetic f i e l d , a t l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y ? From ( 2 . 8 a , h ) r e s u l t s

-, -I-i ~ * r I I = C U ~ Q ~Z ) = I J { ~ K ~ ' + K ~ ~ Z K ~ ( ~ dx d ~ -

- - (0

--

Let
A

H K -( -, w )
A

i ,< r - ( x , y ~ ~ ,..-w-- - dxdy = -- /I ~ I ) e

+a,

( 2 ~ -m ~ )
1
t-m

- i ~ c* r
dxdy (2.46b s p a c e . Then

E -( _ K , w ) =

g(x,y,O,w)e ( 2 ~ -m ~ )

/I

--

d e n o t e t h e s u r f a c e f i e l d s in t h e wavenumnber-frequency from ( 2 . 4 5 a , b ) ,
*

(2.46arb)

'

~ f ' .i- K~ K

f z

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l ways t o d e t e r m i n e C: a ) From t h e r a t i o bctween two o r t h o g o n a l components o f tj>h horiz -o n h a 1 e l e c t r i c and m a g n e t j . ~f i s l d (2.47a)

C

V e c t o r i a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of
E .- = -iwu
*
0

* w i t h z and

u s e of

(2.43) y i e l d s

z H -x -

o r w i t h any h o r i z o n t a l u n i t v e c t o r e

C =

..

-- A
A

(2.48)

A * -

i w y o ' ( ~ x g )* ' - . K

I n p a r t i c u l a r e = - and x e

L-

yields

(2.49a r a t i o o f v e r t i c a l and h o- i z o n t a l l ~ a g n e ' i i cf i ~ l d r

b)

Prom t h e

components (2.47a) y i e l d s i m m e d i a t e l y

c ) Froln t h e r a t i q o f i n t e r n a l t o e x t--n a l p a r t of. a lnagnetj-c er

h o r i z o n t a l component
In z < 0
.
,

f reads,
f = f
A

-KZ

-,- f +
0
A

(2.51 Then

Let

and Hx i f r o m ( 2 . 4 7 a ) and ( 2 . 5 1 )
Xxe

b e t h e s o u r c e p a r t a n d i n t e r n a l p a r t o f Hx.

Defining

s (K,

w ) = Hxi (5,'" //IS'xe

(5,6 ) (

we a r r i v e a t

.
~

The same appl-ies t o H

Y'
4-0

d) Prom t h e r a t i o of v e r t i c a l . g r a d i e n t s 'at' z =
c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i e l d compone~ltsa t z-o
A

t - o -e - th

Let

H ~ ( E , be) t h e v e r t i c a l gradie!.lt of IIx a t ~

I ' /

z = -1-0 i n t h e wave-

number

frequency domain. Then

O applying ( 2 . 4 4 ) n

Eq.

i2.47a) y i e l d s

The same a p p l i e s t o I*,,.

1

For a p p l i c a t i o n s of

(2.55) t h e s u r f a c e

v a l u e of u must be known. C can a l s o be obta.ined from o t h e r f i e l d r a t i o s involving vertical. gradients. The 111et11ods a ) and d ) a r e a l s o a p p l - i c a b l e f o r a quasi-unifozrr! s o u r c e f i e , l d ; b ) ancl c ) break down i n t h i s c a s e . The a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y of m a g n e t o t e l l u r ~ c si s d e f i n e d a s
.A

According t o (2.49a,b)

i t s re:.ation

t o C is

2 . 6 . P r o p e r t i e s of C ( W ~ K )

a) S i g n s , l i m i t i n g v a l u e s
According t o (2.43) t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n C i s d e f i n e d a s

where f s a t i s f i e s

f" ( 2 ) = ' I

K 1~ i w u 0 u ( z ) 15 ( z ) -

C has t h e dimension o f a l e n q t l ~ . . L e t

C = g
Then

ih

or

-i+ C = [ ~ [ e

( 2 . GO)

g - 0, h - 0 > >

or

0 c

<

s/2

Proof: Talce t h e comp1.e~c o n j u g a t e of ( 2 . 5 9 ) t e g r a t e o v e r z . I n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s y i e l d s

m

, mu1 tip1.y

by f and i n -

-f(o) f r X ( 0 )= D i v i s i o n by

I C [ f l 2 - i - ( ~ 2 - - i w ~ 0 0[)f l 2 1 d z . [
0

1 f'
f

(0)

leads t o the result.

The l i m i t i n g v a l u e s of C f o r w

-*

0 and

CQ

are

;a n h ( K H ) t
I

for for

W+O

I
a b s e n t , t h e n 11 i ' m , - . f

Ji.wuocr (0)
C

LO+ m

I n (2.62a) H i s t h e d e p t h of a possib1.e p e r f e c t conduc-tor. If

I jk.
( 2 , 5 9 ) v a n i s l l i n g a t z=X i s

Proof: For w=O t h e s o l u t i o n of

sinlz~c(H-z), - whence (2.G2a).

For h i g h frequencj.es f t e n d s t(

' t h e s o l u t i o ~ lf o r a uniform ha1.f-space, uniform h a l f s p a c e w i t h u

i.e. f

-. e x p { f i d l l , ~ ) ~ i e l d : y

.---

( 2 . 6 2 b ) . T h i s l i m i t i s a t t a i n e c l , if t h e p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h for a

~'(oJ,

i s s m a l l co~nparedw i t h t h e scale leng-Lh I / K of t h e e x t e r n a l f i e 1 2

and t h e

scale l.engt11 l u ( o ) / o l ( 0 ) 1 of c o r d u c t i - v i t y v a r i a t i o l ? .

b ) Computation o f -C - r a l a x e z e d h a l f - s p--f o ace

When i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d w i t h i n a l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e ,

w e h a v e t o compute a s e t o f c o e f f i c i e n t s Bf a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l . e s m
o f S e c . 2.3. These c o e f f i c i e n t s c a n b e u s e d a l s o t o e x p r e s s C:

The l a t t e r form i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e f o r K'O,

w h e r e a s a l i m i t i n g pro-

cess i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e f o r m e r o n e i n t h i s c a s e . I f w e a r e o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n C t h e n w e may p r o c e e d a s f o l l o w s : C c a n b e cons i d e r e d a s a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h . Then

where Hence,

-+ %

1 - exp{?a mdm 1 , dm
2

- hm+l-l~ m'

~2

1 n

= ~

~ 0 + o 1%

( 2 . 6 5 ) and ( 2 . 6 6 ) y i e l d

= I

-- "mCm+l~ a 1~ . u
m
L

tanh(c, d ) m in Ct a n~ - a d ) , h( ~ ~

m m

S t a r t i n g w i t h C- = l / a

baclcvrard r e c u r s i o n u s i n g ( 2 . 6 7 ) l e a d s t o

c ) .. A=rox:i.inate . structure --

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a-o n e - d i m e- i o n a l c o n + u -v i t y ns - t ic

i.e. s c a l e length of e x t e r n a l f i e l d l a r g e compared w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h (as g e n e r a l l y d o n e i n maqnetot e l l u r i c s ) t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a s i m p l e method tc c h t a i n from

I f w e c a n assume
K

= 0,

C a f i r s t approxi.mation o f t h e u n d e r l - y i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e

(Schmucker-I<uckes r e l a t i o n ) :

L e t C = g - 5-11. Then a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n u ( z ) o f u ( z ) is obt a i n e d by s e t t i n g

(2.G8)

T h i s c a n n o t b e p r o v e d rigorous1.y b u t t h e ' f o l l o w i n g a r g u m e n t s a r e i n f a v o u r o f it:

1 ) z X = g c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e d e p t h o f t h e " c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y "

. o f t h e in-phase induced c u r r e n t system.

2 ) It w i l l be shorvn below t h a t z"
3) F o r a u n i f o r m h a l f - s p a c e

c o n t i n u o u s l y i n c r e a s e s when t h e

f r e q u e n c y d e c r e a s e s . A c c o r d i n g t o a ) i t s maximum v a l u e i s 3 . and K=O w e h a v e h =

ax i s c o r r e c t i n t h i s c a s e . F o r p e r f e c t c o n d u c t i o n s u
X
+m

T. I-rence,
since

h+O.
T h i s a p p r o x i m a t e method p e r f o r m s p r r t i c u l a r l y w e l l when t h e r e i s a monotone i n c r e a s e i n c o n 6 u c t i v i . t y . The f o l l o w i n g .two f i g u r e s (P- 2 4 ) i l l u s t r a t e c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e method. d l P r o p e r t i e s o f C i n t h e comul'ex f r e q u e n c y p l a n e F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s it i s u s e E u l l t o c o i l s i d e r t h e frequency w a s a comples q u a n - t i t y . Then i n t h e coniplex f r e q u e n c y p l a n e o u t s i d e t h e p o s i -i v e i m a s i n a .>~a x i s C i s a n a n a l y t i c a l f u --t r nct i o n o f f r e q u e n c y . F o r s p r o o f m u l t i p l y (2.59) o v e r z. Then t h e i n t e g r a t i o n b y p a r t s y i e l d s

by f X and i n t e q r a t e

Hence, f o r w n o t o n t h e p o s i t i v e i m a g i n a r y a x i s f ' (0,w) p o l e s (branch c u t ) . Division of

(2.63)

cannot

v a n i s h . T h e r e a r e n e i t h e r i s o l a t e d p o l e s n o r a d e n s e s p e c t r u n of by

1 f ' ( 0 , ~1 )

yields

W c a n e a s i l y d e d u c e Eroni ( 2 . 7 0 ) t h a t e

The a p p r o x i m a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C u s i n g ( 2 . 6 0 ) . I n t h e l e f t f i g u r e .(monotone i n c r e a s e o f c o n d u c t i v i t y ) t h e z e r o o r d e r approximation i n t e r p r e t e s .the d a t a a l r e a d y complete1.y. When t h e r e i s a r e s i s t i v e l a y e r ( l e f t h a n d ) t h e z e r o o r d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n e e d s refinement.. I n t h e dott.ed l i n e a t t h e l e f t h a n d , a n approxj-mate p h a s e o f C was u s e d . T h i s a p p r o x i m a t e p h a s e h a s been o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e d o u b l e - l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f pa ( T ) ( c f . E q . 2 . 7 7 1 .

AS a c o n s e q u e n c e o f

(2.71a,b)Cis a l s o f r e e of zeros o u t s i d e t h e

p o s i t i v e imaginary a x i s .

e) D i s p e r s i o n rel.ntions .
Because o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f C , i t s . r e a : L and i m a g i n a r y p a r t a r e n o t indepc!ndent f u n c t i o n s o f f r e q u e n c y . L e t w o b e a p o i n t i n t h e u p p e r w-plane and L b e a c l o s e d c o n t o u r c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e real. a x i s and a l a r g e s e m i - c i r c l e Ln t h e l o w e r w h a l f - p l a n e . Then
1 ( ' - i L Cw 'uw ) d w r = nJ - o

~wO=w+ic

since the integrand.is analytical i n L . Due t o (2.6213) t h e l a r g e s e m i c i r c l e does n o t c o n t r i b u t e and t h e c o n t o u r c a n h e c o n f i n e d

w '-plane
D J ~ = w + ~ . E (W

t o th.e r e a l a x i s , tIere & u t wl=x and l e t

t e n d t o t h e r e a l a x i s . T.len

real,

> 0)

where

lim
r+4-0

1 -

"

'

= SIX

w)

~~+(x-w)

h a s b e e n u s e d . f d e n o t e s t h e Cauchy p r i n c i p a l v a l u e o f t h e i n t e g r a l
1.e.t f o r r e a l f r e q u e i l c i e s

Here g i s a n e v e n and h a n odd f u n c t i o n o f f r e q u e n c y , i . e .

g(-w) = ~ ( w ) P h(--w) = - h ( ~ ) . T h i s i s a consequence of ( 2 . 7 0 ) . lience a s e p a r a t i o n o f (2.72) i n

i t s r e a l a.nd i m a g i n a r y p a r t y i e l - d s

~ispersi-on elations r

D i s p e r s i o n r e l a t i o n s of t h i s k i n d o c c u r i n many b r a n c h e s of p h y s i c s . They a r e a d i r e c t consequence o f t h e c a u s a l L t y r e q u i r e m e n t . R e l a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o (2,73a.,b) e x i s t a l s o f o r modulus and p h a s e of C. Due t o (2.71a) C i s a l s o f r e e of z e r o s i n t h e lower f r e q u e n c y h a l f p l a n e . Hence t h e f u n c t i o n
. . . .

log{

C (w)

1
+

i s a n a l y t i c a l t h e r e and v a n i s h e s f o r l w l -i+w ) ( C(w) = [ ~ ( w ) l e

due t o ( 2 . 6 2 b ) . L e t (2.74)

and assume w > 0. Then t h e r e l a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o (2.73b) i s

o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e a p p a r e n t r e s i s t r i v i . t y from ( 2 . 5 7 )

where p C2.75).

= l ( ~ ( o ) . There e x i s t s a s i m p l e approximate v e r s i o n o f

I n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s y i e l d s

-J
27r
0

dlog pa(x) dlog x

'

w - x d x l o g l ~ ~ l - ,

o r since x

-1 l o g l W - '1 i s an i n t e g r a b l e f u n c t i o n pea1:ed a t w=x, w -1- X i n an a p p r o s i m a t e e v a l u a t i o n one may draw o u t of fhe i n t e g r a l t h e

>:=w

term d l o g p a j d l o g x !

. Hence

where t h e r e s u l t

h a s been used. With T =

2' W

dlogw=-dlogT.

The f i n a l r e s u l t i s

Since i n general double-logarithmic p l o t s o f pa(T)

a r e used, a f i r s t

approximation of t h e phase can immediately b e o b t a i n e d from t h e s l o p e of a sounding c u r v e . The d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y can he a s s e r t e d ' from two examples given a t t h e
.
.

l e f t . True phase i n broken l i n e s , approximate phase i n f u l l lines.

ne. w,'
-7

6' 0
4).

--__

w
I. I

. '.

-,..--/'
---.-.wc

--

The s i m p l e approximate method of i n v e r s i o n described i n c)

80.

..------,' -

m.3.

".","rn

I,.

(Schmucker-Kuckes

relation)

combined w i t h t h e approximation (2.77) p r o v i d e s an e x t r e m e l y simple t o o l t o derive a zero o r d e r app?:oximati.on of t h e t r u e c o n d u c t i v i t y from appa.rent resis&ivity.

Q I .

'/ipL' \
-I
,m
'

E a
70

!D
a

'?

v-

100

,000

IOOo3ar<

.-- 1 0,

f) I n e q u a l i t i e s f o r t h e f r e g u e n c y e p e n d e n c e o f C Cauchys formula i s

where L i s a p o s i t i v e l y o r i e n t e d c l o s e d c o n t o u r e n c l o s i n g o n l y a domain where C i s a n a l y t i c a l and t h e p o i n t w . W e choose t h e part i c u l a r c o n t o u r shown a t t h e l e f t . When t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e . . t e n d s t o i n f i n i t y t h e c i r c l e does not contribute since C (w) = 0(l/&) f o r Iwl+-. Hence t h e c o n t o u r can be axis. O the right n c o n f i n e d t o b o t h s i d e s of t h e p o s i tive-imaginary (2.79) y i e l d s hand s i d e p u t w ' = i h + ~ , E >' 0. Then

liin
E++O

- r
1
71

I m C(iA+E) dh =

x+iw

q(?,)dA X+i.w '

where q ( h ) = i n v i r t u e of

lim
E"+O

1 1T

I m C(iA-*E) >

-0

(2.71h)

. Summarizing:

The n o n - n e g a t i v i t y and 1.et

of q(X) h a s t h e consequence t h a t C must h e a

smooth f u n c t i o n of frequency. Again l e t w b e a p o s i t i v e f r e q u e n c y

DeZining

C=g-'ih.
d D f : = w - f- -

d w

df dlogw

d - -- f dl.0gT

t h e n t h e fo1lowLn.g c o n s t r a i n t s a p p l y

(2.82a1b) simply r e s u l t s when (2.80) i s s p l i t i n t o r e a l and. imagLn a r y ; i t h a s a l r e a d y been given above (Eq. (2.61 a , b ) ) proved a s f o l l o w s

. (2.83)

is

The o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s are proved i n a s i m i l a r way. There a r e o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s i n v o l v i n g second and h i g h e r d e r i v a t i v e s . I n t e r m s of a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y and phase $ Rqs. (2,83b1a) r e a d :

The s l o p e of a d o u b l e - l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y

p l o t t e d sounding c u r v e i s

Dpa/pa.

A s a consequence of

(2.85a,b) w e have alvrays

The monotone d e c r e a s e o f t h e r e a l p a r t o f C w i t h f r e q u e n c y i s a consequence of

The f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e shows d a t a ( f u l l l i n e s ) which a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t on t h e b a s i s o f one-dimensional model., s i n c e t h e c o n s t r a i n t s (2.83a, b ) a r e p a r t l y - v i o l a t e d . Then t h e l e a s t c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e d a t a a r e determined t h a t t h e i n e q u a l - i t i e s a r e s a t i s f i e d . S i n c e t h i s i s only

a necessa-ry c o r i d i t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a b i l i t y i s n o t y e t g r a n t e d .

4 CPD

CPD

g ) Dependence o f i n t e r p r e t a t - o n on wave-ru~S7er i

The f u n d a m e n t a l e q u a t i o n i s

By t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
1 = - tanh(~z)
K

it i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o

i n s u c h a way t h a t

--

r e m a i n s unchanged. Hence any C c a n f i r s t be i n t e r p r e t e d by a u n i form e x t e r n a l f i e l d (K=o) and t h e r e s u l t @ ( z ) i s t h e n t r a n s f o r m e d t o t h e t r u e c o n d u c t i v i t y by

o ( z ) = s e c h 4 ( e z ) .a (-

tan11 ( K Z ) )

(2.87)

For t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e c o n d i t i o n
1 C(O) ( K

h a s t o b e s a t i s f i e d on C ( w ) An a p p l i c a t i o n of

(2.87) i s given i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e *

When K i n c r e a s e s a t t e n u a t i o n i s i n t e r p r e t e d by g e o m e t r i c a l dampping a t t h e expense of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c damping due t o a p e r f e c t conductor.

.3... M.o.del..cal.c.ul.at.ions. o r . .tw,o-.dimension.al. s t r u c t u r e s f

.--~. ~ ~~

3 . I.'

General. ' e q u a t i o n s --

W e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g now i n d u c t i o n prbblems, where b o t h t h e c o n d u c t i -

v i t y s t r u c t u r e and t h e i n d u c i n g f i e l d a r e independent of one h o r i z o n t a l c o o r d i n a t e , s a y x. Compared w i t h Ch,. 2, t h e c l a s s of i n ducing f i e l d s h a s become more r e s t r i c t e d , h u t t h e c l a s s o f adm i t t e d c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e s h a s been e n l a r g e d . For x-independence, Maxwell's e q u a t i o n s

a r e s p l i t i n t o two d i s j o i n t s e t s

The TE-mode has no vertical electric field, ?he TM-mode has no vertical magnetic field. In the treatment of the;+? modes the use of electromagnetic potentials is not necessary since Ex and Hx can serve as pertinent potentials. For conciseness let

H: = Hx

E: = Ex
,

(3.4b,a!

Then E and H satisfy the equations

I uniform domains both equations. agree. Eq. (3.5b) resembles the n equation of heat conduction in a non-unifor15 heat conductor. The continuity of the tangential electric and magnetic field components at conductivity discontinuities leads to the conditions

E,

-an

- ..

continuous

: :

TE
TM

- 1

(3.6a) (3.613)

1 aH H, - - continuous a an

a - is the derivative in direction to the normal of the discontinuity. an

The E- and H-polarization shores very different patterns. From (3.lb), (3.2b) follows that Ex is constant in the air half-space (u=o). Hence the Tbl-mode admits only a quasi.-uniform inducing magnetic field. In contrast in the TE-mode any two-dimensional inducing magnetic field is allowed. Hence, t7e source terms to he added on the PJKS of (3.I a,b) are 1. je(y1z) and Ho 6 (z+h),

assuming t h a t t h e TM magnetic s o u r c e f i e l d s h e e t c u r r e n t a t h e i g h t z = -h,

j.s

due t o a uniforrn

h > 0. T1lj.s assun~ptj-on,however,

i s immaterial f o r t h e following.
I n t h e s e q u e l a l l f i e l d q u a n t i t i e s a r e s p l i t i n t o a normal and anoinalous p a r t , d e n o t e d by t h e s u b s c r i p t s " n u and "a" , r e s p e c t i v e l - y . The normal p a r t r e f e r s t o a one-dimensional c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e . Let u(y,zl = un(z) +
U,(Y,Z)

(3.7)

H(y,z) = H n ( z ) + H a ( y , z ) E and H are d e f i n e d as s o l u t i o n s of t h e e q u a t i o n s n n e AEn = k2 E + j n 11

-(-

(3.3b)

(3.10a)

d l - 1-1 ) = H d z > Or dz ,?2 dz n n' + m.

(0)

vanishing f o r z In v i r t u e of

(3.5a,b),

( 3 . 9 a r b ) , and ( 3 . 1 0 3 , b ) Ea and H a s a t i s f y

d i v (-1

d gradH ) = H a - 1 . a kn *

1 - - dz, k2

dIln

z > 0

I f t h e anomalous domain i s of f i n 2 t e e x t e n t , E formly i n t h e lower h a l f - s p a c e .

A t z=o H

has t o vanish uni-

forinly a t i n f i n i t y . Under t h e same condition Ha h a s t o v a n i s h u n i i s zero. a I f t h e anomalous domain i s o f i n f i . n i t e e x t e n t i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c a

+ m.

t i o n , w e c a n demand o n l y t h a t E a r H +O f o r z F o r a n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of

(3.11 a ) t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e c l i o i c e s o f

a b a s i c dornain a r e p o s s i b l e ( b o u n d a r i e s h a t c h e d ) . I n approach A, (3.11 a ) i s s o l v e d by F i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s s u b j e c t t o

t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n Ea=O o r b e t t e r s u b j e c t t o an i n p e d a n c e boundary collclition ( b e l o w ) . I n approach B (3.11a) i s s o l v e d by f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s o n l y i n t h e anomal.ous s l a b . A t t h e h o ~ i z o n t a l b o u n d a r i e s boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n v o l i c i t y t h e normal s t r u c t u r e above and below t h e s l a b a r e a p p l i e d . I approach C ( 3 . 1 1 ~ ~ ) reis duced t o an i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n o v e r t h e anon~alousdomain. These approaches w i l l now be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l s .

i
Anomalous domain

I Earth

3.2.

A i r h a l f - s p a c e and conductor. as b a s i c domain

( F i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method) F o r t h e TEand TM-mode we have t o s o l v e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equa-

t i o n s (3.Sa,b),

i.e.

w i t h t h e boundary c o n d l t i o n t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s E =E-E and a n Ha=H-HI> vanish' a t i n f i n i t y . E h a s t o be computed f o r any g i v e n n two-dimensional e x t e r n a l s o u r c e f i e l d al.ong t h e l i n e s o f Sec.2.3. The H - f i e l d belongs t o a uniform e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d .

I n t h e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l o p e r a t o r s i n a r e reduced t o f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s . For s i m p l i c i t y a d s q u a r e g r i d . w i t h g r i d ~ 1 1 t h i s assumed. C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g h c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a nodal p o i n t 0 and i t s f o u r neighbours: (3.12a,b)

Then t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f
E 4-E C CE E 1 2 3 4

(3.12a)

i n uniform subdomains y i e l d s

4Eo = ll2k2E0

or

Within uniform subdomains t h e same formula q p l i e s t o H. D i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r i f t h e n o d a l p o i n t 0 i s a t a n i n t e r f a c e . Consider a s exarrple a v e r t i c a l discontinuity: ~ e g i o ' . I.

li

Region 2

In t h e a b s e n c e o f r e g i o n 2 one can write a c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e equat i o n f o r E a t nodal p o i n t O a s

where t h e b r a c k e t e d s u p e r s c r i p t i n d i c a t e s t h e r e g i o n . I n t h e ab-sence of region 1 t h e c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e equation a t O i s

A t t h e v e r t i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y w e have because o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y of

S i n c e a l s o t h e normal g r a d i e n t o f E i s c o n t i n u o u s ,

( ( The f i e l d v a l u e s E 2 2 ) and E4 I ) a r e f i c t i t i o u s and have t o be e l i m i -

nated w i t h t h e a i d of result is

(3.16)

and ( 3 . 1 7 )

fro12 ( 3 . 1 4 )

and ( 3 . 1 5 ) . The

(1 where E2 = E2

and E4

Z4 2 ) (

Hence, t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s t o be averaged i n t h e TE-case. s i d e r t h e TM-case:

N w cono

The continui.ty of H and

1 2

dH(dn y i e l d s
0

H1

,
-1

, I ~ ( ~ ) = H ( ~ ) = I IH;l 1 =KA2) =
0

0'

-H3

from where w e o b t a i n on e l i m i n a t i n g 1-1 . 2

(1 and H4

S i m i l a r formulae h o l d f o r a h o r i z o n t a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y .

The normal v a l u e s 05 En and Hn a r e used a s s t a r t i n g a s i n i t i a l v a l u e s . A t t h e b o u n d a r i e s w e have two c h o i c e s

a ) The boundary v a l u e s a r e k e p t f i x e d , i . e . E = En' b) O r f r e e boundary v a l u e s a r e uked a s - e a n c e boundary c o n d i -t i o n , i

where n i s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e -outward normal.

(3.24)

i s o b t a i n e d under t h e assumption t h a t t h e anomalous f i e l d s

d i f f u s e s i n form o f p l a n e waves o u t w a r d s , a v a l i d approximation o n l y i f t h e l o c a l p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h i s s m a l l compared w i t h t h e s c a l e l e n g t h o f c o a d u c t i v i t y changes. It performs p o o r l y a t edges and i n i s o l a t o r s . However, b e t t e r t h e n Ea=O.

Eq.

(3.24)

y i e l d s a s c o n d i t i o n a t t h e upper edge of t h e a i r l a y e r :
'

aEa(az

= 0 Ci.e, c o n s t a n t h o r i z o n t a l magnetic f i e l d ) .

The i t e r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r a l o n q rows o r c o l u m s . G e n e r a l l y t h e GauO-Seidel i t e r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s used w i t h a s u c c e s s i v e overr e l a x a t i o n f a c t o r t o speed up convergence..

3.3.

P.nomalous s l a b a s b a s i c domain

I n p r a c t i c e i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o s o l v e t h e d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n by f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t.he t o t a l c o n d u c t o r and t h e a i r h a l f - s p a c e . I n s t e a d it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o t r e a t t h e equation only i n t h a t s l a b which c o n t a i n s t h e anomalous domain.

L e t t h e anomalous s l a b be c o n f i n e d t o t h e d e p t h r a n g e z l

z2.

Within t h i s domain w e have t o s o l v e t h e inho3nogeneous e q u a t i o n ( c o n s i d e r i n g f o r t h e moment o n l y t h e TE-case)

s u b j e c t t o two homogeneous boundary c o n d i t i o l l s a t z = z ~ T h i c hi n v o l v e a

and z 2 ,

f o r z < z and z > z 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y and account f o r n 1 t h e v a n i s h i n g anomalous f i e l d f o r z -t 2 m . Yihen ( 3 . 2 5 ) i s s o l v e d

b y f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n invol.ves a l s o t h e f i e l d

v a l u e s one g r i d p o i n t w i d t h above and below t h e anomalous s l a b . The i d e a i s t o e x p r e s s t h e s e v a l u e s i n t e r m s of a l i n e i n t e g r a l o v e r Ea a t z = z and z 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y . I > L e t V and V2 b e t h e h a l f - p l a n e s z < z l and z -- z 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

~ e Gt

(-0

r [ r ) . 2, -

r, "

" m

be G r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n s which s a t i s f y

s u b j e c t t o t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n

In V

and V 2 , E i s a s o l u t i o n o f a

N w G r e e n ' s formula f o r two-dimensions s t a t e s t h a t o

The RHS i.s a c l o s e d l i n e i n t e g r a l b o r d e r i n g t h e a r e a o v e r which t h e LIIS i n t e g r a l i s performed. I11 t h e RHS d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e outr,?ard normal is i n v o l v e d . From ( 3 . 2 8 ) and (3.26) fol.lows

I d e n t i . f y i n g U w i t h G I V w i t h Ea, (3.27)
E -

Eq.

(3.29) y i e l d s i n v i r t u e of
G ( ~ ()& I L ) d s .

I
around Vm

- a an

N w G'") o

and i t s normal d e r i v a t i v e v a n i s h a t i n f i n i t y . Hence, o n l y

t h e p a r t o f t h e l i n e i n t e g r a l a l o n g t h e a x i s z = z m contrihut-.es. a a a P o r m=? : a - - m=2 : - = - - a z ' - az' 2n an

Hence,

Because of Defining

(3.26)

Eq.

(3.30) depends o n l y on t h e d i f f e r e n c e y-yo.

q .

(3.30) reads s h o r t e r

F o r a l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e i n Vm, t h e k e r n e l s R ( m ) ' a r e e a s i l y d e t e r mined:

L e t u s f i r s t c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e m = 2. Assume t h a t t h e r e are L u n i f o r m l a y e r s below z = z 2 w i t h conz =o z=zl

'

d u c t i v i t i e s (3 I ' (3 2~ * s t a1,r upper edges a t z = h l r h2,

..., hL

and

(hl = z 2 ) . I n a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e v e r t i c a l g r i d w i d t h z 0 - z2 w i l l be s o s m a l l t h a t zo i s i n t h e f i r s t u n i f o r m l a y e r . Then a s o l u t i o n o f (3.26) h a v i n g t h e c o r r e c t s i n g u l a r i t y is

z=z,=h,

------

(3

I
r ,

------

'.

4
'

z=z

?=h
U

-2

.,

z=h3

IIowever, t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n ( 3 . 2 7 ) i s n o t y e t s a t i s f i e d . and t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e h a s n o t y e t been t a k e n i n t o account. To a c h i e v e t h i s l e t i n z 2-< z- z ( <0

m . o: (z-z ) -a ( z - z ) r /--) =1 6 0 i e 1 r 2 e 1 l c o s h (y-yo)dX -0

(3.33a

m=z,
with

+ BL

..., L;
= 0,

hJ. .=- Eq.

*+-l

BL = 1 t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s B ;

(3.33a)

s a t i s f i e s already (3.27). S t a r t l n g

a r e determined from t h e

c o n t i n u i t y c o n d i t i o n s f o r G ( 2 ) a c r o s s i n t e r f a c e s as i n d i c a t e d i n

Sec. ( 2 . 3 ) :

Having d e t e r m i n e d B;, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6 o and 6L a r e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between upward (downward) t r a v e l l i n g waves o f ( 3 . 3 3 a ) ar:d (3.33b) a t z = zo must b e d u e t o t h e p r i m a r y e x c i t a t i o n g i v e n by ( 3 . 3 2 ) . Hence,

4.

whence

From ( 3 . 3 0 ~ ~ )

S i n c e (3.35) i n v o l v e s o n l y t h e r a t i o B1(B1, i n terms o f t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n C ' a t z =

+ --

i t c a n be e x p r e s s e d jz2 ( c f . (2.64)):

F o r a u n i f o r m h a l f s p a c e 13.35) i s s i m p l y

x (2. .

1 . ~ y - y ~ . , . z= ; 1 e ~ );

-a1

(2-2

(zo-z2)k cos~(y-y~)iix= 1 ~ (kl 1

.

r:- -0 [. [ r-r.

. . .

. .

l_r_-hll

F o r kl + 0 ( i s o l a t o r ) t h i s y i e l d s

The case m = 1 can be treated in a quite analogue way. If the d anomalous slab extens till the surface, i.e. z1 = 0, the pertinent kernel is easily derived from (3.36a):

(Because of (3.30a) there has been a change of sign.1 If there are more normal layers (in addition to the air half-space), the problem is treated as for m = 2, with the air half-space as + last (L-th) layer, we have to calculate 6L and hence B separately. ; We can't use C.

The kernels K (m) are nicely peaked functions. The halfwidth is approximately 2[zm-zo[, i.e. ttrice the vertical grid width. For an insulator the tails are comparatively long (-l/y2), for a conductor, an exponential decrease is inferred from (3.36). In general. two points to the left and the right of the central point will give a
,

satisfactory approximation:

where

h /2 CO y: 3h /2 (m)= JY ~ ( ~ ) ( u , z ~ ) d u , ) = pp K(~)(U,U~ 'm)=2 i K(~) (u,zo)du, p1 Po 3h /2 0 Y

J2

PWi - Pi# C pi = 1, hy = horizontal griqwidth. I

(3.38) expresses in any application of the finite difference formu1 the anoma1.ous part of the electric field outside the anomalous slab in terms of anomalous .field values at the boundary. At the vertical boundaries the impedance boundary condition (3.24) is applied. So far only the TE-case has been considered. The TI$-mode can be handled similarly, taking only the different boundary condition into account. The approprate formulas can be worked out as an exercise.

3 . 4 . Anomalous r e g i o n a s b a s i c domain
I n t e q r a l e q u a t i o n method I n t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n a p p r o a c h Maxwell's e q u a t i o l - G a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n f o r t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d o v e r t h e anomalous domain. With t h e u s u a l s p l i t t i n g 2 E = En + E ~ , k 2 = k n o = \ + V a'

k a' 2

w e have
AE = k 2 n

+ i w v0 j

(3.39)

o r subtracting

L e t Gn b e G r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n f o r t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e , i . e .
AG ( r Ir) = k i ( g ) ~ ~ ( & l ~& ( L - ) n - o -

- 5)'

G (r [ r ) c a n b e c o n c e i v e d a s t h e e l e c t r i c , f i e l d o f a u n i t l i n e

n -o -

.current placed a t

and o b s e r v e d a t r .

M u l t i p l - y ( 3 . 4 1 ) by Gn,

s u b t r a c t and i n t e s j r a t e w i t h ( 3 . 4 2 ) by E a r r e s p e c t t o - o v e r t h e whole s p a c e : It r e s u l t s

G r e e n t s t h e o r e m (3.29) y i e l d s

s i n c e Ea and Gn v a n i s h a t i n f i n i t y . Hence,

i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o (3.43)

E i n s t e a d of Ea,we o b t a i n t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n

I n ( 3 . 4 4 ) , t h e inhomogerleous t e r n En c a n b e computed f o r a g i v e n
n o r m a l s t r u c t u r e and g i v e n e x t e r n a l f i e l d i n a well--known way. I t r e m a i n s t o d e t e r m i n e the k e r n e l . G 11 (-a [- ) . I t s a t i s f i e s t h e r e c i r r prdcdty r e l a t i o n

i . e . s o u r c e and r e c e i v e r are i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . F o r a p r o o f w r i t e ( 3 . 4 2 ) f o r G ( r 1 r t ) and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g e q u a t i o n f o r G ( r1 Y* ) : n -a 1 - 1 M u l t i p l y t h e s e e q u a t i o n s c r o s s w i s e by G ( r (r' and Gn (rolr', sub) ) n - t r a c t and i n t e g r a t e o v e r t h e f u l l s p a c e . Then t h e r e s u l t i s obt a i n e d on u s i n g G r e e n ' s t h e o r e m .

For a sol.ution of
--O

(3.44) w e have t o p u t a l i n e c u r r e n t a t each p o i n t

o f t h e anomalous domain and h a v e t o compute t h e r e s u l t i n g e l e c -

t r i c f i e l d a t e a c h p o i n t o f t h i s domain r e p l a c i n g i t s anomaious s t r u c t u r e by t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y . Assume a r e c t a n g u l a r anomalous d o n ~ a i nwLth NY c e l l s i n . y - d i r e c t i o n and iqZ c e l l s i n z - d i r e c t i o n . B e c a u s e o f h o r i z o n t a l i s o t r o p y t h e f i e l d d e p e n d s i n h o r i z o n t a l d.irect i o n o n l y on t h e d i s t a n c e between s o u r c e axid r e c e i v e r . Hence, w e need f i e l d v a l u e s o n l y f0r.N.Y h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e s . Due t o t h e l a y e r i n g t h e r e i s n o i s o t r o p y i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . H e r e we h a v e t o p u t t h e l i n e c u r r e n t i n t o t h e c e n t e r o f e a c h c e l l . Because o f
r e c i p r o c i t y t h e s o r r e s p o n d i n g f i e l d v.alues have t o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n and below t h e d e p t h o f t h e s o u r c e . Hence, f o r t h e k e r n e l Gn a t o t a l of NY

TNZa(NZ+l) f i e l d v a l u e s h a s t o b e c a l c u l a t e d .

A s e c o n d s e t of k e r n e l s i s r e q u i r e d which t r a n s f o r m on u s i n g ( 3 . 4 4 )

t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e anomalous domain i n t o t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e -

t i c s u r f a c e f i e l d f o r a l l t h r e e components E x r H y r H z The number o f r e q u i r e d k e r n e l d a t a d e p e n d s on t h e r a n g e where t h e f i e l d i s t o b e ev~luated.

It r e m a i n s t o c a l c u l a t e G (r ir) f o r a l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e . Assume L n -a l a y e r s w i t h c o n d u c t i v i t i e s oo = 0, a l , . . . r csL and u p p e r e d g e s

h,

~ 2 '"

' I

hL' hL+,

O0.

L e t t h e s o u r c e and o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t b e p l a c e d i n t h e m-th and pl a y e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and l e t i n t h e m-th layer

6 A-f-(z), o m m
+ . 6 LF3-f m ( Z ) , m

+ +

z < z
Z

> -

A .

and n a G / a z a c r o s s i n t e r f a c e s y i e l d s t h e f o r w a r d and backward r e c u r r e n c e n relations

L

s o u r c e s i n z < 0 and i n z - zo i f z i s i n t h e L-th l a y e r , > 0 = B = 0 . With t h e s e s t a r t i n g v a l u e s t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f G '

and 6= c a n b e s o a d j u s t e d t h a t : A

= BL = 1 . S i n c e t h e r e a r e no

B-=(l+u

mi- I

- + + /am)qm
+
m

Bm,~l+(li-am+l/amlgm m t l , B

- 4

m = L-I,

...,
...f

1-1

with

g-=I / 2 ,
0
)J

g-= ( I / 2 ) expf'am (hmtl -11

= L
110

)If

m = I,

L-I. The

I n the case

recurrence is required f o r t h e B-terms.

c o e f f i c i e n t s 60 and 6L a r e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e f a c t t h a t i n ( 3 . 4 6 ) > t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e upward (downward) t r a v e l l i n g waves f o r z -- zo and z - z must b e d u e t o t h e p r i m a r y e x c i t a t i o n g i v e n by <

0

w h e r e f - = f - ( z o ) . The n o m i n a t o r ( i n c l u d i n g a ) i s a Wronskian o f
?J

t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

Fr

which i s a c o n s t a n t t h u s e n s u r i n g r e c i p r o c i t y .

(Proof?)

I n a p p l i c a t i o n s the anomalous domain i s s p l i t i n t o r e c t a n g u l - a r c e l l s ,

the e l e c t r i c f i e l d i s assumed t o be c o n s t a n t w l t h i n e a c h c e l l . Then

C3.44) r e d u c e s t o a s y s t e m o f l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s , which i s e a s i l y s o l v e d b e c a u s e o f i t s dominant d i a g o n a l d u e t o t h e l o g a r i t h m i c s i n g u l a r i t y o f t h e k e r n e l s . E i t h e r d i r e c t e l i m i n a t i o n o r GauB-Seidel i t e r a t i o n can b e applied, t h e l a t t e r being i n general quickly c o n v e r g e n t . When E i s assumed t o be c o n s t a n t w i t h i - n e a c h c e l l . , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r t h e k e r n e l i s e a s i l y e f f e c t e d by a d d i n g i n ( 3 . 4 6 ) the factor
*

4 s i n (Xhy/2) s i n h ( a , h / 2 ) / ( X U 1 . . . 1- z " , 1 _ <'_ .

_ I .

r .

, _ __,, -

The i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n method f o r t h e H - p o l a r i z a t i o n f o r three-dimensional

case looks

s l i g h - t l y nlore c o m p l i c a t e d . T h i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t e v e n s t r u c t u r e s Maxiqell's e q u a t i o n s l.oo?c simp1.e when f o r m u l a t e d f o r - w h e r e a s i n t h e 2 - f o r m u l a t i o n a d d i t i o n a l g r a E, dien'ts of t h e conductivity arise:

The p e r t i n e n t e q u a . t i o n f o r H - p o l a r i z a t i o n 1 d i v (- gradB) = iwpoH

is (3.5)

i.e.

(3.48)

with t h e usual s p l i t t i n g

and t h e a d d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s

t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e normal and anomalous p a r t a r e

-(---

d l d d z a n d z Hn ) = i w l l o Hn ,

Hn ( o ) = H~

and d i v ( p l l gradHal = iwpoHa

d i v ( p a gradH)

This e q u a t i o n corresponds t o (3.41) f o r t h e E - p o l a r i z a t i o n case. Green's f u n c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t o (3.51) i s d e f i n e d a s

Physically G x-axis.

1 1

c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d d u e t o a n

i n f i n i t e s t r a i g h t l i n e of o s c i l l a t i n g magnetic d i p o l e s along t h e M u l t i p l y (3.51) by Gn and (3.52) by IIa, s u b t r a c t and i n t e g r a t e o v e r

t h e whole s p a c e . Then

From the generalized Green's theorem

av I ${u - a 11

au v - Ids an

follows that the LHS of (3.53) vanishes. Applying (3.54) also to the KHS of (3.53) we obtain, introducing Ha = N - Hn: r 7

This is an integral equation for H It call be cast in a slightly a different form, which is particularly suitable for applications since the high degree of singularity due to a two-fold differentiation of Gn at r = r is removed. Because of

-a

div(p agrad~~)=-{iwp~G~-6 (r-r ) 3+pllgradGnegrad p / , (a") -0 "n

Eq.

(3.55) reads alternatively

The kernel. of the integral equation consists of two parts. The first part takes account of the changing concentration of current lines in anomalous domains. It is a volume effect. The second effect results from the bending of current lines where conductivity changer It is essentially a surface effect. In the case of discontinuous changes in conductivity, which is the most common assumption, (3.56) needs a slight modification. Assul~c that the anomalous domain consists of rectangular cells, where the conductivity is allowed to differ from cell to cell. H is assumed to be constant in each cell.

Then t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n c e l l (i, and 1 j) t o the integral

contribu-tes

It h a s b e e n u s e d t h a t H and p E a r e c o n t i n u o u s a c r o s s i n t e r f a c e s . an The c o n t r i b u t i o l l f r c m t h e i + i j + I interface is

The i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n i s decomposed i n t o a s e t o f l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e Ha-values a t e a c h c e l l . The e l e c t r i c f L e l d i s t h e n o b t a i n e d . by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g ( 3 . 5 6 ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f E ~ It r e m a i n s t o c a l c u l a t e Gn. A t z = 0 G h a s t o sat.i.sfy t h e b o u n d a r y n c o n d i t i o n o f Ha, i . e . Ha = 0, : Gn = 0 . The b o u n d a r y c o n d i . t i o n s a t interfaces are G a n d ( l / c r ) a ~ ~ / acz n t i n u o u s . Assume a q a i n L u n i f o r m o n and upper edges a t , l a y e r s w i t h c o n d u c t i v i t i e s o l , 02,
. . . I

hl = 0 , h 2 ,

hLI h

~ 4 . 1

-'.

...

OL

L e t t h e f i e l d i n t h e m-th

l a y e r be

where

Yo

and y

can again be s o adjusted t h a t C ;

I , and Gn + 0 f o r z + m = 1 S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e s e i n i t i a l v a l u e s , t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s y i e l d
z = 0 requires then C

= DL = 1 .

= 0 for Gn + demands DL = 0

t h e f o r w a r d and backward r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n s

where
@

~n

a /a
in

c 1 and gn, = - exp{?a m 2

h -h m 1 )

p i s t h e s o u r c e l a y e r . T h e r e i s n o r e c u r r e n c e r e q u i r e d . f o r t h e C-

term i f

= 1 and f o r t h e D - t e r m s

i f y = L.

The f r e e f a c t o r s f o l l o w a g a i n frorn t h e s o u r c e . r e p r e s c n t a t i o n

which must a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e f o r upward and downward t r a v e l - l i n g waves a t z = z

0

. Hence,

With t h e p r e s e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f i e l d Gn s a t i s f i e s a g a i n t h e r e c i p r o c i t y r e l a t i o n G . ( r Ir) = G ( r 1 r ) 1 -0 1 n - -0

(Proof?)

4 . Model 4.1.

c a l c u l a t i o n s . f o r tl1.r,ee--d~nei~sioi~a1.c t u r e s stru

I n t r o-c t i o n du

I n t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e t h e TE- and TM-mode become mixed and cannot l o n g e r be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . N w t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n o f o r a v e c t o r f i e l d i n s t e a d o f a s c a l a r f i e l d i s t o be s o l v e d . I n numerical s o l u t i o n s q u e s t i o n s of s t o r a g e and computer t i m e become i m p o r t a n t . Assume a s example t h a t i n approach A a b a s i c domain w i t h 20 c e l l s i n each d i r e c t i o n i s chosen. I n t h i s c a s e , o n l y t h e s t o r a g e of t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d v e c t o r would r e q u i r e 48000 l o c a t i o n s . For an i t e r a t i v e improvement o f one f i e l d component a t l e a s t 0.0005 s e c a r e needed f o r each c e l l . T h i s y i e l d s 1 2 sec f o r a complete i t e r a t i o n , and 2 0 min f o r 100 i t e r a t i o n s . T h i s a p p e a r s t o be t h e ].east

t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s model. Hence methods f o r a r e d u c t i o n of comp u t e r time a n d . s t o r a g e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r e c i a t e d i n t h i s c a s e . The e q u a t i o n t o be s o l v e d i s cur1213(- ) r where

-t

k 2 (- )E (- ) = - i ~ l (g)~ ~ ~ r- r i

k2.(r) = i ~ p ~ c ( g ) .

1 (r) i s t h e source c u r r e n t density. -e After t h e s p l i t t i n g

where E

-1 1

i s t h a t s o l u t i o n of
-11

curlZE (r)

- +

k 2 ( r ) F , ( r ) = -impo& n--n-

(4.3)

which v a n i s h e s a t i n f i n i t y , we o b t a i n f o r t h e anomalous f i e l d t h e two a l t e r n a t i v e e q u a t i o n s c ~ r l .+ ~k2E ~ -a n-a

=

k2E a

Eq.

(4.4a)

i s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e volume i n t e g r a l o r i n t e g r a l

e q u a t i o n approach, Eq. f a c e i n t e g r a l approach.

(4.4b) i s t h e p o i n t or-' s t a r t i n g f o r t h e s u r -

4.2.

I n 3 --a l e q u a t i o n method - rbe a s o l u t i o n o f

A

G r r L e t -1. ( --a [-- ) , i = 1 , 2 , 3

c u r 1 2 -I (--0 -) + kn ( -) --I(--0 - = z i 6 ( g - % ) , .c . r l r 2 r G . r Ir) v a n i s h i n g a t i n f i n i t y . Here,

A

, . the x. are u n i t vectors

h

(4.5) along t h e

c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e axes: x =x, -1 E G r -a ( r ) and (4.4a) by - . (-0 - and 1 s p e c t t o - o v e r t h e whole s p a c e . r

-l h

I?:)

x -2

14u'iul&31y ( 4 . 5 ) by i n t e g r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e with r e G r e e n ' s v e c t o r theorem

1, z3 =
A

2.

where d-r i.s a volume e l e m e n t , dA a s u r f a c e e l e m e n t and ward normal v e c t o r , y i e l d s

1 1

t h e out-

since

and G

n e n t s and i n t r o d u c i n g - i n s t e a d o f E E -a

-i

v a n i s h a t i n f i n i t y . A f t e r combining a l l t h r e e compo--

, the

vector i n t e g r a l equation

w ( j- g t g ) d ~ r ( 4 . 7 ) J
-i s o b t a i n e d . Here
i s Green's t e n s o r b e i n g defined a s
A

%
1

t(r I r ) = C
--O

x.G. (r [ r ) = Z G1.3 (-0. I--) -1 -3 . . r r x: x j=1 i= I -1-1 -0 - i r

( u s i n g d y a d i c n o t a t i o n ) . The t e n s o r e l e m e n t s G . . p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : G i j (r [- ) i s t h e j - t h _o r i n x.-direction,

=7

admit a s i m p l e

e l e c t r i c f i e l d coin-

p o n e n t o f an o s c i l l a t i n g e l e c t r i c di-pole o f u n i t moment p o i n t l n g t h e p o i n t o f o b s e r v a t i o n i s -. Note t h a t t h e f i r s t s u b s c r i p t and r argument r e f e r t o t h e s o u r c e , t h e second s u b s c r i p t and argument t o t h e r e c e i v e r . Because of t h e fundamental r e c i . p ~ : o c i t y i n e l e c t r o m a g ~ ~ e t l . s ms,o u r c e and o b s e r v e r p a r a m e t e r s a x e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , i . e . placed i n t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e a t -

&;

r For a p r o o f r e p l a c e i n (4.5) r by -' , w r i t e an analogous e q u a t i o n

for G . ( r l r l ) ,
-3

d i f f e r e n c e wit11 r e s p e c t t o r' o v e r t h e whole s p a c e , and o b t a i n ( 4 . 9 ) on u s i n g (4 .G) written

--

m u l t i p l y c r o s s - w i s e by G

-j

and Gi,

integrate the

Due t o (4.9)

, the

equation (4.7) i s alternatj.vely

Eq.

(4.7) l n v o l v e s i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e r e c e i v e r ,

(4.10) r e q u i r e s i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s o u r c e . The k e r n e l G and t h e inhomogeneous t e r m

Ell

of t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n

( 4 . 7 ) o r (4.10) depend o n l y on t h e normal. c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e . To d e t e r m i n e t h e k e r n e l replace first t h e conductivity within

t h e anomalous domain by i t s normal val-ues. Then p l a c e a t each p o i n t o f . t h e domain s u c c e s s i v e l y two n ~ u t u a l l yp e r p e n d i c u l a r h o r i z o n t a l and one v e r t i - c a l d i p o l e and c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s u l t i n g v e c t o r f i e l d s a t each p o i n t of t h i s domain. A t a f i r s t g l a n c e t h e work involved a p p e a r s t o b e p r o h i b i t i v e , b u t i t i s s h a r p l y reduced by t h e reciprociky (4.9) tensor
G

and t h e i s o t r o p y of t h e normal conductor i n h o r i z o n (4.9)

t a l d i . r e c t i o n . Because of xx
G

, from

t h e elements o f G r e e n ' s

xy

xz

t h e t h r e e elements Gxz
G

Gxy'

Gyz need n o t t o be c a l c u l a t e d when

G G i s computed. From t h e remaining s i x elements GY Y has zy' y x r zy t h e same s t r u c t u r e a s G o n l y r o t a t e d through 90'. The same rexx' l a t i o n h o l d s between G and GZx. Hence, t h e r e a r e o n l y t h e f o u r zY independent elements G G G ( s a y ) . The p a r t i c u l a r XX' yx' G Z x r zz symmetry of t h e Gxxr Gyx, Gzz-conponent i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e re-

ciprocity (4.9)

t h e n shows t h a t t h e s e components need t o be eva1ua.-

t e d o n l y f o r p o i n t s of o b s e r v a t i o n above s o u r c e p o i n t s . Consider

f o r example a v e r t i c a l d i p o l e a t xo=yo=O, zo. Then ( 4 . 9 ) y i e l d s

Because o f t h e i s o t r o p y o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i n h o r i z o n t a l di.recti.on (4.11 ) i s a l t e r n a t i v e l y w r i t t e n

GZZ ( O , O , z O I ~ , y , ~= G Z Z ( O , O , Z ~ - X ~ - Y ~ Z ~ ) . )

Now, G Z Z h a s c i r c u l a r symmetry around t h e z - a x i s .

Hence,

The e l e m e n t G Z x i s needed f o r a l l z and zo. Assume a r e c t a n g u l a r anomal.ous domain, which i s decomposed i n - t o c e l l s w i t h q u a d r a t i c horizontal cross-section.
I t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o pose t h e d i p o l e s i n

one c o r n e r o f t h e ano&aly i n t h e ( x , y ) - p l a n e . Then assuming NX, N Y ,

N Z ce1.l.s i n x , y , z - d i r e c t i o n

t h e t o t a l number of r e q u i r e d k e r n e l s i s

There i s s t i l l a r e d u c t i o n up t o a f a c t o r 2 p o s s i b l e , i f i n s t e a d of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g conponents o n l y some a u x i l i a r y f u n c t i o n s depending o n l y on t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e from t h e sourced a r e cadculated

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g k e r n e l s a r e inost e a s i l y computed u s i n g a sepalzat i o n i n t o TE- and Tbl-fields a s done ,in S e c t i o n 1 . L e t t h e normal s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t of L uniform l a y e r s w i t h conducL w i t h upper edges a t z = h m = I, tivities 5 , m = 1, m in (h = 0 ) . 1 The Green v e c t o r GL s a t i s f i e s i n t h e m-th l a y e r t h e e q u a t i o n
,

...,

...,L

tie t r y a s o l u t i o n i n t h e form

where @

c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e TM-potential and Qi

t o t h e TE-potential.

According t o Sec. 2.1, a t h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r f a c e s @ and @ s a t i s f y t h e continuity conditions

041

=I

a@

'4,

a$

continuous
$ J

There i s no c o u p l i n g between d i f f e r e n t i a l equations

and @ a c r o s s boundari-es. Within

uniform l a y e r s , b u t o u t s i d e s o u r c e s 4 and $ s a t i s f y i d e n t i c a l
7 '

-* -.

The behaviour o f 4 and $ n e a r s o u r c e p0i.nt.s can be o b t a i n e d from

. .

t h e p a r t i c u l a r forms, which t h e s e f u n c t i o n s show i n a uniform wholespace : -kR

.

Gij -a

. ( r .[r) = (k28ij-a2 jaxiay

le
' 4nr\k2 j

~ = l r -a r l -

(4.15)

For a d i p o l e i n z - d i r e c t i o n t h i s i s e q u a l t o -kR a e-kR = c u r l 2 ( z - 1 I e = (k" - - grad-) G -z a~ 4Ta2 - 4a~k'

-

since

A ( e - k R / @ ~ r= ) c 2 e-kR / (4aR) ) ~l

Comparison o f

(4.16)

and (4.12) shows t h a t f o r a whole s p a c e

The absence of a T E - p o t e n t i a l i s c l e a r from p h y s i c a l r e a s o n s , s i n c e t h e magnetic f i e l d o f a v e r t i c a l . d i p o l e must b e c o n f i n e d t o h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s ( i . e . no v e r t i c a l . magnetic f i e l d , which can only b e produced by a T E - f i e l d ) . Using Somrnerfeld's i n t e g r a l , C4.17) i s w r i t t e n

The f5.el.d o f a h o r i z o n t a l e l e c t r i c d i p o l e ( i n x - d i r e c t i o n , b o t h an e l e c t r i c and magnetic component i n z - d i r e c t i o n .

TM-

s a y ) has
9+
,%. Ji

Hence, a

and T E - p o t e n t i a l a r e needed.

Since
--kl?. m - a /z-z a 2 4Jx=--ya 2 -=-1 G =-(- a 2 + -7) -e I I A2e Xz ax2 ay 4 1 ~ k axaz R 4ak20

]
O

J~(Xr)dX cos$

xsiqn(z-z )
0

and

w e have
J, (Xr)dXcos$
s i g n (z-zo) (4.19)

and from

then follows

With t h i s knowledge of t h e b e h a v i o u r of $,, whole-space, obtained.

,@ ,

QX

i n t h e uniform

t h e s e f u n c t i o n s f o r a l a y e r e d medium can be e a s i l y

Let i n t h e m-th l a y e r hm < z < hmt1

where

~ ~ A i f i

-1-

z < z0

where ~

+
~

-I-

BI ~

> fz i z o
= h 2 - t k 2 . Then s t a r t i n g w i t h

and

f-.

+ = n~
+

ko

in

(z-h

n~

) I l am 2

1, A =O, B = O r B L = l 1 C = I ,
0

t L

C = O , D =01 D = I . 0 JJ 1 ,

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s ( 4 . 1 3 ) l e a d t o t h e r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n s

where = e ~ p I + - n ~ ( h m )}(XI h g- = I f 2 and y i s t h e l a y e r of t h e ~+~o sou-rce. In t h e c a s e y = L t h e r e i s no r e c u r r e n c e ' r e q u i r e d f o r t h e

B and D t e r m s .
z

gi

..

The f r e e f a c t o r s are d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e u s u a l way

simply by c c n ~ p a r i n gupwards and dowriwards t r a v e l l i n g \,raves a t

--

t a k i n g t h e s o u r c e terms ( 4 . 1 8 )
Fr

Dropping t h e s u b s c r i p t y on

, k2

+ - ( 4 . 2 0 ) i n t o accoun-t.
I

c o n c i s e n e s s , w e o b t a i n from t 4 , 2 1 ) and (4.18)

U'

8;

Bi, V

C'

D',

fi for V

whence

where f- meacs f t (zo)

. From

(4.22) and (4.20) f o l l o w s

whence

Because o f

(4.19)

+x i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s a c r o s s z = z o

. Hence

A f t e r having determined Q z r

VJ,;

@,, G r e e n ' s t e n s o r

G i s obtained

from ( 4 . 1 2 ) . Al.so r e q u i r e d i s t h e magnetic f i e l d i n z < 0 . Only t h e TE-part of a h o r i z o n t a l d i p o l e ' c o n t r i b u t e s .

Let P

r l r ) , i = l r 2 be t h e magnetic f i e l d a t r due t o a d i p o l e -i (-0 i n x -direction a t r Then i n z - 0 < i --o

1?$) = c u r l 2 (" *0) = g r a d z .

0 -3.

-1

a*i
az

N w t h e k e r n e l s f o r t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n ( 4 . 7 ) a r e determined a.nd o
it remains t o d i s c u s s how t h i s e q u a t i o n i s sol-ved i n p r a c t i c e . The

s i m p l e s t way c e r t a i n l y i s t o decompose t h e anomalous d0lr.ai.n i n t o a s e t of N r e c t a n g u l a r c e l l s and t o assume t h a t t h e e l - e c t r i c f i e l d

i s c o n s t a n t w i t h i n each c e l l . Then t h e r e r e s u l t s from ( 4 . 7 ) a s e t o f 3 V l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r 3 N unknown$. The system h a s t h e form 1

x where - i s t h e v e c t o r of unknown f i e l d components, & t h e m a t r i x of c o e f f i c i e n t s and 5 t h e g i v e n v e c t o r of t h e normal e l e c t r i c f i e l d v a l u e s . A d i r e c t i n v e r s i o n of t h i s m a t r i x i s o n l y f e a s i b l e f o r

N < 50 ( s a y ) , because of t h e l a r g e amount of s t o r a g e r e q u i r e d . Hence

i t e r a t i v e methods must be used i n g e n e r a l . The simpl.est way would be t o s t a r t an i t e r a t i v e procedure w i t h

x0 -

T h i s sequence of a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , however, converyes o n l y A i f t h e e i g e n v a l u e of =z5 w i t h t h e l a r g e s t modulus h a s a modulus l e s s

q. . .

t h a n 1, a c o n d i t i o n which i s c e r t a i n l y n o t s a t i s f i e d i f cr a i .s l a r g e .
B e t t e r convergence p r o p e r t i e s shows t h e GauB-Seidel

i t e r a t i v e scheme,

u s i n g d u r i n g i t e r a t i o n a l r e a d y t h e updated approximation and a successive overrelaxation factor:

L e t t h e components of - be aik. &

Then ( 4 . 2 8 )

reads

Then a' new approximation to xi is obtained by

1

xi -xi

new- old,-

R --{ 1-a.

new aikxk li k=l

C

i-I

+ c

3N

aikxk old

k=i

xold i +gi}

(4.29)

The successive overrelaxation factor R > 1 has to be chosen suitably. In many cases R = I (i.e. no overrelaxation) is already a good choice. If the GauB-Seidel method does not converge then one can apply a s-pectruindisplacement technique: As already mentioned, simple iteration without updating is only convergent, if the largest modulus of the eigenvalues is smaller than 1. Eq. (4.28) is equivalent to . - x = (A al)x + ax + 5 -

The iterative procedure (4.30) will be convexgent, if a can be chosen in such way that the eigenvalues of - are of 1aodu1.u~iess B than 1. If A is an eigenvalue of - then A A - 1 is an eigenvalue of B. Consider for example the following situation that A has negative real eigenvalues from 0 to Amax, lXrnax > 1. Then a choice of a = - IXmax[/2 is appropriate. The condition

is then satisfied for all eigenvalues A. The requirements which m has satisfied can be put in that form that a circle around a has to include all eigenvalues of A but has to exclude the point 1 . The following figure illustrates the case stated above. This case applies approximately to the three-dimensional modelli problem, where at least the largest eigenvalues are for a higher conducting insertion to a good approximati.on negative real. For a poor conducting insertion the largest eigenvalues are essentially positive, hut smaller than 1.

4 . 3 . The s u r f a c e i n t e y r a l approach t o t h e m o d e l l i n g problem

I n t h e s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l approach, w i t h i n t h e anolr[alous s l a b t h e e q u a t i o n (4.4b) , i.e.

cur-2~ + k 2 ~ =
-a .-a
'

k 2 ~ a-n

i s s o l v e d by f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s o r a n e q u i v a l e n t method. The req u i r e d f i e l d v a l u e s one g r i d p o i n t w i d t h above t h e upper h o r i z o n t a l boundary a t z = z of and below t h e lower boundary a t z = zL a r e 1 e x p r e s s e d a s s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l s i n terms o f t h e t a n g e n t i a l component a t z = z 1 and z 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Le-t V and V2 be t h e h a l f - s p a c e s z < z and z > z r e s p e c t i v e l y , 1 1 m = 1.2 be t h e p l a n e s z = z L e t C!mi ( r r , r E Vm. and l e t S mr in 1 -0 -0 r E vm U S be a s o l u t i o n of
~

ga .

(i=1,2,3;

m=1,2) s a t i s f y i n g f o r r

t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n

In Vl and V 2 , Ea i s a s o l u t i o n of
cur12i3 -a M u l t i p l y (4.34) by G ! ~ ) , r e s p e c t t o - o v e r Vm, r for r
-t

k2 -a = 0 E n

(4.32) by E , i n t e g r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h -a and o b t a i n on u s i n g (4.61, (4.33) and ga + 0

-:

'

-0'

Vm,

or i n tensor notation
A

E ( r ) = ( - I ) ~ J url c -a --o

(r0 I r l ; { z x -a ( r ) } d ~ - E

m '
3
where

,-. x . c u r l G .(m) 1 1

Eqs.

(4.35aIb) admit a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e f i e l d values o u t s i d e

t h e anomalous l a y e r i n t e r m s o f t h e b o u n d a r y v a l u e s o f t h e cont i n u o u s t a n g e n t i a l component o f E -a A p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Green's v e c t o r G z < z

-i

s u b j e c t t o (4.33)

i s a s follows: R e f l e c t t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e f o r

and z > z 2 a t t h e p l a n e s z = z and z = z and p l a c e a u n i t 1 2 1 dipole i n x -direction at r and a n image d i p o l e a t

r ' = -0 r -0

2 (zm - z 0 ) z I t h e moment b e i n g , t h e same f o r t h e v e r t i c a l d i p o l e and t h e o p p o s i t e f o r t h e two h o r i z o n t a ~ ld i p o l e s . Then t h e

, .

--o

"m '

t a n g e n t i a l . component o f G!") s o l u t i o n of (4.32) f o r

1 r E

vanishes a t z = z
Vm.

11 1'

and - ! ~ ) is a G 1

Hence, i f Vm i s a u n i f o r m h a l f - s p a c e , whole-space formula (4.15)

. Eq.

G (m) is c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e -i

(4.3'5) t h e n r e a d s :

Eaz

= (-1)

/ J? ( ~ {x-x ) E (g)+ j o ax (y-yo)E- (5) d ~ , l CIY

'm
w h e r e R = [r

--O

1,

k 2 = i w w cr
0

Eqs.

(4.36a-c)

contain a s important subcase t h e condition a t t h e

air-earth interface

(m

= 1 , zl = 0 , k

= 0).

B e c a u s e o f the l i m i t e d r a n g e o f t h e k e r n e l s t i n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l o n 1 y . a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f Smm:ust b e c o c s j . d e r e d . t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e g i o n n e a r e s t t o r is aY -0 most i m p o r t a n t . Assuming E and E t o b e c i o n s t a n t within's sma1.l ax aY d i s c o f r a d i u s p c e n t e r e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y over r t h e w e i g h t from F o r Eax and E
-0

(4.36a.b)

is

where h = l z z o [ T h e r e i s a c o n t r i b u t i o r r t o Ea z onl-y i f Ea,, m h a v e a g r a d i e n t a l o n g x and y d i r e c t i o n k e s p e c t i v e l y . E a Y

and

A t t h e v e r t i c a l boundaries t h e condition E

--a = 0 i s r e l a x e d t o t h e
= O f

impedance boundary c o n d i t i o n kga.t =

n
A

x curl

zar

n
A

b -a E

whiere

gat

i s t h e t a n g e n t i a l component and

&

t h e outward normal.

5. C o n v e r s - n f o r m u l a e f o r a t w o - d b e n s i o n a l io

TE-field

5.1.

S e p a r a t i o n formu1.ae

I n t h i s subsection 5.1.

it i s assumed t h a t t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y d o e s

n o t c h a n g e i n x - d i r e c t i o n and t h a t t h e i n d u c i n g m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s

i n t h e (y,z)-plane, i.e. t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e E-polarization c a s e o f S e c . 3.1. Then from a knowledge o f t h e H and Hz component Y a l o n g a p r o f i l e from -a t o +a at z = o it i s p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d i n t o i t s p a r t s o f i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l o r i g i n
w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l knowledge o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o n d u c t i vity structure. The p e r t i n e n t d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i s C3.5a), i . e . which r e d u c i n g i n z - 0 t o <

which h a s t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n

where A :

d e s c r i b e s t h e e x t e r n a l and : A

t h e internal p a r t of the fie1 (3.2.3) and (3.3a)):

The m a g n e t i c f i e l d components a t z = 0 a r e (cE.

Let

- = W +H
ye

yi'

HZ = H

. . . .
ze

i.I.Izi,

where t h e s u b s c r i p t s " e n and " i " d e n o t e t h e p a r t s of e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l o r i g i n a t z = o. F u r t h e r , l e t t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of any one of t h e above s i x q u a n t i t i e s be +m 1 H ( K ) = - J H ( y , o ) e- ~ K Y dy.
A

2~

-m

Then (5.4a,b) y i e l d s
A

Ye

/xZe

=.-i sgn ( K )

Y1

. /HZi

= +isynCK)

(5.7alb)

A p r o d u c t between F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s i n t h e x-domain t r a n s f o r m s t o

a c o n v o l u t i o n i n t e g r a l i n t h e y-domain:

Hence w e o b t a i n from (5.7aIb1

-.
' z e

Ye

=+KxHze,

. .

= - K x H

ye'

. = Yl

-I< x

-.
Hzi

. .

=+ICxH zi. .yi

Convergence was f o r c e d by a f a c t o r e (5.8a) . .

H

- *K . The

r e s u l t i n g convolution

i n t e g r a l e x i s t s o n l y i n t h e s e n s e o f a Cauchy p r i n c i p z l val-ue, i..e. f o r example r e a d s e x p l i c i t l y

+m -m

Ye

(y) = 1 K ( ~ - ~ ) I X ~ ~ ( T I ) ~ ~

The f o u r e q u a t i o n s
A A

Ye

= i sgn ( K ) HZe

Yi

isign(~) H

zi

can e a s i l y be s o l v e d f o r Hy e r Hze' $ir 'zi* When t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e y-domain

it r e s u l t s
4

Two-dimensional

s e p a r a t i o n formulae

I
'

For p r a c t i s a l p u r p u s e s t h e s e s e p a r a t i o n f o r m u l a e a r e n o t v e r y conv e n i e n t , s i n c e t h e k e r n e l decays r a t h e r slowly r e q u i r i n g a long p r o f i l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p a r t a t a given surface point.

5 . 2 . Conversion formulae f o r t h e f i e l d components o f a two-

d i m e n s i o n a l TE-fielci a t t h e s u r f a c e of a one-dimensional

structure

For t h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e magnetic f i e l d components no knowledge

of t h e two-dimensional c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s r e q u i r e d . However,
t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y e n t e r s i f it i s a t t e m p t e d t o deduce f o r i n s t a n c e t h e t o t a l v e r - t i c a l component o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d a t t h e s u r f a c e from *he c o r r e s p o n d i n g t a n g e n t i a l componenk. I f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s one-dimensional, t h e c o n v e r s i c n between two component.: can b e e f f e c t e d u s i n g a c o n v o l u t i o n i n t e g r a l , where t h e k e r n e l i s d e r i v e d from t h e one-dimensional s t r u c t u r e v i a t h e t r a n s 5 e r f u n s r

'?here

i s t h e r a t i o between i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p a r t of H i . e . H . /H i n t h e f r e q u e n c y w a v e n u d e r domain. Y' Y l yer From (5.9a-c) t h e , y a r i o u s c o n v e r s i o n f o r m u i a s f o r t h e d u r f a c e com!31 n e n t s can be d e r i v e d . The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e g i v e s t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
S([K[,W)
A

t h e p e r t i n e n t k e r n e l s and t h e i r f o r m f o r two p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e s . Note t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f a v a n i s h i n g c o n d u c t o r ( i . e . i n t h e examples h ->

m,

o r k + 0 ) t h e kerne1.s K-

and M h a v e t o

a g r e e w i t h t h e k e r n e l s o f (5.8a) and ( 5 . 8 ~ 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Tile function L o c c u r r i n g i n t h e P-kernel o f t h e uniform half-space

2'

model i s t h e m o d i f i e d S t r u v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d o r d e r ( c f . Abramowitz and S t e g u n , p . 4 9 8 ) .

6 . Approaches t o t h e i n v e r s e problem of e l e c t r o m a q n e t i c i n d u c t i o n by l i n e a r i z a t i o n

6.1.

The Backus-Gilbert method Introduction

6.1.1.

The method of Backus and G i l b e r t i s i n t h e f i r s t l i n e a method t o e s t i m a t e t h e information c o n t e n t s of a given d a t a set; only i n t h e second l i n e it i s a method t o s o l v e a l i n e a r i n v e r s e problem. The p r o c e d u r e t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n a l e r r o r s and incomp l e t e d a t a r e d u c e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f a s o l u t i o n of an i n v e r s e problem. It i s s t r i c t l y a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o l i n e a r i n v e r s e problems. Assume t h a t w e a r e g o i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e an " e a r t h model." m ( r ) , where m i s a s c a l a r q u a n t i t y which f o r s i m p l i c i t y depends o n l y on one c o o r d i n a t e . For t h e f o l l o w i n g examples it w i l l be chosen a s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h ( t o be a s c l o s e a a p o s s i b l e t o t h e o r i g i n a l approach of Rackus and G i l b e r t ) . Then i n

a l i n e a r i n v e r s e problem t h e r e e x i s t N l i n e a r , f u n c t i o n a l s ( " r u l e s " ) , whLch a s c r i b e t o m(r) v i a d a t a k e r n e l s G . ( r ) numbers 7. (m) i n t h e 3. 1

way

gi(m)

a = jm r ) G i r d r
0

i = I,

..., N.
i = 1,

(6.1)

The measured v a l u e s o f gi(m) a r e t h e N d a t a yi,

1

...,

N. The
.

" g r o s s e a r t h f u n c t i o n a l s " g . (m) a r e l i n e a r i n m, s i n c e it i s assumed t h a t t h e d a t a k e r n e l s G . ( r )

1

a r e independent o f m. The i n -

v e r s e problem c o n s i s t s i n choosing m ( r ) i n such a way t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d f u n c t i o n a l s gi a g r e e w i t h t h e d a t a y i' The Backus-Gilber.; method shows how m ( r ) i s c o n s t r a i n t by t h e g i v e n d a t a s e t . Bcfore going i n t o d e t a i l s l e t u s g i v e an example. Assume t h a t w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d Ln t h e d e n s i t y distribu{:ion and moment o f i n e r t i a 0 . Then o f s p h e r i c a l l y symmetrical e a r t h , i . e . m(r) = p ( r ), and t h a t o u r d a t a c o n s i s t i n t h e ?\ass 1 1 .

6.1.2. The llnear inverse problem The data may have two defects: a) insufficient b) inaccurate Certainly in the above problem the two data M and 0 are insufficient to determine the continuous function p r . Generally, the properties () a) and b) are inherent to all real data sets when a continuous function is sought. The lack of data smoothes out details and only some average quantities are available, the observational error introduces statistical uncertainties in the model. (If we were looking for a descrete model with fewer parameters than data, then inconsistency can arise as a third defect.) Because of the lack of data, instead of m at r we can obta.in only an averaged quantity <rn (ro)>, 0 which is still. subject to statistical incertainties due to errors in the data. Let a < m(ro) > = I A(ro[r)m(r)dr, (6.2)
0

where a is subject to

The latter condition ensures that <m> agrees with m, if m is a constant. A(r 0( r) is the window, througlil which the real but unknown function m(r) can be seen. It is the averaqinq or resolution Punctio The more A at ro resembles a &-function the better is the resolution at ro. Resolvable are only the projections of m(r1 into the space of the data kernels Gi. The part of m, which is orthogonal to the data kernels cannot be resolved. Hence, it is reasonable to write A as a linear combination of the data kernels

where the coefficients a. (ro) have to be determined in such a way I that A is as peaked as possible at ro. The aost obvious choice would be to minimize

subject to ( 6 . 3 ) . For'c~rn~utational ease Backus and Gilbert prefer

t o minimize t h e q u a n t i t y

a s = 12 / A 2 ( r o [ r ) ( r - r o ) ' d r .
0

(6.6)

Since (r-r

)2

i s s m a l l n e a r r o t A can b e l a r g e t h e r e . The f a c t o r 12
f u n c t i o n of width L

i s chosen f o r t h e f a c t t h a t i f A i s a box-car

1 ,
of (6.6)

0 , else

then s = L, i.e. i f A i s a peaked.function then s i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e s approximately t h e width of t h e peak.

s(r0) i s called

t h e s p r e a d a t ro.
W e have a l s o t a k e n i n t o account t h a t o u r measurements y

have ob-

s e r v a t i o n a l e r r o r s Ay

it i . e .

I n s e r t i o n of

(6.4) i n t o ( 6 . 2 )

u s i n g (6.1) y i e l d s

From (6.7) and ( 6 . 8 )

and t h e mean v a r i a n c e i s

i s t h e c o v a r i a n c e m a t r i x of t h e d a t a e r r o r s , which i n g e n e r a l i s
assumed t o be d i a g o n a l .
O f c o u r s e , w e would a p p r e c i a t e i f t h e e r r o r of m ( r o ) ,

i.e.

E'

would

be v e r y s m a l l . B u t a l s o t h e s p r e a d ( 6 . 6 )

a . s = 12 / A' ( r o l r )(r-ro) =

'

N
C

o
with SikCro)
= 12

i., = l k
a
~ ~

ai (ro) ( r O ) s .( r O ) % lk

(6.11)

/ Gi(r)G - ( r ) r - r ) ' d r (
0

s h o u l d be s m a l l . Hence it r e q u i r e d t o minimize s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e q u a d r a t i c forms

N
s = C

ai%

sik

c 2 =

i,k=l
s u b j e c t t o t h e condition (6.3),

i k=l

N C

a ia kE lk .

i-e.

There d o e s n o t e x ' i s t a s e t of a L which minimizes s and .

A s a compromise o n l y a combination

E'

separately.

c a n b e minimized. I n (6.15) , c i s a n a r b i t r a r y p o s i t i v e s c a l i n g f a c t o r which a c c o u n t s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t dimensions o f s and E ' and

W i s a parameter

which weighs t h e p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e of s and

For W == 1 t h e .

s p r e a d i s minimized w i t h o u t r e g a r d i n g t h e e r r o r o f t h e s p a t i a l l y averaged q u a n t i t y <m ( r o ) >. Conversely . f o r W = 0 t h e s p r e a d s i s l a r g e and t h e e r r o r E ' i s a minimum. Hence, i n g e n e r a l t h e r e i s a trade-off ro on between r e s o l u t i .- and a c c u r a c ~ ,which f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
E'

i s shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e .

EZ

max

min

- - - -L - - - I

W=O
I

s min

max

Near s = s . t h e t r a d e - o f f c u r v e i.s r a t h e r s t e e p . Hence, a s m a l l m m s a c r i f i c e of r e s o l v i n g power w i l l l a r g e l y r e d u c e t h e e r r o r of t h e

.average < m ( r o ) > . T h i s u n c e r t a i n t y r e l a t i o n between r e s o l u t i o n and a c c u r a c y i s t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t 05 t h e B a c k u s - G i l b e r t p r o c e d u r e .

It r e m a i n s t o show a way t o m i n i m i z e Q, s u b j e c t t o ( 6 . 1 5 ) . The way,

however,

i s well-known.

One s i m p l y i n t r s d u c e s a s (N+1 ) - s t unknown

a L a g r a n g i a n p a r a m e t e r X and m i n i m i z e s t h e q u a n t i t y
Q'

= Q

h (Cai~li

1)

a ui = / Gi ( r ) d r
0

(6.16)

The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f

( 6 . 1 6 ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e (N4-1) unknowns

y i e l d s t h e (N+1) l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s

w h e r e Qik = W Sik

(l-W) c Eik.

T h i s s y s t e m o f e q u a t i o n s i s e a s i l y s o l v e d . The meaning o f and ( 6 . 1 5 )

X is

r e v e a l e d by m u l t i p l y i n g (6.17a) b y a k , a d d i n g and u s i n g ( 6 . 1 7 b )

. It

results

With a knowledge o f a ( r o l l i < m ( r o ) > i s o b t a i n e d from ( 6 . 8 ) w i t h gi = y . and E' from ( 6 . 9 ) .

3-

I n t h e c a s e W = 1 , w e h a v e X = -2s.

When < m ( r ) > i s i n s e r t e d i n ( 6 . 1 ) i n s t e a d o f m ( r ) general n o t exactly reproduce t h e d a t a . The m i n i m i z a t i o n ( 6 . 1 5 )

it w i l l i n

N
subject t o the constraint
C aiui
= 1 a d m i t s f o r two d a t a
E'

(N:=2) these

i re a s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c a l i n t e r p= 1 t a t i o n : F o r c o n s t a n t s and s t r a i n t is a l i n e i n t h e (al,a2)-plane. t h e p r i n c i p a l axes o f

E~

p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by e l l i p s e s , t h e conFor uncorrelated errors, a r e t h e a l and a 2 a x i s . ( a l , a 2 ) on t h e f a t

2

hT1a W v a r i e s from 0 t o 1 t h e c o m b i n a t i o m o f

l i n e a r e o b t a i n e d . s a n d . E ' are d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e l l i p s e s
t h r o u g h t h e s e points,Sj-nce a l l s - ( ~ ~ ) - e l l i ~ sa e e s i m i l a r , s and^ rs

a r e proportional t o t h e long axes of t h e s e e l l i p s e s .

6.1.3.

The n o n l i n e a r i n v e r s e problem

The Backus-Gilbert procedure a p p l i e s o n l y t o l i n e a r i n v e r s e problems, where a c c o r d i n g t o

a

t h e g r o s s e a r t h f u n c t i o n a l s gi have t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t

T h i s means f o r i n s t a n c e t h a t t h e d a t a a r e bui1.t up i n an a c l d i t i v e way from d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e model, i . e . , t h a t t h e r e i s no c o u p l i n g between t h e s e p a r t s . T h i s c e r t a i n l y does n o t h o l d f o r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n v e r s e problem, where each p a r t of t h e conductor

i s coupled w i t h a l l o t h e r p a r t s .
I n n o n l i n e a r problems t h e d a t a k e r n e l Gi(r) w i l l depend on m. H e r e i t i s i n g e n e r a l p o s s i b l e t o r e p l a c e (6.18) by
a

gi.(mr)-gi~m)=f(m'(r)-m(r))~i(x,m)dr
0

~(m'-m)~,

(6.18a)

where m and m' model m.

a r e two e a r t h models. The d a t a k e r n e l G i ( r , m )

is

c a l l e d t h e Fr6chet d e r i v a t i v e o r functional d e r i v a t i v e a t

Agai-n, from a f i n i t e e r r o n e o u s d a t a s e t we c a n e x t r a c t o n l y averaged estimates with s t a t i s t i c a l u n c e r t a i n t i e s , i.e.

A s i n t h e l i n e a r c a s e A ( r 0 Ir) i s b u i l t up from a l i n e a r combination of t h e d a t a k e r n e l s

N
A(rolr) =
C

a . (rorm)Gi(ro,m).
I

i= 1

I n t r o d u c i n g (6.1 9 ) i n t o (6.20) w e o b t a i n

which f o r n o n l i n e a r k e r n e l s i s d i f f e r e n t from ( 6 . 8 ) n o n l i n e a r c a s e gi (m)

qi (m)

.
i n 1 (r )
0

since

i.11

this

I n t h e l i n e a r c a s e , two models m and m' which b o t h s a . t i s f y t h e d a t a l e a d t o t h e same a v e r a g e model t h e second o r d e r i n (m' -m) The Backus-Gilbert

>. In t h e n o n l i n e a r c a s e , t h e a v e r a g e models a r e d i f f e r e n t ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e , however, i s of

(Exercise! )

procedure i n t h e n o n l i n e a r c a s e r e q u i r e s a model

which a l r e a d y n e a r l y f i t s t h e d a t a . Then i t c a n g i v e an a p p r a i s a l of t h e i n f o r n ~ a t i o nc o n t e n t s o f a g i v e n d a t a set.

6.2.

G e n e r a- e d m a t r i x i n v e r s i o n liz

The g e n e r a l i z e d m a t r i x i n v e r s i o n i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e p r o c e d u r e t o t h e Backus-Gilbert method. It i s s t r i c t l y a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o l i n e a r problems, where t h e model under c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a s e t of d i s c r e t e unknown parameters. Nonlinear problems a r e g e n e r a l l y Assume t h a t w e :mnt T t o d e t e r m i n e t h e M component p a r a m e t e r v e c t o r p w i t h - = ( p l r . . . , p b 5 : p l i n e a r i z e d t o g e t i n t h e r a n g e of t h i s method. and t h a t w e have' N f u n c t i d n a l r , ( r u l e s ) g 1 i = 1 , .' v a l u e y . and v a r i a n c e v a r (y . ) :
1

.. . , N which

a s s i g n t o any model E a number, which when measured has t h e a v e r a g e

1

Suppose that an approximation & to p is known. Then neglecting terms of order 0 (E %) we have

',

Eq. (6.22) constitutes a system of N equations for the M parameter pko. The generalized matrix inversion provides a sochanges pk lution to this system, irrespective of N = M, N < M, or N > M. If the rank of the system matrix agi/apk is equal to Min (M, N), the generalized matrix inversion provides in the case M = N (regular system): the ordinary solrition,M < N (overconstrained system): the least squares solution,M > N (underdetermined system): the smallest correction vector p - %.

The generalized inverse exists also in the case when the rank of agi/apk is smaller than Min(M, N). After solving the system, the correction is applied to and this vector in the next step serves as a new approximation to p, thus starting an iterative scheme. It is convenient to give all data the same variance ci2' thus 0 defining as new data and matrix elements

thus weighing in a least squares solution the residuals according to their accuracy which makes sense. Let

be the parameter correction vector. Then (6.22) reads

corresponds to the data kernels Gi(r) in the Backus-Gilbert theory). In the generalized matrix inversion first G is decomposed into data eigenvectors u and parameter eigenvectors v : 1 j T~ (6.26) G = U A

= - -

Here l i s a N x P m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g t h e P e i g e n v e c t o r s b e l o n g i n g J

t o non-zero e i g e n v a l u e s o f t h e problem

and 1 i s a M x P m a t r i x w i t h t h e P e i g e n v e c t o r s of t h e problem

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h non-zero e i g e n v a l u e s . P i s t h e rank of 5. F i n a l l y A =

i s a P x P d i a g o n a l m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g j u s t t h e P nonzero e i g e n values X Then t h e g e n e r a l i z e d ' i n v e r s e o f G i s . j

H g - always e x i s t s . I n t h e c a s e s mentioned above, - s p e c i a l i z e s a s -

follows

F o r t h e proof one h a s t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t because of t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y and n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e e i g e n v e c t o r s one al.ways h a s

vT= v ===

I P

(=P-component u n i t m a t r i x )

(6.30a)

and i n a d d i t i o n f o r

For P < Min(M,N)

cannot b e e x p r e s s e d

i3

t e r m s of G.

The g e n e r a l i z e d i n v e r s e p r o v i d e s a s o l u t i o n v e c t o r < x > =- y . H x I t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r u e s o l u t i o n - i s g i v e n by . < x > = _ A x , -- where - i s t h e (M x 21) r e s o l u t i o n m a t r i x A

Only for P M, _A is the M component unit matrix, admitting an exact determination of - (A corresponds approximately to the rex. solution function A (ro1 r) in the Backus--Gilberttheory. But there are differences: - is symmetrical, A(s[r) not, the norm of A is small if the resolution is poor, the norm of A(ro[r) is always 1. ) In generalized matrix inversion exists the same trade-off as in the Backus-Gilbert method. Cbnsider the covariance matrix of the change: of.< x > due to random changes of

x:

In particular the variance of <xk> is

P . Vk var ( ) = a2 ZI x k 0 j=l j

(3)k
Z ,

= 1,2,

.:.,

showing that the variance of xk is largely due to the small eigenvalues X By discarding small eigenvalues and the corresponding j' eigenvectors, the accuracy of x can be increased at the expense k of the resolution, since A will deviate more from a (M x M) unit matrix if instead of the required M eigenvectors a smaller number is used.

The model <x> will in general not.reproduce the data. The reproduced data are

<y> = G <x> = - - y = - x - GW E
with the information density matrix B = G H- L - Q T - = J -.

(6.36)

Only in the case N = P I 2 is a unit matrix. In particular, B describes the linear dependence of the data in the overconstrained case. High diagonal values will show that this date contains specific information on the model which is not contained in other data. On the other hand a large off-diagonal value shows that this information is also contained in another data. Valuable insight in the particular inverse problem can be obtained by considering the parameter eigenvectors corresponding to high and

s m a l l e i g e n v a l u e s . The p a r a m e t e r v e c t o r o f a h i g h e i g e n v a l u e shows t h e p a r a m e t e r c o m b i n a t i o n which c a n b e r e s o l v e d w e l l , t h e p a r a m e t e r e i g e n v e c t o r of a s m a l l e i g e n v a l u e g i v e s t h e combination of para-

meters f o r which o n l y a p o o r r e s o l u t i o n c a n be o b t a i n e d .
The g e n e r a l i z e d i n v e r s e i s u s e d b o t h t o i n v e r t a g i v e n d a t a s e t and t o e s t i m a t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t s o f t h i s d a t a s e t when t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n is reached. h r i n g t h e i n v e r s i o n p r o c e d u r e o n e h a s two too1.s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e n o t a b l e u n s t a b l e process of l i n e a r i z a t i o n :

a) a p p l i c a t i o n o f o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o n ~ p u t e dp a r a m e t e r c o r r e c - tion, leading t o a trade-off bility; between c o n v e r g e n c e r a t e and s t a -

b) d e c r e a s e o f number o f e i g e n v a l u e s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
I n t h e f i n a l e s t i m a t i o n of t h e d a t a c o n t e n t s one might p r e s c r i b e f o r e x h p a r a m e t e r a maximum v a r i a n c e . Then o n e h a s t o d e t e r m i n e from ( 6 . 3 5 ) t h e number o f e i g e n v a l u e s l e a d i n g t o a v a l u e n e a r e s t t o t h e p r e s c r i b e d o n e . F i n a l l y t h e row o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n m a t r i x f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r parameter i s c a l c u l a t e d .

6.3. ' m r i . v a t i o n o f t h e k e r n e l s f o r t h e l i n e a r i z e d i n v e r s e p r o b l e m of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n 6.3.1. The o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e

Both f o r t h e B a c k u s - G i l b e r t p r o c e d u r e and for t h e g e n e r a l i z e d l i n e a r i n v e r s i o n a knowledge o f t h e change o f t h e d a t a d u e t o a s m a l l change i n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s r e q u i r e d . I n t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e t h e p e r t i n e n t d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n and datum a r e

,

flr(z,w) =

I K ~ +

iwp0o(z)}f (zrw)

C o n s i d e r two c o n d u c t i v i t y p r o f i l e s o equation f o r f 2 with f l r

-

and o w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i c g 1 2 f i e l d s f l and f 2 . M u l t i p l y i n g t h e e q u a t i o n f o r f l w i t h f 2 and t h e s u b t r a c t i n g t h e r e s n l t i n q e q u a t i o n s and i n t e g r a t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e o v e r z from z e r o t o i n f i n i t y , w e o b t a i n

. I (f;'f2
0

f:fl)dz

= iwp o

1 ( o l - c r 2 ) f l f 2 dZ
0

Nw o
m

D i v i s i o n by f

! ,

( 0 ) :f;

(0)

yields

o i s s m a l l , f 2 i n t h e i n t e g r a l may I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e 60 = a 2 I b e r e p l a c e d by f l , s i n c e t h e d i f f e r e n c e f 2 - f l i s of t h e o r d e r l e a d i n g t o a second o r d e r t e r m i n 6 C = C2 of 6 0 = a2 - o 1' Hence t o a f i r s t o r d e r i n 6 s

m

C1.

6C(w) =

iwp

O 0

l 6 a ( z ) { f (z,w) 1 2 d z f' ( 0 , ~ )

T h e r e f o r e i n t h e Backus-Gilbert p r o c e d u r e t h e FrGchet d e r i v a t i v e

of C i s - i w p b { f ( ~ ) / f ' ( o ) } ~I. n t h e g e n e r a l i z e d i n v e r s i o n t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f C w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a y e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s and l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s i s r e q u i r e d , i f a s t r u c t u r e w i t h uniform l a y e r s i s assumed.

L e t t h e r e be L l a y e r s w i t h c o n d u c t i v i t y am and t h i c k n e s s d

t h e m-th l a y e r , h

m < z

hm+l (hL+l = - ) .

Then ( 6 . 3 8 )

m yields

in

since i n t h e l a s t c a s e a l l l a y e r s below t h e m-th l a y e r a r e d i s placed t o o . '

'

'3 2 :P a , r t ? a l d e r i v a t i v e s i n two- and 'three-dimensions 6 : ' :

For two-dimensions o n l y t h e E - p o l a r i z a t i o n c a s e i s c o n s i d e r e d . The p e r t i n e n t e q u a t i o n i s (cf

(3.5a) )
0

AE = iwp a E

Considef a g a i n two c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e s a

and a 2 .

Then A(E2

77

+
iwc (G -U )E2 0 2 1

E ) = iwu U (E -E ) 1 0 1 2 1

Let GI (r' [r) be Greents function for u1' i.e. -

Multiply (6.41) by E2(r1) El (rr) and (6.40) by GI (r' integrate . the difference with respect to r ' over the whole (y,z)-plane. Then Green's theorem (3.29) yields

,):I

With the same arguments as in the one-dimensional case we obtain for small conductivity changes, neglecting second order terms,

The kernel G(rt [r) must be determined from the solution of the - integral equation G(rl[r) = G ( r r n - -

- f ua(rn)Gn(r'[r")~(r"[r)d~" - o

(6.44)

i -

Eq. (6.44) results from (6.42) by replacing

This substitution becomes possible, since the 6-function in the Green's function equations drops out when the difference A(EZ-El) is formed. The changes of the magnetic field components are obtained from (6.43 and (6.44) by differentiation with respect to r. - Methods for the computation of Gn(rtlr) are given in Sec. 3.4. In the three-dimensional case one obtains in analogy to (6.43) and (6.44)

where ?is

competed by solving the tensor integral equation

Again the magnetic field kernels are obtained by taking the curl of (6.45) and (6.46) with respect to - Methods for calculatincj 0 r. /. 6 are given in Sec. 4.2. At the moment, three-dimensional inversion appears to be prohibitive!

6.4. Quasi-linearization of the one-dimensional inverse problem of electromaqnetic induction (Sc1~mucl:er's PSI-alqorithm) In the one-dimensional problem it is possible to a certain extent to linearize the inverse problem by introducing new suitable parameters and data instead of the old ones. Assume a horizontally layered half-space with L layers having conu and thicknesses d ductivities u , , L 1' d2' dL-l CdM = m ) . Let the upper edge of layer m be at z = hm and assume that layer conductivLties and thicknesses satisfy the condition

..-,

Let k = Then the pertinent equation for a quasi-uniform m external field is

q.

The transfer function is, as usual,

C(w)

f,(o)/;(o)

Introduce instead of f the new function m

In the TE-case f and f f are continuous across boundaries, i.e.

As a consequence of (6.48) and (6.49) is discontinuous across boundaries:

? '

z=h m

The variation of.

in the m-th layer is

..

-k m (z-h ) +km ( z -hm) fm(z) = A e ; + ~ + e m 1

whence

I +a l o g t)I -ay I +a l o g (-)I -a

2k d where a = CA:(A;)~

mm,

y=e

-2k d . m m

Because of t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 6 . 4 7 ) , y i s independent o f m.

The q u a n t i t y l a [ i s t h e r a t i o between t h e r e f l e c t e d and i n c i d e n t wave a t z = h

m i1

. Due

t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of energy t h e amplitude

o f t h e r e f l e c t e d wave i s n e v e r l a r g e r t h a n t h e amplitude o f t h e i n c i d e n t wave. Hence,

E q u a l i t y a p p l i e s t o a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r o r i n s u l a t o r . For ( a [ << 1 (6.51 ) y i e l d s

S i n c e t h e n e g l e c t e d t e r m i s o f o r d e r a 2 , t h i s i s a good approximat i o n f o r l a [ '<< 1. Eqs. $,(hm) (6.50) and (6.52) cornbined y i e l d

= ~f-$,+~ (hmil ) 4 l o g (am/am+l) 1

The datum C ( w ) i s connected w i t h $ (h , w ) 1 1

..

through

$, (h, , w ) =

( 0 , ~ ) =

2 log(klC).

Introducing the new transfer function

where u0 is an arbitrary reference conductivity, w e obtain by continued application of (6.53)

.(To

= log

-+
1
0

"1

y log

-+
O2
.
G

y a2(h2)
y 2 log

log

0 -+

1 y log &

;2 + y 2 Q3(h3) ; 3

"1

L
,

m y(w) . =. . (y-I) . C ym-I log. - . . .yL- .I . .log . . .. . . 0 . m=l. 0

L- 1

-, L
0

In the derivation of (6.55) it has been used that L (hL) = 0 . Eq. (6.55) is the desired result: it expresses the new data y(w1 linearly in terms of the new model parameter log(o/cro). When (6.55) is used for the solution of an inverse problem, one chooses first an arbitrary oo, and prescribes the constants c oaand L. If the occuning conductivity contrasts are not too m/dm sharp, the inversion of (6.55) will already give good estimates for the layer conductivities. For these estimates the correct , response values are calculated, and with the difference between the data and these values the inversion of (6.55) is repeated, giving corrections Alog(u /o ) to the previous outcome. At the m o end of the iteration procedure, the true thicknesses of the layers are calculated using (6.47). The errors of u are finally transm formed into the errors of d m

7 . B a s i c c o n c e p t s o f g e o m a g n e t i c and m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c d e p t h s o u n d i n g

7 . . .1.

G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e method

Two t y p e s of g e o p h y s i c a l s u r f a c e d a t a c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f some p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y m(g) o f m a t t e r b e n e a t h t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The f i r s t t y p e i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h

s t a t i c o r q u a s i - s t a t i c phenomena ( g r a v i t y and m a g n e t i c f i e l d s ) , t h e second t y p e with time-dependent phenomena ( s e i s m i c wave p r o p a g a t i o n ) o r w i t h c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t s u n d e r v a r t a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l cond i t i o n s ( D C - g e o e l e c t r i c s o u n d i n g s ) . Geomagnetic and m a g n e t o t e l l u r 7 i c soundings u t i l i z e t h e s k i n - e f f e c t of t r a n s i e n t e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s . T h e i r p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e E a r t h r e p r e s e n t s a time-depend e n t d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s , t h u s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s e f i e l d s a t t h e s u r f a c e produces d a t a of t h e second t y p e .

...The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s t a t i c d a t a y = y(R) i s non-unique alld a n

a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e c a n b e made among a n u n l i m i t e d number o f p o s s i b l e distributions m ( r ) , e x p l a i n i n g y(R) e q u a l l y w e l l . The i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n o f t r a n s i e n t d a t a i s with c e r t a i n c o n s t r a i n t s unique i n t h e s e n s e t h a t o n i y one d i s t r i b u t i o n m ( r ) c a n e x p l a i n t h e s u r f a c e d a t a

y = y ( R , t ) , b a s i c a l l y because opeadditional v a r i a b l e t (time, v a r i a b l e parameter of c o n t r o l l e d experiment) i s involve?, If t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e t r a n s i e n t p r o c e s s o r t h e perforrfiance of t h e e x p e r i m e n t i s made a t .a s i n g l e s i t e , t h e d a t a y ' = . ~ ( t e r m i t p) a v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g of t h e p r o p e r t y m = ' m ( z ) , assumed t o b e a s o l e f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h z b e n e a t h t h a t s i t e , I f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o r ex-

' p e r i m e n t s are done w i t h p r o f i l e s o r a r r a y s , t h e d a t a y = y ( R , t ) p e r m i t a s t r u c t u r a l s o u n d i n g o f t h e p r o p e r t y m = F ( z ) + Am(r) w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s Am(2).

Here m(z) r e p r e s e n t s e i t h e r a g l o b a l o r r e g i o n a l mean d i s t r i b u t i o n . It may a l s o b e t h e r e s u l t o f v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g s a t "normal s L t e s n wheqzthe s u r f a c e d a t a show n o i n d i c a t i o n s f o r l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s of m. S i n c e t h e dependence o f y ( R , t ) on m ( r ) w i l l b e n o n - l i n e a r , -. y n ( t ) w i l l b e d e p e n d e n t on Am and a n o m a l i e s Ay(R,t) = y ( R , t ) m(z) i.e. t h e i n i e r p r e t a t i o n o f . s e c o n d - t y p e - d a t a must p r o c e e d on t h e b a s i s o f a known mean o r nornlal d i s t r i b u t i o n F ( z ) c o n s i s t e n t w i t h d a t a yn("c a t a n o r m a l s i t e . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t i n t h e case o f s t a t i c d a t a o f t h e f i r s t t y p e u s u a l l y n o i i ~ t e r d e p e n d e n c e between Ay and w i l l e x i s t , i . e , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r a n o m a l i e s i s g e p e n d e n t o f g l o b a l o r r e g i o n a l mean d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t h e r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t y n.

- .

Suppose t h a t f o r d a t a o f t h e s e c o n d t y p e t h e l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s bm(r) a r e small i n r e l a t i o n t o G ( z ) . Then t h e r e s u l t s o f v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g s a t many d i f f e r e n t s i n g l e s i t e s may be combined t o a p p r o x i m a t e a s t r u c t u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n m = m + Am. F o r g e o m a g n e t i c

i n d u c t i o n d a t a t h e r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t y , namely t h e e l e c t r i c a l . res i s t i v i t y h a s u s u a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s and a oned i m e n s i o n a l i n t e z p r e t a t i o n as i n t h e c a s e o f v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g s w i l l n o t be adequate. I n s t e a d a t r u l y multi-dimensional i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a i s r e q u i r e d which i s t o b e b a s e d on "normal d a t a " a t s e l e c t e d s i t e s ( c f . 8 . 2 ) . Such n o r m a l s i t e s a r e h e r @ r a t h e r t h e exception than t h e r u l e .

7.2 The d a t a and p h y s i c a i p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e r n a l m a t t e r which are i n v o l v e d

The E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s s u b j e c t t o small f l u c t u a t i o n s g ( r t t ) . . They a r i s e from p r i m a r y s o u r c e s i n t h e h i g h a t m o s p h e r e and from seconda-y sources within t h e Earth. A t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t h e i r
r. a m p l i t u d e i s

'

o r d e r s o f magnitude smaller' t h a n t h e clu'asi-stntic main f i e l d . T h e i r d e p t h of ~ e n e t r a t i o n n t o t h e E a r t h i s l i m i t e d by t h e " s k i n i e f f e c t " , i . e . by 4Z.Lopposing a c t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c a l l y induced These eddy c u r r e n t s i n c o n d u c t i n g m a t t e r below t h e s u r f a c e c u r r e n t s produce t h e a l r e a d y mentioned s e c o n d a r y component o f H. They a r e d r i v e n by t h e e L e c t r i c f i e l d E ( r , t 3 g e n e r a t e d by t h e

changing magnetic f l u x a c c o r d i n g t o Farad y 's i n d u c t i o n law ( c f . 7,3), The t h e - f l u c t u a t i o n s i n Fi a r e r e f e r r e d t o "geomagnetic' v a r i a tions, those i n E as geo-electric . o r " t e l l u r i c " variations.

The c o n n e c t i o n between ti and E i s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h r e e p h y ~ i c a i p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e r n a l m a t t e r : t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y a (or i t s r e c i p r o c a l t h e r e s i s t i v i t y p ) , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y p asid t h e d i e l e c t r i c conThe p e r m e a b i l i t y o f o r d i n a r y r o c k s 2s v e r y c l o s e t o u n i t y and t h e approxirnat5,on p = 1 i s a d e q u a t e . The rnagnetic e r f e c t o f
E.

stant

d i s p l a c e ~ ~ e n t r r e n t s which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o E can be n e g l e c t e d du w i t h i n t h e e a r t h ( c f , S e c . 7.31, l e a v i n g t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y a a s , t h e s o l e p r o p e - i + ~ ' : c ~ n n e c t i2 g n and Bcth f z e l d s t e n d t o z e r o A t s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t depth, t h e skin-depth . -

K.

being a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a l e l e n g t h f o r t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n o f a n o s c i l l a t o r y f i e l d e x p ( i w t ) l n t o a m e d h m o f , r e s i s t i v i t y p. . .

Geomagnetic i n d u c t i o n d a t a a r e u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n terms o f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s which c o n n e c t a s - f u n c t i o n s o f f r e q u e n c y and l o c a t i o n s c e r t a i n components o f E and Ii. Examples a r e t h e i m a g n e t o - t e l l u r i c t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s : b e t w e e n t h e t a n s e n t i d l components 1 C-el I+ 5 and t h e m a g n e t i c t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s between t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l conponents of H o n l y . These t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s form i n p u t d a t a f o r - a g n e t o -- e l l u r i c and m t geomagnetic d e p t h s o u n d i n g s ,

. . a b b r e v i a t e d NTS and GDS.

C.

i 4 o t a t i o n s and u n i t s . R e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s ( x , y , z ) a r e used w i t h 2 p o s i t i v e down. If x i s t o w a r d s l o c a l r l a g n e t i c n o r t h and y towards l o c a l rnagnetic e a s t , t h e f o l l o r ~ i n gn o t a t i o n s o f t h e m a g n e t i c and . . e l e c t r i c f i e l d components are common:

The v e r t i c a l m a g n g t i c component HZ i s u s u a l l y s i m p l y d e n o t e d a s Z . kn geomagnetic A l l e q u a t i o n s are S I - u n i t s , b u t f o r H t h e t r a d i o n a l unit l y = GauA may b e q u o t e d . A c o n v e n i e n t u n i t f o r t h e t e l l u r i c f i e l d i s (mV/km). The m a g n e t o - t e l l u r i c t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n between (Ex,E ) and (Hx,H ) w i l l ' h a v e i n t h e s e u n i t s t h e d i m e n s i o n Y Y '{mV/km]/y w i t h t h e c o n v e r s i o n

t o S I - u n i t s . Measuring t h e p e r i o d T = 2s/w of t i m e - h a r m o n i c f i e l d v a r i a t i o n s i n seconds, 1 p = km,

2-

i f T i s measured i n h o u r s ,

p = 30.2

fi. km,
(am);
po = 4 s

t h e u n i t of p b e i n g i n e i t h e r c a s e

10'~ v o l t sec/

Ampin.

7 . 3 E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave p r o p a g a t i o n and d i f f u s i o n t h r o u g h u n i f o r m domains C o n s i d e r a volume V f o r which t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ~ , E , ua r e c o n s t a n t s . Then E and H a r e n o n - d i v e r g e n t w i t h i n V and c o n n e c t e d by M a x w e l l ' s f i e l d e q u a t i o n s ( . = . a / a t )

r o t E = -ppo

....

H, ,

E l i m i n a t i o n o f - o r .. y i e l d s a s e c o n d o r d e r p a r t i a l . d i f f e r e n t i a 1 E H. , equation

. V 2 ~= pllo(oF

-+

..
E

where F d e n o t e s e i t h e r t h e e l e c t r i c o r t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d v e c t o r (div 0 ) . T h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a wave e q u a t i o n o r as a d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n , d e p e n d i n g on t h e f a s t n e s s o f t h e f i e l d v a r i a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e decay t i m e

-= F

of f r e e e l e c t r i c charges within V.

Let w be t h e angular frequency of harmonic f i e l d v a r i a t i o n s . , i , e . F = iwF and F = - w ~ F , Then t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i s

..

c o n v e n i e n t l y w r i t t e n as a wave e q u a t i o n

for

WT 0

>> 1 and a s a d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n

f o r w~~

prop gat. << 1. I n t h e f i r s t c a s e t h e f i e l d t r u l y .--... a.--e j t h r o u g h

-T

V w i t h t h e speed

and ( i w ~ ~ ) - a s a b s o r p t i o n f a c t o r ' I n t h e second c a s e t h e f i e l d d i f f u s e s i n t o V w i t h 1 p = (2p/wpo)7

as s k i n - d e p t h .
The d i f f u s i o n c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s " q u a s i - s t a t i 0 n a r . y "

i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e p r o p a g a t i o n t e r m ( i w ~ ~s) s u f f i c i e n t l y Small i 'against unity. F o r p = l / o i n Slm

T 0

10-l1 p c ( s e c ) ,

S i n c e p w i l . 1 be i e s s t h a n . l o 5 Slm w i t h i n t h e E a r t h , f i e l d s f o r f r e 5 q u e n c i e s up t o 1 0 c p s p o s s e s s a q u a s i - s t a t i o n a r y d i f f u s i o n below

t h e s u r f a c e . Only n e a r c e r t a i - n s u l f i d i c o w - v e i n s t h e " e f f e c t i v e " decay time

T

may be i n t h e o r d e r of f r a c t i o n s of s e c o n d s due t o

i n d u c e d p o l a r i s a t i o n and t h e propaga-tion t e r r r t may n o t b e n e c e s s a r i l y small against unity. The a i r j u s t above t h e g r o u n d n a s ' a

loi4.

r e s i s t i v i t y i n t h e o r d e r of Qm, y i e l d i n g a t i m e c o n s t a n t T of a b o u t 1 0 m i n u t e s , Hence,
0

f a s t f l u c t u a t i o n s " p r o p a g a t e " > w h i l e slow v a r i a t i o n s " d i f f u s e " .from t h e i r ionospheric sources t o t h e Earth's surface,
F o r g e o m a g n e t i c s o u n d i n g s o n l y t h e f i e l d a t a n d below t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e m a t t e r s , r e g a r d l e s s how t h e p r i m a r y f i e l d r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e . It i s n e c e s s a r y , however, t o make -o n e d e f i n i t e a s s u mption about t h e n a t u r e of t h e primary f i e l d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g sense: Non-di'.'ergent v e c t o r f i e l d s s u c h as .... and H 5n u n i f o r m domains E
*

c a n b e decomposed i n t o t w o p a r t s F -

fI ZI1
+

= rot(- ) rT

r o t ro't(rsS)

where r d e n o t e s a u n i t v e c t o r i n some s p e c i f i e d d i r e c t i o n , h e r e t h e z-direction.

A

T and S a r e s c a l a r C u n c t i o n s o f p o s i t i o n , I t i s

r e a d i l y seen t h a t t h e so-called

"toroidal" p a r t fI is orthogonal

t o 2, i . e , i n t n e here considered case i s t a n g e n t i a l t o planes z = c o n s t . The r e m a i n i n g s o - c a l l e d " p o l o i d a l n ' p a r t of - has F

XI

zII

t h r e e components:

VI \

rF" 1 1
\
\

L e t now

PI and gII

b e a " t o r o i d a l " and a " p o l o i d a l " d i f f u s i o n

vector, both satisfying

P ' V

= i w p o o ( l +. T~)I',

f r o m which t h e t o r o i d a l and p o l o i d a l p a r t s of H are d e r i v e d by d e f i n i t i o n a s follows:

.-.

Observing t h a t r o t pot r o t vectors follow

E

d r o t ( ~ '- - ~ r a d i v P ) = - i w p o a r o t g , t h e e l e c t r i c p

t h e n f r o m Maxwell's f i e l d e q u a t i o n s as

2i - = p2 r o t rot I

PI;-I I = E

i(l-ki)

rot

PII.'

S i n c e t h e f i e l d which i s d e r i v e d from f i e l d , it i s t e r m e d t h e "TM-mode" d e r i v e d from

PI h a s a - n g e n t i a l ~ a g n e t i c ta

of t h e t o t a l f i e l d , The f i e l d

PII

, on

t h e o t h e r hand, has a - n g e n t i a l e l e c t r i c ta

f i e l d and r e p r e s e n t s t h e "TE-mode"

of t h e t o t a l f i e l d .

Suppose t h a t t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s a s o l e f u n c t i o n of d e p t h , o = a ( a ) , and t h e r e f o r e t h e d i f f u s i o n v e c t o r v e r t i c a l ?ownward: P = (O,O,PZ). L e t P z be i n p l a n e s a = c o n s t . a h a r m o n i c o s c i . l l a C i n g f u n c t i o n o f x and y w i t h t h e "wave numbers" kx and k Y i n x and y - d i r e c t i o n : p(r) Then rot

:p o ( z )

k - ei -

.x -

with

= (k,,k Y ) ,

i. j

(",s?*

= (ik

Y'

-ikx,O)

Pa

r o t r o t P = (ikx/C, iky/C, where 1 = . C

]klz)PZ
+ k2, I t c a n b e shown t h a t C i s
Y

ap0/az
0

and

lk1

= k . :

a scale l e n g t h f o r t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e f i e l d i n t o t h e
,

uni.form domain. I n s e r t now r o t P and r o t r o t i n t o t h e equations as g i v e n above and o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s between f i e l d components s e t t i n g w r o = O :

S i n c e CI and CII

c a n n o t be z e r o f o r a f i n i t e wave number lkl, T M

modes w i l l have i n t h e h e r e c o n s i d e r e d q u a s i - s t a t i o n a r y approxi.mat i o n z e r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s i n n o n c o n d u c t i n g m a t t e r as i n a i r above t h e g r o u n d . Hence, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f TM-modes w i t h i n t h e p r i m a r y f i e l d c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t by m a g n e t i c o b s e r v a t i o n s , s j . n c e

it'

will

b e s e e n a b o v e t h e ground o n l y i n . t h e v e r t i c a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d E Z , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h i s v e r t i c a l . e l e c t r i c f i e l d i.s n o t due t o l o c a l anomalies of t h e secondary induced f i e l d ( s , below), I n r e a l i t y J t h e d e t e c t i o n o f a p r i m a r y EZ w i l l b e n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e changes o f t h e v e r t i c a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d due t o c h a n g i n g a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s a p p e a r t o be o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e c o n n e c t e d w i t h i o n o s p h e r i c s o u r c e s , T h e r e f o r e it i s a n - m p t i o n assu t h a t t h e p r i m a r y f i e l d s i n g e o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n s t u d i e s a r e TEfields

I n t h a t c a s e t h e s e c o n d a r y i n d u c e d f i e l d a b o v e and w i t h i n a l a y e r e d s u b s t r u c t u r e cs = cs ( z ) i s l i k e w i s e a T E - f i e l d . The sum o f b o t h n f i e l d s w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e "normalt1 f i e l d H and E f o r t h e -n -n considered substructure. Its depth of p e n e t r a t i o n i s characterized by t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n CII pedance" of t h e f i e l d
E E - = - 3 = iwPocn nx H

= Cn w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b a s i c r e "im-

l a t i o n s g i v e n 'above c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m a g n e t o - t e l l u r i c

(MTS=magneto t c l l u r i c s o u n d i n g )

ny

Hnx

o r from t h e geomagnetic r a t i o s
.

n --.. z Hnx

- 1kxCn , .

H H

= ik C
Y n

nY

(GDSrgeomagnetic d e p t h sounding)

Suppose t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t i v i t y i s w i t h i n a l i m i t e d r a n g e a l s o d e p e n d e n t on one h o r i z o n t a l c o o r d i n a t e , s a y x:

u =.un(z)'+ aa(y,z). Now a l o c a l anomaly H ~ ( ~ , and E a ( y , z ) Z ) secondary f i e l d .

w i l l appear within t h e

Two s p e c i a l t y p e s o f s u c h a n o m a l i e s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . I f t h e e l e c t r i c v e c t o r o f .the p r i m a r y f i e l d s i s l i n e a r l y p o l a r i z e d i n x-direction, i.e.

E -n

= (En x , 0 , 0 ) = ( 0 , HnY , H n z ) ,

and c o n s e q u e n t l y
H -n

t h e anomaly h a s a n e l e c t r i c v e c t o r l i k e w i s e o n l y i n x - d i r e c t i o n : b e c a u s e t h e f l o w o f eddy c u r r e n t s w i l l n o t b e changed i n d i r e c t i o n . Hence, t h e anomalous f i e l d i s a T E - f i e l d

This p o l a r i s a t i o n of t h e primary f i e l d v e c t o r i s termed 3 o l . a r i s a t i

I f t h e e l e c t r i c v e c t o r o f t h e primary f i e l d i s 1inearl.y p o l a r i s e d

i n y-direction,

t h e normal f i e l d i s
E -n

= ( 0 , Eny' 0 )

and c o n s e q u e n t l y
H = (H 0, 0) -n nx' provided t h a t i t s d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s s m a l l i n comparison t o

i t s r e c i p r o c a l wave number, y i e l d i n g H = 0. Only w i t h t h i s conthe nz s t r a i n t i s f l o w o f eddy c u r r e n t s t o v e r t i c a l planes

x = c o n s t . and t h e r e s u l t i n g anomalous f i e l d w i l l be a TM-fie1.dw i t h z e r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d above t h e g r o u n d :

E -a H -a

= ( 0 , Ea y y E a z ) = (Hax, 0 , 0 ) .

T h i s p o l a . r i s a t i o n .of t h e p r i m a r y f i e l d i s t e r m e d "- - p o l a r i s a t i o n-" . H . For three-dimensional s t r u c t u r e s

O

= Ci(x,y,z) = un Cz) + Cia(x,y,z)

t h e anomaly o f t h e i n d u c e d f i e l d w i l l b e composed o f TE-and TMf i e l d s which c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d by a s p e c i a l c h o i c e o f coord:.7 n a t e s . T h e r e i s , however, t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t y t o s u p p r e s s i n model c a l c u l a t i o n t h e TM-mode o f t h e anomalous f i e l d :

Suppose t h e l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s u a r e c o n f i n e d -to a " t h i n s h e e t " . a T h i s s h e e t may bz imbedded i n t o a l a y e r e d c o n d u c t o r from which i t must be s e p a r a t e d by t h i n n o n - c o n d u c t i n g l a y e r s . Then no c u r r e n t s c a n l e a v e o r e n t e r t h e non-uniform s h e e t and t h e TM-mode o f t h e i n d u c e d f i e l d i s s u p p r e s s e d . Such models a r e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e i n d u c t i o n i n o c e a n s , assumed t o be s e p a r a t e d from zones o f h i g h m a n t l e c o n d u c t i v i t y by a n o n - c o n d u c t i n g c r u s t . Schemat:ic summary:

,,,\~.

x,'~

Source f i e l d

Induced f i e l d anomalous normal

TEtTM(genera1) TE { TE ( t h i n s h e e t )

xAppGn?3iX to'?, 3 : R e c u r r e n c e f o r m u l a f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e depth of penetration C f o r a layered substratum ( c f . chapter 2 )

7 ,

Definition:

C =

aPolaz

a2p D i f f e r e n t j a l e q u a t i o n t o b e s o l v e d : -L? az2 which s a t i s f i e s Continuity condictions:

= ( i w ~ ~ ~l k I 2 ) p o + o

V - = iwpo~ ~ P

1. T E - f i e l d :
2 . TM-field:

and E must b e c o n t i n u o u s which i m p l i e s t h a t C-is continuous and (Ex,E ,oEZ) are c o n t i n u o u s which imp]-ies v t h a t oC i s c o n t i n u o u s .

Model :

Solution for uniform half-space: CI = CII = (a = oO)

wo+
lk(

Recurrence formula foY layered half-space'{Cn = C(zn)}:

C~~
-

C~~~ = Jioy0oL +

[kr2

The TE-field within the n'th layer at the depth z = zn + E, Z < Z + E < Z n+l' can be calculated from its surface value n n according to:

with

gtzr,zs) = cosh h(zr,z s

)

Bps - sinh Brs/(K,Cr)

= cosh @ ,

sinh

B rs

K C r r

for s.< n and gCzn, z ~ + E ) = cosh(Kn~)-sinh(K n E)/K n Cn

The f o r m u l a

for E

Hx a l s o t o H

applies also t o E

and H Z , t h e f o r m u l a f o r

7 . 4 P e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f geomagnetic v a r i a t i o n s and t h e o v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e E a r t h

T h r e e t y p e s o f c o n d u c t i o n w h i c h v a r y by o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e h a v e t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
1. Conduction t h r o u g h r o c k f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s 2 . Conduction t h r o u g h f l u i d s i n p o r e s and c r a c k s between r o c k f o r -

mine m i n e r a l s
3 . M e t a l l i c conduction

l i : S i n c e t h e m i n e r a l s o f c r u s t a l and m a n t l e m a t e r i a l a r e e x p e c t e d
t o be s i l i c a t e s , t h e conduction through t h e s e minerals w i l l
be t h a t o f semi-conductors.

Their r e s i s t i v i t y is i n the order 5 Om a t room t e m p e r a t u r e b u t d e c r e a s e s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e o f 10

T i s the a b s o l u t e temperate, k Boltzmann's c o n s t a n t ; a

and A

are p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t and c o m p o s i t i o n - d e p e n d e n t c o n s t a n t s
,
,

w i t h i n a l i m i t e d t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e , f o r w h i c h one s p e c i f i c mechanism o f s e m i - c o n d u c t i o n i s p r e d o m i n a n t . Hence, i n p l o t s

of i n o v e r s u s T-' t h e o-T dependence s h o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d by j o i n i n g segments o f s t r a i g h t l i n e s . L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s

w i t h r o c k s and m i n e r a l s a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and v a r y i n g p r e s s u r e have c o n f i r m e d t h i s p i e c e - w i s e l i n e a r dependence o f l n o from T-l. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y showed t h a t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n dependence o f u i s m a i n l y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r e - e x p o n e n t i a l

parameter u

and t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e dependence o f o

and A s h o u l d

n o t b e t h e d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r f o r t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y down t h e d e p t h of s e v e r a l hundred k i l o m e t e r s .

7
1200

( ,

"C

3 b0
T---

600

The u-T dependence o f O l i v i n (Mg, 11 Fe ) S i 0 4 h a s been e x t e n s i v e l y 2 i n v e s t i g a t e d by v a r i o u s a u t h o r s f o r t e m p e r a t u r s up t o 1 4 0 0 ~ ~ and p r e s s u r e s up t o 30 k b a r . T h i s m i n e r a l i s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e main c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e upper mantle w i t h a M : Fe r a t i o o f 9 : 1 : g I S i 0 4 . The d i a g r a m (Mg0.9 F e ~ 2 l . shows t h e r a n g e o f u ( T ) - - c u r v e s

as o b t a i n e d f o r O l i v i n w i t h 90%
F o r s t e r i t e CMg2Si041. It i s b e l i . e v e d t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s among - t h e c u r v e s o v e r o r d e r s o f magni:tude d e g r e e s o f o x y d a t i - o n o f ~ e " t o FI' e ' a r e m a i n l y due t o d i f f e r e n t w i t h i n t h e olivLn samples

u s e d f o r t h e measurement. I n f a c t , t h e s a m p l e s may h a v e been oxyd i z e d i n some c a s e s d u r i n g t h e h e a t i n g e x p e r i m e n t as e v i d e n c e d by t h e i r r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y o f t h e u (TI-curves. However, t h e r>ar.ge of p o s s i b l e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s f o r o l i v i n w i t h 10% f o r s t e r i t e i s g r e a t l y narrowed i n a t t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e e n d , where we may expec-t a r e s i s t i v i t y o f 1 0 t o 100 Qm f o r 1400c, o f 1 0 0 t o 200 km w i t h i n t h e m a n t l e . 2 . : E l e c t r o l y t i c c o n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h s a l t y s o l u t i o n s , f i l l i n g p o r e s and cracks o f unconsolidated rocks, gives c l a s t i c sediments r e s i s t i v i corresponding t o a depth

t i e s f r o m 1 t o 50 Qm. The r e s i s t i v i t y o f s e a w a t e r w i t h 3 . 5 g r
N a C l / l i t e r i s 0.25 am. T h e r e s h o u l d be a n i n c r e a s e o f r e s i s t i v i t y by o n e o r two o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e a t t h e t o p o f t h e c r y s t a l l i n e basement b e n e a t h s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s . Near t o the s u r f a c e t h e c o n d u c t i o n i n c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s i s a l s o e l e c t r o l y t i c . T h e i r r e s i s t i v i t y may b e here a s low a s 500 Q m , b u t

it i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y w i t h d e p t h , when t h e c r a c k s and p o r e s c l o s e
u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e . Below t h e M o h o r o v i c i c - d i s c o n t i n u i t y t h e c o n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h g r a i n s c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o b e more e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e c o n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h p o r e f l u i d s . I f , however, p a r t i a l

m e l t i n g o c c u r s , t h e conduction through even a minor molten f r a c t i o n of c r y s t a l l i n e rocks could Pouer t h e r e s i s t i v i t y b y , s a y , one o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e .

3 . : M e t a l l i c c o n d u c t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o give t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e o u t e

core a r e s i s t i v i t y of Earth.

Om.

T h i s l a w v a l u e i s r e q u i r e d by

dynamo t h e o r i e s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e main f i e l d o f t h e

8
0

'f

-5

+5

+ l'f - 1.
't
1,

s*nrih

3.2
~"r\da~tirr,

E S
L- a f W

3.
4.0
~

C I ~ L ~ J K.C ( ; ~ . L . ~ ~ I ~

3
-&?-xu- 197'

.
; p a * ' ?

7,"

*\

V"C.L.*

6. ~b,-

loo-l~ok

Y..

R;*

s~!-,--.- .-.... ru-,o-r-. --d - . . . . . . . 4:c ..

>

The f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m o f g e o m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n s which can be u t i l i z e d f o r i n d u c t i o n s t u d i e s extends from frequencies of f r a c t i o n s o f a c y c l e p e r day t o f r e q u e n c i e s o f 1 0 t o 100 c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d . A t t'he low f r e q u e n c y end an o v e r l a p w i t h t h e s p e c t r u m of s e c u l a r v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r s w h i c h d i f f u s e upwards from p r i m a r y s o u r c e s i n t h e E a r t h ' s c o r e . Sc-Qeggti.csp.ectrun1 o f g e o m a ~ n e t i cv a r i a t i o n s :
>

SccLLl sx
,Wd"t;0*

59

Su-b~t-r C?,.rcr-KC+ t. )

460

, , j

AMfI:4uL&
/) 0

?
.L .

(=disturbed)-variations: Dst - -H-component

A f t e r m a g n e t i c s t o r m s t h e hor,j.zontal

o f t h e E a r - t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d shows a worldwide deo f s t o r m s shows

c r e a s e . W i t h i n a week a f t e r s t o r m b e g i n n H r e t u r n s a s y m p t o t j . c a l l y t o i t s p r e - s t o r m l e v e l . T h i s s o - c a l l e d Dst-phase n e g l i g i b l e l o n g i t u d i n a l d e p e n d e n c e , w h i l e i t s l a t i t u d e dependence

i s w e l l d e s c r i b e d i n g e o m a g n e t i c c o o r d i n a t e s by
3 L

i s t h e g e o m a g n e t i c l a t i t u d e o f t h e l o c a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d . The
s o u r c e of t h e Dst-phase c -u r r e n t may b e v i s u a l i z e d a s an e q u a t o r i a l -i n g r (ERC) which e n c i r c l e s t h e E a r t h i n t h e e q u a t o r i a l p l a n e

i n geomagnetic c o o r d i n a t e s :

T f t h e i n t e r i o r o f the E a r t h were a p e r f e c t i n s u l a t o r and n o eddy c u r r e n t s w e r e i n d u c e d , t h e v e r t i c a l Dst-coniponent would b e ZDst -

H sin ,

@.n I

r e a l i t y , only one f o u r t h t o one f i f t h of t h i s value

i s o b s e r v e d due t o t h e f i e l d o f eddy c u r r e n t s which o p p o s e i n Z

i j w Q = k s o l e n g t h of D . t , P ,

t h e p r i m a r y f i e l d o f t h e ERC. L e t LDst d e n o t e t h e i n d u c t i v e s c a l e

a be t h e E a r t h ' s r a d i u s , t h e n f o r
'DS t

: 45'

2C~st H~st4 a

(cf. s e c . 8 . 2 )

Hence, w i t h ZDStfHDSt

0 . 2 the d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n w i l l b e 600

k' m.

( s o l a r q u i e t ) varia-tions: O t h e da)l-lit n

s i d e of t h e Earth thermal

convection i n combination with t i d a l motions g e n e r a t e l a r g e - s c a l e wind-systems i n t h e h i g h a t m o s p h e r e . 1 t h e i o n o s p h e r e t h e s e winds ; p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s which Earth,

f o r an o b s e r v e r f i x e d t o t h e

move w i t h t h e s u n a r o u n d t h e E a r t h . D u r i n g e q u i n o x e s t h e r e
0 0

w i l l b e two c u r r e n t v o r t i c e s o f e q u a l s t r e n g t h i n t h e n o r t h e r n and
s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e , t h e i r c e n t e r s b e i n g a t r o u g h l y 30 N and 30 S . Due.-to t h e s e c u r r e n t s l o c a l - t i m e d e p e n d e n t g e o m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n s

w i l l b e o b s e r v e d a t a f i x e d s i t e a t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . They a r e
r e p e a t e d from day t o day i n s i m i l a r form and a r e c a l l e d " d i u r n a l " o r Sq-variations:

--

Aiai-n t h e Z

o f t h e m 1t h subharmonic o f t h e

sQ

SQf o r a n i n s u l a t i n g Earth. Tf

Ampli-tude i s much s m a l l e r t h a n t o be e x p e c t e d from

and Ds(") deno-te t h e a m p l i t u d e s ? d i u r n a l varl.;i.tions ( m = 1 , 2 , 3

SQ
,I!

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p e r i o d s T = 2 4 , 1 2 , 8, 6 h o u r s ) and C inductive s c a l e l e n g t h o f t h i s subharmonj.~,

(I7

the

sQ

w i t h 4 a s g e o g r a p h i c l a t i t u d e . From t h e

%Q : FISQ r a t i o o f c o n t i n e n t a l s t a t i o n s a d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n between 300 and 500 k i s i n f e r r e d . m

The p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f SQ i n t h e - o c e a n b a s i n s i s s t i l l u n c e r t a h . Bays and P o l a r S u b s t o r m s : D u r i n g t h e n i g h t h o u r s "bay-shaped" -

de-

f l e c t i o n s o f t h e E a r t h ' s magnetic f i . e l d from t h e normal l e v e l ave o b s e r v e d from t i m e t o t i m e , l a s t i n g a b o u t o n e h o u r . T h e i r a m p l i t u d e i n c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y from s o u t h t o n o r t h , r e a c h i - n g i t s h i g h e s t v a l u e i n t h e a u r o r a l zone. S i m i l a r v a r i a f i o n s , b u t much more i n t e n s e and r a p i d , o c c u r d u r i n g t h e main p h a s e o f m a g n e t i c s t o r m s , u n t i l a b o u t o n e day a f t e r s t o r m b e g i n . The s o u r c e of t h e s e s o - c a l l - e d " p o l a r s u b s t o r m s " i s a s h i f t i n g and o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t l i n e a m e n t i.n t h e i o n o s p h e r e o f t h e a u r o r a zone. The c u r r e n t w i l ] . b e p a r t l y cl-osed t h ~ o u g hf i e l d a l l i g n e d c u r r e n t s i n t h e m a g n e t o s p h e r e , p a r t l y by w i d e - s p r e a d c u r r e n t s i n mid l a t i t u d e s :
,SOdL~to-o* co-. -z?

ionospheric return

S,'L<+O,

c-x-;

sJjjj r!*-

r
\\

.
,

,
Z ,

(-b

~ ')J
:.I

;c(

- f-4

.*..
t..d<.,

l . . . !c.L\:\!l ........
-7

.......

. ~. .

,__*_-c---.-

CUhev4

, --. -..
.
i

,\
/

s A * -, .
1

2(

p-..<4

. 4 . . . . . . . . ,'
\

. . -!

.I

.. .
..

-..: ....

XuL sfo7,.n
i
-500

sir,, j-_ .j <.e:c ncx. ; ........ I

...

...........

-. .

I f th.e Ear-th. were n o n - c o n d u c t i n g ,

w e would o b s e r v e sou-th o f -the

p o l a r e l e c t P o j e t PEJ s - t r o n g Z - v a r i a t i o n s

d u r i n g p o l a r substorms.

They r,?oul.ci r e p r e s e n t t h e f i e l d o f a l i n e c u r r e n t and b e companabLe

i n a m p l i t u d e -to 11- and D-varj.ati.ons, a r i s i n g f r o m o v e r h e a d " r c t u r n c u r r e n t s f ! i n m i d - 1 . a t i t u d e s . I n r e a l i t y , t h e Z-ampli.tude d u r i n g

p o l a r s u b s t o r l n s i s j.n m i d - l a t i t u d e s

( e . g . Denmarlc, Germany) much

s m a l l e r t h a n t h e a m p l i i u d e s o f H and D b e c a u s e t h e v e r t i c a l f i e l d of induction currents nearly cancels t h e v e r t i c a l f i e l d of the polar jet. Under "normal c o n d i r t i o n s " t h e Z:I-l r a t i o i s a b o u t 1:'10. 3 - 6 * 1 0 - ~ a s wavenumber, d e p t h A s s u ~ n i n gf o r t h e m i d - - l a t i t u d e s u b s t o r m f i e l d a n e f f e c t i v e wave number o f 10- 20 000 km, y i e l d i n g kx o f p e n e t r a t i o n i.s

'bay

=
bay kx

1 5 0 t o 300 km.

T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s tllat t h e p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t l l o f b a y s i n t o -the o c e a n i c s u b s t r u c t u r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l i y s m a l l e r . The o c e a n i t s e l f produces an a t t e n u a t i o n of t h e H-ar~pl.itude o f about 75% a t t h e o c e a n b o t t c m , d e e p b a s i n s f i l l e d w i t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s e d i m e n t s can y i e l d a comparable a t t e n u a - t i o n & - 6 . N o r t h German b a s i n ) .

Pu - l s a t i o n s and VLF-emissions: -

Rapid o s c i l l a - t i o n s o f t h e E a r t h ' s f i e 1

w i t h p e r i o d s between 5 minu-tes and 1 s e c o n d a r e c a l l e d pu1.sati.011~. T h e i r ampli-tude i n c r e a s e s 1.iIce t h e ainpli-tude o f s u b s t o r m s s t r o n g l y when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a u r o r a l z o n e . T h e i r t y p i c a l m i d l a t i . t u d e ampli-tude i s 1 gamma. The s o u r c e f i e l d s t r u c t u r e o f b a y s and pul.s s t i o n s i s s i m i l a r , t h e d e p t h o f pene-tra-t:ion o f p u l s a t i o n s b e i n g l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e n e a r - s u r f a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y . L t may r m g e from many k i l o m e t e r s i n e x p o s e d s h i e l d a r e a s t o a few hundred m e t e r s and l e s s i n s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s . The "normal" Z : H r a - t i o o:E p u l s a t i o n s i s t o o s m a l l t o b e determS.~-rccl w i t h any r e l i a b i l i - t y o u t s i d e o f t h e a u r o r a l z o n e . However, "an~!naI.oi Z - p u l s a t i o n s . a r e f r e q u e n t and u s u a l l y o f v e r y l o c a l . c h a r a k - t e r . IF p u l s a t i o n s o c c u r i n t h e form o f l a s - t i n e h a r m o n i c o s c i l l a - : i o n s , o f t e l with a beat-frequency, t h e y a r e c a l l e d " p u l s a t i o n t r > a i n s 1 'p t , s i n ~ J . ( pul-satj.on e v e n t s a r e ' c a l l e d " p i "

pul.satj.ons which rt~arlc t h e be-

g i n n i n g o f a b a y . d i s - t u r b a n c e a r e c a l l e d "pc".

A l l t h r e e t y p e s !la\'c

a c l e a r l o c a l time dependence, o c c u r i n g almost d a i l y :

'F\

1-1

m-

- , 7.

Very r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s b e t w e e n 1 a n d , s a y , 100 c p s

(=Hz) a r e c a l l e d - f r o m t h e r a d i o e n g i n i e e r s p o i n t o f v i e w

"-e r y v low -r e q u e n c y e m i s s i o n s : VLF. T h e i r a m p l . i t u d e s l i e w e l l b e l o w f

l y . They o c c u r u s u a l l y i n t e r m i t t e n d l y i n " b u r s t s " a n d a r e c o n t r o l l e d

. i n t h e i r i n t e n s i t y by t h e g e n e r a l m a g n e t i c a c t i v i t y . I n e x p o s e d s h i e l d areas t h e y may p e n e t r a t e downward a few k i l o m e t e r s , surface layers. but everywhere else they w i l l be t o t a l l y a t t e n u a t e d within t h e very

Sudden -

s t --m commencements a n d s c l a r f l a r e e f f e c t s : The b e g i n o f a or

m a g n e t i c s t o r m i s u s u a l l y m a r k e d by s t r o n g d e f l e c t i o n s i n H a n d Z u p t o 100y w i t h i n o n e o r t w o m i n u t e s . . T h i s s o - - c a l l e d " - d d e n -t o r m su s commencemen-t" SSC, s i g n a l s . t h e i n w a r d : n o t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t o p a u s e SSC's ( s e p a r a t i n g t h e magnetosphere from t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e ) under

the i m p a c t o f a s u d d e n l y i n c r e a s e d s o l a r wind i n t e n s i t y .

a r e a w o r l d w i d e , s imultaneous1.y o c c u r i n g phenornenon. They are,

h o w e v e r , t o o r a r e l y o c c u r i n g e v e n t s (1 p e r m o n t h ) f o r i n d u c t i o n studies. The m o m e n - t a r i l y i n c r e a s e d s o l a r wave r a d i a t i o n , c a u s e d by s u n s p o t
e:

e r u p t i o n s , produces a s h o r t l i v e d (5 minutes) in'tensificatrion o f t h e S q - s y s t e m , i t s m a g n e t i c e f f e c t i s c a l l e d a " s o l . a r f l a r e e v e n t " . I: t m e a s u r e s a f e w gammas a n d l i k e t h e s s c i s a r a r e l y o b s e r v e d v a r i a t i o n type.

O v e r a-l d e p t h -i s t r i b u t i o n l d

- e n t h of p e n e t a t i o n D .

of r e s i s t i v i t y
.
.

(0) : oceans

& ~ n

( s ) : sedimentary basins
( c ): e x p o s e d c r y s - t a l l i n e

mid-latitude o b s e r v a - ti o n s

E E J : e q u a t o r j . a l . e1.ec'tr.c PEJ: p o l a r e l e c t z ~ o j e t

8 . D a t a C o l -e c t i o n and A n a l y s i s l 8 . 1 I n s t r u m e n ts

u n e t i c s e n s o r s f o r g e o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n work on l a n d s h o u l d meet a s many a s p o s s i - b l e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s :

(1) S u f f i c i e n t s e n s i t i v i t y and t i m e r e s o l u t i o n ( 2 ) D i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a l l o w o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e magnetic v a r i a t i o n v e c t o r i n well-defined, p r e f e r a b l y orthog o n a l components.

( 3 ) S t a b l e c o m p e n s a t i o n o f t h e E a r t h ' s permanent f i e l d , i f r e -

q u i r e d . The s e n s o r s s h o u l d n o t show " d r i f t " on a t i m e s c a l e comparable t o t h e s l o w e s t v a r i a t i - o n s t o be a n a l y s e d .

(4)

Compensation o f t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s o r l i n e a r t e m p e r a t u r e dependence w i t h w e l l d e f i n e d t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r s u b s e quent corrections.

C5) Low power consumpti.on t o a l l o w f i e l d o p e r a t i o n s on 57et o r d r y -

c e l l b a t t e r i e s ( l e s s t h a n 100 n;A a t 1 0 t o 2 0 V o l t s DC cont i n u o u s power d r a i n ) .

C6 1 Minimurn m a i n t e n a n c e ,

all-owing unattended opera-tions o v e r days,

weeks o r months, d e p e n d i n g on -the p e r i o d r a n g e t o be i r l v e s t i gated.

(7)

E l e c t r i c outmpu-t s i g n a l , adaptab1.e f o r d i g i t a l r e c o r d i n g
w

No s i n g l e s e n s o r s y s t e m can possib1.y meet a l l r e q u i r e m e n - t s o v e r t h c f u l l f r e q u e n c y r a n g e o f n a t u r a l geornagrletic v a r i a t i o n s a n d t h e c h o i c e o f i n s t r u m e n t s wil.1 depend on t h e t y p e o f v a r i a t i o n s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . They r e c o r d e i t h e r t h e t o t a l f i e l d M

sum o f -tl;e s - t e a d y f i e l d Ho and t h e v a r i a t i o n f i e l d 6H,by coml2ensa.t i o n of Ho, t h e t i m e - - d e r i v a t i v e fl : 6f'i o r a combina-tion o f 61.1 nil
& i1.

Ho + 6H a s

?E

I n geomagnetic l a t i t u d e s t h e s p e c t r a l a m p l i t u d e distr.Lbution o f

x*

6 H and 611, a v e r a g e d o v e r e x t e n d e d p e r i o s s of m o d e r a t e m a ~ c 5 t j . c a c t i v i t y , is t h e following:

x t h e v a r i a t i o n f i e l d 6H o n l y
!

The n e x t d i a g r a m shows t h e r e s u l t i n g s p e c t r a l r a n g e o f a d e q u a t e s e n s i t i v i . t y and s t a b i l i t y f o r v a r i o u s m a g n e t i c s e n s o r s , s u i t a b l e f o r geomagnetic s t u d i e s : Perfornlance on point (2) t o (7) 0 s . 2 3 5 6 7 B a s

i

D
Torsion f i b r e magnetometer graph, ~ o u g h Reitzel variog r a p h 1. )
I

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F l u x g a t e magnet o m e t e r (I'oer. s t e r Sonde) 3 . ) Grenet-variom e t e r 1. )

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Kb-vapor Inagnetometer 3.)

lio+6H

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4-

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by mechai-~$.cal o r q u e t
J o v i l e t variometers with bias f i e l d s

2 . ) Bobrov-quartz

variometers,
0

3 . ) Compensation o f H

The h o r i z o n t a l compone~lts of t h e s u r f a c e e l e c - t r j c f i e l d E which i.s c o n n e c t e d t o 6H and 6k c a n b e e s t i m a t e d e i t h e r from t h e knowledge o f t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n C a t t h e p e r i o d T o r from t h e knowledge o f t h e r e s i s t i v i t y p o f t h e u p p e r l a y e r s , assumed t o be u n i f o r w . Measuring H i n ( y ) ,
C i n (km), T i n ( s e c ) a n d p i n ( Q m )
. . .

gives

&

Using t h e s p e c t r a l a m p l i t u d e s a s g i v e n a b o v e and C f r o m ' p r e v i o u s s e c t L o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c t r a l a m p l i t u d e s o f E/H and E a r e o b t a i n e d f o r mid-la-ti-l-udes d u r i n g rno:lerate magnetic aeti-vity :

r--

A h o r i z o n t a l e l e c t r i- l d component i n t h e d i r e c t i o n - i s o b s e r v e d c fie s
as t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v o l t a g e Es'd

between -two e l e c t r o d e s i n a d i s t a n c e

d p a r a l l e l t o 2 . Due t o p o s s i b l e s e l f - p o l a r i s a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o d e s

a q u a s i - s t e a d y v o l t a g e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i z e may be s u p e r i m p o s e d
upon t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v o l t a g e , t r u l y c o n n e c t e d t o g e o m a g n e t i c v a r i a -Cions. T h i s s e l f - p o t e n - t i a l amounts f o r e l e c t r o d e s i n a sa1.t s o l u t i o n comparable t o ocean w a t e r t o :

> 1 vol-t 100 m V

for

unprotected iron rodes Cu-CUSO,~ elec-ti-odes kg-kgC1 ( = o c e a n o g r a p h i c )e l e c t r o 2

Kaloniel ( = b i o p h y s i c a l ) e1ec:i:vo~

It may v a r y s l o w l y u n d e r c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e w a t e r b e a r i n g s o i
Hence, it s h o u l d be a s s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e v o l t a f i t r u l y c o n n e c t e d t o 6 H and 6i1. T h i s a p p l i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r .to periocis o f o n e h o u r and more. T h e r e a r e two o p t i o n s t o a v o i d t h e s e unwanted e l e c t r o d e e f f e c t s : L a r g e e l e c t r o d e s p a c i n g ( d - 1 0 km), hrigh-quali-i:y > e l e c t r o d e s . P r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d be g i v e n -1-0 e l e c t r o d e s p a c i n g s o f , s a y , 100 in. The u s e ttte s e c o ~ l do p t i o n , u s i n g
G? .

a large electlode

s p a c i n g d o e s n o t imply n e c e s s a r i l y t h a - t a mean e l e c t r i c f i e l d , a v e r a ~ e d ver local. n ~ a r - s u r f a c enon-uni.formlties o

, wi1.l

be observed,

s i n c e t h e o b s e r v e d v o l t a g e may s t i l l be l a r g e l y d e - t e r ~ n i n e d by l o c a l c o n d i - t i o n s n e a r t o e i t h e r one o f t h e e l e c t r o d e s . I n any c a s e , t h e

s i t e of t h e e l e c t r o d e i n s t a l l a t i . o n should be surveyed with .dipols o u n d i n g s o r D C - - g e o e l e c t r i c s t o e n s u r e l a y e r e d c o n d i t i o n s a t -and

be-tween e l e c t r o d e s .

8 . 2 O r ~ a n i s a t i o nand o b j e c t i v e s -. o f f i e l d o p c r a t i o n s

Geomagnetic i n d u c t i o n work c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t by ( i ) s i n g l e - - s i t e s o u n d i n g s , ( i i )s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s a l o n g p r o f i l e s , b e p o s s i b l e t o r e p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s by n o n - s i m u l t a n e o u s

(iii)

s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s i n a r r a y s c o v e r i n g e x t e n d e d a r e a s . It may observations, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n f i e l d c a n be " n o r m a l i z e d " w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mean r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n f i e l d . T h i s "normal" f i e l d may b e t h e f i e l d a t one f i x e d s i t e w i t h n o i n d i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f l a t e r a l non-unj-formities, o r it may be t h e a v e r a g e d f ' i e l d o b t a i n e d f r o m d i s t a n t permanent o b s e r v a t o r i e s . U s u a l l y t h e normal.isa'tion i s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e f r e q u e n c y domain, i n t r o d u c i n g s e - t s o f t r a n s f e r functions. S i n g l e s i t e v e r t i c a l sounding: The r e s i s t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e d e p t h - d i s t a n c e r a n g e o f p c n e t r a . t i o n i s regarded a s o l e function depth: p = p ( z ) . Its e x t e n t i s g i v e n by -the modulus o f -the i n d u c - t i v e s c a l e l e n g t h C(w) a t t h e cons i d e r e d f r e q u e n c y , whi.ch i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g p e r i o d . If a v e r t i c -a-, l
J

I,-..

, nr

. ,

...........

..........

-. . .

-... ..
..............

I,,CC

... ..-<,,..,.-

g e o m a g n e t i c s o u n d i n g i s t o be c a r r i e d -. o u t , t h e s o . ~ r c efie1.d wave-nunher s - t r u c t u r e a s f u n c t i o n of frequency,

)

& =

-.( w ) , k

must b e known Ccf. S e c t . 7 . 3 For d i u r n a l S q - v a r i a t i o n s ,

.
are derivable

f o r i n s t a n c e , wave-numbers

from .the f a c t t h a - t th.e S q - f i e l d o f t h e e q u i n o x e s i s s y m m e t r i c .to t h e e q u a t o r and moving wi-th l o c a l . t i m e froin e a s t 'to w e s t . Iience, t h e e a s t - w e s t wave-number o f t h e m ' t h s u b h a r j n o n i c o f Sq w i l l be m/a wi.-th a d e n o t i n g t h e E a r - t h ' s r a d i u s . M ----a g n e t o - t e l l u r i c s o u n--- s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e wave number, p r o ding

v i d e d t h a t t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t j - o n i s suffS.c:i.ently s m a l l i.n canp a r i s o n t o k-l: [ k ~ << 1. T a k i n g t h e g e n c r a l dependents o f C on k ( i n t o a c c o u n t , i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o stay, with v e r t i c a l soundings i n t h e r a n g e i n which C (.w)

i s independent o f k.
4

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F o r a d a t a r e d u c t i . o n i n t h e fr3equency domain ( c f . Sec. 8 . 3 ) t h e following s e t of t r a n s f e r o r response f u n c t i o n s w i l l be d e f i n e d :

For a frequency-space

factor

O f

t h e source f i e l d

t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n C(w) = C n which c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e downward

depth o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s connected t o t h e s e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s according t o

cn

=- n

ikx

x -

iwv0

The C a g n i a r d a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y i f g i v e n hy

t h e p h a s e o f t h e impedance by

= arg(C ) + 5 2 n t h e m o d i f i e d a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y by
I$(w) = a r g ( Z

xY

w h i c h c a n h e used a s a n e s t i m a - t o r o f t h e t r u e r e s i s t i v i - t y a t t h e depth

z"(~)=

R~IC~I.

( c f . S e c . 2 . 5 and 9 . 1 )

A cornpairison ,of t h e v a r i o u s e q u i v a l e n t r e s p c r l s e func-l-j.ons f o r a g i v e n s u b s t r u c t u s & i v e s t h e fol.lowing d i s p l . a y :

L ?

* <

T e s t s f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a l a y e r e d d i s . t r i . b u t i o n and t h e s o u r c e

I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c o n s t r a i n t s w i t h r e g a r d t o modu.lus, p h a s e and f r e q u e n c y dependence o f t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s .

2.6).

( c f . Sec.

The c o m p a t a b i l i t y o f M S and GDS v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g r e s u l t s c a n b e T t e s t e d by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t

a s r e a d i l y s e e n form t h e second f i e l d e q u a t i o n r o t E -n

= -imp H o -n

If t h e wave-number

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o u r c e f i e l d i s n o t lcnown, a

H o r i z o n t a l G r a d i e n t GDS c a n be f o r m e d : O b s e r v i n g t h a t -

the differentation of E w i t h r e s p e c t t o y and o f = Cn impo H n Y nx = -iou C H wi.th r e s p e c t t o x y i e l d s .Env o n nx

S i n c e t h e e l e c t r i c s u r f a c e f i e l d may b e d i s t o r t e d by l a t e r a l n o n u n i f o r m i - t i e s e v e n when t h e i r s c a l e l e n g t h a n d dep-th i s smal.1 i n c o m p a r i s o n -to t h e d e p t h o f . p e n e t r a t i o n , -the E - f i e l d o b s e r v a . t j . o i ~ s may b e r e p l a c e d by o b s e r v i n g t h e t a n g e n - t j . a l - m a g n e t i c f i e l d a l s o a t some dep-th d below -the s u r f a c e , i . e . by c o n d u c t i n g a '-v e r t i c a l -po b e t w e e n t h e

G r a d i e n t GIIS. No knowledge o f t h e wave-number s t ~ u c - t u r e f t h e o ----s o u r c e f i e l d w i l l be r e q u i r e d , b u t " t h e r e s i ; t i v i t y

'

s u r f a c e a n d t h e s u b s u r f a c e p o i n t s o f observations w i l l b e r e q c i - r e d . Assume t h a t t h e l a t e r a l g r a d i e n t s o f IJnz a r e s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e v e r t i c a l gradients of H and H i n v 5 . e ~ f t h e condi.tion o nx nY I -. < < 1. Then i t f o l l o v ~ sr e a d i l y f r o m t h e f i r s t f i e l d ~ q u a - t i o n 4 for d < z < 0 that r o t - = oo' Hn

I~c[

a 1-1

aH

. ;IH

and

aH s = ~E ~ y /'p o

L e t q b e t h e t r a n f e r f u n c t i o n between Hnx(H

Hnx(H nY
Then

a t t h e depth z = d:

n Y

a t t h e s u r f a d e and

Hn x ( d ) = q Hnx(0)

where

Iq1

< 1.

S i n g l e s i t e geo-letic g a r d e d as q u a s i - u n i f o r m

s t r u c t u r a l s o u n d i n g : The s o u r c e f i e l d i s r e -

( = 0 ) and t h e v e r : t i c a l magne-tic component k

t h e r e f o r e a s anomalous, a r i s i n g s o l e l y from l a t e r a l changes o f t h e r e s i s t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e d e p t h - d i s t a n c e r a n g e o f p e n e t r a t i o n , where

p = Pn(z) + P,(X,Y,Z)\

In t h i s s p e c i a l c a s e t h e r e s u l t i n g anomalous m a g n e t i c v e c t o r H = (Ha,, Ha y , H a z = H z i s l i n e a r l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e q u a s i - u n i f o r m -a 0 ) i i i t h e frequency-distance n o r m a l m a g n e t i c v e c t o r H = (Ilnx, H -n ny' domain :

denotes a matrix of l i n e a r t r a n s f e r functions as functions of f r e quency and s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n . T h i s i.mplies t h a t a l s o l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s e x i s t between HZ and t h e t o t a l ( = o b s e r v e d ) ho17izontal v a r i a t i o n s :

with

These a l t e r n a t i v e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s A and B c a n b e del-ived now from o b s e r v a t i o n s a t a s i n g l e s i t e . T h e i r g r a p h i c a l d i s p l a y i n t h e form o f P a r k i n s o n - W i e s e i n d u c t i o n a r r o w s i n d i c a t e s t h e t r e n d o f -the subs u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e

of anomalous '2-var.i.ations :

The i n - p h a s e

i n d u c t i o n a r r o w i s d e f i n e d by ( i n P a r k i n s o n ' s s e n s e o f

o r i e n t a t i o n ) by

p = - R&(x
a n d t h e ou-t' o f - p h a s e

A +

B]

arrow by

q
h

+ Imagl;

A +

Bl
and y - d i r e c t i o n . General-ly

where x a n d y a r e u n i t v e c t o r s i n x-

s p e a k i n g , the in-phase arrows p o i n t toidards i n t e r n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n d u c e d c u r r e n t s , i . e . t o z o n e s o f l o w e r t h a n " n o r m a l " res i s t i v i . t y a t o n e p a r t i c u l a r depth.TheYmay p o i n t a l s o away f r o m h i g h r e s i s t i v : i t y z o n e s a r o u n d which t h e i n d u c e d c u r r e n t s a r e d i v e r t e d . Vertical s o u n d i n g s w i t h s t a t i o n a r r a y s : The r e s i s t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s r e g a r d e d as l a y e r e d , p = p ( z ) , b u t t h e i n d u c i n g s o u r c e f i e l d a s non-uniform. I n d u c i n g and induced f i e l d s

w i l l h a v e ms.tching wave-number s p e c t r e n w i t h w e l l d e f i n e d r a t i o s between s p e c t r a l components i n a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e s u b s u r f a c e r e s i st i v i - t y s t r u c t u r e h e a - t - k - + h ~ + + t - ~ o - ~ ~ & e - ~ ~ i d c ~ ~ ~

e.ve;i:~-~:gh-i-s-k~ol.a-7,-u~.-f m~rnGty--rnaap-~be--~i-~-~P+f+a

L e t U and V b e f i e l d components o f t h e s u r f a c e f i e l d i n t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t a n c e d o m a i n : U = UCw ,R)

h

V = VCw , R ) .
h

They a r e d e c o ~ n p o s e di n t o

t h e wave-number

spectren U(w,k),

VCw,k) a c c o r d i n g t o ikR -dk

Y

U(w,R)

= I I UCw,L,)e

i r n h

dk
X

0 '

with

as t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n between A and B i n t h e wave number domain, which contains t h e information about t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . A v e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g o f t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s made by c o n s i d e r i n g R as a f u n c t i o n o f f r e q u e n c y , k b e i n g f i x e d , o r v i c e v e r s z . If t h e a r r a y c o v e r s t h e whole g l o b e , t h e s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e E a r t h r e q u i r e s t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e k r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s by s p h e r i c a l harmonics i n s p h e r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s C r , B , A ) :

a: G a r t h ' s r a d i u s ; p:(cos@

: A s s o c i a t e d ' s p h e r i c a l f u n c t i o n . The t r a n s - .

f e r f u n c t i o n s have then t h e form

The f i r s t and s t i l l b a s i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e E a r t h ' s d e e p conduct i v i t y s t r u c t u r e h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t by t h i s a p p r o a c h (SCHUSTER, C A M N and P R I C E ) . HP A I f t h e a r r a y of s t a t i o n s c o v e r s o n l y a r e g i o n o f L i m i t e d e x t e n t , i t may b e ! i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o de'compose t h e o b s e r v e d f i e l d i n t o waves p e c - t r a l components o r it may be even i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o n l y a small. s e c t i o n o f t h e source f i e l d s t r u c t u r e h a s been observed. I n t h a t c a s e v e r t i c a l a r r a y soundings a r e c a r r i e d o u t p r e f e r a b l y with response f u n c t i . o n s i n t h e f r e q u e n c y - d i s t a n c e domain. Suppose t h e s o u r c e f i e l d i s q u a s i - u n i f o r m ,i.n o n e h o r i z o n . t a 1 d i r e c - tion, say,
U
j

= UCw,y)

and V

: V(w,y).

Ls't

b e t h e i n v e r s e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f R . Then, if V i s g i v e n by t h e r o d u c t o f R w i t h U i n t h e ( u , k ) domain, V w i l l b e g i v e n by a c o r l v o l u t i o n 05 R w i t h IJ i n t h e (w,y) domain:

, .

+w

with

.R

U =

1 RCw,y-n)
-m

UCq)dq.

If, f o r instance E
A

EX =

WM,

C II

, .

= U, t h e magnetotelluric r e l a t i o n Y o f t h e k-w domain w i l l t r a n s f o r m & i n t o

X

= V and H

w i t h N(w,y) a s F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f C ( o , k ) .
4

CCw,k) = I N(w,y)e.
-03

Observe t h a t r e v e r s e l y

-iky

dy

and t h e r e f o r e CCw,O)

f-

= J N(w,y)dy.
-m

Hence, i f H i s q u a s i - u n i f o r m w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e k e r n e l M , Y

which i s t h e CAGNIARD-TIKHONOV s i t e sounding-s.

1

r e l a t i c n con~monly u s e d f o r s i n g l e

I n a s i m i l a r way t h e m a g n e t i c r a t i o , o f v e r t i c a l t o h o r i z o n t a l ' var i a t i o n s c a n be g e n e r a l i z e d t o

w i t h MCw,y) a s F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f i k y

C(w , k ) Y Y The r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s N and M h a v e t h e i r h i g h e s - t valuei. c l o s e t o

O and a p p r o a c h z e r o f o r d i s t a n c e s y which a r e l a r g e i.n comparid.;:.rn,-Lc. do-,,o. :.,. s o n t o t h e modulus o f C(w,k=O): ----. - ---.

,, ,,

0"LC-c

- , \iU ,-

-&-c, ; \ ,

A.

< ;

*<ih*.i~

. y -3 Sz,,-&,L<,-.

In/ 1

..
7
. .

Az

Hence, a s t o b e e x p e c t e d , o n l y the f i e i d w i t h i n a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from t h e poihl-t o r a r e a o f i n t e r e s t i n f l u e n c e s t h e r e l a t i o n s between f i e l d components used f o r g e o m a g n e t i c o r m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c v e r t i c a l soundings. Consequently, t h e requirement o f a l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e a p p l i e s o n l y t o t h i s limited d e p t h - d i s - k a n c e r a n & e a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by

[cc~,o)[.

S -- t r u c t u r a l

s o u n d i ~ z i t h s t a t i o n a r r a y-: If n o t o n l y t h e s o u r c e w s

f i e l d b u t a l s o t h e r e s i s t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e a r e l a t e r a l l y non-uniform, no g e n e r a l l y v a l i d l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s between n o r m a l and anomalous f i e l d components e x i s t . I n t h e f ~ l l o w i n git w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e source f i e l d i s e i t h e r quasi-uniform o r f o r a given frequency w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i n g l e s e t o f wave numbers. Then t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e v a r i o u s f i e l d components c a n b e e x p r e s s e d by l i n e a r t r a n s f e r functions i n t h e frequency-distance

(w,R) domain.

They c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d e i t h e r f o r t h e "normal" h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d o f t h e whole a r r a y o r , i f n e c e s s a r y ; a l s o f o r t h e l o c a l h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d o n l y . I n e i t h e r c a s e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o remove f r o m t h e obs e r v e d v e r t i c a l m a g n e t i c component i t s n o r m a l p a r t i n a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e n o r m a l r e s i s t i v i t y d i s . t r i b u t i . o n and t h e s o u r c e f i e l d s t r u c t u r e . It i s assumed t h a t t h e n o r m a l d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s smal.1 i n comparison t o t h e s c a l e l e n g t h o f non-uniformity field,i..e.H
~wI,:~I.

i < H H +&I& t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f eddy nz ny' nx c u r r e n t s w i l l be i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s o u r c e f i e l d s t r u c t u r e ,

Under, t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s can be f o r mula-ted :

;%pi i<z. i4 a i

o f t h e source

These s e t s o f tPansfe$fUnCtions

r e n r e s e k t h e input iort h e model c a l c u l a t i o n s t o e x p l a i n t h e anomalous f i e l d s H o r E i n t e r m s o f -a -a a r e s i s t i v i t y anomaly

P,(x,Y,~) = P p n ( z ) b e i n g known. There e x i s t various c o n s t r a i n t s about a c c e p t a b l e s e t s o f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s , f o r examples t h e f u n c t i . o n s i n e i t h e r o n e column o f W

Pn(z),

must d e s c r i b e a m a g n e t i c f i e l d o f s o l e l y i n t e r n a l o r i g i n a s d i s c u s s e d below. The b a s i c c o m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f 3 - d i m e n s i o n a l structures

i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e TE and T mode o f t h e anomalous f i e l d M c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d . T h i s s e p a r a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e , however, i f t h e r e s i s t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e i s 2-dimensional,

Pa = P a ( y l > z ) .
I f t h e n t h e normal E - f i e l d

say

is l i n e a r l y
..

p o l a r i s e d i n x l - d i r e c t i o n , t h e anomaly

.! ,' , . , .:,l, .;/ ... Y .. ; ..,

'

,/'
1 : ;

,{ > ,

, ,

c o n t a i n s o n l y TE modes w i t h E p a r a l l e l Y' A -a ,,; , ,, ! t o x1 and H i n p l a n e s X I - c o n s t a n t : -a E - p o l a r i s a t i o ~ , If t h e normal. m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s p a r a l . l s l t o x ' , t h e M anomalous f i e l d i s i n t h e T mode w i t h z e r o ~ n a g n e t i cf i e l d s above t h e g r o u n d . Hence, z = 0 and E l i e s i n p l a n e s x 1 -a c o n s t . : H - p o l a r i s a t i o n Ccf. S e c t . 7 . 3 ) . The new s e t s o f t r a n s f e r for f u n c t i o n s i n ( x l , y l , z ) c o o r d i n a t e s a r e g i v e n hy

7 1

Ha

= 0

> ? h e r e t h e s u b s c r i p t (\I

r e f e r s t o E-polarisation

and -the s u b s c r i p - ?

(l.) t o ~ - ~ o l a r i s a t i o nThe r e s u l - t i n g s y m m e t ~ yr e l a t i o n s f o r W and .

Z i n g e n e r a l ( x , y , z ) c o o r d i n a t e s can be d e r i v e d a s f o l l o w s : Let

E H b e r o t a t i o n m a t r i c e s , t r a n s f o r m i n g .- and -- fron: ( x , y , z )

-to ( x ' , y l ,z)

coordinates, c = cosa-and s = s i n a :

E T - 1 =Since

HI=

T H . ' -n

H -a ' = TH H n '

E'

= Z'HA = Z'TH n = TZHn, -

it f o l l o w s t h a t
Z = T-I Z' T .
I n a s i m i l a r way it i s r e a d i l y v k r i f i e d t h a t

Hence,

which i m p l i e s t h k t .

XX

+ W

YY

=\ih,,

and

2.

XY

- z YX

=.Z?-Z-~

a r e i n v a r i a n t a g a i n s t r o t a t i o n s and t h a t

"Skew" p a r a m e t e r s which c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e d e r i a t i o n from t r u e 2 d i m e n s i o n a l i t y a r e t h e moduli o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s

I f a g e o m a g n e t i c s o u n d i n g a t a s i n g l e s i t e h a s been p e r f o r m e d n e a r such a 2 - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e l a t i o n s which c o n n e c t A and reduce t o . B w i t h W Z x and W

ZY

I f -the f i r s t r e l a t i o n i s m u l t i . p l i e d by c and t h e s e c o n d r e l a t i o n by

s and t h e n t h e sum o f b o t h i s t a k e n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t

T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e i n - p h a s e and o u t - o f - - p h a s e i n d u c t i o n a17ro:.?s

w i l l b e everywhere p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e t r e n d of t h e s t r u c t u r e ,
which c a n t h u s been f o u n d .

I n m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c s o u n d i n g s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e t r c n d comes from the fact that

However, a f t e r Z h a s b e e n r o t a t e d i n t o Z '
Z'

f o r t h e t h u s found a n g l e a,

n o d i s t i n c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e which o n e o f t h e o f f - d i a g o n a l e l e m e n t s o f r e f e r s t o E- and H - p o l a r i s a t i o n . If i n a d d i t i o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e g e o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n a r r o w i s known, s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n becomes p o s s i b l e . Furthermore

(z,, [

> [ zLl , i f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s b e t t e r conduc-

t i n g t h a n i t s e n v i r o n m e n t and v i c e v e r s a . Hence, i t c a n be d e c i d e d w h e t h e r t h e i n d u c t i o n a r r o w p o i n t s t o w a r d a w e l l c o n d u c t i n g zone o r

away from a p o o r l y c o n d u c t i n g zone.

The d j . s t i . n c t i o n between the impedances o f E- and H - p o l a r i s a t i o n i s important, i f f o r , a f i r s t e s t i m a t e a 1-dimensional i n t e r p r e t a t i . o n o f

. 7

Z by a l a y e r e d . s u b s t r a t u m i s made. Such a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may g i v e

m e a n i n g f u l r e s u l t s f o r Z i h , b u t i n g e n e r a l no$ f o r Z . A t e s t f o r t h e L p r o p e r c h o i c e o f t h e impedance e l e m e n t f o r a ? - d i m e n s i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n comes from the f a c t t h a t t ~ i t h i na g i v e n a r e a Z,, v a r i e s l e s s from p l a c e t o p l a c e

1 t h a n Z.

A t e s t f o r s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t j o n s Wh and W z a l o n j a p r o f i l e y' p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s t r i k e o f a 2-dimensional s t r u c t u r e a r i s e s from t h e p u r e l y i n t e r n a l o r i g i n o f t h e anoixaly:

WZ = K

x Wh

and

9Jh = -K x

WZ

denotes a convolution of W

(or W

w i t h t h e kernel. f u n c t i o n l / n y .

8.3 ~ec -S-t r a lA n a l y s i s

of Geoma~netic 'InductLon D a ta

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e d a t a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e f r e q u e n c y domain i s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s . They l i n e a r l y r e l a t e f u n c t i o ! ? s o f f r e q u e n c y a f i e l d component Z -to one o r more o t h e r fiel$compon e n t s X, Y , . L e t Z ( t ) , X ( t ) and Y ( t ) b e t h e o b s e r v e d t i m e Var i a t i o n s o f Z , X , - d u r i n g a t i m e i . n i - e r v a l l o f l e n g t h T e i t h e r fpojn f
.Iv
I-

...

transforms o f Z ( t ) , form

. .

t h e same o r from d i f f e r e n t s i t e s . L e t Z ( w > , X(w), Y ( w ) b e t h e F o u r i - e r

X C t ) and Y ( t ) . Then a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n o f t h e

i s e s t a b l i s h e d i n which A and B r e p r e s e n t t h e d e s i r e d t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s between Z on t h e one s i d e and X and Y on t h e o t h e r s i d e ; 6 Z i s t h e u n c o r r e l a t e d " n o i s e " i n 2 , a s s u m i n g X and Y t o b e n o i s e - f r e e . A s t h e b e s t f i t t i n g t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d t h o s e whicf p r o d u c e minLmum n o i s e < 1 6 z I 2 > i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a v e r a g e . Here t h e a v e r a g e i s t o b e t a k e n e i t h e r o v e r a number o f r e c o r d s -- r w i t h i n o e x t e n d e d f r e q u e n c y bands o f t h e w i d t h which i s L t i m e s g r e a t e r of related t o t h a n t h e u l t i m a t e s p a c i n g IL'T o f i n d i v i d u a l s p e c t r a l e s t i m a t e s . The n o i s e : s i g n a l r a t i o d e f i n e s t h e r e s i d u a l e(w) , % a t i o o b s e r v e d s i g n a l t .h e -o- r e n c e R(w): c-h e

The c o h e r e n c e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e d e g r e e o f freedom o f t h e a v e r a g i n g p r o c e d u r e e s t a b 1 i s h e . s c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s f o r -the t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s A and B. The a v e r a g e d p r o d u c t s o f F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s a r e d e n o t e d a s

S S
ZY ZZ

= < Z Z

., .

- * >:
*

power s p e c t r u m o f Z .

= < Z Y

--

> : c r o s s s p e c t r u m between Z and Y

wi-th S

ZY

= S* Y=

.
( a ) F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f tiine r e c o r d s ( b ) C a l c u l a t i o n s o f power and c r o s s - s p e c t r a (c) Calculation o f t r a n s f e r functions (d) )COlculation of confidence l i m i t s f o r t h e t r a n s ferfunctions.

I n summary, t h e d a t a r e d u c t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s

S t e p s Ca) and ( b f can be s u b s t i . c u t e d by t h e foll.owing a l t e r n a t i v e s : (ax) : Calculate auto-correlation c o r r e l a t i o n f.urictf.ons R ZY << T : Trnax functions

.. . w i t h

)
T

...

and c r o s s -

being a time l a g ,

R R
with

Zz

(T) = (T)

/ Z(+-t) Z ( t ) d t

T
= / Z(+-t) YCt)dt T

ZY

0 < T < 'rmax. ( b ) : Take t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s and o b t a i n a s i n (b) powerwidth and c r o s s - s p e c t r a l estimates,

i f t h e a v e r a g i n g i s done w i t h i n f r e q u e n c y b a n d s o f t h e
T h e r e i s a f o r m a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between t h e -- -1. maximum l a g and A f

m.

The a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s t e p s ( a ) t o ( d ) w i t h one o r more s e t s o f r e c o r d s i s now d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l .

a. Fo -urier

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . The t i m e s e r i e s and t h e i r s p e c t r a a r e v a l u e s o f t and w ,

given, r e s p e c t i v e l y t o be found, a t d i s c r e t e

which a r e e q u a l l y s p a c e d i n t i m e and f r e q u e n c y . L e t Z

N with .instantenuous value of Z C t ) f o r t = tn, n = 0,1,2, A t = tntl - t O u t s i d e o f t h e r e c o r d , e x t e n d i n g from t t o t n o N Z ( t ) i s assumed t o be z e r o .

.. .

n e - t c . b e an

Let Z

n 1

be t h e F o u r i e r transform of Z ( t ) f o r t h e frequency f = f

IT1

Because o f t h e f i n i t e l e n g t h T o f t h e r e c 6 r d t h e l o w e s t r e s o l v a b l e f r e q u e n c y and t h e r e b y t h e f r e q u e n c y s p a c i n g w i l l be g i v e n b y

T-I = Af = f

and f h a s t o b e a m u l t i p l e o f A f . Because Z ( t ) i s 1 m gj-ven a t d i s c r e t e i n s t a n c e s o f -time, A t a p a r t , t h e h i . g h e s t r e s o l v a b l e f r e q u e n c y , c a l l e d t h e Ny q u i s t f r e q u e n z , w i l l b e t h e r e c i -

procal o f (At-2), i.e.

and

fH -

I -= 2At

Mf A

The F o u r i e r i n t e g r a l

-(un) z
zo =

+I
-@2

-io t n Z(t)e

T -iw t n dt = J Z(t)e dt
0

w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d r.umerica1l.y a c c o r d i n g t o t h , e t r a p e z o i d a l f o r m u l a of a p p r o x i m a t i o n . S e t t i n g

$[zct

0)

+ 2(tN)-j
2

and o b s e r v i n g t h a - t "n?n
2 limn = 2 a f m t n = -N'
2

L
t h e d i s c r e t e Fourier transform o f Z ( t ) is

A l i n e a r t r e n d of t h e r e c o r d w i t h i n t h e c h o s e n i n t e r v a l may b e

wri.tte11 a s

with

d = Z(tN)

Z(to).

A c o r 3 r e c t i o n f o r t h i s t r e n d i.n t h e f r e q u e n c y domain i m p l i e s t h a t

t h e imaginary F o u r i e r transform o f Z 1 ( t ) ,

i s s u b s t r a c t e d from Z m

A s e c o n d c o r r e c t i o n arises from t h e f a c t t h a t Z ( t ) d o e s n o t v?.nish n e c e s s a r i l y o u t s i d e of t h e chosen i n t e r v a l l . I n t h a t c a s e t h e

o r i g i n a l t i m e f u n c t i o n c a n h e m u l t i p l i e d i n t h e r i m e domain w i r h n weight function W ( t ) which i s z e r o f o r t < to and t > t N .The Fourier transform of t h e product

W(t)

. Z-( t )
A

i s g i v e n b y 7 a c o n v o l u t i o n o f Z w i t h t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of W: 1

W(o)

3 5

ZCo)

Ff

C Wm-&

Z ;

A frequent.1~ used w e i g h t f u n c t i o n i s 1 2li WCt) = + c o s --(t-t .- T

'

-11 2

which h a s 'the F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m

for m = 0 For
III

= 1

for m - 1 >
\
\

"1%

71-

-5

G({l

\
L -

The c o n v o l u t i o n o f W w i t h d e s c r e f e v a l u e s o f Z r e d u c e s t h e n t o

q-4----& / I.\/' 3

-.

<Y-

1 < Z > = - C bi A * ZA = m T m-m m

( 2

-(Z.

1 0

+ ZIY

m r O

m = 1, 2 ,

...

PI-1

- Z M - 1 4-2M ( 2

m = M

> i s t h e d i s c s - t e F o u r i e ~ ransform o f W ( t ) * Z ( t ) . This t where < m ' s m o o t h i n g p r o c e d u r e of t h e o r i g i . n a 1 s p e c t r u m i s c z l l e d "harming"

a f t e r J u l i u s von Hann.
I n c e r t a i n c a s e s it w i l l . b e n e c e s s a r y t o a p p l y a n u m e r i c a l fi1.ti.r

t o t h e t i m e s e r i e s t o b e a n a l y s e d b e f o r -. t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . c T h i s f i l t e r i n g p r o c e s s c o n s i . s t s i.n a c o n v o l u t i o n o f 2c.t) w i t h a f i l t e r f u n c t i o n \ d ( t ) i n t h e t i m e do1naj.n and t h u s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f Z w i t h W i n t h e f r e q u e n c y domain. But b e c a u s e t h e f i l t e r i n g procedure is i n t e n d e d t o p r e p a r e t h e time s e r i e s f o r t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n it must b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e t i m e domain If W d e n o t e s t h e f i l t e r w e i g h t f o r t = t17, t h e d i s c r e t e form o f

t h e convolu-ti.on i s

U s u a l l y e v e n ' f i l t e r s a r e employed, W ( t ) i n s u c h a way t h a t it a c t s a s a h e i g h - , fr.equency-independent

= W(-t),

t o p r e s e r v e .the

corr-ec-t p h a s e o f t h e F o u r i e r coniponents, The t r a n s f o r m of (="whitet') spectra:

i s chose:

lord- o r b a n d p a s s f j . 1 - t e r f o r

The weigh-t f u n c t i o n W i s t h e n f o u n d by c a l c u l a t i n g i n F o u r ~ i e i lt l - a n s . . f o r m o f W:

The puTpose o f f i l t e r i n g t h e -time s e r i e s b e f o r e making a F o u r i e ? transformation is (a! a p r e w h i t e n i n g o f t h e s p e c t r u m , l e v e l l i n g o f f p e a k s and compensating spectral trends ( b ) a r e d u c t i o n o f unwanted l a r g e r s p e c t r a l v a l u e s c l o s e t o z e r o f r e q u e n c y , , a r i s i n g from a background t r e n d i n t h e t i m e s e r i e s ( c ) a s u p p r e s s i o n o f s p e c t r a l power beyond t h e N y q u i s t f r e q u e n c y t o avoid "a.liasingU

Spectral values f o r the frequencies

*2~-r' fr and f 3 M - r > ' . a r e undis-tinguishable ( r = 0 , l i 2 ,

. . . , M-1) :

fM+r'

fH-r

etc.

. C a l ' d u l a t i o n o f porter and - s s cro - X ZmYm e t c . f o r a f r e q u e n c y f ZmZIn,

- - %

spectra: Let P

.1q. The calcul.a-t'iorl m' m = 1 , 2 o f power and c r o s s s p e c t r a l e s t i m a t e s f r o m real. d a t a r e q u i - r e s t h a t s u c h p r o d u c - t s a r e a v e r a g e d w i t h 2a c e r - t a i n d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , !C Suppose -th.a-t t h e a v a i l a b l e ~ ? e c o r d e n g - t h j u s t g i v e s t h e d e s i r e d r e l -1 f o r t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s t o be d e t e r m i n e d . I n s o l . u t i o n Af 2 T t h i s c a s e s p e c t r a l p r o d u c t s Pm h a v e .to b e d e r i v e d f o r a number cf

...

denote a product

i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s and t h e n t o be avermgcd. Average t h e s p ~ : c t r a l . p r o d u c t s and - t h e s p e c t r a l v a l u e s ! The r e s u l t i n g mean v a l u e not

i s the d e s i r e d porier o r c r o s s s p e c t r a l es-ti.mate. I f L r e c o r d s have

b e e n u s e d , \? = 2 L besaucje t h e s i n e - and c o s i n e . t r . - , n s f o r . ~ ~ lo f t h e s s e r i e s c011tr~i.b~-ten d e p e n d e n t l y t o t h e c a l c u l i l ' t i o r i s of Sm. i

I f t h e r e c o r d l e n g t h T allows a frequency r e s o l u t i o n A f = T

-1

which

i s much s m a l i e r t h a n a m e a n i n g f u l r e s o l u t i o n
L =

for the transfer

f u n c t i o n s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e n Pm c a n b e a v e r a y e d o v e r
.

Z / Ap~c t r a l s e

v a l u e s w i t h i n (M/L-1)

frequency bands o f width

A between f o = 0 and f M = M A f . f

T a k i n g t h e a v e r a g e o f Pm withri.n f r e q u e n c y bands i m p l i e s t h a t EL numerlical f i l t e r Q ( f ) i s a p p l i e d t o P ( f ) , y i e l d i n g t h e d e s i r e d powerc r o s s spec-trum by c o n v o l u t i o n : S

= Q x P m

. A f +M .L
-M

Qm-;

P;'

(P -m = ' p i ) . The f i l t e r s t o b e u s e d a r e e v e n f u n c t i o n s o f f , b e l s h a p e d and w i t h z e r o v a l u e s o u t s i d e a r a n g e which i s s m a l l e r t h e n

M Af.

S e t t i n g Q(f) = 0 f o r f > f S

Q'

= A f { m~ QA(P C m m+m
A

G=l
I

P m-m

A )

QoPm}

0.1. 48(

The r e s u l t r i n g smoothed s p e c t r a l e s t i m a t e s Sm h a v e been d e r i v e d w i t h r o u g h l y L = &f[Af d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m . The e f f e c t i v e d e g r e e s o f f r e e dom p m a y b e somewhat smaller, d e p e n d i n g on t h e f r e q u e n c y dependence

of t h e f i l t e r . They a r e d e f i n e d a s

.' y=

2 varCu) var (uq)

w11,ere varCu) d e n o t e s t h e v a r i a n c e ( = d i s p e r s i o n ) o f a random v a - r i a b l e u C f ) and varCuq) t h e v a r i a n c e o f Q x u , h e n c e

Two c o n v e n i e n t f i l t e r s a r e .the P a r z e n f i l t e r Q(f) =

3 't
T
1

<--I

sinx
X

I ,

t h e R a r t l e t t f i l t e r Q(f) = with x =

1 7

c- s i n x 1 2 X .
T

n 2

T.

The bandwidth i s g i v e n by

-1

(Parzen f i l t e r ) ,

r e s p e c t i v i t y by 2 / 7 ( B a r t l . e t t f i l t e r ) . F o r t h e P a r z e n f i l t e r t h e d e g r e e s o f freedom a r e LY = 1 . 8 4 L and f = 2 /T*

'c

Cal'dulafio'n o f ' f r j n ' s f e'r f u ' n c t i o n s

The n o n - c o r r e l a t e d p a r t o f Zn i s

f o r t h e f r e q u e n c y fm. I n t h e a v e r a g e o v e r L a d j a c e n t f r e q u e n c i e s o r L i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s t h e power-spectrum of t h e n o n - c o r r e l a t e d p a ~ in t

Z s h a l l b e a minimum:
'626~

= < (6Z

x 6 z X ) > = Min!

Hence., t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f S 6 z 6 z w i t h r e s p e c i t , t h e r e a l and imao . ginary p a r t s ' of t h e t r a n s f e r functions A

1%

and B

nl

h a v e t o be z e r o :

a a S ~ z +i---- 6 z =<(z-AnX 6 ~ S&z aRe(An) a1rn(An),

Bn Y)x x > = 0

etc.

u s i n g t h e n o t a t i o n s a s i n t r o d u c e d a b o v e . The s u b s c r i p t s m a r e ommittec! E l i m i n a t i o n o f e i t h e r A o r B y i e l d s t h e b a s i c formula& f o r t h e det e r m i n a t i o n o f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s i n g e o m a g n e t i c and m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c

The c o h e r e n c e c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m
.
*

R'

= (ASx z + B S y Z ) / S Z z

as it i s r e a d i l y s e e n from

I f o n l y a r e l a t i o n between a r e l i n e a r l y independent (S reduce t o

z
XY

and X

0: 1

Y. i s s o u g h t o r i f X and Y

= O),

t h e n t h e above d e r i v e d r e l a t i o n s

~2

a S -S -S xx
yy
zz

d . Cal.culation o f confi-dence l i n i i t s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s ---,a-----

A , B o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n it i s n e c e s s a r y .to fj.nd -the p r o b a b i l i - t y d e n s i t y " f u n c - t i o n ("pd f " ) o f t h e i r d e v i a - t i o i l s fr>om t h e i r " t r u e "

I -n

"

o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h confidence l i m i t s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r functions

v a l u e s A o , D o . W; assulne t h a t e s t i . m a t e s o f A and B accordi.ng t o t h e l e a s t - s q u a r e method o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c - t i o n a r e wj:thout b i a s , i . t?. b l ? t h ~ ~ ys-tematic e r r o r s ( E = expected v a l u e ) : st

I-lencefor-th, random v a r i a b l e s w i l l b e w r i . t t e n w i t h capj:l-a1

letters

(e.g. X ) , (e.g.

t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n s by o b s e r v a t i o n w i t h l o w e r c a s e l e t t e r s ( e . g . x0).

x ) , and t h e i r t r u e v a l u e s w i t h t h e s u b s c r i p t " O n

L e t f ( X ) b e t h e p d f o f a v a r i a b 1 . e X. r e a l i s a t i o n x exceeds a value G i s
m

Then t h e p r o b a b i . l i t y t h a t a

a = J f(X)dX.
G

Hence, t h e r e i s a " c o n f i d e n c e " o f

f3

= (1-a)

. 100%t h a t

x does n o t

k"

C;

exceed G . The f o l l o w i n g p d f ' s w i l l b e n e e d e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n : ( 1 ) The " G a u s s i a n Normal D i s t r i b u t i o n " o f a n o r m a l i z e d v a r i a b l e w i t h t h e d i s p e r s i o n 1 and z e r o mean v a l u e :

( 2 ) The X 2 - d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r v d e g r e e s o f freedom:

( 3 ) The F i s h e r - d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r N 1 and V 2 d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m :

'These d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e fol.lowing p r o b l e m s : C o n s i d e r a random v a r i a b l e X w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h

Let

n = -1 C n

Xi

i=l

b e t h e , r e a l i z e d .sample mean v a l u e o f n r e a l i z a t i o n s o f X . T h e s e mean val.ues . a r e a l s o n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e d i s p e r s j . o n

accordj-ng t o t h e " c e n t r a l 1.imi-t t h e o r e m " .

Let

be t h e r e a l i z e d d i s p e r s i o n w i t h i n a sample o f n o b s e r v a t i o n s . Then t h e n o r m a l i z e d d i s p e r s i o n

w i l l be a random v a r i a b l e w i t h a X 2 d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r U

= n-1

degrees of freedom. s a m p l e s o f nl X1 and X 2'

Let S :

a n d S:

be t h e dispersions within two d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s

a n d n 2 o b s e r v a t i o n s of

Then t h e r a t i o of t h e i r n o r m a l i z e d d i s p e r s i o n s

w i l l have a F i s h e r - p r o b a b i l i t y

density distribution

EF ( n - 1 , n - 2 ) .

W r e g a r d now t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s 2, e
Z, X,

g , 'i a s r a n d o m v a r i a b l e s
I n a s i m i l a r way, a a n d b t h e i r t r u e values being

and d e n o t e t h e i r r e a l - i z a t i o n f o r a s i n g l e r e c o r d o r a z.

s i n g l e f r e q u e n c y component a s x , y , r e c o r d s o r a l i m i t e d f r e q u e n c y band a
0

s h a l l b e t h e r e a l i z e d t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s f o r a l i m i t e d number of

G,

and bo.

W a s s u m e now t h a t Z d e p e n d s l i n e a r l y o n l y o n X a n d e

t h a t X i s observed error-free:

Then z = a
0

x0 + 6 z o

6zo i s t h e " r e a l i z e d " n o t c o r r e l a t e d p a r t o f z f o r a s i n g l e record. The v a r i a b l e Z s h a l l b e n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e var (Z) dispersion

= s:,

which w i l l b e a l s o t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f 6Z:

By m i n i m i z i n g t h e u n c o r r e l a t e d p o w e r < 6 ~ 6 ~ *=> S band of t h e width

6262

f o r a number

of r e c o r d s o r f o r a number o f f r e q u e n c y l i n e s w i t h i n a f r e q u e n c y a r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n A is

Observe t h a t t h e r e s i d u a l , o f w h i c h -che power h a s b e e n b r o u g h t t o a minimum, i s 6 z = a x

0

- z

i n contrast t o the "true" residual

The random v a r i a b l e
11

<[6z012 >

TI

I :

h a s a x 2 - d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h n d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , where n i s t h e number o f r e c o r d s o r t h e number o f l i n e s u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e average. If a v a r i a b l e U w i t h a ~ ~ l d i s t r i b u t i o n v d e g r e e s o f freedom i s of decomposed i n t o two components U

and U 2 ,

U1 and U 2 w i l l b e l i k e w i s e x 2 - d i s t r i b u t e d a n d t h e sum o f t h e i r d e g r e e s o f freedom w i l l b e v :

T h i s d e c o m p o s i t i o n w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t now w i t h U a s d e f i n e d above: C l e a r l y ,

The power o f the a v e r a g e d r e s i d u a l h a s b e e n mi-nimised by s e t t i n g

implying t h a t

u1

<16Z12>.7i .

s1
0

has a X2-distril>ution of n

2 d e g r e c s o f fr?eedoni b e c a u s e

must b e a

distribution

o f 2 d e g r e e s o f freedom i n v-iew o f -the

do).

r e a l and i m a g i n a r y p a r t o f (A -

The r a - t i o

has a Fisher-distribution above,

f F ( 2 , n-2).

Using t h e n o t a t i o n s fr'om

and o b s e r v i n g t h a t

w i t h R'

= [S ["IS zx zz

XX

),

t h e F i s h e r - d i s t r i b u t e d r a t i o becomes

W h a v e f o u n d now t h e pdf o f t h e d e v i a t i o n o f A from i t s t r u e v z l u e e t o be i n t e r m s o f i t s modulus

Let

8 = / f F ( 2 , n-2)dF
0

b e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t F does n o t exceed t h e v a l u e F = G , observing t h a t f F i s a o n e - s i d e d p d f . Then t h e r e w i l l b e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f3 t h a t t h e modulus

of A l i e s w i t h i n t h e c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s '
=

IAI

G R J g

..'

i n t h e complex p l a n e . The t h r e s h o l d v a l u e G f o r a d e s i r e d v a l u e o f f3 can b e o b t a i n e d i n c i o s e d form b e c a u s e

x c

[ A \

Example: n = 1 2

and

@ = 95%:

n = 1 2 and @ =

99%:

I/--

1- 2 1

G = ~'1003 - 1 =
1 '

~43 1.22 =
0.39

n = 1 2 and B = 5 0 % : 4 - - G = 11- 2 F o r l a r g e n and valid :

n;

42

1 =

a=

1 >> l n y (y = -1, 1-F

t h e f o l l o w i n g approxiinations a r e

2 2 - G - - lny -n n-2

This approximation. e x e m p l i f i e s t h e g e n e r a l propaga-ti-on-of-error law, namely t h a t t h e e r r o r s a r e r e d u c e d p r o p o r t i o n a l . t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s . Ln t h e more g e n e r a l c a s e t h a t Z d e p e n d s on X a n d Y w i t h a n o n - z e r o c o h e r e n c e between X and Y c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s c a n be o b t a i n e d i n a s i m i l a r way: L e t z = a x
0 0

+ boyo + 6zo,

a s s u m i n g t h a t now X -and Y a r e r e a l - i z e d e r r o r f r e e . Then t h e F i s h e r d i s t r i b u t e d r a t i o , i n v o l v i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n o f A and B from a b ; t u r n s o u t t o be

0

and

which h a s a f (4, n - 4 ) d i s . t r i . b u t i . o n . The c o n f i d e n c e l i m i - t s f o r A and F R c a n n o t b e c a l c u l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l . y , u n l e s s of c o u r s e S " j r i s t a k e n t o b e z e r o . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f we assume that I ~ - a , l and a r e e q u a l , Chen

I R-boI

whi.ch a l l o w s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f cornbined c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s f o r

A and B . The t h r e s h o l d v a l u e o f F f o r a g i v e n p r o b a b i l i t y fi c a n b e d e r i v e d from

1-6 =

(1 t

26 - ) -

2 Cl + %G) m

( -

with

n- 4 m = 2 '

m+2G

8.4.

Data a n a l y s i s i n t h e t i m e domain, p i l o t s t u d i e s

Suppose t h e t i m e f u n c - t i o n s t o b e r e l a t e d l i n e a r l y t o e a c h o - t h e r a r e n o t o s c i l l a t o r y b u t more l i k e a o n e - s i d e d asymtotic r e t u r n t o t h e u n d i s t u r b e d n o r m a l l e v e l a f t e r a s t e p - w i s e d e f l e c t i o n from i t :

It may t h e n b e p r e f e r a b l e t o a v o i d a F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and t o d e r i v e i - n d u c t i v e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s i n t h e t h e domain.

I f Z d e p e n d s l i n e a r l y o n l y on X ,
*

i.e.

Z(w)

= A(w)

X(m)

+ 6ZCw)
in

i n t h e f r e q u e n c y domain, t h e n Z(t) w i l l b e d e r i v e d f r o m X ( t ) form o f A ,

t h e t i m e _ d o m a i n by- a c o n v o l u t i o n o f X ( t ) w i t h t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s -

A(t)

1 - -m J 2s

f "

A(w) e

i.wt
dm.

S i n c e Z C t ) c a n n o t depend on X ( t ) a t some f u t u r e t i m e T > 't, t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n A c t ) must b e z c r o f o r t < 0 , y i e l d i n g

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e r e a l and i m a g i n a r y p a r t o f A ( w ) wil.1. be r e l . a t e d as f u n c t i o n s o f f r e q u e n c y by a d i s p e r s i o n r e l a t i o n :

with K(w)

The time-domain r e s p o n s e A c t ) i s now d e t e r m i n e d frorn a g i v e n r e c o r d o f Z ( t ) between t = 0 and t = T by m i n i n > . i z i n g ' { 6 ~ ( t )w~ t h i n t h i s ) i intervall:

1.t i s assumed t h a t X(-t) i s known a l s o f o r t < 0 . D i f f e r e n t a t i o n w i t h h r e s p e c t t o ACt=t) gives

= Z C t = n.A-t) d e n o t e t h e v a l u e of Z a t e q u a l l y s p a c e d n be t h e v a l u e o f A C t ' ) f o r t ' = n ' A t . Then t h e i n s t a n c e s and l e t A

Let again Z

n'

r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e i n t e g r a l s by sums y i e l d s a s y s t e m o f ] . i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e A,,,

n'

0,1,

... N:

An,EZ x n' =o n = o n-n'

N'

-1 = n-n

c zn xn
.

n=o

+ .

;
.

f o r n = 0,1,2,
A

... N.
A

Chosing N < N ,

t h e r e s p o n s e v a l u e s c a n b e de+enninc?d by a l e a s t -

s q u a r e f i t . 0 - t h e r w i s e a g e n e r a l i z e d i n v e r s i o r ~o f t h e s y s t e m o f e y u a t i o n s c a n be p e r f o r m e d . Consider t h e l i m i t i n g cases t h a t

(1) t h e f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e i s r e a l ;ind i n d e p e n d e n t o f
frequency,
( 2 ) -the f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e i s i m a g i n a r y and p r o p o r t i o n a l

t o w -1.

.
above n o r by .the i.mpedance for, a t h i n

The f i r s t c a s e i s r e a l - i z e d by t h e i n d u c t i v e : s c a l e 1-eng-tl, C

a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r a t -the c1cp.th z

s h e e t o f t h e c o n d u c t a n c e T above a n o n - c o n d u c ~ i n g s u b s t r i i t ~ m :
Cn = z
3:

Zll = 1 1 ~ . The second c a s e c a n be r e a l i z e d by t h e same

m o d e l s , i n t e r c h a n g i n g Cn and Zn ( c f . S e e . 9 - 1 1 :

The F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s o f A1 and A2 a r e
02

A ( t ) = b .f -2 O-o;,

sin xw t -

- sgn(t)nbo

Hence, i n t h e f i r s t c a s e Z depends on X a t t h e same i n s t a n c e o f t i m e o n l y , i n t h e s e c o n d c a s e on X w i t h e q u a l w e i g h t d u r i n g t h e entire past:

These s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s a r e very u s e f u l t o conduct a p i l o t r e d u c t i o n o f s o u n d i n g d a t a . Case (1) a p p l i e s t o m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c s o u n d i n g s i n s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s , u n d e r l a i n by a c r y s t a l i 5 ~ n eb a s e m e n t , t o v e r t i c a l geomagnetQi.c s o u n d i n g s w i t h v e r y l o n g p e r i o d s , r e a c h i r i g t h e c o n d u c t i v e p a r t o f t h e m a n t l e , and t o s t r u c t u r a l g e o m a g n e t i c s o u n d i n g s where t h e p e r t u r b e d Plow o f i n d u c t i o n c u r r e n t s i s i n - p h a s e w i t h t h e normal m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The baste l i n e a r r e l a t i o n f o r s t r u c t u r a l geoinagnetic s o u n d i n g s c a n by p r o d u c t s i n t h e ti.rne domain: be w r i t t e n then si-~nply

T h i s r e l a t i - o n i m p l i e s . t h a t .the l o c a l g e o m a g n e t i c d<.stul-bance v e c t o r

W -

HaZ) l i e s a t a l l instances of i s f i x e d i n s p a c e . The i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n e q ( x , y ) -.plane g i v e s t h a t p o l a r i s a t i o n o f t h e which no anomalous v e r t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s a r e o f 2-dimensional s t r u c t u r e s , t h i s would be trends (cf. Sect. 8 . 2 ) .

= (Kx, H y ,

t i m e i n a p l a n e which o f t h i s plane with t h e noPmal f i e l d v e c t o r , f o r pkdduced. I n t h e c a s e the direction of t h e i r

V a r i o u s g r a p h i c a l methods h a v e been d e v e l o p e d t o f i n d t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h i s " p r e f e r r e d plane" f o r t h e l o c a l geomagnetic d i s t u r bance v e c t o r . I n a

e arki ins on-plot"

t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h i s vector

i s d i s p l a y e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s on a u n i t s p h e r e . They t e n d
t o f a l l o n t o a p l a n e i n t e r s e c - L i n g t h e s p h e r e . The projec.ti.on o f t h e u n i t v e c t o r normal. t o t h i s p l a n e d e f i n e s t h e l e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e " P a r k i n s o n i n d u c t i o n arrow" a t t h e c o n s i d e r e d s i t e . The o r i - e n t a t i o n i s c h o s e n i n such. a manner t h a t a h o r i z o n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i n d u c t i o n arrow i s connected with a p o s i t i v e (=downward) anomalous HaZ:
' h

, - J.. -

F o r th.e. c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a "Uiese-diagram"

the r a t i o s

are plotted i n h,y)-coordinates d i r e c t i o n and v and y - d i r e c t i o n .

f o r i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s , u i n xThe p o i n - t s ( u , v ) . t e n d t o f a l l

o n t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e , h a v i n g %he e q u a t i o n
l = A * u + B.v,

\2, \/A\
A

from which t h e c o e f f i c e n t s A and t i o n " a r r o w w i t h A a s x-component

B
and

c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . The "Wiese-induc-

' ;1
1
j

...

B a s 17-component

i.s opposi:te

t o t h e P a ~ l c i n s o na r r o w .

I n a n " U n t i e d t diagram!' t h e e n d p o i . n t s o f t h e h o r i z o l : t a l

dis-turbance

v e c t o r (El H ) a r e drawn a s a c u r v e i n ( x , y ) - c o o r d i n a t e s d u r i n g a x Y s i n g l e e v e n t . L i n e s which c o n n e c t t i m e i n s t a n c e s o f e q u a l v e r - t i c a l disturbance

Miz w i l l then be para]-lel t o t h e . i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n e of .

The " i n d u c t i o n arrows'!

t h e p r e f e r ~ e dp l a n e w i t h t h e , ( x ,y ) - p l a n e .

a r e n o r m a l t o t h e s e l i n e s and t h e i r l e n g t h i s g i v e n by t h e r a t i o o f Haz t o t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s h o r i z o n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e v e c t o r , p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e c o n n e c t i n g l i n e s .

. P a r k i n s o n and Wiese d i a g r a m s w h i c h u t i l i z e t h e Ha z ) I-Ix' H r e l a t i o n : Y o f nuinerous i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s c a n b e employed a l s o i n t h e c a s e o f 2-dimensj.ona1 s t r u c t u r e s wi-th a n anomalous f i e l d which i s n o t

0 ' 1

e x a c t l y i n - p h a s e w i t h t h e n o r m a l f i e l d . Then more t h e t i m e o f maximum d e v i a t i o n o f Haz

l e s s sinilsoicla'

v a r i a t i o n s a r e chosen w i t h r e a d i n g s a t w e l l d e f i n e d t i m e s , e . g . a t from t h e u n d i s t u r b e d l e v e l .

9 . Data 5 . n t e r p r e t a t j . o n on t h e b a s i s o f s e l e c t e d iriodels 9 . 1 - ayered H a l f - s ~ L

- -

--

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f g e o m a g n e t i c s o u n d i n g d a t a by a l a y e r e d r e s i s t i v i t y distribution p = p (z) is appropiate a t those single n s i t e s o r f o r t h o s e a r r a y s which do n o t show anomalous m a g n e t i c Z-Variati.ons and which h a v e a polarisation-independent magnetot e l l u r i c inwedance:

The t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s t o b e u s e d f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e t h e inductive scale length f o r z e r o wavenumber t h e impedance the ratio'of internal t o external parts i n the wavenuinber domain The t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n o f t h e Y - a l g o r i t h m t o b e u s c d f o r t h e l i n e a r i s a t i o n o f t h e i n v e r s e p r o b l e m is
C (w,O)

where p

i s a r b i t r a r y r e f e r e n c e r e s i s t i v i t y Ccf. c h a p . 6 . 4 )

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s a.t o n e p a r t i c u l a r f r e q u e n c y t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g models c a n b e d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y

>

from t l - t e m . These p a r a m e t e r s may t h e n b e u s e d t o r e s e n ~ b l ea s f u n c t i o n s of frequency c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t r u e r e s i s t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . A l l f o r m u l a s a r e r e a d i l y d e r i v e d from t h e f o r m u l a s f o r T E - f i e l d s a t z e r o wavenumber i n c h a p . 7 . 3 , a n n e x .

( a ) S i n g l e f r e q u e n c y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e modulus o f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s (Cagniard-Tilchonov): t h e model c0nsi.s-ks. o f a u n i f o r m half-space.

Its r e s i s t i v i t y i s

i f t h e p e r i o d T i s inensured i n s e c o n d s , E X i n mV/Icm and H Y i n y . i s t h e " C a g n i a r d a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i ' t y " o f t h e s u b s t r a t ~ u i la t pa t h e considered frequency.

( b ) S i n g l e frequency i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e a l p a r t of Cn:
W X

f=m

1
\

The model c o n s i s t s o f a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r a t

A\

:*
\

.'..,\ .

the d e p t h z = z layer.
z
3:

b e n e a t h a n o n - c o n d u c t i n g -top

g =0 \.
~

. .

. , ,

u"c i s the d e p t h o f t h e " p e r f e c t s u b s t i t u t e c o n d u c t o r " a t t h e con\\...

.,

, ~. .. ; \
,
\

,. .,,

, ,

= R ~ I I = C
n

- n -

Im(Z

s i d e r e d frequency, i n d i c a t i n g t h e depth of penetration i n t o t h e substratum a t t h a t frequency. ( c ) S i n g l e frequency i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e imaginary p a r t of C : n %* The model c o n s i s t s o f a t h i n c o n d u c t i v e t o p - 7 l a y e r o f t h e conductance
I - = ~

;'

f
.

9 cr(z)dz,
0

\. ,
'

. ,

covering a non-conducting h a l f - s p a c e . apparen-t c o n d o c t a n c e i s g i v e n by

This

( d ) Sing1.e f r e q u e n c y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a m p l i t u d e - p h a s e o f r e s p 3 n s e and f u n c t i o n s ; 4 = arg{Zn}. 1 0 < @ < ~ / 4 : The model c o n s i s t s o f

a t h i n t o p l a y e r of t h e conductance T
tum OF r e s i s t i v i - t y p"": -Im(C n )

above a u n i f o r m s u b s t r a Im(Zn)
'

-ER

TX

+
2

Real(C n ) ,-Re(Zn)

,-

ullo ! cn
p""

I*

1znI2

= PaS

cotZ@

n / ] ; < @ < ~ / 2 : t h e model c o n s i s t s o f a n o n - c o n d u c t i n g

X

'top --

l a y e r o f t h i c k n e s s h above a u n i f o r m s u b s t r a t u m o f t h e r e sistivity p ;
h = Real(C

Im(Zn)
n

) + Im(C,)

Re(Zn)

=
u"o
2 : Pa5 1i.tan2@

-,

p"
.

= 2 w l , ; { l : r n ( ~ ~ )= ~ ~

The " m o d i f i e d a - - a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y " p can b e used a s a n e s t i m a t o r pp Ir. of t h e r e s i s t i v i t y a t t h e d e p t h zf= Re{Cnl = h 4 ~ p w i t h

m
pX

, .

1 f i k

UlJ0

a s a p p a r e n t s k i n - d e p t h o f t h e s u b s t r a t u m . The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
,

o f t h e t r u e r e s i s t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p ( z ) by t h e m o d i f i e d a p p a r e n t x r e s i s t i v i t y distribu-tion p C Z ~ ) ' ~ S usually a d q u a t e , i f p decreases

w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e p t h . It i s - l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y , i f p i n c r e a s e s w i t h

depth. ( e ) M u l t i p l e f r e q u e n c y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h a t h r e e - l a y e r model:

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n cornbines t h e s i n g l e

-L ~ TA'. - ..,

I-.-

f r e q u e n c y i n - t e r p r e t a t 3 . o n s (b) a n d ( c ) , i . e .
t h e model c o n s i s t s o f a t h i n t o p l a y e r w i t h

t h e conductance

,a

non-conducting i n t e r -

m e d i a t e l a y e r o f t h e t h i c k n e s s h above a p e r f e c t l y c o n d u c t i n g s u b s t r a t u m . Then

2 h dl
'Is

= w p 0 ~h =

i s t h e i n d u c t i o n p a r a m e t e r o f t h e model wi-th dl

pi as t h i c k n e s s o f t h e t o p l a y e r and pl =
with t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t pl < < d 'I'

/ &as l W0T

i t s ~%in-depth

t h e i n d u c t i o n i s predominan-t1.y I f q, > > 1, i m p l y i n g t h a t h >>> p 1' j.n t h e s u r f a c e s h e e t , t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s

al-e i n d e p e n d e n t o f h, t h u s a l l o w i n g a u n i q u e c l e t e r r r ~ i n a t i o no f

T.

Ln p a r t i c u l a r ,
Pa

-. -

1
W ~ J ,r2

Hence, i f y = l o g p a / p

and x = l.og T/To (T = p e r i o d ; po and To

are r e f e r e n c e v a l u e s ) , t h e n

. the p

v s , p e r i o d c u r v e i n l o g - l o g prcsen'cati.on

is a straigh-t

4 b?i.~:hw as c u r v e p a r a m e t e r

l i n e a s c e n d- u n d e r 4 5 ing g i v e n hy

i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t on t h e x - a x i s
Po - .r2) To

= log(21ry

w i t h TI = 1

. lox1

i n s e c o n d s and p o i n Qm.

I f , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , 1 1 < < 1, t h e - r e w i l l b e e f f e c t i v e l y n o i n d u c t i o n ~

i n t h e t h i n s h e e t and

.es --The l o g - l o g p l o t of pa v s . T i s a g a i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , now d . A c e n -

d i n g u n d e r 45O:

The d e p t h h i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p o i n t xJ w i t h t h e x-axis :
\ '

Exercise Geomagne-tic v a r j . a t i o n s . i n H ( n o r t h c o m p o n e n t ) , D ( e a s t component) and Z ( v e r t i c a l component) h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d a t G o e t t i n g e n f r o m September 5 , 1 7 h t o September G ,

2 h G T 1957. D u r i n g t h e same t i m e M

i n t e r v a l 1 r e c o r d s have been o b t a i n e d a l s o o f t h e t e l l u r i c f i e l d i n

i t s n o r t h c o m p o n e n t EN a n d i t s e a s t c o m p o n e n t EE. S c a l e v a l u e s and
d i r e c t i o n s o f p o s i t i v e change a r e i n d i c a t e d .

(1) D e t e r m i n e t h e m a g n e t o - t e l l u r i c

impedances E N / D and EE/H f o r

f a s t ( p e r i o d 1 1 0 min) and s l o w ( p e r i o d 1 1 h o u r ) v a r i a t i o n s , e v a l u a - t i n g peak v a l u e r e a d i n g s o f pronounced d e f l e c t i o n s f r o m t h e smoothed u n d i s t u r b e d l e v e l . C a l c u l a t e t h e a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y p a and e s t i m a t e t h e phase @ o f t h e impedance ( 0

0

f 45

,+

90 ) . I n t e r p r e t

p a and @ w i t h

o n e o r two l a y e r models f o r t h e two p e r i o d g r o u p s s e p a r a t e l y . Then s e a r c h f o r a model which c o u l d e x p l a i n b o t h p e r i o d grLcups by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n y and s o l v i n g a s y s t e m o' two t o f o u r l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s .
(2)

The magnetogram shows p r o n o u n c e d v a r i a t i o n s i n Z which i n view o f t h e low l a t i t u d e o f G o e t t i n g e n c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g d u e t o a r e s i s t i v i t y anoma1.y. Check t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f Z w i t h

H. a n d D by v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n . Then c h o o s e e f f e c t s w i t h
d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t K : D r a t i o s and d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t

A and B f o r t h e anomalous v e r t i c a l f i e l d Z = AH + BD.

Interpret the result.

,.
.i

.,.

'

.,

~ a ~ n e t o ~ r a nG o; tlt ~n ' g e n ? i

1 9 5 3 September 5-6
, $ .

9 . 2 Layered S p h ere

The s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e r e a l E a r t h h a s t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t ,

i f f o r t h e considered frequency t h e depth o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s

'comparable t o t h e E a r t h ' s r a d i u s a d i v i d e d by N . Here N i s t h e h i g h e s t value o f t h e degree n o f s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e harmonics which d e s c r i b e t h e s u r f a c e f i e l d as f u n c t i o n s o f l a t i t u d e and l o n g i t u d e . T h e r e i s a f o r m a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between t h e wave number k and n / a o r b e t t e r J n ( n + l ) / a ( S . b e l o b r ) . and D s t p e n e t r a t e d e e p l y enough 9 t o make a s p h e r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e i r p l a n e - e a r t h r e s p o n s e Only the l o n g - p e r i o d v a r i a t i o n s S f u n c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y . The D s t source f i e l d i s effectively of t h e d e g r e e n = 1, w h i l e t h e Sq s o u r c e f i e l d c o n t a i n s s p h e r i c a l h a r monics up t o N = 5. I n f a c t , t h e s u r f a c e f i e l d o f t h e m ' t h Sq s u b h a r m o n i c i s w e l l d e s c r i b e d by a s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c o f t h e degree n = m

+ 1 when m

r a n g e s from o n e t o f o u r . The r a - t i - o s a / N and 3000 t o 1200 km f o r Sq.

a r e t h e r e f o r e r o u g h l y 6000 km f o r Dst o f Dst

These v a l u e s have t o b e set i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n from 600 t o 1000 km and t o t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n o f S from 300 t o 500 km. t i o n , b u t it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t i t w i l l b e b i g g e r f o r S t h e g r e a t e r s p a t i a l . non-uniformity o f S o f d e e p e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f Dst.
9

Hence, i n e i t h e r c a s e t h e r e w i l l b e t h e n e e d o f a s p h e r i c a l c o r r e c outweigh-ts t h e e f f e c t

because

The t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n i n c o n d u c t o r s o f s p h e c i c a l symmetry s u r r o u n d e d by n o n - c o n d u c t i n g m a t t e r can b e summarized

as foll.ows. L e t

b e t h e m a g n e t i c and e l e c t r i c f i e l d v e c t o r s o f time-harmonic TEmode f i e l d s i n s p h e r i c a l g e o c e n t r i c c o o r d i n a t e s ;

r i s t h e geoc e n t r i c d i s t a n c e , X t h e a n g l e o f l o n g i t u d e and 0 t h e angle o f ' 0 c o - l a t i t u d e ( = 90 minus l a t i t u d e ) on a s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e . Tlte d i f f u s i o n v i c t o r from S e c . ' 7 . 3 p o i n t s from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s r5adi.all.y i n w a r d s toward r = 0:

with

and

rot rotP= Pr i s e x p r e s s e d on a s u r f a c e r = c o n s t . by a s e r i e s o f s p h e r i c a l
s u r f a c e harmonics. The d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n V - = i w u o u v ' P
. eparation i s

'2

within

t h e v ' t h e Shel.1 i s t h e n s o l v a b l e by (K: = i w p o u v ) :

of variables

where t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r a d i a l f u n c t i o n second o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

fm 11

satisfies t h e ordinary

I t s g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n a r e s p h e r i c a l B e s s e l f u n c t i o n s j n and t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d k i n d ,

nn

of

.-

w i t h A~ and B a s complex-valued c o n s t a n t s OF i n - t e g r a t i o n . Theyn : m m d e c r i b e t h e i n - - g o i n g (B ) and o u t - g o i n g ( A ) s o l u - t i o n , t h e l a t t e r n n b e i n g z e r o below t h e u l . t i m a t e s h e l l s , s u r r o u n d i n g an uniform i n n e r core, because for r

+ -

nn

h a s a s i n g u l a r i t y a t r = o w h i l e jn

0
i.
i

0.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a l e 1.engi-h o f p e n e - t r a t i o n i s d e f i n e d a s

cm = n
with

m m r fn/gn
d(r f : )

t - -d r z :

The f i e l d w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t i n g s p h e r e , r - a , i s d e r i v e d from < P as d e s c r i b e d i n S e c . 7 . 3 . O b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e r a d i a l component o f r o t r o t - r e d u c e s by t h e u s e o f s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c s t o P

t h e f i e l d components o f t h e s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c o f d e g r e e n and

order m are:

and

The impedance o f the f i e l d a t s p h e r i c a l s u r ' a c e s , terms o f

expressed i n

,c :

i s t h e n a s i n t h e c a s e o f p l a n e d o n d u c t o r s g i v e n by

For t h e f i e l d o u t s i d e o f t h e conducting s p h e r e , r - a , t h e solu> t i o n of t h e r a d i a l function is ( i n quasi-stationary approximation)

Hence, t h e s u r f a c e v a l u e o f t h e charlac-terisll-ic s c a l e l e n g t h f o r

r = a i s found t o b e

The r a t i o o f i n t e r n a l . -to e x t e r n a l . p a r t s o f the m a g n e t j . ~s u r f a c c f l e l d is by d e f i n i t i o n

yielding

The r a t i o o f i n t e r n a l t o e x t e r n a l p a r t s i s t h e r e f o r e d e r i v e d from

cm n

according t o

which d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e r $ l e o f n / a , respec-tive1.y ( n + l ) / a , a s e q u i v a l e n t wavenumber o f t h e s o u r c e f i e l h i n s p h e r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s

( c f . Sec. 9 . 1 ) .
The s p h e r i c a l v e r s i o n o f t h e i n p u t f u n c t i o n f o r t h e i n v e r s e problem, b a s e d on a l i n e a r i s a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e $ - a l g o r i t h m , veniently defined a s i s con-

w i t h K~ = itopO/pO. It w i l l b e shown t h a t t h e s p h e r i c a l c c r r e c t i o n
0

i s o f t h e o r d e r ( n [ ~ [ / a ) ' , i f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s more o r l e s s
uniform. I f d e g r e e and o r d e r o f t h e s p h e r i c a l . h a r m o n i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e f i e l d a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f f r e q u e n c y ( t h i s is t r u e f o r ; D b u t -- o t f o r S ) , t h e i n v e r s e problem c a n b e s o l v e d by d e r i v i n g n 9 from s p h e r i c a l r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s a p r e l - i m i n a r y p l a n e - e a r t h model
h

st

T h i s model. i s s u b s e q u e n t l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a s p h e r i c a l . E a r t h

model p ( r ) w i t h WEIDELT's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f o r m u l a :

with

and

An a l g o r i t h m f o r t h e d i r e c t p r o b l e m f o r s p h e r i c a l c o n d u c t o r s c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s . It i s d e s i g n e d n o t t o g i v e t h e t r a n s f e r
: function C

f o r a g i v e n model i t s e l f b u t a n a u x i l a r y t r a n s f e r

function

as a d i r e c t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e t r a n f e r f u n c t i o n C o f p l a n e conm d u c t o r s . To s e e i t s c o n n e c t i o n t o C differentiate the characteristic n' depth function f with respect t o r, observing t h a t t h e differen:
t i a t i o n o f s p h e r i c a l Besselfunctions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r argument u j.s

and t h e same f o r

nn .

Then

Hence,

m = fm gn n

d fm
+

= fm(r/?mn ) n n

w i t h nC / r a s " s p h e r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n ", n C o n t i n u i t y o f the t a n g e n t i a l components o f t h e e l e c t r i c and m magne.tic f i e l d r e q u i r e s t h a t Cn and t h e r e b y cm a s w e l l a r e conn t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n s o f d e p t h . L e t rL b e t h e r a d i u s o f t h e i n n e r

A

core of conductivity a

-yth

s u r r o u n d e d by (L-1) u n i f o r m s h e l l s , t h e L' s h e l l between r and rvi-,.( v = 1,2, L). v

...

Then

w i t h uL = i K L rL b e c a u s e t h e i n - g o i n g s o l u t i o n s a r e z e r o w i t h i n m C f o r r = r can be expressed a l s o i n t e r m s o f the c o r e . But n L t h d g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n o f the ( L - 1 ) ' t h s h e l l :

with u i = iKL-l

* m r L . AS . a c o n s e q u e n c e , Cn f o r r = rL-l i s now ex, p r e s s i b l e i n terms o f c:(P~) and t h u s an a l g o r i t h m c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e v a l u e ~ z ( r= a ) . I n

h~
~

1 n u m e r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n it i s p r e f e r a b l e n o t t o d e r i v e t h e s p h e r i c a l

and u' -themselves, b u t t o v r e f o r m u l a t e t h e a l g o r i t h m by e x p r e s s i n g jn and nn i n t e r m s o f

V

B e s s e l f u n c t i o n s f o r the a r g u m e n t s u

h y p e r b o l i c f u n c t i o n s ( c f . Dover Handbook o f M a t h e m a t i c a l F u n c t i o n , FoI?mula 1 0 . 2 . 1 2 ) : jn(u) n = i {gnCz) s i n h ( z )

g-n-l

(z) COS~CZ))

w i t h u = i z and t h e f o l l o w i n g r e c u r r e n c e f o r m u l a f o r t h e
gnCn =
0,

1,

... ) :

Lf gn

Iz 1

>> 1, the a p p r o x i m a t i o n s

-z2

. Cn+l).n/2

gn
3,

z
5,

-1

for n = f2,

for n =

...

4,

...
= 0.

and

a r e v a l i d ; g-l

B y making u s e o f t h e a d d i t i o n t h e o r e m s o f h y p e r b o 1 . i ~f u n c t i o n s the a l g o r i t h m c a n b e g i v e n a form s i m u l a r t o t h e r e c u r r e n c e f o r mula o f p l a n e c o n d u c t o r s ( c f . Appendix t o S e c . 7 . 3 )

with

and- a

I = gn g-n

6-n-1

En-1

The argument o f g

i s u = i K r , t h e argument o f g ' i s u l = i K r n v v v n v v vt.1' I f l u v l and [ u b [ a r e l a r g e compared t o u n i t y , i . e . i f t h e mesa

r a d i u s i s m u c h ~ l a r g e rt h a n t h e s k i n - d e p t h o f t h e v ' t h s h e l l . , t h e -1 coefficients a a r e of t h e order + ( u u l ) , t h e spherical correcn :-I or u-l u 1 - 2 t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s E o f t h e o r d e r uv uv

-4

I 1

C o n s i d e r f o r example t h e c a s e o f a u n i f o r m s p h e r e o f t h e r a d i u s a , t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y a, K = i w u o and u = i K a . Then

0

Assuming t h e s k i n - d e p t h t o b e

s m a l l i n comparison t o a ,

(IuI

>> I ) , t a n h ( u ) z . 1

and w i t h z = u / i = Ka

The r e s u l t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e s p h e r i c a l t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n

has its plane-halfspace value except f o r a s p h e r i c a l correction

of t h e o r d e r Cn/z)'.

9 . 3 . Non-uniform t h i n s h e e t s above a l a y e r e d s u b s t r u c t u--re -

The t h i n - s h e e t a p p r o x i m a t i o n h a s been i n t r o d u c e d by PRICE t o g e o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s . I t a p p l i e s t o t h o s e v a r i a t % o n a n o m a l i e s f o r which t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r i s e from l - a t e r a l c h a n g e s o f r e s i s t i v i t y c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e . F o r i n s t a n c e , h i g h l y r e s i s t i v e basement r o c k s may b e c o v e r e d by w e l l c o n d u c t i n g s e d i m e n t s o f f a i r l y u n i f o r m res i s t i v i t y ps b u t v a r i a b l e t h i c k n e s s d . Two c o n d i t i o n s h a v e t o b e s a t i s f i e d , i f t h i s s u r f a c e c o v e r i s t o be t r e a t e d a s a " t h i n s h e e t " o f v a r i a b l e c o n d u c t a n c e
. = d/ps: r

( i ) I t s skin-depth J2ps/wvo

a t t h e c o n s i d e r e d f r e q u e n c y must

e x c e e d t h e maximum t h i c k n e s s dmax by at l e a s t a f a c t o r o f 2 . ( i i ) The i n d u c t i v e s c a l d - l e n g t h

c-(u,o)
n

f o r the m a t t e r below t h e must b e

s u r f a c e c o v e r , assumed t o b e a l a y e r e d h a l f - s p a c e , l a r g e i n comparison t o dmax.

Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d w i t h i n t h e " - t h i n s h e e t 1 ' may. be. r e g a r d e d as- c o n s t a n t f o r 0

. :

z < d, reducing t h e first

f i e l d e c ~ u a t l o nt o i t s t h i n - s h e e t a p p r o x i m a t i o n

with

~
as s h e e t c u r r e n t d e n s i t y ;

+ Htg

i s t h e t a n g e n t i a l magnetic f i e l d

a b o v e t h e s h e e t a t z = 0 , H- t h e t a n g e n t i a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d ;;tg below t h e s h e e t a t z = d; z i s t h e u n i t v e c t o r downward.

... ,

f o r example a s e d i m e n t a r y c o v e r w i t h e x c e e d i n g 4 km i n t h i c k n e s s . Then c o n d i t i o n ( i ) w i l l b e s a t i s f i e d f o r p e r i o d s up t o 2 m i n u t e s and c o n d i t i o n ( i i ) f o r d e e p r e s i . s t i v i t i e s i n e x c e s s o f , s a y , 50 Slm. The r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e n o r m a l f i e l d a b o v e t h e s h e e t a t

z = 0 a r e r e a d i l y found from

G' 3

where

i s t h e c o n s t a n t normal p a r t o f T, w h i l e C; h a s t o b e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e g i v e n s u b s t r u c t u r e r e s i s t i v i - t y p r o f i l e . The
T

f i e l d e q u a t i o n s . t o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e va-

r i a t i o n anomaly are

with

rot

-a

= impo EIa,

The s e c o n d f i e l d e q u a t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s a l s o t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a c o n s t a n t between z = 0 and z = d. I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e anolnalous f i e l d , a r i s i n g from t h e f a c t t h a t i t s p r i m a r y s o u r c e d l i e w i t h i n t h e sheet.

P i l o t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : I n many cases t h e anomalous f i e l d h a s no inductive coupling w i t h t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e because i t s half-width i s s m a l l i n comparison t o duced by

( c , [ . In t h a t c a s e no c u r r e n t s a r e in--

Ha

i n t h e s u b s - t r u c t u r e and t h e anomalous m a g n e t i c f i e l d

i s s o l e l y due t o t h e anomalous s h e e t c u r r e n t ja w i t h i n t h e s h e e t .
F o r r e a s o n s o f symmetry

Observe t h a t the i n d u c t i v e c o u p l i n g o f -the n o r m a l f i e l d h a s n o t been n e g l e c t e d , i . e . i t s i n t e r n a l s o u r c e s l i e w i t h i n t h e s h e e t a s w e l l a s w i t h i n t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e . Assuming t h a t electric field - = E

T~

i s known by o b s e r v a t i o n s
T., a

and t h a t it i s possib1.e t o i d e n t i f y t h e n o r m a l p a r t o f t h e t o t a l

En + Ea

e i t h e r by c a l c u l a t i o n
t

0, 1

o u t s i d e o f t h e anomaly, t h e anomalous p a r t o f t h e c o n d u c t a n c e

i s r e a d i l y f o u n d from o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Hatg a n d -a E I n t h i s way, u s i n g t h e example from a b o v e , t h e v a r i a b l e dep-ti1 o f t h e basement bel-ow t h e sedimen.ks,

can b e e s t i m a t e d .

I f a n e l - o n g a t e d s t r u c t u r e i s i n H - p o l a r i s a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to
t h e n o r m a l f i e l d , t h e m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n anomaly w i l l d i s a p p e a r ( c f . Sec. 7 . 3 ) . The p i l o t i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e c o n d u c t a n c e i s done
11~

even inore s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e s h e e t c u r r e n t d e n s j . t y must be a c o n s t a n t i n th-e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e t r e n d :

E~~ T

r:

= const.

or

n~ a

+ E a r = j

0.

T h i s a p p r o a c h h a s been u s e d by HAACK t o o b t a i n a f a i r l y r e l i a b l e conductance c r o s s - s e c t i o n through t h e Rhinegraben. I n t h e c a s e of E - p o l - a r i s a t i o n a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f s i m p l i f i c a t i o n may b e i n o r d e r : Suppose t H e h a l f - w i d t h o f t h e anomaly i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l i n comparison t o ( W ~ ~ T ) - ' e v e r w h e r e . Then n o s i g n i f i c a n t l o c a l s e l f - i n d u c t i o n clue t o HaZ which p r o d u c e s takes places, i . e . t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d d r i v i n g t h e anomalous c u r r e n t w i l l be t h e l a r g e - s c a l e induced normal f i e l d only:

Assuming E a g a i n t o b e known, t h e c o n d u c t a n c e anomaly i s now -n ll d e r i v e d from t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e t a n g e n t i a l m a g n e t i c v a r , i a t i o n anomaly n o r m a l t o t h e t r e n d , I n t h e a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h r e a l d a t a a l l f i e l d components may b e e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f t h e i r t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s W and Z and t h u s b e n o r r n a l i s e d w i t h r e g a r d t o

h+

r1tg'

L e t T be v a r i a b l e o n l y i n o n e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n , s a y , i.n yd l r e c - t i o n ' w h i c h . i m p l i e s t h a t t h e anomal.ous f j - e l d i s a l s o v a r i a b l e only i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n , obeying t h e f i e l d equa-tions CE-polarisation) (H-polarisation)

H+ ay

1-1-

=
?ax

ay

- H
with
ax

H.k ax

jay

and

Here a
and

~a~
0

denotes t h e conducti.vity a t t h e t o p of t h e substratum t h e anomalous v e r t i c a l f i e l d a t z = d which i s r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r d r i v i n g c u r r e n t s upwards from t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e t o t h e s h e e t and v i c e v e r s a . The b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , r e f l e c t i n g t h e " t h i n - s h e e t v a r i a t i o n anomaly, a r e (E-polarisation) f o r z = 0: (H-polarisation) origin" of the

' H

aY

= -K x H

az

H+ = 0 , ax E
aY

f o r z = d : H= LII ay

x Haz

x Eaz.

c The k e r n e l f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n v o l u t i o n i n t e g r a l s a r e -n 5 H " ' ~ - K * I ~' ~ ~ * 1 "7 i H p KCy) = =-> "' = Q ~ Y ) - : ~ Y ~ . ~ 2 . : ~ c r : sxx,.. = ----

"Y

hy?

LII(w,y)

"

+m

sin(y k )

c(i)
dk

I
o i k
m'

U-7

q*

L B % HCi;

"I
Ha):
't

+
Hb "x
!

Y C n ~ = ( W 'Y ) !C
sin(y k )

LICw,y)

1 = -

I
ik

d k

" - 0

~ - ( w , k ) Y n1 Y

'LI" Ea; .

2-

I Y-,.-r-,--* .

:/ -.

L E,

UCLX -go. =
{hcifl<

He-e

i s t h e response function of t h e substructure f o r t h e nI 1 the anomalous T E - f i e l d i n t h e c a s e o f E - p o l a r i s a t i o n and CnI r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e anomalous TM-field

C-

i n t h e case of H-polarisation. The k e r n e l K i s t h e s e p a r a t i o n k e r n e l , i n t r o d u c e d i n S e c . 5 . 1 . connects K

i

It

and HaZ i n s u c h a manner t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e aY anomaly i s " i n t e r n a l " wh.cn s e e n from above t h e s h e e t . The k e r n e l s L a r e t h e Fourier transforms of t h e response functions, intro. d u c e d i n S e c . 7 . 3 , which c o n n e c t t h e t a n g e n t i a l and h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d components above a l a y e r e d h a l f - s p a c e . Their application and E d i f f u s e -a downward i n t o t l i e s u b s t r u c t u r e a n t i d i s a p p e a r f o r z -p a. They r e -t o t h e anomalous f i e l d a t z = d i m p l i e s t h a t H

-a

p r e s e n t t h e . i n d u c t i v e c o u p l i n g o f t h e anomalous f i e l d w i t h t h e substructure

.'

F i e l d e q u a t i o n s and boundary c o n d i t i o n t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e a s e t of f o u r l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s . f o r a n e q u a l number o f unlcnown f i e l d components. They a r e u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s way. A s o l u t i o n t o w a r d t h e anomalous t a n g e n t i a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n 8 - p o l a r i s a t i o n , f o r instance, gives

A s i m i l a r s o l u t i o n t o w a r d the anomalous c u r r e n t d e n s i t y i n Hpolarisation gives

F o r a g i v e n m o d e l - d i s t r i b u t i o n these e q u a t i o n s are s o l v e d numeric a l l y , by s e t t i n g up a s y s t e m o f l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e unknown f i e l d components a t a f i n i t e number o f g r i d p o i n t s a l o n g y . The c o n v o l u t i o n i n t e g r a l s , i n v o l v i n g d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e unknown f i e l d c o m p o n e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o y , a r e p r e f e r a b l y t r e a t e d by p a r t i a l i n t e g r a t i o n which i n e f f e c t l e a d s t o a c o n v o l u t i o n o f t h e unknown f i e l d components t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e k e r n e l s .

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e k e r n e l s L a p p r o a c h f o r y -1 l i m i t i n g v a l u e s , g i v e n b y ' { 2 ~ i ( w,011

-t

finite

I - n v e r s e problem f o r two-dimensional .

strnc_j;Lms

1.t - i s .a l s o possib1.e t o c o n s i d e r the anomalous c o n d u c t a n c e -ra a.s t h e unknown q u a n t i t y t o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a n o b s e r v e d e l o n g a t e d

variation anomaly, i n t h e a c t u a l c a l c u l a t i o n s t o be r e p r e s e n t e d by a
set o f r e s p e c t i v e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s . The normal. s h e e t c o n d u c t a n c e
T

and t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e , f o r which t h e k e r n e l s n L h a v e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d , e n t e r i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a s f r e e model

p a r a m e t e r s . They can b e v a r i e d t o g e t t h e b e s t a g r e e m e n t i n ~ ~ ( y ) when u s l n g more t h a n one f r e q u e n c y o f t h e v a r i a t i o n anomaly.

A n o t h e r p o i n t o f c o n c e r n i s t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e r e s u l t i n g numeric a l v a l u e s o f r a . U s u a l l y e m p i r i c a l d a t a wi1.l g i v e complex values and t h e f r e e p a r a m e t e r s s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d a l . s o t o minimize t h e imaginary p a r t o f the c a l c u l a t e d conductance. I n E - p o l a r i . s a t i o n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f Hgives aY

tie c a n t h e n e l i m i n a t e e i t h e r H C and H a z , i f -ra i s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d aY from anomalous e l e c t r i c f i e l d , o r w e c a n d e r i v e r a from t h e anomal o u s m a g n e t i c f i e l d by o b s e r v i n g tha-t

.by

integration o f the s e c o n d f i e l d e q u a t i o n . The norrnal e l e c t r i c f i e l d i s

d e r i v e d from the normal m a g n e t i c f i e l d by s e t t i n g

when t h e s o u r c e f i e l d i s q u a s i - u n i f o r m and

when t h e s o u r c e f i e l d i s non-uniform; transform of

'%.

Cln11

N I1 (w,y) i s t h e F o u r i e r

(w,k). Cf. S e c . 8 . 2 , " V e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g s w i t h

station arrays". I n H - p o l a r i s a t i o n o n l y t h e anolnalous e l e c t r i c F i e l d i s o b s e r v a b l e

a t t h e s u r f a c e . F o r t h e e l i . m i n a t i o n o f -the anolnalous m a g n e t i . ~
f i e l d a t t h e l o w e r f a c e o f t h e s h e e t from t h e f i e l d e q u a t i o n s

w e u s e t h e g e n e r a l i z e d inlpedance boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e anomalous TM-field a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e ( c f . S e c . 7 . 3

und 8 . 2 ) :

w i t h N (w,y) b e i n g t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f C- (w,k 1. I n s e r t i o n I n1 Y above g i v e s

9 . 4 Non-uniform

l a y e r s .above and w i t h i n a l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e

The s o u r c e o f t h e s u r f a c e v a r i a t i o n anomaly i s assumed t o b e a n anomalous s l a b between z = zo and z = z + D i n which t h e r e 0

d i r e c t i o n : p=p,+pa. The r e g i o n above and below t h e s l a b a r e t a k e n t o be l a y e r e d ,

p = pn b e i n g h e r e a s o l e f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h ( c f . S e c . 3 ) .

s i s t i v i t y changes i n v e r t i c a l & h o r i z o n t a l

The r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e n o r m a l v a r i a t L o n f i e l d a r e d e f i n e d
I f t h e anomaly l i e s a t n t h e t r a n s j . t i o n between two e x t e n d e d n o r m a l r e g i o n s , two n o r m a l

f o r t h e n o r m a l s t r u c t u r e a s g i v e n by p

s o l . u t i o n s havk t o b e f o r m u l a t e d . It s h o u l d b e no-Led t h a t i n t h a t c a s e t h e anomalous f i e l d w i l l n o t d i s a p p e a r bu-t c o n v e r g e o u t s i d e o f the anomaly t o w a r d t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e two normal s o l u t i . o n s .

H e n c e f o r t h . , the normal s t r u c t u r e and t h e n o r m a l f i e l d s

, the

normal response f u n c t i o n s

and -n w i l l be assumed t o be .known E . throughou-t t h e l o w e r c o n d u c t i n g h a l f - s p a c e . The s o u r c e - f i e l d w i l l be regarded a s quasi-uniform except f o r s o u r c e f i e l d s i n E-polari-

En

s a t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f l o n g a t e d a n o m a l i e s when a non-uniform s o u r c e can be permitted ( c f . Sec. 9.3, c a l c u l a t i o n of E -nx from

nY

1).

The p r i n c i p a l problem i n b a s i n g -the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a c t u a l f i e l d d a t a on t h i s t y p e o f model c o n s i s t s i n a p r o p e r c h o i c e o f t h e u p p e r and l o w e r bounds o f the anomalous s l a b . The f o l l o w i n g a r g u m e p t s may be u s e f u l . f o r a s e n s i b l e c h o i c e : The anomalous r e g i o n must b e r e a c h e d by t h e n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n f i e l d ) i.e. z
0

s h o u l d n o t b e made l a r g e r t h a n t h e d e p t h o f pene-

t r a t i o n o f t h e normal f i e l d as g i v e n by

I C n (w,0)1

a t the highest

f r e q u e n c y o f an anomalous r e s p o n s e . A l o w e r bound f o r t h e d e p t h o f t h e s l a b i s n o t as r e a d l y f o r m u l a t e d b e c a u s e t h e a n o ~ n a l o u s r e s p o n s e does n o t d i s a p p e a r n e c e s s a r i l y when t h e d e p t h o f penet r a t i o n i s much l a r g e r t h a n z

0

+ D , i . e . when no s i g n i f i c a n t

normal i n d u c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e s w i t h i n t h e anomalous s l a b . Only i f t h e anomaly i s e l o n g a t e d and t h e s o u r c e f i e l d i n E - p o l a r i s a t i o n , c a n it b e s a i d t h a t t h e d e p t h zo quency o f a n anomalous r e s p o n s e . P i l o t s t u d i e s : I n s e c t i o n 8.2 t h e g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i m pedance t e n s o r Z above a n o n - l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e h a v e been d i s c u s s e d and t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e f o r e l o n g a t e d a n o m a l i e s was establi.shec1: The impedance f o r E - p o l a r i s a t i o n d o e s n o t d i v e r g e markedly from t h e impedance o f a h y p o t h e t i c a l . o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e s p o n s e f o r t h e l o c a l r e s i s t i v i t y - d e p t h p r o f i l e , w h i l e t h e impedance f o r H-polar i s a t i o n w i l l d o . s o unless t h e depth o f p e n e t r a t i o n i s small i n comparison t o t h e d e p t h o f t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t i v i . - t y anomaly and t h e i n d u c t i v e r e s p o n s e n e a r l y normal anyway. Suppose t h e n t h a t a n impedance t e n s o r h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d a t a ' l o c a t i o n y on a p r o f i l e a c r o s s a q u a s i - t w o d i m e n s i o n a l anomaly which by r o t a t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t e s h a s z e r o o r allnos-t z e r o d i a g o n a l e l e ments and t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e o f f d i a g o n a l e l e m e n t s f o r E- and H - p o l a r i s a t i o n c a n b e made ( c f . S e c . 8 . 2 ) . R e g a r d i n g t h e E - p o l a r i s z t i o n r e s p o n s e f o r a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n a s quasi-normal., inductive scale length

1) must b e a t l e a s t com-

p a r a b l e t o t h e normal d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n a t t h e l o w e s t f r e -

a local

i s c a l c u l a t e d a s f u n c t i o n of f r e q u e n c y and l o c a t i o n . I t i s
c o n v e r t e d i n t o a n a p p a r e n t CAGKIARD r e s i s t i v i t y and p h a s e :

o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y i n t o t h e d e p t h o f a p e r f e c t s u b s t i t u t e con.ductor and a m o d i f i e d a p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y :

which'can be combined'into a l o c a l depth versus apparent r e s j - s t i x X v i t y p r o f i l e p (z,, y).

11

If t h e m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n anomaly r a t h e r t h a n t h e g e o e l e c t r i c f i e l d h a s been o b s e r v e d , t h e anomalous p a r t o f El! can b e d e r i v e d by i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r t h e anomaly o f t h e v e r t i c a l m a g n e t i c v a r i a - t i o n s , w11il.e t h e n o r m a l p a r t o f E,, i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e n o r m a l impedance o u t s i d e o f t h e anomaly o r d e r i v e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r a h y p o t h e t i c a l normal r e s i s t i v i t y model:

o r i n terms of t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o H

n l

'

u s i n g f o r t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n o f H a z t h e nota-tj.ons of page 1 1 3 . M a g n e t o t e l l u r i c and geomagne-tic d e p t h s o u n d i n g d a t a a l o n g a profi1.e a r e i n t h i s way r e a d i l y c o n v e r t e d e i t h e r i n t o C A G N I A R D r~esistivity ,and p h a s e - c o n t o u r s i n f r e q u e n c y - - d i s t a n c e coordina.i-es , i n t o l i n e s of

,

depth-of-penetration

'if

at a gi.ven f r e q u e n c y ,
%

o r i n t o modified apparent-resis.tivi-ty- contours i n a z - d i s t a n c e c p o s s - s e c t i o n E i t h e r one o f t h e s e p l o t s w i l l o u t l i n e t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e , r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e d e p t h r a n g e , i.11 which t h e s o u r c e of t h e anomaly c a n be e x p e c t e d t o l i e , and p r o v i d e a rough i d e a a b o u t t h e r e s i s t i v i t i e s like1.y t o o c c u r w i t h i n t h e anona1.ous z o n e ,

S i n g l e f r e q u e n c y--n t e r p r e t a t i o n by p e r f e c t c o n d u- o r s a t i ct va -- r i a b l e depth

Geomagne-tic v a r i a t i o n s a n o m a l i e s show f r e q u c . n t l y n e a r l y z e r o p h a s e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e normal f i e l d , t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s which c o n n e c t t h e cbmponents o f H and fin b e i n g r e a l f u n c - t i o n s -a o f f r e q u e n c y and l o c a t i o n s . T h i s a p p l i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r .to t w o . t y p e s o f a n o m a l i e s . F i r s t l y t o t h o s e which a r i s e from a nonu n i f o r m s u r f a c e l a y e r , t h i n enough t o a l l o w -the ' l t l ~ i n - s l ~ e e ~ t " approxima-tion o f t h e p r e v i o u s sec-t:ion w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t .i.nduction w i t h i n t h e s h e e t ( n s > > l ) , S e c o n d l y , it a p p l i e s t o a n o m a l i e s above a h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e s u b s u r f a c e l a y e r a t variab1.e d f p t h benea-th a n e f f e c t i v e l y n o n - c o n d u c t i n g cover. i n t h e second

I n t h e f i r s t c a s e En w i l l be i n - p h a s e w i t h H n , c a s e out-of-phase
-. in-phase with

(cf .Sec.9.1). a

But i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t wi1.l be i n e i t h e r c a s c r o u g h l y

t h e anomalous v a r i a t i o n f i e l d H

Hn.

Both t y p e s o f anomaly c a n b e e x p l a i n e d a t a g i v e n f r e q u e n c y by t h e u n d u l a t i n g s u r f a c e S of a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r below non-cond u c t i n g m a t t e r , I - t s v a r i a b l e d e p t h below t h e s u r f a c e p o i n t ( x , y ) X x w i l l b e d e n o t e d a s h ( x , y ) O u t s i d e o f t h e anomaly h s h a l l be

c o n s t a n t and e q u a l t o t h e r e a l p a r t o f Cn a t t h e c o n s i d e r e d f r e quenc y

This kind of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s i n t e n d e d t o demonstrate t h e e f f e c t o f l a t e r a l changes o f i n - t e r n a l r e s i s t i v i t y on t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f f r e q u e n c y and l o c a t i o n , i t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e , however, q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t -the r e s i s t i v i t i e s i n v o l v e d n o r d o e s it a l l o w a d i s t i n c t i o n of t h e two t y p e s o f a n o m a l i e s mentioned above.

C l e a r l y , t h e m a g n e t i c fie1.d below S must b e z e r o and t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d v e c t o r on S t a n g e n t i a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o S b e c a u s e t h e connor a 1 t i n u i - t y c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e f i e l d conponent toif'?? r e q u i r e s t h a t t h i s component v a n i s h e s j u s t above S . ~ i r e c model problem: F o r a g i v e n s h a p e o f S t h e anoinalous s u r f a c e t f i e l d c a n b e f o u n d w i t h t h e methods o f p o t e n t i a l f i e l d t h e o r y , since

Ma
~ ~

w i l l b e i r r o t a t i o n a l and o f i n t e r n a l o r i g i n above S . I f

i n - p a r t i c u l a r S h a s a s i m p l e s h a p e independen-t of x , t h e f i e l d
'

l i n e s f o r E - p o l a r i s a t i o n i n t h e ( y , z ) - p l a n e f o r z < h (y) c a n b e found by c o n f o r m a l mapping a s f o l l o w s : L e t w ( y , z ) = y ( y l , z l ) + i . z ( y l , z l ) b e a n a n a l y t i c f u n c t i o n whi.ch maps t h e l i n e z l = O o f r e c t a n g u l a r ( y l , z l ) c o o r d i n a t e s i n t o t h e l i n e

z=l> f y ) of r e c t a n g u l a r ( y , z ) c o o r d i n a t e s . L i n e s z 1 = c o n s t , a r e i n -

t e r p r e t e d a s m a g n e t i c f i e l d l i n e s of a u n i f o r m f i e l d above a p e r f e c t conduc-tor a t c o n s t a n - t d e p t h , t h e i r image i n t h e ( y , z ) - p l a n e as f i e l d l i n e s o f a d i s t o r t e d f i e l d above a p e r f e c t c o n d u c t o r a t t h e v a r i a b l e

d e p t h h ( y ) , t h e image o f t h e ultiina.'ce f i e l d l i n e z f = O b e i n g ta.ngent i a l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c o n d u c t o r as r e q u i r e d .

x:

If gn= (Hlly ' 0 ) d e n o t e s t h e u n i f o r m h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d v e c t o r a t a p o i n t i n t h e o r i g i n a l ( y l , z ' ) c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e components of t h e

f i e l d v e c t o r H= ( H , H z ) a t t h e image p o i n t i n t h e ( y , z ) c o o r d i n a t e s Y c a n b e shown t o be g i v e n by

with

The d i f f e r e n c e H

- -n H

r e p r e s e n t s t h e anomalous f i e l d t o be

'

I n v e r s e problem: The s h a p e o f t h e s u r f a c e S c a n b e found i n v e r s e l y from a g i v e n s u r f a c e anomaly by c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e i n t e r n a l f i e l d l i n e s o f -the f i e l d

gn+ga. F i e l d

l i n e s which h a v e a t some d i s t a n c e of

t h e anpmaly t h e r e q u i r e d normal d e p t h R ~ ( C) d e f i n e t h e s u r f a c e S , n p r o v i d e d o f c o u r s e t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t h u s found d o e s no-t inS:ersec3< t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e anywhere. The a c - t u a l c a l c u l a t i o n of i n t e r n a l f i e l d l i n e s r e q u i r e s

2

downward

e x - t e n s i o n o f t h e anomaly t h r o u g h t h e n o n - c o n d u c t i n g m a t t e r above t h e p e r f e c - t c o n d u c t o r , u s i n g t h e w e l l d e v e l o p e d methods of p o t e n t i a l f i e l d c o n t i n u a t i o n towards i t s s o u r c e s , I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n : s t a b i l i t y of t h e n u m e r i c a z p r o c e s s , t h e anomaly h a s t o be low-pass f i l t e r e d p r i o r t o t h e downward c o n ' t i n u a t i o n w i t h a c u t - o f f i n t e n d e d downward e x t r a p o l a t i o n . at a r e c i p r o c a l s p a - t i a l wave number c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e maximum d e p t h of

A f i e l d l i n e segment w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l i n c r e m e n t s d x and dy h a s
t h e n -the v e r t i c a l i n c r e m e n t

z dz = - d x

ax

z + -ad y 3~

Ha z
nx

H H
nY
+H

-3

+H

ax

aY

Q2

and t h e e n t i r e f i e l d l i n e i s t h e , , c o n s t r u c t e d by n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a : tion;

An a n a l y - t i c a l l y s o l v a b l e i n v e r s e problem: Suppose t h e o b s e r v e d anomaly' i s 2 - d i m e n s i o n a l and s i n u s o i . d a 1 ,

H aY
(y,z=O) = c s i n ( k . y ) H nY.

Because o f t h e i n t e r n a l o r i g i n o f t h e anomaly

t h e i n t e r n a l f i e l d i n c r e a s i n g exponential1.y w i t h d e p t h ,

Hence, t h e s l o p e o f f i e l d l i n e s a t t h e d e p t h z i s

by i n t e g r a t i o n z(y)

c / k . s i n ( k - y 1 . ek . z ( y )

a s t h e i m p l i c i t s o l u t i o n w i t h zo a s t 5 e c o n s t a n t of i n t e g r a t i o n . Here i t w i l l be chosen i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f t h e f i e l d l i n e i s s t i l l below t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e z = 0 . W i n f e r f r o m t h e fi.eLd l i n e e q u a t i o n z ( y ) t h a t f i e l d l i n e s above e sinusoida!. z=z

0

anomalies o s c i l l a t e n o n - s y m m e t r i c a l l y a r o u n d t h e d e p t h
-1.

w i t h Lj=27i/k a s s p a t i a l wave l e n g t h . T h e i r d e e p e s t p o i n t s z = z

a r e a t y=L/4,-3L/4,+. y = -L/4,3L/4
'jar

,T.. . . . .
:f-,
uz ,
,

.,....... , t h e i r
.
/, -

highest points

2.2-

at

7 , ,
- L ..-' ..a

Y
0
-3

/
-r/

..,

,/'

7
su ,

\ 1 f -k> '../%,./' \.- A-0.

i .1
1

..

, '.

j, , , .,

rr .L

1
F ,.C'C :

p, ,

Suppose t h e s p a t i a l wave l e n g t h o f t h e anomaly i s l a r g e i n ' c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e deepest point of p e n e t r a t i o n z mate f i e l d l i n e e q u a t i o n

-1.

. Then t h e

approxi-

c a n b e u s e d wi-th t h e r e q u i r e m e n t tha-t z o i s e q u a l t o o r l a r g e r than c/k. The mean a m p l i t u d e o f t h e f i e l d l i n e o s c i l l a t i o n s i s r e a d i l y e x p r e s s e d now i n terrns of. t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e anomaly a s g i v e n by t h e f a c t o r c , namely

I f , f o r example, a m o d e r a t e anomaly h a s t h e ampli.tudd c r 0 . 2 5 and

a wave l e n g t h o f 6 2 8 km, t h e mean a m p l i t u d e of t h e f i e l d l i n e '

o s c i l . l a t i o n s a r e g i v e n by ( z o + ' 1 0 0 ) / 4 k m , zo? 2 5 km. Using z = 3 0 k m
0

g i v e s a mean a i n p l i t u d e of 33 k a n d ' t h e f i e l d l i n e o s c i l l . a t e s m between 4 k and 70 km, T h i s n u m e r i c a l example d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t m even m i n o r a n o ~ n a l i e sr e q u i r e r a t h e r l a r g e u n d u l a - t i o n s i n t h e d e p t h of a p e r f e c t s u b s t i t u t e conductor.

' M u l t i - f r e q u e- i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b u o c a l . i r ~ d u c $ i o n i n i s o l a t e d ncy bodies Most g e o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n a n o m a l i e s a r i s e f r o m a l o c a l r e a r r a n g e ment o f l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u c e d c u r r e n t s , I n some c a s e s , however, i t may b e j u s t i f i e d t o assume t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e anomaly i s a c o n d u c t i n g body which i s i s o l a t e d by n o n - c o n d u c t i n g m a t - t e r from t h e l a r g e - s c a l e c u r c e n t s y s t e m s . Such a body c a n b e , f o p i n s t a n c e ,

a c r u s t a l l e n s e o f h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e normal1.y h i g h l y
resistive crust.

The d i r e c - t problem: C o n s i d e r a body of ( v a r i a b l e ) c o n d u c t i v i t y

between z=zl and z=
2. '

The sui7roundi.ng m a t t e r . a t t h e same d e p t h i s large-

e f f e c t i v e l y non-conducting a t t h e considered frequency, i , e ,

s c a l e i n d u c e d c u r r e n - t s which f l o w i n t h e n o r m a l s t r u c t u r e above and

160

below c a n n e i t h e r e n t e r n o r l e a v e t h i s body.

The i n d u c i n g f i e l d i s t h e normal f i e l d HA between zl and z 2 3 r e g a r d e d as u n i f o r m . F o r s i m p l i c i t y it i s assumed t h a t t h e n o r -

m a l s t r u c t u r e between z = 0 and z 1 r e p r e s e n t s a " t h i n s h e e t " o f t h e

c o n d u c t a n c e T ~ .Then t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f H 1 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e n n o r m a l f i e l d H a t t h e s u r f a c e z z 0 i s g i v e n by n

as t h i n - s h e e t i n d u c t i o n p a r a m e t e r ( S e c. t . 9 ' 3 and Appendix t o 7 . 3 ) . .

T h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e a r i s i n g i n d u c t i o r l probl.em h a v e - t o b e considered: below z

( i ) t h e l o c a l i n d u c t i o n by H n w i t h i n t h e body, ( i i ) t h e ' e l e c - t r o m a g n e t i c c o u p l i n g o f t h i s body w i t h t h e normal s u b s t ~ u c - L u r e

2'

(iii) t h e c o u p l i n g o f t h e body w i t h t h e s u r f a c e ccveri;bove

I n o r d e r t o make problem ( i )s o l v a b l e i n a s t r a i g h t f o r r g a r d manner u n i f o r m b o d i e s o f s i m p l e s h a p e such a s s p h e r e s and horizon1:al. c y l i n d e r s o f i n f i n i t e l e n g t h h a v e -to b e s e l e c t e d , The anomalous f i e l d due t o -the i n d u c - t i o n i n t h e s e b o d i e s i s o f fr,equ.ency.-independ e n t geometry. T h i s f a c t p e r m i t s si.lnple s o l u t i o n s o f The i n v e r s e prohl.em as s e e n below. Consider t h e c a s e of a h o r i z o n t a l c y l i n d e r of i n f i , n i t e l e n g t h , t h e r a d i u s R and -the c o n d u c t i v i t y u

z; i t s

a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o x and

i n t e r s e c t s t h e ( y , z ) - p l a n e a t t h e p o i n t ( 0 , z o ) . The normal h o r i z o n t a l f i e l d i s . p a r a l l e l t o y and p r o d u c e s hy i . n d u c t i o n c u r r e n - t s which

f l o w p a r a l l . e l t o x i n .the u p p e r h a l v e and a n t i - p a r a l l e l t o x i n "ilie l o w e r h a l v e of t h e c y l i n d e r . T h e i r m a g n e t i c f i e l d o u t s i d e t h e cyl i n d e r i s -the f i e l d of a c e n t r a l 2 - d i m e n s t o n a l d i . p o l e of t h e monient

m a n t i p a r a l l e l t o y . I t h a s t h e components

with r2 =

Y2

( Z ~ - . Z a n d cos0 = z s 0 / r , s i n 8 = y / r , )~

The dependence o f t h e d i p o l e moment on t h e i n d u c i n g f i e l d w i l l b e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n , L e t mm b e t h e d i p 0 1 moment o f a p e r f e c t l y c o n d u c t i n g c y l i n d e r which s h i e l d s t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d w m p l e t e l y frorn i t s i n t e r i o r . Hencc, t h e i n duced f i e l d a t t h e p o i n t ( 0 , z -R) j u s t above t h e c y l i n d e r
0

must b e e q u a l t o H ' n'

i.e.

which i m p l i e s t h a t it c a n c e l s H 1 w i t h i n t h e c g l . i n d e r a s r e q u i r e d . n

The r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o a u n i f o r m i n d u c i n g f i e l d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s i s now d e f i n e d a s t h e complex-valued r a t i o

which c a n b e shown t o be a s o l e f u n c t i o n o f t h e d i m e n s i o n l . e s s induct i o n parameter

. ?he modulus o f

-.

f ( i l ) w i l l approa.ch z e r o f o r

nZ
"z

nZ
..I

<< 1 and u n i - t y f o r
-t-

>>.I, i t s argument c h a n g i n g f r o m YO
-t

f o r q7

0 t o 0'

for

-.

Hence, a t s u f f i c i e n - t l y h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s t h e anomalous

f i e l d from t h e c y l i n d e r w i l l b e i n - p h a s e w i t h c r e a s e beyond a c e r t a i i i " i n d u c - t i v e l i m i t " ,

H' and n o t i n 11
and

whj.le a t s u f f i c i e n t l y

low f r e q u e n c i e s t h e anomal.ous f i e l d w i l l be o u t - o f - p h a s e s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e f i e l d a-i: t h e i . n d u c t i v e 1.irnit.

L.. ..

'.- --.>
.
~

The transfer function between the anomal.ous and normal field

are now readily expressed in terms of a frequency-dependent response function, a frequency-independmt geometric factor, and a frequency-dependent attenua-tion factor Q' for the normal field:

wi-th

Q'

= (1 4 i .

n)' Z-

An approximate so1.ution of problem (ii) can be obtained by representing the conductive substructure below the surface sheet by a perfect conductor at the (frequency-dependent) depth K~(C;) and by adding to the anomalous dipole field the field of an at image dipo1.e of the moment R ~ H ; ~ the depth 2sRe(~i)-z~.

Problem ( i i i ) j.nvol.ves m a i n l y t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f t h e upward d i f f u s j . n g anomaly

ca by

'

u n i f o r m s u r f a c e l a y e r s . T h i s a.tte.iiuatri.on

i s , however, a s e c o n d o r d e r e f f e c t and c a n be n e g l e c t e d , i f a t t h e c o n s i d e r e d f r e q u e n c y t h e w i d e s p r e a d normal f i e i d penet r a t e s t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s t o any e x t e n t , i . e . i f t h e modulus of Q' i s sufficiently close t o unity.

The i n v e r s e problem: Assuming t h e anomalous body t o b e a u n i f o r m can be uniquely inR f e r r e d from s u r f a c e o b s e r v a t i o n s , providing t h e t r a n s f e r functions for H and FIaz a r e known f o r a t l e a s t two l o c a t i o n s and aY f r e q u e n c i e s . For.ming h e r e t h e r a - t i o s c y l i n d e r , t h e model p a r a m e t e r s z o , ' R ,
cr

t h e a n g l e s 8 and t h e r e b y t h e p o s i t i o n - o f t h e c y l i n d e r c a n b e f o u n d , The d e p t h o f t h e c y l i n d e r a x i s b e i n g kncwn; t h e d i p o l e moment R Z f ( n ) c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . I t s argument f i x e s t h e s i z e of t h e induction parameter

nz

and two d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f

nZ

at
NOW

d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s t h e r a d i u s R and -the c o n d u c t i v i - t y crz.

R and zo b e i n g known, t h e f i e l d o f t h e image d i p o l e c a n b e c a l - c u l a t e d . The i n v e r s e p r o c e d u r e i s r e p e a t e d now w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e anomaly minus t h e f i e l d o f t h e image d i p o l e u n t i l con-. v e r g e n c e o f t h e model p a r a m e t e r s h a s been r e a c h e d .

I n ..t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h HIOT--SAVART1s law .

~

Let

- he f

t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y v e c t o r w i t h i n a volume dV a t t h e
n n h

p o i n t r = ( x , y , z ) . Then a c c o r d i n g t o UZUT-SAVART1s law i n S I u n i t s -the m a g n e t i c f i e l e d v e c t o r at: t h e p o i n t r c' t o t h e l i n e - c u r r e n t e l e m e n t idV i s

= (x, y , z ) due

T h i s law c a n b e used t o i - n t e r p r e t a n o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e anomaly of g e o m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f a s u b s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n of anomalous i n d u c t i o n c u r r e n t s , which i n t u r n a r e r e l a t e d t o a n i n t e r n a l c o n d u c t i v i t y anomaly a i , e . t o local deviations a' o f a f r o m a normal. l a y e r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o ( z ) , n

It h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t i n S e c . 8 . 3 t h a t t h e anomalous p a r t o f
t h e g e o m a g n e t i c and g e o e l e c t r i c v a r i a t i o n f i e l d c a n b e s p l i t i n t o TE and TM modes ( = t a n g e n t i a l e l e c t r i c and t a n g e n t i a l m a g n e t i c modes) and t h a t o n l y -the TE modes p r o d u c e a n o b s e r v a b l e m a g n e t i c v a r i a t i o n anomaly a t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n l y a TE anomalous c u r r e n t d e n s i t y . d i s t r i b u t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e anomalous m a g n e t i c s u r f a c e f i e l d equation.
A

3 c~~~c a n

be

Ha,

t h e sub-

s c r i p t "11" r e f e r i n g t o t h e s o l u t i o l l I1 o f -the d i f f u s i o n

D e n o t i n g t h e t a n g e n t i a l components o f

c J .

ay'

simply w i t h i and -a11 ax t h e components o f t h e anomalous s u r f a c e f i e l d a r e g i v e n

w i t h r 2 = (x-x)' + ( Y - ~ + G 2 . The i n v e r s e problem, namely t o f i n d f r o m a g i v e n s u r f a c e anomaly t h e i n t e r n a l anomalous c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , h a s no u n i q u e s o l u t i o n . W i t h i n c e r t a i n c o n s t r a i . n t s , however, i t c a n b e made u n i q u e , a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , it i s assumed t h a t t h e anomalous c u r r e n t f l o w i s l i m i t e d t o ;I c e r t a i n d e p t h r a n g e which i m p l i e s t h a t t h e m a t t e r between t h i s d e p t h r a n g e and t h e s u r f a c e i s r e g a r d e d a s n o n - c o n d u c t i n g at t h e considered frequency.
The s u r f a c e anomaly c a n b e e x t e n d e d no:,? dowr~trard t o t h e t o p o f .the anomalous d e p t h r a n g e w i t h s t a n d a r d metliods which r e q u i r e

o n l y a d e q u a t e smoothing o f t h e o b s e r v e d anomal.ous s u r f a c e f i e l d . Then a c e r t a i n w e l l d e f i n e d d e p t h dep'endence o f t h e anomalous c u r r e n t d e n s i t y i s a d o p t e d a s d i s c u s s e d below and t h e anomalous c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e d e r i v e d i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d manner.

a t a g i v e n f r e q u c n c y h a s b e e n exp l a i n e d i n t h i s way by a d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f anomalous i n t e r n a l .

Suppose a n o b s e r v e d anomaly c u r r e n t s . I t s connection t o t h e i n t e r n a l conductivity i s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e normal and anomalous e l e c t r i c f i e l d v e c t o r a c c o r ding t o

51,

Assuming t h e normal c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n u n ( z ) t o b e known,

-I1

a s a f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h ' i s r e a d i l y c a l c u l a t e d . T h e r e i s no

s i m p l e way, however, t o d e r i v e t h e anomalous e l e c t r i c f i e l d o f t h e TE mode e x c e p t by n u m e r i c a l models as d i s c u s s e d below. T h e r e

i s i n p a r t i c u l a r no j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o r e g a r d i t a s small. i.n comp a r i s o n t o t h e normal e l e c t r i c f i e l d and t h u s t o d r o p t h e s e c o n d t e r m i n t h e above r e l a t i o n . I n s t e a d t h e f o l l o w i n g argumentati.on has t o be used: The anomalous e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t h e TE mode c a n b e t h o u g h t t o c o n t a i n two d i s t i n c t components. The f i r s t component may b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e r e s u l t o f l o c a l s e l f - i n d u c t i o n due t o

EaII.

I -.

c a n b e n e g l e c t e d a-t s u f f i c i . e n t l y low f r e q u e n c i e s , when t h e ;-lzlfw i d t h o f t h e anomaly i s s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e minimum s k i n d e p t h v a l u e w i t h i n t h e anomalous z o n e . The s e c o n d component a r i s e s from e l e c t r i c c h a r g e s a t b o u n d a r i - e s and i n z o n e s o f g r a d u a l l y c h a n g i n g c o n d u c t i v i - b y . These c h a r g e s p r o d u c e a q u a s i - s t a t i c e l e c t r i c f i e l d norroal t o bounclarics and p a r a l 7 . e l -to i n - t e r n a l c o n d u c - t i v i t y g r a d i e n t s which e n s u r e s t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e c u r r e n t a c r o s s b o u n d a r i e s and i n t e r n a l g r a d i e n t z o n e s . Hence, t h i s s e c o n d component o f t h e anomalous e l e c t r i c f i e l d d o e s n o t d i s a p p e a r , when t h e f r e q u e n c y becomes s m a l l .

I t v a n i s h e s , however, i f anomalous i n t e r n a l c u r r e n t s d o n o t c r o s s
b o u n d a r i e s o f g r a d i e n t z o n e s , i . e . when t h e normal f i e l d i s i n E - p o l a r i s a - t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e -tl>end o f elongated s ' i r u c t u r e s .

Only i n t h i s s p e c i a l c a s e w i l l b e j u s . t i f i c a t i . o n .to n e g l e c t t h e t e r m oEa a t low f r 2 q u e n a i e s a n d t o u s e t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n

f r o m t h e anoa malous c u r r e n t d e n s i t y and t h e n o r m a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d , S t w i l l b e a d v i s a b l e t o r e g a r d h e r e rsa as a s o l e f u n c t i . o n o f x and y and t h u s t o p o s t u l a t e t h e same d e p t h dependence f o r t h e anomalous c u r r e n t and t h e normal e l e c t r i c f i e l d .

.to c a l c u l a t e t h e i n t e r n a l conducti.vj.ty anomaly o

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h n u m e r i c a l models So f a r i d e a l i z e d models f o r a l a t e r a l l y non-uniform s u b s - t r u c t u r e h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d . They a l l o w e d a s i m p l i f i e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i n d u c t i o n problem and had i n common t h a t o n l y few f r e e p a r a m e t e r s w e r e i n v o l v e d . Once n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s were a t t a c h e d t o them, t h e o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e anomaly o f t h e v a r i a t i o n f i e l d c o u l d ,be c o n v e r t e d r a t h e r e a s i l y i n t o v a r i a b l e model p a r a m e t e r s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i n t e r n a l change o f s u b s u r f a c e c o n d u c t i v i t y a t some g i v e n d e p t h from s i t e t o s i t e . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f more r e a l i s t i c models le'ads t o a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e o f t h e n u m e r i c a l work i n v o l v e d and s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y , i f t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e anomalous s u r f a c e f i e l d a r e known w i t h h i g h a c c u r a c y . The i n v e r s e p r o b l e m t o d e r i v e a s e t o f v a r i a b l e model p a r a m e t e r s d i r e c t l y f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e s o l v e d by l i n e a r i s a t i o n , i . e . by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a l i n e a r d a t a k e r n e l , c o n n e c t i n g changes o f t h e s u r f a c e r e s p o n s e t o changes i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e c o n d u c t i v i t y s t r u c t u r e ( c f . S e c . 6 ) .
A s b e f o r e a normal s t r u c t u r e o

o u t s i d e o f t h e anomaly i s g i v e n , n t h e v a r i a b l e model p a r a m e t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y l a t e r a l c h a n g e s

o f o w i t h r e s p e c t t o on w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e anomaly. U n l e s s

stated otherwise, source fields of lateral homogeneity are assumed, yielding in conjunction with u n the normal fields Hn and Ell as known functions of depth. Conductivity anomalies aa = o an are restricted to an anomalous slab above or within a laterally uniform structure, extending in depth from zl to z2, Within This slab two basic types of conductivity anomalies may be distinguished: (i) slabs with gradually changing conductivities in horizontal direction or (ii).slabs which consist of uniform blocs or regions, separated by plane or curved boundaries. In the first case electric changes are distributed within the '? slab, -yielding closed current circuits divl = 0 as required in quasi-stationary approximation. Consequently, divE = -(E*grado)/o will not be zero. In the second case only bloc boundaries carry free surface changes and the electric field will be non-diqergent within the blocs. In either case a solution of the diffusion H E equation for -a or -a has to be found under the condition that the anomalous field approaches zero with increasing distance from the anomalous slab.

Numerical methods for the actual solution of the direct problem, when oa is given and Ha or Ea are to be found, have been discussed in Sec. 2 and 3. Here some additional comments: Models should be set up in such a way that either the shape of the anomalous body or the anomalous conductivity is the variable to be described by a set of model. parameters. After fixi-ngthe free parameters, in particular z1 and z2, the model parameters for the description of the anomaly are varied un-ti1 agreement is reached between the observed and calculated transfer functions.
Suppose that models of type (ii) are used, that only vertical and horizontal boundaries are permitted, and that the anomalous slab is subdivided by equally spaced horizontal boundaries into layers. Then the variable model parameters are either the positions of verti.ca1 boundaries, encl.osing a body of constant

anomalous c o n d u c t i v i t y

oat

OP

o f t h e b l o c s m = 1,2,-. 'am v e r t i c a l boundaries:

.. M ,

t h e anomalous c o n d u c t L v i t y v a l u e s s e p a r a t e d by e q u a l l y s p a c e d

I f t h e s e a r c h f o r a b e s t f i t t i n g s e - t of model p a r a m e t e r s i s t o
b e d o n e by a n i t e r a t i v e i n v e r s e rnethod r a t h e r t h a n by t r i a l - a n d error,%inear d a t a k e r n e l m a t r i x G = ( gn m has t o be found f o r a n i n i t i a l model. I n t h i s m a t r i x t h e e l e m e n t gnm r e p r e s e n t s t h e c h a n g e y n o f t h e anomalous t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n a t a c e r t a i n s u ~ f a c e p o i n t and f r e q u e n c y Rn which a r i s e s i n l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n from a change xm o f t h e model p a r a m e t e r i n t h e m ' t h b l o c o f t h e s t a r t i n g model. The r e s u l t i n g s y s t e m o f l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s

x i s s o l v e d w i t h t h e methods o f S e c . 6 . I t s s o l u t i o n - m 6nm m Yn r e p r e s e n t s t h e improvement o f t h e i n i t i a l model, i f y n i s t h e m i s f i t between o b s e r v e d and c a l c u l a t e d t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s f o r

t h e i n i t i a l model: The p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d w i t h t h e improved models u n t i l t h e n e c e s s a r y improvements xm a r e s m a l l enough t o j u s t i f y a l i n e a r approximation. Which c o m p l i c a - t i o n s a r i s e i n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e t h a t n o t o n l y t h e i n t e r n a l conductivity s t r u c t u r e but a l s o t h e inducing source f i e l d a r e 1 a t e r a l l . y non-uniform? F i r s t o f a l l , i n a d d i t i o n t o on

as a f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d H ( e ) o f t h e e x t e r n a l
s o u r c e must be a known fu11'cti.on o f s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n . In t h e s p e c i a l c a s e o f t h e e q u a t o r i a l j e t f i e l d t h i s s o u r c e f i e l d conf i . g u r a t i o n w i l l b e more o r l e s s t h e same f o r a l l day-time varj.a-';iofis and t h u s a n o r m a l i s a t i o n . o f t h e o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e f i e l d by t h e
....

- i n s t a n c e by t h e h o r i z o n t a l fie1.d a t h e d i p e q u a t o r , t

f i e l d a t sollie d i s - t i ~ l g u i s h e c ls u r r a c e p o i n t wil.1 b e p o s s i b l e , Tor

The c o n v e r s i o n f o r m u l a s o f Sec. 5 . 2 and t h e methods d e s c r i b e d i n S e c . 8 . 2 ( " V e r t i c a l s o u n d i n g s w i t h s t a t i o n a r r a y s " ) a r e now u s e d t o f i n d t h e i n r e r n a l p a r t M ( i ) o f ' t h e normal m a g n e t i c f i e l d n . a n d t h e n o r m a l e l e c t r i c f i e l d En as f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s u r f a c e loca-ti.on and f r e q u e n ~ y . F i n a l l y , t h e n o r m a l s u r f a c e f i e l d i s exLy
coucl.~4wn

t e n d e d downwardVwith t h e s p a t i a l F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s o f t h e downward e x t e n s i o n f a c t o r s as g i v e n i n t h e Appendix t o S e c . 7 . 3 . Now t h e n o r m a l f i e l d w i t h i n t h e anomalous s l a b i s known and t h e d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n f o r t h e anomalous f i e l d c a n b e s o l v e d numeric a l l y i n t h e same way as b e f o r e , when t h e s l a b o r t h e anomalous r e g i o n themsel.ves a r e c h o s e n as b a s i c domains f o r t h e n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . Here a f i n a l . s c h e m a t i c summary o f t h e v a r i o u s s t e p s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , when t h e s o u r c e i s t h e combined f i e l d o f t h e e q u a t o r i a l j e t and t h e l o w - l a t i t u d e Sq:

I n .t . r . r . .t . . i o - w i .t h . s c a l e inodel e x p e r i m e n e p e at. n . ts .

Numerical model c a l c u l a t i o n s may b e t o o e l a b o r a t e , i f t h e i n d u c t i o n by a non-uniform s o u r c e i n a three-din!ensio:lal anomalous s t r u c t u r e h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . An example i s t h e c o a s t e f f e c t

of t h e e q u a t o r i a l j e t , when t h e d i p e q u a t o r c r o s s e s t h e c o a s t -

l i n e under an angle. i n E-polarisation

No c o ~ n p l i c a t i o n sa r i s e a t t h o s e p l a c e s ,

when t h e d i p e q u a t o r i s p a r a l l e l t o xhe c o a s t and t h e j e t f i e l d ( s . above).

I n s i - t u a t i o n o f g r e a t c o m p l e x i t y t h e q u a l i t a t i v e and e v e n quant i t a t i v e u n d e r s - t a n d i n g o f s u r f a c e o b s e r v a - t i o n s may be f u r . t h c r e d by l a b o r a - t o r y s c a l e model experi.ments, sj.niu1.ating t h e n a t u r a l i n d u c t i o n p r o c e s s on a r e d u c e d s c a l e . I n v a r i a n c e o f .the e l c c ' t r o -

t h e product

WUL'

constant with L denoting t h e length s c a l e ,

The p r i m a r y i n d u c i n g f i e l d i s p r o d u c e d by a n o s c i l l a - t i n g d i p o l e s o u r c e o r - b y e x t e n d e d c u r r e n t l o o p s , s i t u a t e d as " i o n o s p h e r i c s o u r c e s " above a n arrangeme& o f c o n d u c t o r s which r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n d u c t i n g m a t e r i a l below t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e c o n d u c t o r s a s a whole c a n b e p l a c e d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f c o i l s , say Helmholtz c o i l s , and t h u s b e e x p o s e d t o a u n i f o r m
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The m a g n e t i c s o u r c e f i e l d a-t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s i s e x a c t l y known. Mence, by s u b s t r a t i n g it f r o m t h e o b s e r v e d f i e l d , measured with s m a l l t r i a x i a l pick-up c o i l s , t h e induced f i e l d from t h e c o n d u c t o r s c a n b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . The e l e c t r i c f i e l d c a n b e measured a l s o by submerging, f o r i n s t a n c e , a n arrangement . o f m e t a l i c c o n d u c t o r s i n t o a much l e s s c o n d u c t i n g e l e c t r o l y t e

(s. below).

A b a s i c d i f f i c u l t y i n c o n d u c t i n g a s c a l e model. e x p e r i m e n t , which
is t r u l y equivalent t o t h e induction process i n nature, a r i s e s
from t h e n e c e s s a r i l y f i n i t e dimensions of t h e conductors i n t h e s c a l e model. I f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e p l a c e d below t h e source of t h e i n d u c i n g f i e l d , t h e i r f i n i t e downward e x t e n t r e p r e s e n t s no probl-em b e c a u s e t h e u l t i m a t e c o n d u c t o r c a n b e d i m e n s i o n e d i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e - t i c f i e l d i s comple-tely shiel-cled f r o m t h e s p a c e b e n e a t h t h e .-c a l e model. T h e i r f i n i t e l e n g - t h and s

w i d t h , however, f o r c e s t h e i n d u c e d c u r r e n t s t o f l o w i n l o o p s which i n s t r e n g t h and p h a s e may b e t o t a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e e d g e s of t h e c o n d u c t o r . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h i s unwanted e f f e c t t h e s o u r c e f i e l d a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d d i e away b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e e d g e s o f - t h e s c a l e model. F o r i n s t a n c e , i f

a l i n e c u r r e n t source i s used, t h e half-width

s m a l l e r t h e n t h e w i d t h o f t h e model..

of t h e l i n e c u r r e n t

f i e l d on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s c a l e model' s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r a b l y

T h e s e c o m p l i c a t i . o n s d o n o t a r i s e o f c o u r s e , when no a t t e m p t i s made t o s i m u l a t e l o c a l anomal-ies o f a l a r g e - s c a l e induced c u r r e n t s y s t e m , i . e . when t h e s c a l e model i s p l a c e d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r of c o i l s i n order t o simulate l o c a l induction i n i s o l a t e d bodies ( c f . s u b s e c t i o n on t h i s t o p L c i n S e c . 9 . 4 ) . Here a r e t o men-tion t h e s c a l e model e x p e r i m e n t s by GREWET and

LAUNAY who showed how , a l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u c t i o n c a n b e s i m v l a t e d

a l s o by t h e i n d u c t i o n i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f c o i l s . T h e i r o b j e c t i v e was t o make a s c a l e model o f t h e c o a s t e f f e c t a t c o m p l i c a t e d c o a s t l i n e s . They n p t e d t h a t t h e i . n d u c t i v e c o u p l i n g between t h e o c e a n and h i g h l y conduc-ting m a - t e r i a l a t some d e p t h w i t h i n t h e E a r t h i s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by a s y s t e m o f image c u r r e n t s a t t h e l e v e l 2 -hx below t h e o c e a n . Here h" i s a g a i n t h e d e p t h o f a p e r f e c t s u b s t i - t u t e conductor f o r t h e oceanic s u b s t r u c t u r e a t t h e considered frequency. GRENCT and LAUNAY u s e a s model c o n d u c t o r s two t h i n m e t a l l i c p l a t e s which a r e c o n n e c t e d a l o n g two e d g e s by v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t i n g s t r i p s .

One o f t h e t h i n p l a t e s r e p r e s e n t s t h e o c e a n

and o n e o f i t s

e d g e s i s g i v e n t h e s h a p e .of a c e r t a i n c o a s t l i n e .to b e s t u d i e d . The s e c o n d p l a t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e l e v e l o f t h e image c u r r e n t s . The whole a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n d u c t o r s i s p l a c e d i n t o a Helmholtz c o i l i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l s t r i p s a r e p a r a l l e l t o

.

the. m a g n e t i c f i e l d . P l a t e s and s t ~ - . i p s now f o r m a l o o p normal t o t h e m a g n e t i c f l u x w i t h i n t h e ~ e l m h o y t zc o i l and t h u s c u r r e n t s a r e i n d u c e d which f l o w i n t h e " o c e a n i c " p l a t e p a r a l l e l t o t h e

"coastline".

I n SPITTA's a r r a n g e m e n t f o r th.e s t u d y o f t h e c o a s t e f f e c t t h e cond u c t o r s a r e p l a c e d below a h o r i z o n t a l b a n d - c u r r e n t c l o s e d by

a l a r g e v e r t i c a l l o o p . The o c e a n i c and c o n t i n e n t a l s u b s t r u c t u r e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a t h i c k m e t a l i c p l a t e , t h e o c e a n s by a t h i n
m e t a l i c s h e e t which p a r t i a l l y c o v e r s t h e p l a t e . The t h i c k n e s s o f t h e p l a t e i s l a r g e i n comparison t o t h e s k i n d e p t h and i t s width about twice t h e half-width form o f t h e f i e l d o f t h e bandc u r r e n t a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e p l a t e . The i n d u c e d c u r r e n t s y s t e m s c l o s e d l o o p s w i t h i n p l a t e and s h e e t and c a n be assumed t o b e l a r g e l y h o r i z o n t a l . By p l a c i n g o n e e d g e o f t h e c o v e r i n g s h e e t below t h e ' c e n t e r o f t h e b a n d - c u r r e n - t t h e c o a s t e f f e c t o f

a n i o n o s p h e r i c j e t c a n b e s t u d i e d f o r any a n g l e between c o a s t
and j e t .

1,

The ratio of the length-scales model: nature should be in the order 1 : 106 or 1 : 107 In this way current loops of some 1000 km in nature can be reproduced. In SPITTA's' experiment the ratio of length-scales is 1 : 4.10~. A 4 km thick ocean is represented by an aluminium sheet of 1 rrn thickness, a highly conducting layer in the mantle at 360 km depth'by an aluminum plate 9 cm below the sheet. The width of this plate is 2 m and is equivalent to 8000 km in nature.

Model conductors n a be chosen from the following materials: iy

cu

- AL - ~b

Graphite (saturated) NaCl solution

7 .3.10~

0.5.107
'

(ma)'
11

(concentration of maximum conductivity) In SPITTA's experiment the conductivity-ratio model: nature is 2.10 7 :4. Hence; with a ratio of length scales of 1/4 a frequency of 1 kHz in the model corresponds to 1/32.10-~ Hz 'lcph in nature. DOSSO uses graphite to represent the oceans and highly conducting material in the deeper mantle, saturated NaC1-solution to represent the continental surface layers and the poorly conducting portions of crust and uppermost mantle. Since his model frequencies are only slightly higher (1 to 60 kHz),.a one orbder 5 of magnitude pester ratio of length-scales (1:lO 1 has to be used to simulate natural frequencies between 1 cph and 1 cpm.

,
The lists of available model conductors shows that it is difficult to simulate.conductivity contrasts of 1:10 or 1:100 which are of particular importance in the natural induction process. Only salt solutions of variable concentration could provide a sufficient range in xodel conductivity, but their relatively

low conductivity requires the use of very high frequencies 3 (10 kHz) and extremely large model dimensions (10 m). In conclusion it should be pointed out that even those scale model experiments which do not reproduce the natural induction in a strict quantitative sense may be useful for a descriptive interpretation of complicated variation fields. In those cases only the impedance or the relative changes of the magnetic field with respect to the field at one distinguished point above the model will be considered and compared with actual data.

10. Geophysical and geological relevance of geomagnetic induction studies

I n exploration geophysics the magnetotelluric method, in combination with geomagnetic depth sounding, has been applied with some success to investigate the conductivity structure of sedimentary basins. Electromagnetic soundings with artificial sources as well as DC soundings which truly penetrate through a sedimentary cover of even moderate thickness are difficult to conduct on a routine basis. Hence, it seems that electromagnetic soundings with natural fields are more efficient than -any other geoelectric methods in exploring the overall distribution of conductivity in deep basins. In particular the integrated conductivity T of sediments above a crystalline basement is well defined by the inductive surface response to natural EM fields and can be mapped by a survey with magnetic and geoelectric recording stations. If in addition some estimate about the mean conductivity of the sediments can be made from high frequency soundings, the depth of the crystalline follows directly from T. If structural details of sedimentary basins are the main interest of the exploration, a mapping of the electric field only according to st'rength and direction for a given polarisation of the regional horizontal magnetic field will be adequate. The inter-

pretation is handled like a direct current problem in a. thin conducting plate of variable conductivity. This so-called "telluric method" represents a very simple lcind of inductive soundings, but the preferential direction of the superficial currents thus found usually gives a surprisingly clear impression about the trend of structural elements like grabens, anticlines etc. The usefulness of this method arises from the fact that these structural elements can be detected even when they are buried beneath an undisturbed cover of younger sediments.

Geomagnetic and magnetotelluric soundings are less useful for exploration in areas of high surface resistivity, in particular in crystalline regions. Even pulsations penetrate here too deeply to yield enough resolution in the shallow depth range of interest for mining. Audio-frequency soundings with artificial or even natural sources will be better adapted and are widely used in mineral exploration.

The probing of deeper parts of crust and mantle with natural electromagnetic fields will eventually lead to a detailed knowledge of the internal conductivity distribution down to about 1000 km depth. Its relation to the downward rise in temperature is obvious, in fact electromagnetic soundings provide the only, even though indirect method to derive presentday temperatures in the upper mantle.

Other derivable properties of mantle material like density and elastic parameters are.largely determined by the downward increase in pressure with only a second-order dependence on temperature, which i.s hardly of any use for estimates of mantle temperatures.
r The remarkable rise of conductivity between 600 and 800 kn depth, however, should not be understood as temperature-related but as indication for a gradual phase change of the mantle minerals, possibly with a minor change in chemical composition, this is with a slight increase of the fe:Mg ratio of the olivinespinell mineral assembly.

The conductivity beneath the continental upper mantle from 100 km down to about 600 km is suprisingly uniform and seems to indicate -that in this -depth range the temperature gradient cannot .' C/km. The be far away from its adiabatic value of roughly 05 .mysterious appearance of highly conducting layers in the uppermost mantle may be connected to magma chambers of partially molten material and to regional mantle zones of higher than normal temperatures in general. The expected correlation of high mantle conductivity, high terrestrial heatflow and magmatic activity clearly exists in the Rocky Mountains'of North America. There are also some indication for high conductivities beneath local thermal areas. The Geysers in California, Owens Valley in Nevada, possibly Yellowstone and the Hungarian plains are examples. It should be pointed out, however, that there exist also regions of.high subcrustal conduc-tivity with absolutely no correlation to high heatflow or recent magmatic activity. The most proainent.inland anoma1.y of geomagnetic variations, which has been found so far, namely the Great Plains or Black Hills anomaly in North herica,laclcs still any reasonable explanation ,or correlation to other geophysical observations. 0l . ;e great unsolved problem in geomagnetic inductions studies is the depth of penetration of slow variations into the mantle below ocean basins. There are definite reasons to believe

that the upper mantle beneath oceans is hotter than the mantle beneath continents down to a depth of a few hundred kilometers. If this is so, a corresphndingly higher conductivity should exist beneath oceans which could be recognised from a reduced depth of penetration in comparison to continents. Once a characteristic conductivity difference between an oceanic and a. continental substructure has been established, this could be used tb recognize former oceanic mantle material beneath present-day continents and vice versa. First houndings with recording instruments at the bottom of the sea have been carrred out. They confirmed to some extent the expectation of h'igh conductivities at extremely shallow depth, but these punctual soundings may not be representative for the oceans as a whole. Here the development of new experimental techniques for expedient seafloor operations of magnetic and geolectric instruments has. to be awaited. ~~sarvatioAs,on. mid-oceanic islands provide a less expensive way to study the induction in the oceans which in he case of substorms and Sq is strongly coupled to the crustal and subthe ocea s Buf again oceanic islands crustal conductivities beneath . are usually volcanic and their substructure may differ from that of ordinary parts of ocean basins. The island-effect itself is no obstacle fo$ soundings into the deep structure. In fact, this effect represents a powerful tool to investigate the inductive response in the surrounding open 'ocean, since the.theoretica1 distortion of the varia-tion fields due to the islands can be regarded at sufficiently Low frequency as a direct current problem for a given pattern of oceanic induction currents at some distance from the island. Setting the . .. .density of these currents in relation to the observed magnetic field on the island gives the impedance of the variation field , for the surrounding oceari of known integrated conductivity. To a first approximation induced currents in the ocean do not contribute to the horizontal magnetic field on the island. Hence, by knowing their density the horizontal magnetic field on the sea floor can be calculated from which the inductive response function for the oceanic substructure follows.

!
s

I
i

i
j

I:

11. References for general reading

Electroinagnetic induction in the earth and planets. Special issue of Physics of the Earth and Planet. Interiors, L, Xo.3, 227-400, 1973. BERDICHEVSKII, M.N., (Electrical sounding w2th the method of -magneto-telluric profiling), Nedra Press, Goscow 1968. FRAZER, M.C.: Geomagnetic depth sounding with arrays of magnetometers. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. ->12 401-420, 1974. JANKOGJSKI, J., Techniques and results of magpi~etotelluricand geomagnetic deep soundings, Publications OQ? the Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, vo1.51i, Warsaw 1972. KELLER, G.V. and FRISCHKNECHT, F.C.: Electrical methods in Geophysical prospecting. Int. Ser. Monogr. in Electromagnetic Waves, 10, 1-517, 1966.

PORATH, H. and DZIEWONSKI, A,: Crustal resistivity anomalies from geomagnetic depth-sounding studies. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 9, 891-915, 1971.

RIKITAKE , T. : Electromagnetism and the '~arth interior. Develcp' s rnents in Solid Earth Geophys. - 1-308, 1976. 2, SCHMUCKER, U.: Anomalies of geomagnetic varizitions in the south13 western United States. Bull. Scripps Imst Oceanogr. -, . 1-165, 1970.

..

WARD, S.H.: Electromagnetic theory far geophysical application. In: D.A. Hansen et al. (Eds.), Mining Geophysics, The Sop. of Expl. Geophysicists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, T.967. WARD, S.H., PEEPLES, W.J., and RAN, J.: Analysis of geoelectromagnetic data. -Methods in Comnii+a+inn;ll --?h\rx<l-.c 1.1. 2 & . ? - ? . 1 R - 197.1.