What is network?

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, Network history:Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many of the social behaviors seen in today's Internet were demonstrably present in the 19th century and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals.

In September 1940, George Stibitz used a Teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his Model at Dartmouth College to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypewriters to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANET.

Early networks of communicating computers included the military radar system Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), started in the late 1950s.

The commercial airline reservation system semiautomatic business research environment (SABRE) which went online with two connected mainframes in 1960.

In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a research group supported by

General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route and manage telephone connections.

Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used packets that could be used in a network between computer systems.

1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN).

The first widely used telephone switch that used true computer control was introduced by Western Electric in 1965.

In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANET network using 50 Kbit/s circuits.

Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks.

Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. All modern aspects of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and telephony increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade, and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network. Computer networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user. Properties Computer networks: Facilitate communications: Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information:

In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.

Share network and computing resources: In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.

May be insecure: A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from normally accessing the network (denial of service).

May interfere with other technologies: Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g., amateur radio. It may also

interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and VDSL.

May be difficult to set up: A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.

Multiaccess vs. Point-to-point -> Multiaccess means shared medium. - many end-systems share the same physical communication resources (wire, frequency, ...) - There must be some arbitration mechanism. - > Point-to-point - only 2 systems involved no doubt about where data came from !

Internetwork: Connection of 2 or more distinct (possibly dissimilar) networks. Requires some kind of network device to facilitate the connection.

OSI Reference Model : Layered model: 7. Application 6. Presentation 5. Session 4. Transport 3. Network 2. Data Link 1. Physical

-> A Layered Network Model The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layers software or hardware on other computers. The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.

The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and sessionLayers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Physical Layer Provides physical interface for transmission of information. Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical communication medium. Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical communication. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer interface. Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames. Create and detect frame boundaries. Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme. Implement flow control. Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication. Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.

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Network Layer

Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network. Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified. Handles congestion in the network. Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking). The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate different media. Transport Layer

Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between two processes in different computers. Ensures that the data units are delivered error free. Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence. Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units. Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.

Provides for the connection management. Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel Session Layer

Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications. This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-users request. Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer. Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection. This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half duplex. Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.

Presentation Layer Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the two communicating entities. Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography). Application Layer

Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI model. Application layer contains management functions to support distributed applications. Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc. OSI in Action A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers to the bottom physical layer. As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a header to it. A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what functions the layer carried out.

Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the message as it travels up the corresponding layers.

Network topologies: Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer or biological network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology refers to the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. In general physical topology relates to a core network whereas logical topology relates to basic network. Topology can be understood as the shape or structure of a network. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle

but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology. Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical. A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometric shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network.

Topology 1 2 3 4 Point-to-point Bus Star Ring

5 6 7 8

Mesh Tree Hybrid Daisy chain

There are two basic categories of network topologies.

Physical topologies Logical topologies

The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling. The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.

The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit. The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the actual physical connections between nodes. The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably. Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols. Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches. 1. Point-to-point The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic

model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed. Permanent (dedicated) Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is one example of a physical dedicated channel. Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio. Switched:

Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony. 2. Bus

Bus network topology In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However,

the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the network cable is terminated on both ends and when without termination data transfer stop and when cable breaks, the entire network will be down. Linear bus The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network simultaneously. Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium and which dissipates or absorbs the energy that remains in the signal to prevent the signal from being reflected or propagated back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction, which

would cause interference with and degradation of the signals on the transmission medium. Distributed bus The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium). Notes: 1. All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated using 50 ohm resistor. 2. The linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special case of the distributed bus topology i.e., a distributed bus with no branching segments. 3. The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a physical tree topology however, although the physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree topology, it differs from the physical tree topology in that there is no central node to which any other nodes are

connected, since this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.

3. Star:

Star network topology In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one

central device. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure. Notes 1. A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a special instance of the physical star topology therefore, the simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of which node is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary. 2. After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note (1) above, the next simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one central node the 'hub' with two separate point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes the 'spokes'. 3. Although most networks that are based upon the physical star topology are commonly implemented using a special device such as a hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also possible to implement a network that is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or even a

simple common connection point as the 'hub' or central node. 4. Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multi-access or nonbroadcast multi-access (NBMA), depending on whether the technology of the network either automatically propagates a signal at the hub to all spokes, or only addresses individual spokes with each communication. Extended star A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based. If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology,

although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies. Distributed Star A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected in a linear fashion i.e., 'daisy-chained' with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes'). 4. Ring

Ring network topology A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a

receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.

5. Mesh:

It has been suggested that Fully connected network be merged into this article or section. The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated. Fully connected

Fully connected mesh topology The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2.

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected. Partially connected

Partially connected mesh topology The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.

Note:

In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path between nodes,except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative path to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time. 6. Tree

Tree network topology: The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node

being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree. This tree has individual peripheral nodes. 1. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at least three levels in the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level below it would exhibit the physical topology of a star. 2. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a branching factor of 1 would be classified as a physical linear topology. 3. The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the network and, therefore, if the nodes in the network require ports for connection to other nodes the total number of ports per node may be kept low even though the total number of nodes is large this makes the effect of the cost of adding ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be kept as low as required without any effect upon the total number of nodes that are possible. 4. The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology will be one less than the total number of nodes in the network.

5. If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology are required to perform any processing upon the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher levels in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on behalf of other nodes than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a type of network topology is very useful and highly recommended. Definition: Tree topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.

7. Hybrid Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network

A Star network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a Multistation Access Unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.

A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

While grid and torus networks have found popularity in highperformance computing applications, some systems have used genetic algorithms to design custom networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes. Some of the resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they function quite well. A Snowflake topology is really a "Star of Stars" network, so it exhibits characteristics of a hybrid network topology but is not composed of two different basic network topologies being connected.

Definition: Hybrid topology is a combination of Bus, Star and ring topology. Daisy chain Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.

A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two transmitters. By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the way around. When a node sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. If a computer is not the destination node, it will pass the message to the next node, until the message arrives at its destination. If the message is not accepted by any node on the network, it will travel around the entire ring and return to the sender. This potentially results in a doubling of travel time for data.

Communication media Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as electrical cable (HomePNA, power line communication, G.hn), optical fiber, and radio waves (wireless LAN). In the OSI model, these are located at levels 1 and 2. A well-known family of communication media is collectively known as Ethernet. It is defined by IEEE 802 and utilizes

various standards and media that enable communication between devices. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.

Wired technologies

Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are rated in categories which are manufactured in different increments for various scenario. Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission

speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.

ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network. Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers that carries data by means of pulses of light. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire. This capacity may be further increased by the use of colored light, i.e., light of multiple wavelengths. Instead of carrying one message in a stream of monochromatic light impulses, this technology can carry multiple signals in a single fiber.

Wireless technologies

Terrestrial microwave Terrestrial microwaves use Earthbased transmitter and receiver. The equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use lowgigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-

of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx, 48 km (30 mi) apart. Communications satellites The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 35,400 km (22,000 mi) (for geosynchronous satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. Cellular and PCS systems Use several radio communications technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area. Wireless LANs Wireless local area network use a highfrequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of openstandards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11. Infrared communication can transmit signals between devices within small distances of typically no more than 10 meters. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

Exotic technologies There have been various attempts at transporting data over more or less exotic media:

IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001. Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves.

A practical limit in both cases is the round-trip delay time which constrains useful communication.

 Communications protocols and network programming

Communications

protocol

A communications protocol defines the formats and rules for exchanging information via a network and typically comprises a complete protocol suite which describes the protocols used at various usage levels. An interesting feature of communications protocols is that they may be and in fact very often are stacked above each other, which means that one is used to carry the other. The example for this is HTTP running over TCP over IP over IEEE 802.11, where the second and third are members of the Internet Protocol Suite, while the last is a member of the Ethernet protocol suite. This is the stacking which exists between the wireless router and the home user's personal computer when surfing the World Wide Web. Communication protocols have themselves various properties, such as whether they are connection-oriented versus connectionless, whether they use circuit mode or packet switching, or whether they use hierarchical or flat addressing. There exist a multitude of communication protocols, a few of which are described below. Ethernet Ethernet is a family of connectionless protocols used in LANs, described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers. It has a flat addressing scheme and is mostly situated at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model. For home users today, the most well-known member of this protocol family is IEEE 802.11, otherwise known as Wireless LAN (WLAN). However, the complete protocol suite deals with a multitude of networking aspects not only for home use, but especially when the technology is deployed to support a diverse range of business needs. MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol, IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access Control protocol which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs, but also found in WLANs it is what the home user sees when they have to enter a "wireless access key". Internet Protocol Suite The Internet Protocol Suite, often also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern internetworking. It offers connectionless as well as connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission at the Internet protocol (IP) level. At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specification in form of the traditional Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. SONET/SDH (Synchronous optical networking)

Synchronous Optical NETworking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM format. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mo Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous timedivision multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or frames. ATM has similarity with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. While the role of ATM is diminishing in favor of nextgeneration networks, it still plays a role in the last mile, which is

the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user. Network programming Computer network programming

Computer network programming involves writing computer programs that communicate with each other across a computer network. Different programs must be written for the client process, which initiates the communication, and for the server process, which waits for the communication to be initiated. Both endpoints of the communication flow are implemented as network sockets; hence network programming is basically socket programming.

Scale Networks are often classified by their physical or organizational extent or their purpose. Usage, trust level, and access rights differ between these types of networks. Personal area network A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game

consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Firewire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

Local area network A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITUT G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a

distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s. LANs can be connected to Wide area network by using routers. Home network A home network is a residential LAN which is used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. Storage area network A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in

the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium sized business environments. Campus network A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.). In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including, for example, academic colleges or departments, the university library, and student residence halls. Backbone network A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than that of the networks connected to it. A large corporation which has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of these locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different departments of a company which are located at different geographical locations. The equipment which ties these

departments together constitute the network backbone. Network performance management including network congestion are critical parameters taken into account when designing a network backbone. A specific case of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is the set of wide-area network connections and core routers that interconnect all networks connected to the Internet. Metropolitan area network A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. Sample EPN made of Frame relay WAN connections and dialup remote access.

Sample VPN used to interconnect 3 offices and remote users.

Wide area network A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. Enterprise private network An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect various company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to share computer resources.

Virtual private network A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point. Internetwork An internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common routing technology using routers. The Internet is an aggregation of many connected internetworks spanning the Earth. Organizational scope Networks are typically managed by organizations which own them. According to the owner's point of view, networks are seen as intranets or extranets. A special case of network is the Internet, which has no single owner but a distinct status when

seen by an organizational entity that of permitting virtually unlimited global connectivity for a great multitude of purposes. Intranets and extranets Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a LAN. An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entitiesa company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranetwhile at the same time the customers may not be considered trusted from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network. Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol

Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reach ability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. Network topology Common layouts A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes of a computer network. Common layouts are:

A bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2. A star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in in a Wireless LAN, where each wireless client connects to the central Wireless access point. A ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that

each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) made use of such a topology. A mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. A fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network.

Note that the physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring (actually two counterrotating rings), but the physical topology is a star, because all neighboring connections are routed via a central physical location.

Overlay network An overlay network is a virtual computer network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay are connected by virtual or logical links, each of which corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks because they are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links

run on top of the Internet. The Internet was initially built as an overlay on the telephone network.[14] The most striking example of an overlay network, however, is the Internet itself: At the IP layer, each node can reach any other by a direct connection to the desired IP address, thereby creating a fully connected network; the underlying network, however, is composed of a mesh-like interconnect of subnetworks of varying topologies (and, in fact, technologies). Address resolution and routing are the means which allows the mapping of the fully connected IP overlay network to the underlying ones. Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over telephone lines using modems, before any data network existed. Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash table, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a map) indexed by keys. Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through quality of service guarantees to achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes,

but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes a message traverses before reaching its destination. For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Academic research includes end system multicast and overcast for multicast; RON (resilient overlay network) for resilient routing; and OverQoS for quality of service guarantees, among others. Basic hardware components Apart from the physical communications media themselves as described above, networks comprise additional basic hardware building blocks interconnecting their terminals, such as network interface cards (NICs), hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. Network interface cards A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to physically access a networking medium. It provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. Each Ethernet network interface has a unique MAC address which is usually stored in a small memory device on the card, allowing any device to connect to the network without creating an address conflict. Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six octets. Uniqueness is maintained by the IEEE, which manages the Ethernet address space by assigning 3-octet prefixes to equipment manufacturers. The list of prefixes is publicly available. Each manufacturer is then obliged to both use

only their assigned prefix (es) and to uniquely set the 3-octet suffix of every Ethernet interface they produce. Repeaters and hubs A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet's 5-4-3 rule). Bridges A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is

stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges come in three basic types:

Local bridges: Directly connect LANs Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.[16] Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multilayer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and bridges, as well as

devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Routers A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data). Firewalls A firewall is an important aspect of a network with respect to security. It typically rejects access requests from unsafe sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.

What is IP address?
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An Internet Protocol (IP) Address is the number assigned to a network equipped piece of hardware by which other device identify it.

How to give IP address to the pc? Go to start ->run->type (ncpa.cpl) -> now you can see a either net connection >right click ->property -> select IPv4 than set and ok. SUBNETTING

What is Sub netting?

A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible subdivision of an IP network. The practice of dividing a single network into two or more networks is called subnetting and the networks created are called subnetworks or subnets. All computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with a common, identical, most-significant bit-group in their IP address. This results in the logical division of an IP address into two fields, a network or routing prefix and the rest field or host identifier. The rest field is an identifier for a specific "host" either a computer, or a device, or specific network interface on a computer or device.

 IP address and subnetting:

IP is routed protocol at layer 3. Responsible for network and host addressing. It is a 32 bit binary number. The 32-binary bits are divided in 4 octet (group of 8 bits) separated by 3 dots.

1st octet 4th octet

2nd octet

3rd octet

Further the A, B, C, D, E IP address are divided into the two category:

1) Public IP address (live or static) 2) Private IP address

Difference between public IP address and private IP address

Public IP address They are controlled and managed by ICANN. They are chargeable and registered. Public IP are unique and at a international level. It is routable in international cloud. Private IP address No one is controlling and managing private IP. They are free to use. No need to any registration. They are not unique. Private IP is not routable in internet cloud.

In any IP network there are three types of IP address.

1) N/W IP address. 2) Host IP address. 3) Broadcast IP address. N/W IP addresses: The network IP address cannot assign to any of the host including router. It will be used by the router for routing services. Rule for calculating n/w IP address: Put all zeros on all the host bits.

Host IP addresses:

It can be assign to any of the host including router. A single host IP address cannot repeat in the entire network. The host IP address assign to eithernetinterface of a router is consider as a gateway IP address for the remaining host. Rules for calculate 1st host IP address: 1) Put one (1) on the extreme last host bit and put zeros (0) on remaining all host bit. Rules for calculate last host IP address: 1) Put 2) zero (0) on extreme last host bit and put one(1) on remaining host bit. Broadcast IP address: Like network IP address it cant also assign to any of the host. The broadcast IP address will be used by host itself to send their messages to all the host in the entire n/w at a time like DNS, DHCP request etc. Rules to calculate broadcast IP: 1) Put 1 on all the host bits.

Why to subnet?
To break up a single large broadcast IP network into numbers of small segments in such manner so those n/w numbers remain same but their broadcast IP differentiated. - After this type of segmentation each small segment is consider as a subnet.

- For communication between two host of a different subnet (l3) devices.(gateway is required)

Two types of subnetting methods.

1) Fixed length subnet masking. (FLSM) 2) Variable length subnet masking. (VLSM) VLSM: 1) Subnet mask of each subnet should be different. 2) Total no of host IP address for subnet should be different.

IP ADDRESS SCHEME AND CALCULATION.

Solution:*Example) 1) 192.168.10.0 on vlsn B) 26 HOSTS: SO: 2^X-2=26 -> 2^X=26-2=24 -> 2^5>24 5= NO. OF BITS TO BE RESERVED FOR HOST AND REMAINING BITS ARE FOR SUBNETS.

Ex: CHIRIPAL LTD :a. CHIRIPAL LTD USE CLASS C PRIVATE IP 192.168.10.0 0N VLSM. HOSTS REQUIRMENT IS AS FOLLOWS b. NARODA BRANCH SALES VLAN --- 26 HOSTS c. NARODA BRANCH FINANCE VLAN --- 11 HOSTS d. NARODA BRANCH VLAN 1 --- 4 HOSTS e. NAVRANGPURA SERVER FARM 4 HOSTS f. NAVRANGPURA NARODA LINK 2 HOSTS

Site Naroda (sales) Naroda (finance) Naroda (VLAN 1) Navrangp ura (serverfar m) Navrangp ura naroda(li nk)

Ho st 26 11 4 4

N\w IP 192.168.1 0.64 192.168.1 0.32 192.168.1 0.16 192.168.1 0.8

1stIP 192.168.1 0.65 192.168.1 0.33 192.168.1 0.17 192.168.1 0.9

Last IP 192.168.1 0.94 192.168.1 0.46 192.168.1 7.22 192.168.1 0.14

Broadcast IP 192.168.1 0.95 192.168.1 0.47 192.168.1 0.23 192.168.1 0.15

255.255.255 .224 /27 255.255.255 .240 / 28 255.255.255 .248 / 29 255.255.255 .248 / 29

192.168.1 0.4

192.168.1 0.5

192.168.1 0.6

192.168.1 0.7

255.255.255 .252 / 30

BY above calculation below is the table of IPs:

 WHAT IS NAT?
It stands for Network Address Translation.
In computer networking, network address translation (NAT) is the process of modifying IP address information in IP packet headers while in transit across a traffic routing device. The simplest type of NAT provides a one to one translation of IP addresses. RFC 2663 refers to this type of NAT as basic NAT. It is often also referred to as one-to-one NAT. In this type of NAT only the IP addresses, IP header checksum and any higher level checksums that include the IP address need to be changed. The rest of the packet can be left untouched (at least for basic TCP/UDP functionality, some higher level protocols may need further translation). Basic NATs can be used when there is a requirement to interconnect two IP networks with incompatible addressing. However it is common to hide an entire IP address space, usually consisting of private IP addresses, behind a single IP address (or in some cases a small group of IP addresses) in another (usually public) address space. To avoid ambiguity in the handling of returned packets, a one-tomany NAT must alter higher level information such as TCP/UDP ports in outgoing communications and must maintain a translation table so that return packets can be correctly translated back. RFC 2663 uses the term NAPT (network address and port translation) for this type of NAT. Other names include PAT (port address translation), IP masquerading, NAT Overload and many-to-one NAT. Since this is the most common type of NAT it is often referred to simply as NAT. As described, the method enables communication through the router only when the conversation originates in the masqueraded network, since this establishes the translation tables. For example, a web browser in the masqueraded network can browse a website outside, but a web browser

outside could not browse a web site in the masqueraded network. However, most NAT devices today allow the network administrator to configure translation table entries for permanent use. This feature is often referred to as "static NAT" or port forwarding and allows traffic originating in the "outside" network to reach designated hosts in the masqueraded network.

Types of NAT: 1) Static NAT: It converts only one inside local IP to only one global IP at a time. So it is called one at one. 2) Dynamic NAT: Same like static NAT it also converts only one inside local IP to one global IP at a time but FIFO basis.So any of the global IP should be map to any of the localIPwho come first to the NAT configuration.

3) NAT overloading: (PAT :PORT ADDRESS TRANSLATION) - It can convert 2^16(65536) inside local IPs into only one global IPata time. - So it is many to one. LIVE IP ADDRESS GIVEN BY BSNL FOR STATIC NATING (i) 20.10.10.3/4 (ii) 20.10.10.4/24
NAT and TCP/UDP
"Pure NAT", operating on IP alone, may or may not correctly parse protocols that are totally concerned with IP information, such as ICMP, depending on whether the payload is interpreted by a host on the "inside" or "outside" of translation. As soon as the protocol stack is traversed, even with such basic protocols as TCP and UDP, the protocols will break unless NAT takes action beyond the network layer. IP packets have a checksum in each packet header, which provides error detection only for the header. IP datagrams may become fragmented and it is necessary for a NAT to reassemble these

fragments to allow correct recalculation of higher-level checksums and correct tracking of which packets belong to which connection. The major transport layer protocols, TCP and UDP, have a checksum that covers all the data they carry, as well as the TCP/UDP header, plus a "pseudo-header" that contains the source and destination IP addresses of the packet carrying the TCP/UDP header. For an originating NAT to pass TCP or UDP successfully, it must recompute the TCP/UDP header checksum based on the translated IP addresses, not the original ones, and put that checksum into the TCP/UDP header of the first packet of the fragmented set of packets. The receiving NAT must recompute the IP checksum on every packet it passes to the destination host, and also recognize and recompute the TCP/UDP header using the retranslated addresses and pseudo-header. This is not a completely solved problem. One solution is for the receiving NAT to reassemble the entire segment and then recompute a checksum calculated across all packets.

Frame Relay:Frame Relay is a standardized wide area network technology that specifies the physical and logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology. Originally designed for transport across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) infrastructure, it may be used today in the context of many other network interfaces. Network providers commonly implement Frame Relay for voice (VoFR) and data as an encapsulation technique, used between local area networks (LANs) over a wide area network (WAN). Each end-user gets a private line (or leased line) to a Frame Relay node. The Frame Relay network handles the transmission over a frequently-changing path transparent to all endusers. Frame Relay has become one of the most extensively-used WAN protocols. Its cheapness (compared to leased lines) provided one reason for its popularity. The extreme simplicity of configuring user equipment in a Frame Relay network offers another reason for Frame Relay's popularity.

The designers of Frame Relay aimed to provide a telecommunication service for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between endpoints in a wide area network (WAN). Frame Relay puts data in variable-size units called "frames" and leaves any necessary error-correction (such as re-transmission of data) up to the end-points. This speeds up overall data transmission. For most services, the network provides a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which means that the customer sees a continuous, dedicated connection without having to pay for a full-time leased line, while the service-provider figures out the route each frame travels to its destination and can charge based on usage. An enterprise can select a level of service quality - prioritizing some frames and making others less important. Frame Relay can run on fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame Relay complements and provides a mid-range service between basic rate ISDN, which offers bandwidth at 128 kbit/s, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which operates in somewhat similar fashion to frame Relay but at speeds from 155.520 Mbit/s to 622.080 Mbit/s. Source:http://searchenterprisewan.techtarget.com/definition/frame-relay Frame Relay has its technical base in the older X.25 packet-switching technology, designed for transmitting data on analog voice lines. Unlike X.25, whose designers expected analog signals, Frame Relay offers a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to correct errors. When a Frame Relay network detects an error in a frame, it simply drops that frame. The end points have the responsibility for detecting and retransmitting dropped frames. (However, digital networks offer an incidence of error extraordinarily small relative to that of analog networks.)

 How to assign IP address?

By imageas below:

 What is Switch?
1) Switch is single broadcast domain multIPle collisions domain. 2) There is one chIP called ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) in every chIP. 3) The ASIC chIP is responsible to maintain MAC address. 4) Switch is full duplex communication method. 5) Switch provides 10-100-1000 Mbps dedicated bandwidth with each host. 6) Inside switch there is point to point connectivity between each interface. Two basic task of a switch: 1) To learn source mac address of a received frame. 2) To take forward or filter decision. Forward = Broadcast = to all Filter = unicast = to one particular

What is Router?
Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. 1) It is multiple broadcast collisions. 2) Router by default does not forward the broadcast of one i/p n/w to another IP n/w. 3) Router by default breaks up the broadcast domain. 4) It is compulsory to assign IP address to each interface of router. 5) The IP address must be of different n/w or different sub networks.

 Difference between SWITCH AND ROUTER.

SWITCH * Switch is layer-2 device because it works on frame and MAC address. Switch maintains MAC address. If destination MAC address of frame does not available in MAC add. Table switch will broadcast the frame. ROUTER Router is layer-3 device because it works on packet and IP address. Router maintains routing table with IP address. If destination N/W IP address of a packet not available in routing table router will discard the packet.

* *

Basic Commands:
SWITCH CONFIGURATION: Basically there are three modes of witches: 1) USER MODE 2) PRIVILEGE MODE 3) CONFIGURATION MODE SWITCH> SWITCH# SWITCH(CONFIG)#

BASICALLY SWITCH IS ON THE USE MODE TO CONVERT IT INTO PRIVILEGE MODE: SWITCH> SWITCH>ENABLE SWITCH# TO EXIT FROM ANY MODE: SWITCH# SWITCH#EXIT

SWITCH> TO GO TO IN CONFIGURATION MODE: SWITCH#CONFT SWITCH(CONFIG)# TO SET THE PASSWORD FOR THE PRIVILEGE MODE: SWITCH(CONFIG)#ENABLE PASSWORD BHAVIN THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF PORT STATE: 1) UP 2) DOWN 3) ADMIN DOWN

TO SHOW THE OCCUPIED PORT: SWITCH#SHOW IP INTERFACE BRIEF

TO BLOCK OR UNBLOCK THE PORT: (BLOCK) SWITCH(CONFIG)#INT FA 0/1 SWITCH(CONFIG-IF)#SHUTDOWN (UNBLOCK)

SWITCH(CONFIG)#INT FA 0/1 SWITCH(CONFIG-IF)#NO SHUT

TO SAVE ALL THE COMMANDS AND TASKS: SWITCH#COPY RUNNING-CONFIG STARTUP-CONFIG (ONLY WORKS IN PRIVILEGE MODES)

SWITCH#WRITE (ONLY WORKS IN PRIVILEGE MODES) SWITCH#DO WRITE (WORKS IN ALL THE MODES)

TO SEE ENTIRE RUNNING CONFIGURATION: SWITCH#SHOW RUN (WE CAN SEE THE PASSWORD ALSO)

SO FOR THE PASSWORD ENCRYPTION: SWITCH(CONFIG)#SERVICE PASSWORDENCRYPTION TO REMOVE ENCRPTION: NO SERVICE PASSWORD ENCRYPTION GIVE NAME TO SWITCH:

SWITCH(CONFIG)#HOSTNAME XYZ

ALL THE COMMANDS WHICH ARE WORKS WITH SWICH ARE SAME WORKS WITH ROUTER: TELNET COMMANDS WHICH ARE WORKS WITH SWITCH ARE SAME WORKS WITH ROUTER: TELNET COMMANDS WHICH IS WORK IN ROUTER IN CONFIG MODE: ROUTER(CONFIG)#LINE VTY 0 4 ROUTER(CONFIG-LINE)#PASSWORD ADMIN ROUTER(CONFIG-LINE)#LOGIN LOCAL

TO ADD BANNER? ROUTER>ENABLE ROUTER#CONF T ROUTER(CONFIG)#BANNER MOTD#(PRESS ENTER)WELCOME TO CISCO #

SET IP ADDRESS TO SWITCH AND ROUTER.

SWITCH: ROUTER>ENABLE

ROUTER#CONF T ROUTER(CONFIG)#INT F0/0 ROUTER(CONFIG-IF)#IP ADD 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 ROUTER(CONFIG-IF)#NO SHUT

ROUTER: ROUTER>ENABLE ROUTER#CONF T ROUTER(CONFIG)#INT S0/0 ROUTER(CONFIG-IF)#IP ADD 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 ROUTER(CONFIG-IF)#CLOCK RATE 64000 ROUTER(CONFIG-IF)#NO SHUT

Access control list:An access control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions attached to an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Each entry in a typical ACL specifies a subject and an operation. For instance, if a file has an ACL that contains (Alice, delete), this would give Alice permission to delete the file.

ACL-based security models:When a subject requests an operation on an object in an ACL-based security model the operating system first checks the ACL for an applicable entry to decide whether the requested operation is authorized. A key issue in the definition of any ACL-based security model is determining how access control lists are edited, namely which users and processes are granted ACL-modification access. ACL models may be applied to collections of objects as well as to individual entities within the system's hierarchy.

ACL Concepts
This section describes ACL concepts.

Masks
Masks are used with IP addresses in IP ACLs to specify what should be permitted and denied. Masks in order to configure IP addresses on interfaces start with 255 and have the large values on the left side, for example, IP address 209.165.202.129 with a 255.255.255.224 mask. Masks for IP ACLs are the reverse, for example, mask 0.0.0.255. This is sometimes called an inverse mask or a wildcard mask. When the value of the mask is broken down into binary (0s and 1s), the results determine which address bits are to be considered in processing the traffic. A 0 indicates that the address bits must be considered (exact match); a 1 in the mask is a "don't care". This table further explains the concept.

Mask Example network address 10.1.1.0 (traffic that

is to be processed) mask network address (binary) mask (binary) 0.0.0.255 00001010.00000001.00000001.00000000

00000000.00000000.00000000.11111111

Based on the binary mask, you can see that the first three sets (octets) must match the given binary network address exactly (00001010.00000001.00000001). The last set of numbers are "don't cares" (.11111111). Therefore, all traffic that begins with 10.1.1. matches since the last octet is "don't care". Therefore, with this mask, network addresses 10.1.1.1 through 10.1.1.255 (10.1.1.x) are processed. Subtract the normal mask from 255.255.255.255 in order to determine the ACL inverse mask. In this example, the inverse mask is determined for network address 172.16.1.0 with a normal mask of 255.255.255.0.

255.255.255.255 - 255.255.255.0 (normal mask) = 0.0.0.255 (inverse mask)

Note these ACL equivalents.

The source/source-wildcard of 0.0.0.0/255.255.255.255 means "any". The source/wildcard of 10.1.1.2/0.0.0.0 is the same as "host 10.1.1.2".

VLAN: What is VLAN?

VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network.

A virtual local area network, virtual LAN or VLAN, is a group of hosts with a common set of requirements that communicate as if they were attached to the same broadcast domain, regardless of their physical location. A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical local area network (LAN), but it allows for end stations to be grouped together even if they are not located on the same network switch. VLAN membership can be configured through software instead of physically relocating devices or connections. VLANs are created to provide the segmentation services traditionally provided by routers in LAN configurations. VLANs address issues such as scalability, security, and network management. Routers in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, address summarization, and traffic flow management. By definition, switches may not bridge IP traffic between VLANs as it would violate the integrity of the VLAN broadcast domain.

The workstations, hubs, and repeaters together form a LAN segment. A LAN segment is also known as a collision domain since collisions remain within the segment. The area within which broadcasts and multicasts are confined is called a broadcast domain or LAN. Thus a LAN can consist of one or more LAN segments. Defining broadcast and collision domains in a LAN depends on how the workstations, hubs, switches, and routers are physically connected together. This means that everyone on a LAN must be located in the same area

VLAN's allow a network manager to logically segment a LAN into different broadcast domains. Since this is a logical segmentation and not a physical one, workstations do not have to be physically located together. Users on different floors of the same building, or even in different buildings can now belong to the same LAN.

Physical View

Logical View Physical and logical view of a VLAN. VLAN's also allow broadcast domains to be defined without using routers. Bridging software is used instead to define which workstations are to be included in the broadcast domain. Routers would only have to be used to communicate between two VLAN's.

Why use VLAN's?

VLAN's offer a number of advantages over traditional LAN's. They are: 1) Performance In networks where traffic consists of a high percentage of broadcasts and multicasts, VLAN's can reduce the need to send such traffic to unnecessary destinations. For example, in a broadcast domain consisting of 10 users, if the broadcast traffic is intended only for 5 of the users, then placing those 5 users on a separate VLAN can reduce traffic [ Passmore et al (3Com report)]. Compared to switches, routers require more processing of incoming traffic. As the volume of traffic passing through the routers increases, so does the latency in the routers, which results in reduced performance. The use of VLAN's reduces the number of routers needed, since VLAN's create broadcast domains using switches instead of routers. 2) Formation of Virtual Workgroups Nowadays, it is common to find cross-functional product development teams with members from different departments such as marketing, sales, accounting, and research. These workgroups are usually formed for a short period of time. During this period, communication between members of the workgroup will be high. To contain broadcasts and multicasts within the workgroup, a VLAN can be set up for them. With VLAN's it is easier to place members of a workgroup together. Without VLAN's, the only way this would be possible is to physically move all the members of the workgroup closer together. However, virtual workgroups do not come without problems. Consider the situation where one user of the workgroup is on the fourth floor of a building, and the other workgroup members are on the second floor. Resources such as a printer would be located on the second floor, which would be inconvenient for the lone fourth floor user. Another problem with setting up virtual workgroups is the implementation of centralized server farms, which are essentially collections of servers and major resources for operating a network at a central location. The advantages here are numerous, since it is more efficient and cost-effective to provide better security, uninterrupted power supply, consolidated backup, and a proper operating environment in a single area than if the major resources were scattered in a building. Centralized server farms can cause problems when setting up virtual workgroups if servers cannot be placed on more than one VLAN. In such a case, the server would be placed on a single VLAN and all other VLAN's trying to access the server would have to go through a router; this can reduce performance [Netreference Inc. article]. 3) Simplified Administration

Seventy percent of network costs are a result of adds, moves, and changes of users in the network [ Buerger]. Every time a user is moved in a LAN, recabling, new station addressing, and reconfiguration of hubs and routers becomes necessary. Some of these tasks can be simplified with the use of VLAN's. If a user is moved within a VLAN, reconfiguration of routers is unnecessary. In addition, depending on the type of VLAN, other administrative work can be reduced or eliminated [ Cisco white paper]. However the full power of VLAN's will only really be felt when good management tools are created which can allow network managers to drag and drop users into different VLAN's or to set up aliases. Despite this saving, VLAN's add a layer of administrative complexity, since it now becomes necessary to manage virtual workgroups [ Passmore et al (3Com report)]. 4) Reduced Cost VLAN's can be used to create broadcast domains which eliminate the need for expensive routers. 5) Security Periodically, sensitive data may be broadcast on a network. In such cases, placing only those users who can have access to that data on a VLAN can reduce the chances of an outsider gaining access to the data. VLAN's can also be used to control broadcast domains, set up firewalls, restrict access, and inform the network manager of an intrusion [ Passmore et al (3Com report)]. Back to Table of Contents

4.0 How VLAN's work

When a LAN bridge receives data from a workstation, it tags the data with a VLAN identifier indicating the VLAN from which the data came. This is called explicit tagging. It is also possible to determine to which VLAN the data received belongs using implicit tagging. In implicit tagging the data is not tagged, but the VLAN from which the data came is determined based on other information like the port on which the data arrived. Tagging can be based on the port from which it came, the source Media Access Control (MAC) field, the source network address, or some other field or combination of fields. VLAN's are classified based on the method used. To be able to do the tagging of data using any of the methods, the bridge would have to keep an updated database containing a mapping between VLAN's and whichever field is used for tagging. For example, if tagging is by port, the database should indicate which ports belong to which VLAN. This database is called a filtering database. Bridges would have to be able to maintain this database and also to make sure that all the bridges on the LAN have the same information in each of their databases. The bridge determines where the data is to go next based on normal LAN operations. Once the bridge determines where the data is to go, it now needs to

determine whether the VLAN identifier should be added to the data and sent. If the data is to go to a device that knows about VLAN implementation (VLAN-aware), the VLAN identifier is added to the data. If it is to go to a device that has no knowledge of VLAN implementation (VLAN-unaware), the bridge sends the data without the VLAN identifier. In order to understand how VLAN's work, we need to look at the types of VLAN's, the types of connections between devices on VLAN's, the filtering database which is used to send traffic to the correct VLAN, and tagging, a process used to identify the VLAN originating the data. VLAN Standard: IEEE 802.1Q Draft Standard There has been a recent move towards building a set of standards for VLAN products. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is currently working on a draft standard 802.1Q for VLAN's. Up to this point, products have been proprietary, implying that anyone wanting to install VLAN's would have to purchase all products from the same vendor. Once the standards have been written and vendors create products based on these standards, users will no longer be confined to purchasing products from a single vendor. The major vendors have supported these standards and are planning on releasing products based on them. It is anticipated that these standards will be ratified later this year. Back to Table of Contents

4.1 Types of VLAN's

VLAN membership can be classified by port, MAC address, and protocol type. 1) Layer 1 VLAN: Membership by Port Membership in a VLAN can be defined based on the ports that belong to the VLAN. For example, in a bridge with four ports, ports 1, 2, and 4 belong to VLAN 1 and port 3 belongs to VLAN 2 (see Figure3).
Port VLAN

Figure3: Assignment of ports to different VLAN's. The main disadvantage of this method is that it does not allow for user mobility. If a user moves to a different location away from the assigned bridge, the network manager must reconfigure the VLAN. 2) Layer 2 VLAN: Membership by MAC Address Here, membership in a VLAN is based on the MAC address of the workstation. The switch tracks the MAC addresses which belong to each VLAN (see Figure4). Since MAC addresses form a part of the workstation's network interface card, when a workstation is moved, no reconfiguration is needed to allow the workstation to remain in the same VLAN. This is unlike Layer 1 VLAN's where membership tables must be reconfigured.
MAC Address VLAN

1212354145121

2389234873743

3045834758445

5483573475843

Figure4: Assignment of MAC addresses to different VLAN's. The main problem with this method is that VLAN membership must be assigned initially. In networks with thousands of users, this is no easy task. Also, in environments where notebook PC's are used, the MAC address is associated with the docking station and not with the notebook PC. Consequently, when a notebook PC is moved to a different docking station, its VLAN membership must be reconfigured. 3) Layer 2 VLAN: Membership by Protocol Type

VLAN membership for Layer 2 VLAN's can also be based on the protocol type field found in the Layer 2 header (see Figure5).
Protocol VLAN

IP

IPX

Figure5: Assignment of protocols to different VLAN's. 4) Layer 3 VLAN: Membership by IP Subnet Address Membership is based on the Layer 3 header. The network IP subnet address can be used to classify VLAN membership (see Figure 6).
IP Subnet VLAN

23.2.24

26.21.35

Figure6: Assignment of IP subnet addresses to different VLAN's. Although VLAN membership is based on Layer 3 information, this has nothing to do with network routing and should not be confused with router functions. In this method, IP addresses are used only as a mapping to determine membership in VLAN's. No other processing of IP addresses is done. In Layer 3 VLAN's, users can move their workstations without reconfiguring their network addresses. The only problem is that it generally takes longer to forward packets using Layer 3 information than using MAC addresses. 5) Higher Layer VLAN's

It is also possible to define VLAN membership based on applications or service, or any combination thereof. For example, file transfer protocol (FTP) applications can be executed on one VLAN and telnet applications on another VLAN. The 802.1Q draft standard defines Layer 1 and Layer 2 VLAN's only. Protocol type based VLAN's and higher layer VLAN's have been allowed for, but are not defined in this standard. As a result, these VLAN's will remain proprietary. Back to Table of Contents

4.2 Types of Connections

Devices on a VLAN can be connected in three ways based on whether the connected devices are VLAN-aware or VLAN-unaware. Recall that a VLAN-aware device is one which understands VLAN memberships (i.e. which users belong to a VLAN) and VLAN formats. 1) Trunk Link All the devices connected to a trunk link, including workstations, must be VLAN-aware. All frames on a trunk link must have a special header attached. These special frames are called tagged frames (see Figure7).

Figure7: Trunk link between two VLAN-aware bridges. 2) Access Link An access link connects a VLAN-unaware device to the port of a VLAN-aware bridge. All frames on access links must be implicitly tagged (untagged) (see Figure8). The VLAN-unaware device can be a LAN segment with VLAN-unaware workstations or it can be a number of LAN segments containing VLAN-unaware devices (legacy LAN).

Figure 8: Access link between a VLAN-aware bridge and a VLAN-unaware device. 3) Hybrid Link This is a combination of the previous two links. This is a link where both VLAN-aware and VLAN-unaware devices are attached (see Figure9). A hybrid link can have both tagged and untagged frames, but allthe frames for a specific VLAN must be either tagged or untagged.

Hybrid link containing both VLAN-aware and VLAN-unaware devices. It must also be noted that the network can have a combination of all three types of links.

Practicle:-

VLAN

 SWITCH:

Switch>ENABLE Switch#VLAN DATABASE

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 2 NAME ADMIN VLAN 2 added: Name: ADMIN

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 3 NAME SALES VLAN 3 added: Name: SALES

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 4 NAME PURCHASE VLAN 4 added: Name: PURCHASE Switch(vlan)#EXIT APPLY completed. Exiting.... Switch#CONF T Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.

Switch(config)#INT F0/1 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 2 Switch(config-if)#exit

Switch(config)#int f0/2 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 2 Switch(config-if)#exit

Switch(config)#int f0/3 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3 Switch(config-if)#exit

Switch(config)#int f0/4 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3 Switch(config-if)#exit

Switch(config)#int f0/5 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 4 Switch(config-if)#exit

Switch(config)#int f0/6 Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 4 Switch(config-if)#exit Switch(config)#do write Building configuration... [OK] Switch(config)#

Practical:

SIMPLE CONFIGURATION

COMMANDS:

Router> Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.10.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)# Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT

Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#

CONECT TWO DIFFERENT NETWORKS USING DIFFERENT ROUTERS:

HERE INTER COMMUNICATION WILL DO WITHIN SAME NETWORK BUT COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TWO DIFFERE NETWORK WILL NOT DO. SO WE HAVE TO APPLY ROUTING PROTOCOLS TO LET THEM COMMUNICATE

COMMANDS:

ROUTER 1

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.138.12 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#

Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#

ROUTER 2

Router>ENAble Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.10.12 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000

Router(config-if)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOLS

UPDATE TIMER INVALID TIMER FLUSH TIMER HOLD DOWN 30 180 240 180

ROUTER 1

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.10.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#ROUTER RIP Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.10.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 Router(config-router)#DO WRITE Building configuration...

[OK] Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#

ROUTER 2

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.20.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)# Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#ROUTER RIP Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.20.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 Router(config-router)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Router(config-router)#EXIT

OSPF

ROUTER 1:

Router>ENable Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.1.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)#ROUTER OSPF 10 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#

 ROUTER 2:

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.2.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE

Router(config)#ROUTER OSPF 10 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Router(config)#

Router(config)#INT S0/1 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT

ROUTER 3

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.3.3 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 20.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)#ROUTER OSPF 10

Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.3.0 0.0.0.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 AREA 1 Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE

EIGRP:

ROUTER 1:

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 10.0.0.3 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)# Router(config)#ROUTER EIGRP 10 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

ROUTER 2:

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 20.0.0.3 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#

Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT

Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)#ROUTER EIGRP 10 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 Router(config-router)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

Router(config)#

Router(config)#INT S0/1 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#

ROUTER 3:

Router>ENABLE Router#CONF T Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 30.0.0.3 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#INT S0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.2.2 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)#EXIT

Router(config)#ROUTER EIGRP 10 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 Router(config-router)#NETWORK 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Router(config-router)#EXIT

Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

VTP:

Switch>ENABLE Switch#CONF T Switch(config)#EXIT Switch#

Switch#VLAN DATABASE Switch(vlan)#VLAN 2 NAME ADMIN VLAN 2 added: Name: ADMIN

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 3 NAME SALES VLAN 3 added: Name: SALES

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 4 NAME PURCHASE VLAN 4 added: Name: PURCHASE Switch(vlan)# Switch(vlan)#EXIT APPLY completed. Exiting....

Switch#CONF T Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. Switch(config)#INT F0/2 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 2 Switch(config-if)#EXIT

Switch(config)#INT F0/3 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 3 Switch(config-if)#EXIT

Switch(config)#INT F0/4 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 4 Switch(config-if)#EXIT Switch(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration...

[OK]

Switch(config)#INT F0/1 Switch(config-if)#EXIT Switch(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

SWITCH-2

Switch>ENABLE Switch#VLAN DATABASE Switch(vlan)#VLAN 2 NAME ADMIN VLAN 2 added: Name: ADMIN

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 3 NAME SALES VLAN 3 added: Name: SALES

Switch(vlan)#VLAN 4 NAME PURCHASE VLAN 4 added: Name: PURCHASE

Switch(vlan)#EXIT APPLY completed. Exiting....

Switch#CONF T Switch(config)#INT F0/2 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 2 Switch(config-if)#EXIT

Switch(config)#INT F0/3 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 3 Switch(config-if)#EXIT

Switch(config)#INT F0/4 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE ACCESS Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT ACCESS VLAN 4 Switch(config-if)#EXIT Switch(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK] Switch(config)#INT F0/1 Switch(config-if)#SWITCHPORT MODE TRUNK Switch(config-if)#EXIT

Switch(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration... [OK]

DHCP
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network configuration protocol for hosts on Internet Protocol (IP) networks. Computers that are connected to IP networks must be configured before they can communicate with other hosts. The most essential information needed is an IP address, and a default route and routing prefix. DHCP eliminates the manual task by a network administrator. It also provides a central database of devices that are connected to the network and eliminates duplicate resource assignments. In addition to IP addresses, DHCP also provides other configuration information, particularly the IP addresses of local caching DNS resolvers, network boot servers, or other service hosts. DHCP is used for IPv4 as well as IPv6. While both versions perform much the same purpose, the details of the protocol for IPv4 and IPv6 are sufficiently different that they may be considered separate protocols.

INTRODUCING ROAMING DHCP Recently, Networking began a pilot program called Roaming DHCP, which provides greater ease and freedom when connecting laptop comuters to SUNet from multiple locations on campus. At campus locations where Roaming DHCP has been activated, Stanford faculty, staff and students can plug their computers into a a network jack without having to obtain a distinct IP address to use on that particular local network. This can be extremely useful, for example, when using a laptop computer to make a presentation in another location, while

doing research in a library (Meyer Library is one of the first Roaming DHCP locations), or in offices where individuals are relocating often. On networks where Roaming DHCP is active, there is no need to search out the Local Network Administrator, get an IP address that will work in the new location, and manually reconfigure your computer's networking software. You can simply sit down, plug in and get on the network.

Router>ENAble Router#CONF T Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. Router(config)#INT F0/0 Router(config-if)#IP ADD 192.168.100.1 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#NO SHUT Router(config-if)# Router(config-if)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration...

[OK]

Router(config)#IP DHCP POOL ABCD Router(dhcp-config)#NETWORK 192.168.100.0 255.255.255.0 Router(dhcp-config)#DEFAULT Router(dhcp-config)#DEFAULT-router 192.168.100.1 Router(dhcp-config)#DNS Router(dhcp-config)#DNS-server 192.168.100.254 Router(dhcp-config)#EXIT Router(config)#DO WRITE Building configuration...