ACE 22 D

SPECIAL PROJECT FOR ACE 22 D

K r i z e l l e S. de l a C r u z

MARCH 12, 2012

Topics: Atomic Structure, Bonding and Aggregation of Atom Imperfection in Solid Crystalline Materials: Natures Better Alternative Than Perfection Amorphous and semi-crystalline materials Material Properties: The response of a solid material's structure to a stimulus
ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND AGGREGATION OF ATOM
Atomic Structure The atom is composed of cording to valence electron configuration. Atomic Bonding 2 types of forces which atom exerts:

Mechanical Properties of Solids Electrical Properties of Solids Thermal Properties of Solids Magnetic Properties of Solids

9 Chapters to go :)

Optical Properties and Superconductive Materials

Hydrogen bonding Von der Waals Bonding

Important equations and constants: Atomic mass = # of protons + # of Neutrons Avogadros Number = 6.022x10^(23) atom/molecule

Proton (E.Rutherford) Neutron (J. Chadwick) Electron ( JJ Thompson)

States of Matter: Gas Liquid Solid Plasma BEC Crystalline Structures: BCC (Body Centered Cubic HCP (Hexagonal Closed Packed) FCC (Facecebtered Cubic)

Attractive Repulsive

G = H - TS Fundamental material type: Ceramics, Metal, Polymer

Isotopesatoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but different atomic mass (A) Atomic Model

Primary solid bonds:

Ionic transfer of valence electron Covalent sharing of valence elevtron Metallic sea of electrons

Bohr Atomic model

assumes electrons to be particles orbiting the nucleus in discrete paths

Wave Mechanical particles are considered

Table of contents
Atomic Structure, bondi 1 Imperfection of Solieds Amorphous and semi.
Materialss Properties.. 2 3 4 5 6 8
9

wave-like and treat electron position in terms of a probability distribution

Electron energy states are specified in terms of quantum numbers that give rise to electron shells and sub shells. The electron configuration of an atom corresponds to the manner in which these shells and sub shells are filled with electrons in compliance with the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The periodic table of the elements is generated by arrangement of the various elements ac-

Secondary bondings:

IMPERFECTION IN SOLIDS

Enthalpy (H) - a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. Entropy (S) - is a thermodynamic property that can be used to determine the energy available for useful work in

a thermodynamic process. It includes the measure of the state of the systems disorder. Gibbs free energy (G) a thermodynamic potential that measures the useful of process-initiated work obtainable from a system under constant pressure (p) and tem-

Mechanical Properties.. Electrical Properties. Thermal Properties. Magnetic Properties... Optical Properties.

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S P E C I A L P R O J E C T F O R AC E 2 2 D
perature (T).

2 rules of nature within thermodynamics:

1.

Nature attempts to minimize the free energy of a system or the energy that must be expended to accomplish any process.

4 broad categories of crystalline imperfections: ...Point Imperfections No dimensions 3 different subtypes of point imperfections: -vacancy -interstitial solute -substitutional solute
In ionic crystals, defects can form on the condition of charge neutrality. Two possibilities are: Schottky defect combination of a cation vacancy and an anion vacancy Frenkel defect combination of a cation vacancy an an i nterstitial ...Line

Subtypes:

Edge dislocation Screw dislocation Mixed Dislocation

..Area

or Planar Imperfections 2D imperfections ..Volume Imperfections 3D Imperfection

2.

Nature prefers disorder rather than order. The measure of disorder is entropy.

Imperfections/dislocation One dimensional imperfection

Amorphous and semi-crystalline materials

etting Waaaaa, g als n ready for fi a hahahahah LOL ;) Mabuang nako.. +kriz11+

Two properties that have drawn commercial attention: -Dramatically enhanced resistance to corrosion -resilience Two popular ways to assess whether a solid material is crystalline or amorphous:

-x-ray diffraction -Plot a trace of the volume of molten material Homopolymer the resulting polymer when all of the repeat units (mers) are of the same type. Copolymer- when two or

more different mer units are combined structures Molecular shape- depend on the molecular weight of the chains. Linear polymers- consist of mer unites that are joined to end in long single chains. Such bond-

ing between chains further increases the strength of a polymer without breaking. Branched polymers- synthesized to have short lengths of the polymer chain connect to the backbone molecule through covalent bonds. Cross-linked polymers- adjacent linear molecules joined to one another by short segments of the polymer chain or by other tie atoms result in cross-linking. Network polymers- trifunctional mer units having 3 active covalent bonding sites such as epoxies then to harden dramatically and irreversibly once they are cross-linked with higher temperature. Stereoisomerism- when mer units are linked together

in the same order but differ in their spiral arrangement. Isotactic Sydiotactic Atactic

Geometric isomerism- the position of R side groups can differ within mers containing a double C to C bond.
polymer molecules can be characterized in terms of their size, shape, and structure, with the following relationships.

1.

Molecular size molecular weight/ degree of polymerization

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2. 3.

Molecular shape chain twisting, coiling, bending, and kinking and chain branching, cross-linking, or mer networking. Molecular structure manner in which structural mer units link together.

Classification of Polymers Thermoplastic polymers Elastomeric polymers Thermosetting polymers

Copolymers (1) random copolymers, (2) alternation copolymers, (3) block copolymers (4) grafted copolymers.

Macrostructure

Material Properties: The response of a solid material's structure to a stimulus

Properties are the materials structural to an external stimulus . Can be: physical or chemical Classification of Properties by Stimulus Mechanical Properties: Hardness, Impact toughness, resilience Electrical properties: Electrical conductivity and resistivity Magnetic properties: Permeability, Hysteresis Thermal properties: Specific heat, Melting point, Boiling point Optical properties: Reflectivity, absorptivity, color Acoustic Properties: Speed of sound, Acoustic absorption Chemical properties: pH, surface tension, reactivity Biological properties: Toxicity Radiological properties: Specific activity Environmental properties: Embodied energy, Embodied water

Effects of structure on properties of the three fundamental types of materials:

Macro scale
Metals - Graphite flakes, roll texture, foamed metals. Ceramics - Micro-cracks, stabilizing phases, fine aggregate. Polymers - Foamed polymers, Pre staining, spherulite size.

Micro scale

Metals phase morphology, Optimum precipitates, Ultrafine particulate. Ceramics Phase morphology, Grain size, Polymers Chain alignments, semi-crystallinity.

Nano Scale
Waaaaaa! Taas keu memorison!

Metals - Ultrafine grain size, metallic bonding, metalliccovalent bonding. Ceramics Ultrafine porosity, Ionic or covalent or mixed bonding. Polymers Chain entangling, polymerization of monomers, stereoisomers.

Atomic Scale

Metals Solvent atoms, substitutional solutes. Ceramics Cations/anions, Atoms Polymers Covalent bonding, Carbon atoms

Composite materials allow unique combinations of properties often not found in individual material types. Effect of Structure on Properties at different Levels:

Subatomic
Microstructure Defect structure Nanostructure

atomic scale nano scale micro scale macroscale

Macroscopic

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S P E C I A L P R O J E C T F O R AC E 2 2 D Intensive Property is a property of the system that does NOT depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system.(e.g. color, odor, magnetism, hardness, coefficient of thermal expansion) Extensive Property is a property of the system that depends on the size of the system or the amount of material in the system (e.g. mass, weight, volume, length, wear resistance) Manufacturing properties:
1. 2. 3. Machinability Castability

Mechanical Properties of Solids

The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical forces. Broad types of forces and load:

Ma me teria ls l ha ting p with 4. Weldability ve oin hig h (fr t act igh c s als h The degree of o ure ohe s )s anisotropy intre ive ngt creases as the dehs. gree of symmetry decreases.
Moldability

Mechanical properties: Strength Elastic Limit Proportional Limit Yield Strength True Fracture Strength Ductility Toughness Fatigue Ratio Loss Coefficient

Static ex. gravity Dynamic ex.collision

Engineers need to consider the following factors in their designs: (1)Functionality (2)Manufacturability (3)Cost (4)Aesthetics (5)Aerodynamics

Standard: ASTMS American Society for Testing Material Standards Apart from one listed above

Anisotropy Versus Isotropy Materials are said to be isotropic when their properties are the same in all three directions in a three dimensional (3D) coordinate system, those properties, and the materials in which they are found. But, there are two levels at which properties could be caused to be different namely at crystalline level in crystalline materials and micro-structural level. Smart materialsway of reacting in an intelligent way : Light Activated -Photochromic materials color change or opacity change Electric field activated - Electrochromic materials color or opacity change with voltage; energy saving windows Chemical activated -Halochromic materials undergo color changes with pH

Major Types Mechanical Properties Important to Engineers []Strength: to usually resist unacceptable temporary or permanent distortion and always resist fracture under static loads and forces []Impact strength: to resist sudden shock loads or impulsive forces without fracture []Fatigue strength: to resist cyclic loads or forces over the service lifetime required []Creep strength: to resist unacceptable permanent deformation over time under sustained loads or forces at elevated temperatures []Stiffness: to resist unacceptable elastic deflection or distortion, to absorb and store energy, or to resist buckling under compressive loads or forces []Hardness: to resist scratching, indentation, or penetration []Fracture toughness: to resist the sudden propagation of an embedded flaw under a sustained force

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Types of Loading Structural *Columns *Ties or Struts *Beams -Cantilevered -Two-point Supported *Shafts Tension or Compression Loading *Unidirectional or Uniaxial Loading *Bidirectional or Biaxial Loading *Tridirectional or Triaxial Loading *Combine Loading involve combinations of tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIE S OF SOLIDS

Electrical propertiesof materials are the response of materials to an electrical, magnetic, or electromagnetic, or electromagnetic field.
Electrical Properties:

Seebeck effect

Ohms L aw : V= IR coefficient and underlying Peltier and Thomson effects and coefficients that give rise to thermoelectricity.
Volt - Alessandro Volta Ohm- Georg Simon Ohm Ampere - Andre Marie Ampere Farad - Michael Faraday Joule - James Prescott Joule Superconductivity- Heike KamerlinghOnnes

Electrical conductivity electrical resistivity Permittivity dielectric constant dielectric strength Ferroelectricity Piezoelectricity total=t+i+d

People behind the concepts:

The parameter represents the materials electrical resistivity and is fundamental material electrical property of a material. The units of are ohm-meters (-m) Electrical Conductivity = 1/ Electrical Resistivity = 1/

wheret, t , and t represent the individual contributions to scattering from thermal vibrations, impurities, and deformation, respectively. This is known as Matthiessen's rule. There are two elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge. Pure compounds between Group IIIA and VA, and IIB and VIA elements form what are known as III-V and II-VI compound semiconductors, respectively. These materials exhibit semiconductivity in their pure state. They are known as intrinsic semiconductors because their semiconductive behavior is inherent in the pure material. When intrinsic semiconductivity is enhanced by carefully controlled microalloy additions called dopants, the resulting materials are called extrinsic semiconductors.

On the basis of its conductivity, a solid material may be classified as a metal, a semiconductor, or an insulator. Drift velocity is the average velocity of a particle

A hole has the same charge as an electron but with opposite sign. To increase the conductivity of a semiconductor without relying on temperature, dopants are added to intrinsic semiconductors to create extrinsic semiconductors.
Two fundamentally different types of dopants: / Two categories of Impurity 1. n-type - element with five or more valence electrons. - donor atoms Salamat sa analogy ni maam, maka memorize dali hehehhehe

exhaustion region

added to increase conduction bond majority carrier: electrons , minority carriers: holes penvalent impurities Phosphorus Antimony (Sb) Arsenic ( As) Bismuth

2. p-type- element with 3 or less valence electron - acceptor atom -

saturation region

added to increase # of holes in intrinsic silicon majority carrier: holes , minority carriers: electron trivalent impurities Gallium (G) Boron (B) Indium (In)

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S P E C I A L P R O J E C T F O R AC E 2 2 D *Diodedevice which can conduct current in only one direction *Dielectric material when a nonmetallic and electrically insulating material has or can be made to have a separation of positively and negatively charged ions, molecules or atomic dipoles. *Capacitor materials that allow electric energy to be stored in a device. * Capacitance : C = Q/V Where, V applied voltage (in volts) Q quantity of charge (in coulombs) * Dielectric constant how much charge Q can be stored depends on the area of the plate, the separation 1 between plates, and the strength of the dielectric for creating dipoles. * Permittivity 8.85 x 10 ^-12 units. EQUATIONS: C = A/l A area of the capacitors plates l separation between plates * Polarization: electronic polarization ionic polarization orientation polarization * Relaxation Frequency the reciprocal of the minimum reorientation time. * Electronic conduction when electrons are the major charge carrier, they are accelerated until limited by the frictional forces of scattering in the direction opposite the field, that is, from positive to negative or plus to minus polarity. * Ionic conduction being smaller and less massive, cations generally move more easily, but a balance of charge must be maintained at all times, there must be charge equilibrium. * Total conductivity the sum of the electronic and the ionic conductivity. Conductive polymers are of interest to engineers for their low densities and flexibility as well as for their relative ease of production. Thermoelectricity the direct conversion of temperature difference into an electric voltage and current or vice versa in circuits or junctions of two different materials Peltier Effect discovered by JeanCharles Peltier. - When a current is made to flow through an electric circuit consisting of two differ ent metals in series, connected by junc tions, heat is evolved at one junction and is absorbed at the other junction, cooling the former and heating the latter. Thomson effect was experimentally observed by William Thomson, also known as Lord Kelvin, in 1851. - involves the heating or cooling of a current carrying conductor within a pre vailing temperature gradient. - Positive Thomson effect current moves from the hotter to the cooler end .evolution of heat. - Negative Thomson effect absorption of heat. Seebeck effect occurs as valence electrons are excited into higher states, becoming free conduction electrons having a higher Fermi energy.

The Seebeck effect is the result of both the Peltier and the Thomson effect.

Thermal Properties of Solids

Why study the Thermal Properties of materials? Thermal Property is a response of a material to an application of heat. Importance of Thermal Properties to Engineers:

two other electrical phenomena:

1. Ferroelectric materials are those that may exhibit polarization spontaneously, that is, in the absence of any external electric field. 2. Piezoelectricity is the phenomenon whereby polarization is induced in a material by the imposition of external forces.

Achieve certain desire goals Tolerate certain environmental/service conditions Aid in material processing in product manufacturing

TMP Melting temperature (crystalline) Tg Glass transition temperature (amorphous)

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Critical Thermal Properties in the practical utilization of solids: Thermal Capacity Thermal Expansion Thermal Conductivity

ture for one mole of a material -Energy is stored as atomic vibrations

Modes of Thermal Energy assimilation:

Increase in vibration energy in atoms Excitation of free electrons Randomization of electronic spin

Thermal Capacity/ Heat Capacity (C)

-Thermal

C Heat capacity (J/mol-K) dQ Energy input (J/mol) dT Temperature change (K)

Two ways to measure heat capacity: 1. 2. Cp Heat capacity at constant pressure Cv Heat capacity at constant volume Usually Cp > Cv

ability to absorb heat

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-Quantitatively: represents the quantity of heat (energy) required to produce a unit rise in tempera-

Dependence of Heat Capacity on Temperature

Temperature dependence of a heat capacity:

cp (specific heat): (J/kg-K) Cp (heat capacity): (J/mol-K)

C
Heat Capacity:

= Constant volume ,T = Temperature

A = Temperature-independent constant

Thermal Conductivity
-The ability of a material to transport heat

Increases with temperature For solids it reaches a limiting value of 3R From atomic perspective: Energy is stored as atomic vibrations As temperature increases, the average energy of atomic vibrations increases

Thermal Expansion
Tendency of a material to change in size in response to a change in temperature

Fouriers Law q Heat flux (J/m2-s) k Thermal Conductivity (J/m-K-s)

Temperature Gradient Tfinal > Tinitial | - Linear coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K or 1/C) Atomic Perspective: Atomic vibrations and free electrons in hotter regions transport energy to cooler regions.

Atomic Perspective: Thermal Expansion

Asymmetric Curve: -Increase temperature -Increase in interatomic separation -Thermal expansion Symmetric Curve - Increase temperature - No increase in interatomic separation - No thermal expansion

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S P E C I A L P R O J E C T F O R AC E 2 2 D

Comparison from rank from highest to lowest magnitude Specific Heat: Comparison 1. Polymer 2. Ceramic 3. Metal
Cp(J/kg-K)

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Atoms net magnetic momentsum of the contributions of each of its electrons Associates of each electron:

Orbital magnetic moment Spin magnetic moment

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:t (10-6/C) 1. Polymer 2. Metal 3. Ceramic Thermal Conductivity: Comparison k (W/m-K) 1. Metal 2. Ceramic 3. Polymer

Magnetic field strength externally applied magnetic field Magnetic Induction/ Magnetic Flux Density represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to a magnetic field Permeability property of a specific medium through which the magnetic field passes and in which magnetic induction is measured Bohr magneton fundamental magnetic moment; B = 9.27 x 10-24 A-m2 Diamagnetism a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only while an external field is being applied. - results from changes in electron orbital motions that are induced by an external field. - nonmagnetic since magnetizations are relatively small and persist only while an applied field is present Paramagnetism magnetism that is permanent and does not require an external field - permanent atomic dipoles - nonmagnetic since magnetizations are relatively small and persist only while an applied field is present

Thermal Stresses
Occur due to:
Restrained thermal expansion/contraction Temperature gradients that lead to differential dimensional changes Thermal Stress = Et (T0 Tf) = EtT

Thermal Shock Resistance: Occurs due to:

non uniform heating/cooling

Thermal shock resistance: the ability of a

material to be rapidly cooled and not fracture

es titi uan of Q The magnetic field hips ons strength and flux density are lati e
H = NI/l Where: H = magnetic field strength N = number of spaces in a coil I = Current related according to B = H Where: B is magnetic induction, is permeability

B = 0H + 0M Where: 0 is permeability through a vacuum, M is Magnetization of the solid M = xmH xm = r 1 r relative permeability xm - Magnetic susceptibility

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Ferromagnetism - is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets Antiferromagnetism - type of magnetism in solids in which adjacent ions that behave as tiny magnets spontaneously align themselves at relatively low temperatures into opposite, or antiparallel, arrangements throughout the material so that it exhibits almost no gross external magnetism Ferrimagnetism - type of permanent magnetism that occurs in solids in which the magnetic fields associated with individual atoms spontaneously align themselves, some parallel, or in the same direction (as in ferromagnetism), and others generally antiparallel, or paired off in opposite directions (as in antiferromagnetism). Curie temperature the point in increasing temperature wherein he saturation magnetization gradually diminishes then stops abruptly to zero Hysteresis an effect which is produced when the magnetic induction field lags behind an applied magnetic field, or decreases at a lower rate Remanence/remanent flux density a residual magnetic induction field at zero magnetic field Coercivity applied in a direction opposite to that of the original field to reduce the magnetic induction field to zero Lodestone - a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite Ferrite - chemical compounds consisting of ceramic materials with iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) as their principal component Coercivity - the intensity of the applied magnetic field required to reduce the magnetization of that material to zero after the magnetization of the sample has been driven to saturation Soft Magnetic Material material with low coercivity Hard Magnetic Material material with high coercivity Magnetic Storage - the storage of data on a magnetized medium Superconductivity - a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature Type I superconductor while in superconductivity state, are completely diamagnetic Type II superconductor completely diamagnetic at low applied fields, and field exclusion is total

OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND SUPERCONDUCTIVE MATERIALS

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION -Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space. FORMS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION LIGHT HEAT RADAR RADIO WAVES X-RAYS electromagnetic spectrumthe range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. KINDS OF MATERIALS: 1. Transparent materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and reflection.

2. Translucent materials through which light is transmitted diffusely.

3.

Opaque materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light.

REMEMBER! energy states for the atom are discrete, so only Photons of frequencies can be absorbed by electron transitions. stimulated electron cannot remain in an excited state indefinitely; after a short time, it falls or decays back to its ground state.

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S P E C I A L P R O J E C T F O R AC E 2 2 D Reflection - The throwing back by a body or surface of light without absorbing it. Refractionthe change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. Transmission: The sum of reflectivity R, absorptivity A and transmitivityT, is unity. Also, each of the variables R, A and T depends on light wavelength. The White Light is comprised of many different colors. People behind optics: Isaac Newton John Locke Augustin-Jean Fresnel - inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses Thomas Young
RAINBOW

Luminescence - emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool. -classified according to the magnitude of the delay time between absorption and reemission events. Type of luminescence: Fluorescence Phosphorescence

Applications of luminescence:

Television Screen Fluorescent lamps Movie Special Effects

Photoconductivitytendency of a substance to conduct electricity to an extent that depends on the intensity of light-radiant energy - optical phenomenon in which a material becomes more electrically conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic radiation. Light-EmittingDiodes( LED ) - A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
OLED - Organic Light-emitting Diodes which have relatively low molecular weights. PLED - Polymer Light-emitting Diodes which have relatively high

When light passes from air into water (or glass), or water into air, different colors are refracted (bent) a different amount. Red is refracted the least, and violet the most. And so, the colors are separated into a spectrum, or rainbow. When raindrops are in the air, most light is either reflected off of the drops or goes right through them. If the light enters at certain angles, the light enters the drop, is reflected inside, and then exits the drop. Entering and exiting the drop, the colors are separated. You see red light come from a raindrop because that drop is at just the correct angle (about 42 degrees) between your eye and the sun so that the red light coming from the sun is refracted, reflected, and refracted again right into your eye. Blue light comes from another raindrop at a slightly different angle. All the raindrops that are at a certain angle between your eye the sun form a circle in the sky. That is why the rainbow is a circle. OPACITYthe degree to which light is not allowed to travel through transparentallows all light to pass through translucentallows some light to pass through LASER - Also know as Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

molecular-weights Applications of LED: Digital Clocks, Optical Mouse, Film Scanner

Electroluminescence - an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field. It is a conversion of electrical energy into light energy. The device that produces it is termed a light-emitting diode (LED).

basic point-to-point fiber optic transmission system elements: 1. The Optical Transmitter converts an electrical analog or digital signal into a corresponding optical signal.
source of the optical signal : light emitting diode and solid state laser diode

And off course + ;)

Plus our parents hehehehe

Thanks to maam pud

Sa classmates na ga update

Reporters who shared their knowledge and resources with us

Plus

Every member who reported in class

Special thanks to:

2. The Fiber Optic Cable 3. The Optical Receiver

wave guides for the optical signal by glass fibers converts the optical signal back into a replica of the original electrical signal.
Amazing! :)

Fiber Optic Systems Advantages over coaxial cables

support much higher data rates, Support greater distances ideal for transmission of serial digital data. immune to virtually all kinds of interference, including lightning, and will not conduct electricity. can come in direct contact with high voltage electrical equipment and power lines. Will not create ground loops of any kind. Since the only carrier in the fiber is light, there is no possibility of a spark from a broken fiber. Even in the most explosive of atmospheres, there is no fire hazard, and no danger of electrical shock to personnel repairing broken fibers. As the basic fiber is made of glass, it will not corrode and is unaffected by most chemicals. It can be buried directly in most kinds of soil or exposed to most corrosive atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern.

Yehey! Humana na jeid ko :) Study for exam :)