Motor Examination Questions

December 1998 Question 3. a. Describe the procedure for opening a bottom end bearing for inspection making reference to the positioning of the crank and the safety precautions to be observed. (6) b. State how the bearing clearance may be checked and adjusted when necessary. (4) c. State TWO defects which may be encountered during inspection of the bottom end bearing and crankpin giving possible causes of EACH. (4) d. State TWO checks which should be made before returning the engine to service following overhaul of the bottom end bearing. (2) a.

Engine shut down and secured. Turning gear engaged, cocks

open Carry out risk assessment. Check all lifting gear and tools within certification & free from defects. Permit to work obtained (crankcase an enclosed space). Clearance to turn engine obtained from bridge. Check that no one working elsewhere on engine or on or over shafting.

Turn engine to TDC Mount a chain block either side of the crankcase Screw eye bolts into threaded holes on either side of lower bearing half. Attach chain blocks, wire strops, and take up slack. Remove locking plates and slacken bearing stud nuts using hydraulic jacks Remove jacks and nuts. Using chain blocks lower the bearing cover, taking care not to damage the threads of the studs or the crankpin journal. Remove the bearing cover from the crankcase.

Fit four guide shoe retaining blocks in to the crosshead guides. This will prevent the crosshead and con rod from moving down the engine when it is turned. Wrap a strop around the bottom of the con rod and attach to a chain block mounted on the side of the engine

Turn the engine while pulling the the lower part of the con rod with the lifting tackle so that the crankpin turns out of the top half of the bearing. Take care that the crankpin does not foul on the top edge of the bearing.

The crankshaft can be turned to bottom dead centre and the top half of the bearing examined / removed.

b. To check the bottom end bearing clearance. Turn the engine to BDC. Isolate the turning gear. Climb down into crankpit and measure the clearance using feelers.

The clearance is measured on the bottom half of the bearing because the mass of the running gear acting downwards means that the top half of the bearing is sitting on the journal. On a large engine (960mm bore) this clearance can be 0.8mm

With modern shell bearings, the clearance is manufactured into the shells. When the clearance has reached a maximum as laid down in the instruction manual the bearing is changed. Thick wall shell bearings fitted on some engines have the clearance adjusted by fitting shims between the bearing halves. The shims are of equal thickness on both sides of the bearing housing. c. When inspecting the pin check for ovality. This is caused by the varying downward load on the con rod in both the power and compression stroke. If the ovality is more than 25% of the bearing clearance then there is a danger of the hydrodynamic lubrication being affected. Check the top bearing shell for evidence of the bearing material separating from the steel shell backing. This is caused by the high pressure oil supply from the crosshead acting on the back of the shell and deforming it. Shows by cracking of the white metal. d. Two checks before returning the engine to service following overhaul of bottom end: Oil flow through bearings; Start pump and ensure oil is reaching bottom end and flowing out of bearing sides.

Engine turns through at least one revolution with turning gear whilst observing ammeter for signs of excessive current. December 1998 Question 4.

With reference to engine remote control and monitoring systems:

a. Explain how the location and nature of a fault may be determined if the instrument panel in the control room is indicating a low reading for a cylinder exhaust; (7) b. state, with reasons, THREE sources of potential problems when choosing the location for transducers and signal transmission systems; (3) c. in the event of complete failure of the remote control and monitoring system state how you, as 2nd Engineer, would organise the engine room personnel to ensure safe manning of the engine room and list SIX main engine parameters which should be manually recorded. (6) a. If the instrument panel in the control room is giving a low reading for an exhaust temperature and the signal to this read out is the same signal which is used for the exhaust temperature averaging relay, when the deviation is large enough, the engine, if on bridge control, will go to automatic slow down. This is to prevent the remaining units from overloading. On acceptance of the alarm, the first item to check is the local temperature read out. On checking the local pyrometer and finding it indicating the same low temperature, then the fault will be with the injection and combustion of the fuel. After checking that the fuel rack setting is the same as the other units; - it could be seized at a lower setting or the adjustment vibrated to a lower setting because of loose lock nuts, then a power and draw card will help identify the problem which could be a seized or badly worn fuel pump, choked injectors or a damaged cam. Given that the pyrometer reading is reading the same as the other units (i.e. normal), and the unit is firing normally then the fault lies with the signal being sent back from the transducer to the control room. The engine can be switched to local control and the exhaust deviation slow down overridden while the problem is sorted out. The fault could lie with a) the transducer, which measures the temperature and converts it into an electrical signal proportional to the temperature; b) the cabling which carries the signal to the control room which could be broken or earthing; c) the circuit board in the alarm panel which changes the signal to a read out and operates the set point alarms. The transducer can be checked by fitting a spare. Like pyrometers they generally fit into pockets in the exhaust, and not directly into the pipe. Care must be exercised and precautions taken against burning. Likewise the card in the control room can be checked out by fitting a spare or by swapping with a card from another unit. If both card and transducer check out OK then the fault must lie with the cable. After disconnecting both ends, a continuity and insulation test can confirm the integrity of the cable.

Once the fault has been located and rectified then the engine can be returned to bridge control after switching the deviation alarm back on b. Three potential sources of problems when siting transducers etc. are: Vibration. Excessive vibration will shorten the life of the transducer and the electrical connections may fail due to fatigue. The human element. Siting transducers where they may be trodden on, used as handholds or knocked when carrying out overhauls should be avoided if possible. Interference. heat sources (reducing or increasing resistivity) and magnetic fields from alternators, high voltage cables and electric motors should be taken into account as these can influence the signal being transmitted. c. In the event of a failure of the control and monitoring systems, any UMS system if fitted immediately becomes unusable and the manning of the engine room will depend on the number of people available. The engineroom watchkeeper must be in possession of a basic watchkeping certificate. Most ships will carry a Second, Third and Fourth Engineer, and so a 4 on 8 off system can be implemented. This will help prevent fatigue which can be a problem if longer periods of watchkeeping are required. Also available will be a number of ratings and perhaps a fitter and an engine room storekeeper. It should be possible to arrange for at least one person to assist the engineer on watch, bearing in mind there could be a communication problem if different nationalities are employed. The engineer on watch, should as far as possible constantly monitor the pressures and temperatures from locally reading gauges and thermometers adjusting the engine load and cooler bypasses to suit. The assistant should be able to carry out the regular tasks such as draining air bottles, checking oil, water and tank levels as well as the more basic readings such as exhaust temperatures, scavenge air temperatures and reporting back to the watchkeeper. Six main engine parameters which should be manually recorded are:

LO Pressure LO Temperature CW outlet temp Piston Cooling Outlet temp Main Bearing Temperatures Scavenge Pressure

December 1999 Question 6. With reference to turbochargers: a. explain the term surging, stating how it occurs, its effect on the turbocharger and how it can be avoided; (5) b. describe how the operational performance of the turbocharger unit can be assessed; (5) c. describe the procedures for cleaning EACH of the following and explain the precautions which should be taken; i) suction air filter; (3) ii) turbine blades and nozzle ring. (3) a. Surging occurs when the air pressure being generated in the compressor diffuser falls below the delivery air pressure. this can be caused by too low an air mass flow or too high a pressure differential between inlet and delivery.

If allowed to continue without rectification it can damage the compressor wheel, turbine blades and silencer and cause bearings to overheat. It can be avoided by smooth changes in engine load and maintaining cleanliness of turbocharger turbine, inlet filters, air coolers and scavenge ports.

b. When the turbocharger has been overhauled and has clean, correctly profiled nozzle ring, blading and compressor rotor and is operated with a clean inlet filter, it will be operating with maximum efficiency. Readings recorded in the engine log will include pressure drop across the filter (using a manometer), turbocharger rpm, inlet temperature to turbocharger, scavenge pressure and exhaust temperatures. After a period of use, deposits will build up on the nozzles and blading (sodium and vanadium compounds, ash, carbon deposits). This alters the profile geometry of the nozzles and blades, changing the velocity pattern of the exhaust gas passing through them. Efficiency of the turbine will drop and this will be indicated by a drop in turbine speed combined with a rise in the inlet temperature of the exhaust gas to the turbine (caused by the kinetic energy of the gas being converted into heat energy). Because the speed of the turbine has dropped, the amount of air delivered will be reduced. The air inlet manifold or scavenge pressure will drop, and because of the reduced air delivery, the exhaust temperature will rise (poor combustion, exacerbating the problem). If the air filter becomes blocked, rise in differential pressure across the filter will be noted. Air delivery will be reduced and this will lead to poor combustion and

contamination of the turbine. A dirty compressor wheel will also cause the delivery of air to be reduced. All of the above faults will affect the matching of turbocharger to engine and may cause surging. By observing the change in operating parameters mentioned above, performance of the turbocharger can be assessed and action taken to restore the turbocharger to optimum performance.

c. i) The suction air filter/silencer can be removed in sections when the engine is stopped. They can be effectively cleaned by placing them in a tank and soaking using a solvent or chemical solution. Care must be taken to observe manufacturers recommendations, as some chemicals may attack the filter material. As, when using any chemical, note must be taken of the COSHH sheet for the substance, regarding its use, dangers, and action to be taken in the event of spillage or ingestion. Goggles and protective clothing to be worn. After soaking, rinsing in fresh water and draining, the filters are left to dry before refitting to the engine. ii) The nozzle ring and turbine can be cleaned in service by either water washing or dry cleaning using crushed shells or carbon granules blown in to the turbocharger using compressed air. The dry cleaning is carried out at full speed; The water washing at reduced speed. To water wash the turbine, the speed is reduced until the inlet temp is below 430C to prevent excessive thermal shocking of the casing, nozzles and blades. Boost pressure must be high enough to seal labyrinth glands (0.3 bar). The drain from the TC casing is opened, proved clear, and the water connection made through a reducing valve. Water is admitted through the cleaning nozzles and removes the deposits by thermal shocking. The drain should be observed. When running clear the water is shut off. When no more water flows through the drain, the engine must be run for about 15 minutes at low load to allow the turbocharger to dry out. The drain is shut and the load on the engine gradually

increased while watching carefully for any sign of vibration. July 2001 Question 3. With reference to a main engine piston assembly: a. describe the procedure for preparing a piston assembly for survey; (6) b. state, with reasons, the nature and location of faults which might be found during inspection of the piston assembly; (4) c. describe the procedure for checking the piston crown profile and piston ring grooves. (6) a. The piston and rod are removed from the engine and placed on the piston cradle, the rod passing through special cut outs in the engine platforms. Remove piston rings from grooves using the ring expander tool to prevent deformation of the piston rings. Mark the rings as they are removed, to ensure correct refitting. Remove deposits from piston topland and crown using a wire brush and scraper. Clean out piston ring grooves. Separate piston crown from skirt to expose cooling space. Remove any build up of deposits in cooling space in crown. (this may require special shotblasting techniques.) If stuffing box has been removed with rod, dissemble and clean ready for inspection of rings and springs. If not removed with piston and rod, then remove separately and strip down. Ensure all parts are cleaned and available for the surveyor to inspect. (including all fastening devices) b. Burning of piston crown: caused by erosion of the high temperature swirling gases. Overloading, poor fuel quality and poor piston cooling will increase the surface temperature of the crown making erosion of the surface more severe. In extreme cases high temperature corrosion can also occur. Cracking of piston crown: caused by poor cooling, consequential overheating leading to

thermal stressing, combined perhaps with thinning of crown due to burning. use of crack detection spray may be advisable Excessive wear of piston ring grooves, and wearing away of chrome plating. Ridges forming in grooves which may cause rings to jam, leading to breakage. Evidence of scuffing or abrasion on ring rubbing surfaces. confirmed by inspection of liner may show evidence of poor cylinder lubrication or impurities in air or fuel. Excessive wear on piston skirt: may suggest misalignment or excessive clearance at crossshead; excessive wear of stuffing box rings and ovality of piston rod will confirm. Fouling of piston cooling space: can be caused by overheating, lack of treatment (water cooling), deterioration of lubricating oil (oil cooling) Scoring of piston rod: caused by worn/damaged stuffing box rings. c.

The profile gauge is placed over the piston crown as shown. A feeler is used to measure the amount of material "burnt away" from the crown.

The ring groove wear is checked by placing a new ring in the groove and measuring the axial clearance. If the groove is chrome plated then check the plating has not worn away. Check undercut is still present and that groove is square to stop the ring tilting and acting to scrape the oil from the liner surface.

December 1999 Question 7 a. Describe the procedure for taking crankshaft deflections, explaining all precautions that must be observed. (5) b. Explain what deflection readings actually mean and suggest the action which must be taken should readings be outside values recommended by the engine manufacturer. (5) c. Describe a safe procedure for checking weardown at a bearing. (6) a. Before taking a set of crankcase deflections observe the following precautions: Carry out a risk assessment procedure. Most companies now have this preloaded on a computer in the form of a checklist. It will include: Permission granted to immobilise engine. Starting air shut off and locked off. Open the indicator cocks. Engine cooled down sufficiently to allow LO pumps to be shut down. On large engines where it is possible to climb inside the crankcase or to put head and shoulders inside while working, it should be treated as an enclosed space, and a permit to work is required. Ensure that no-one else is working elsewhere on the engine (e.g. cleaning the scavenge space). Check that no-one is working in the vicinity of the shafting system, and that the bridge have confirmed that it is OK to turn the engine. If the deflections are being taken after working on the engine ensure that all tools and lifting gear are removed from the engine. Only the person in charge of the operation is to operate the turning gear.

Deflections are taken by placing a dial indicator or remote reading gauge into a pop marked position between the two crankwebs of a crankshaft throw. The engine is turned to just after bottom dead centre, and the gauge is zeroed. The engine is then turned, and the gauge reading taken when the engine is 90 before TDC, TDC, 90 after TDC and then lastly just before BDC. (Note: on some engines, the manufacturer may recommend turning the engine astern to take the readings). It is normal practice to turn the engine to just after the gauge position and then reverse the turning gear to negate the lifting effect of the turning gear. It is important that the

crankshaft journals are sitting on the bottom bearing shells when taking the readings. This can be checked using feeler gauges. The readings are recorded on a chart as shown. Unit No (A) BDC (1) (B) Port (C) TDC (D) Stbd (E) BDC (2) (F) A/2 + E/2 C-F B-D The vertical deflection is the reading at TDC minus the average of the two BDC readings. The horizontal deflection is the Port reading minus the Starboard reading. 1 2 3 4

b. If a crankthrow is supported between two bearings of equal height, then the weight of the running gear will open and close the crankwebs as shown. Therefore if the bearings are of equal height and perfectly aligned, the crankwebs will open and close as the engine is turned. When the engine is first installed in the ship and the ship is afloat, the alignment of the bearings is checked and a set of deflection readings taken. These are recorded in the engine documentation. If the bearings are out of alignment either horizontally or vertically, then these deflections will alter as the crankshaft bends to sit down in the bearings. If this bending becomes excessive (indicated by excessive deflections) then operating the engine may overstress the crankshaft leading to a fatigue failure. By comparing the deflections obtained with the original

readings, it can be determined whether this bending is within acceptable limits. If the deflections are found to be outside the laid down parameters, then the first thing to do is to check that the readings taken were correct by re taking them. If the readings have been taken after work on the main bearings (i.e fitting new bearings), then the job must be re-examined. Perhaps the wrong type of shell has been fitted. The most obvious cause of excessive deflections is uneven bearing weardown. However, incorrect cargo loading, differential hull temperature, collision, grounding and fretted chocks can all cause distortion of the engine bedplate and thus bearing misalignment. If deflections are excessive, then ensure the cause is not one of the easily rectifiable causes (i.e. incorrect loading of cargo). Next, the bearing wear down must be checked., and if found to be uneven, rectified. If these are OK then it may be due to one of the more severe reasons. It is at this point that consultation with the engine builder and superintendancy may be required. It may be possible to operate the engine at reduced load until the cause can be more fully analysed and steps to rectify the problem investigated. c) Before undertaking any work on the engine a risk assessment must be undertaken and precautions as laid down in a) followed. Measurement of wear down may involve lifting the bearing cover, if this is the case then all lifting gear, strops, shackles etc. must be examined for defects, and checked they are within certification. If the bearing cover is to be removed, then the procedure outlined is for a large B&W engine, but the procedure would be along similar lines for any large marine diesel engine. Take off the lube oil supply pipe to the main bearing. Mount the hydraulic jacks and loosen the cover nuts. Turn the engine so that the crankthrow is pointing to the opposite side of the engine. Remove the nuts and washers, bolt on the lifting tool and lift the bearing cover(s) using an external chain block and a pulley block bolted on the A frame. Remove the top half of the bearing. Remove any shims fitted between the two bearing halves, making note of their thickness taking care not to mix them up.

Once the covers have been removed do not turn the engine unless stops are fitted to prevent turning out the bottom bearing shells. Place the bridge gauge over the shaft and measure the clearance between the gauge and shaft. Compare this reading with the testbed readings.

On some engines the wear down can be checked by removing the LO supply pipe and using a special depth gauge referenced from the transverse girder which fits through the oil hole onto the top of the crankshaft journal.

December 2000 Question 5 With reference to medium speed trunk piston engines: a. explain why multiple air inlet and exhaust valves are often fitted; (4) b. explain the purpose of an anti-polishing ring; (4) c. describe how effective piston cooling is provided (4) d. describe the bottom end arrangement of a vee-type engine. (4) a.

Medium speed engines used in marine applications normally incorporate 2 inlet and exhaust valves per cylinder. Reasons: Two inlet and two exhaust valves allow a more symmetrical design. More efficient gas exchange process. The required area of a single valve (for inlet and exhaust) would be of a size which would lead to weakening of the cylinder head casting. Springs and the operating mechanism can be of more moderate proportions, reducing the inertia of the parts and the power demand from the engine. While the exhaust valves are closed, the lid or head is being cooled due to heat transfer to the water cooled seat. The bigger the valve, the less the cooling effect. b. In a diesel engine burning residual fuel, a build up of carbon on the piston topland (the area between the top ring and the top of the piston crown) can be subject to a build up of carbon. This build up of carbon will have the effect of polishing the bore of the liner, reducing its oil retention capabilities and increasing wear. To prevent this happening, the liner can be fitted with a replaceable anti polishing ring. This is a steel ring which fits in the top of the liner and is of smaller diameter than the liner, but slightly larger than the piston crown. As the piston passes over TDC the ring removes any build up of carbon. A variation on this theme is used in the ZA40 engine where a thread is machined in the top of the liner. This encourages a build up of carbon on the liner circumference above the top ring position at TDC. This build up of carbon removes the carbon from the piston topland.

c. The piston on an engine must be efficiently cooled to maintain the strength of the material, prevent corrosion, erosion and burning, reduce the thermal stresses set up within the material and to limit thermal expansion with a corresponding reduction in running clearances. On a medium speed trunk piston engine, the system oil is used as the cooling medium. The oil passes from the crankpin journal up the con rod to the piston pin. From here the oil is used to cool the piston crown. There are several methods of achieving this. On some engines the oil passes through a cast in cooling coil before being returned to the crankcase. A simple method is just to direct a jet of oil onto the underside of the piston crown. A more positive method of distributing the oil up to the piston crown on a large bore medium speed engine is to use a spring loaded oil catcher as shown opposite. The oil travels round a groove in the piston pin, and then through a drilling, where the oil catcher ensures the oil is fed up to the underside of the crown throughout the whole of the con rod swing. Oil passes through drillings to the circumferential space as shown before returning to the crankcase. Oil flow/return temperature can be monitored, although this isn't always undertaken on these engines.

d) The bottom end of a vee engine can be one of the following types:

side by side Articulated (master and slave) forked

The side by side means that the opposite cylinder banks are offset by the width of the bottom end bearing. It means a slightly longer engine, with

corresponding longer crankpin journals. However access is not restrictive, and spares are the same for both sides. With the articulated or forked arrangement, the cylinders are diametrically opposite. This gives the shortest possible engine, but access into the crankcase can be awkward, and because the con rods and bearings are different for both banks of cylinders, then this leads to increased costs because of the extra spares required.

July 2001 Question 4. With reference to diesel engine crankcase oil: a. explain why oil employed in the crankcase of a trunk piston engine differs in its properties from that employed in the crankcase of a crosshead engine; (5) b. explain the effects of bacterial attack on crankcase oil, describing the possible consequences of such an attack on engine parts; (5) c. if bacterial attack of the crankcase oil is detected, explain the action which must be taken to prevent engine damage and subsequent attack. (6) a. The table below indicates the differences in the crankcase oil in a crosshead engine and a trunk piston engine designed to burn residual fuel oil: Property SAE No Viscosity cSt 40C, 100C TBN Crosshead engine 30 108, 11.8 5.3 Trunk piston engine 40 142, 14.5 50

Sulphated ash

0.73

6.5

The oil in a crosshead engine crankcase has to cool and lubricate the bearings, camshaft drive and camshaft, and cool the pistons. The oil in a trunk piston engine has to achieve all of the above and lubricate the piston in the liner and combat the acids formed by the combustion of the fuel as well as deal with the products of combustion which tend to contaminate the oil. The oil for a trunk piston engine has a higher viscosity to be able to achieve cylinder lubrication at the high temperatures found at the liner wall (190C). However the viscosity must not be so high as to prevent an adequate flow through the bearings thus interfering with the cooling. The Total Base Number of the oil is also a great deal higher. This number is indicative of the oils ability to neutralise the strong acids formed mainly by combustion of the sulphur in the fuel, which would otherwise cause corrosion in the liner and bearings. The TBN along with the sulphated ash content also indicates the presence of additives in the oil which are at a higher level in the trunk piston engine. These additives include detergents which prevent sludge , carbon and varnish deposits, dispersants which keep these particles in suspension, and anti oxidants which prevent oxidation of the oil, which would increase its viscosity, and acidity leading to attack of the bearings and sludge and varnish deposits. b. Lubricating oils which have slight water contamination are potential breeding grounds for fungi and bacteria. The micro-organisms flourish in the hydrocarbon/water interface, living in the water and feeding on the hydrocarbons. The fungus, mould and yeast can form dense fungal 'mats' which break up and move through the system eventually causing filter blockages and reduction in oil flow through the bearings, leading to overheating. The fungi also release organic acids, and produce a highly oxygenated environment which can favour electrolytic attack of metals. The bacteria can also consume rubber gaskets, O-rings and hoses. The food cycle releases more water into the system, which in turn favours an increase in fungal growth. Thus it is self-perpetuating. Detected by an increase in viscosity, and a strong smell of hydrogen sulphide (rotten eggs). c. Crankcase oils may contain Bactericides to prevent the initial contamination. However, if contamination has occurred then the solution is to completely empty the system, and treat the whole system with a bactericide. The system must then be flushed through and refilled with new oil. Filters must be cleaned and treated, and flexible hoses may need replacing.

Because the attack can only take place in the presence of water, it is important to eliminate water contamination of the system in the first place. Ensure that the purifier is operating correctly with correct gravity disk, that there is no ingress of water from leaking cylinder liners (trunk piston engines) piston cooling telescopics ( crosshead engines with water cooled pistons) or crankcase and drain tank breathers. July 2001 Question 8. a. Describe the inspection of a partial rechocking of a main engine bedplate. (6) b. Explain why transverse top bracing is sometimes fitted to crosshead engines. (4) c. Describe, with the aid of sketches, a top brace fitted to an engine and explain how it is checked. (6) a. An engine may need to be partially rechocked if fretting or damage to the chocks and subsequent misalignment has occurred due to loose or broken holding down bolts. Generally a rechocking will involve the use of an epoxy material even if the original chocks were cast iron. The engine will be raised on jacks or wedges until the alignment is correct. The area of chocking will be calculated based on the loading, and moulds will be fabricated, holes for holding down bolts will be plugged prior to pouring the resin. After the epoxy has set, the jacks/wedges will be removed, and holding down bolts fitted and tightened down to the correct settings. When inspecting, ensure that the bolts have been stretched the correct distance using the hydraulic jacks (i.e. the correct hydraulic pressure), and the nuts are correctly seated by using a feeler gauge. Ensure that there is no sign of the resin cracking or breaking. Because the epoxy settles in service and will compress slightly under the tightening of the holding down bolts, it is essential to check the alignment of the crankshaft in the bedplate, by taking a set of deflection readings. Excessive misalignment will cause bending of the crankshaft which could result in breakage.

b. Top bracing is fitted to some 2 stroke crosshead engines. Sideways vibration or rocking due to reaction forces at the crosshead and main bearings may cause damage to turbochargers and attached pipework as well as causing vibration in the engine room and through the ships structure. Two modes of vibration known as H or X modes can exist.

Mode and amplitude of vibration will depend on number of cylinders and size and stiffness of engine structure. Fitted between the upper gallery of the main engine and a very stiff location on the ships side, the bracings act as detuners, increasing the natural frequency of the system, so that resonance occurs above the engine running speed. c.

The sketch shows a plan view of a friction type brace as fitted to slow speed 2 stroke engines. It relies on the friction between the pads to brace the engine at the top so that the resonances with critical orders are above the speed range of the engine. Because it relies on the frictional grip to work correctly, the tension on the hydraulic bolts must be regularly checked. Also inspect the structure for evidence of cracking especially around the welds. July 1998 Question 2. a. State with reasons, the purpose of an engine diaphragm gland. (3) b. Explain how it can be determined if any of the ring sets in a diaphragm gland are defective. (3) c. Sketch a diaphragm gland and describe the procedure for overhauling and adjusting such a gland. (10) a. The scavenge air space, liner and piston are separated from the crankcase in a two stroke crosshead engine by the diaphragm plate. Because the piston rod has to pass through an aperture in the diaphragm plate, whilst maintaining the integrity of the gas tight division, a stuffing box is bolted to the diaphragm plate through which the piston rod passes. Spring loaded rings within the stuffing box are in contact with the piston rod, scraping oil

from the piston rod as it moves upwards, thus preventing contamination of the scavenge space with L.O., and also preventing scavenge air from leaking into the crankcase along with used contaminated cylinder oil which is scraped off the rod as it moves downwards. If the LO was allowed to contaminate the scavenge space, not only would this be costly in terms of consumption but there would be an increased risk of scavenge fire. Contamination of the crankcase by used cylinder oil causes the LO to increase in viscosity with resultant bearing damage and overheating due to calcium deposits and the oil flow through the bearings being reduced. Coking can also occur in the oil cooled piston. Scavenge air leaking into the crankcase increases the risk of a crankcase explosion being severe by supplying the oxygen required.

b. As the piston rod rises through the diaphragm gland the majority of the oil clinging to the rod is scraped off by the first set of scraper rings. This oil is returned via drillings to the crankcase. any oil that remains is removed by the next set of sealing rings. This oil is directed through a drain and led outside the engine to a telltale before being led via a tun dish to a drain tank. This second set of rings also remove any contaminated cylinder oil from the piston rod which is not removed by the upper scraper ring when the piston rod is moving downwards. If the first set of scraper rings is defective, the amount of oil being removed by the sealing rings will increase and this oil will be seen flowing to the tun dish. Likewise if the top scraper ring is worn, then scavenge air will leak out of the tell tale. In the event that all rings are defective the scavenge space will become fouled, excessive oil may leak out of the scavenge drains, and the crankcase pressure will rise. Regular maintenance of the diaphragm gland should prevent this happening.

c.

The sketch opposite illustrates a half section through a piston rod diaphragm gland, showing the rings and drainage arrangement.

Overhaul of the gland can be carried out in the engine or when the piston is removed for maintenance. Unbolted from the diaphragm the casing can be supported on a plate which clamps round the piston rod. The casing can be split into its two halves by removing the clamping bolts to reveal the rings and the garter springs. Taking care to keep the individual ring segments together in their respective sets, remove the garter springs and check the spring length and tension, comparing it with the readings given in the engine manual. The ring segments are held together around the piston rod and the butt clearance checked. If the butt clearance is close to or below the minimum then the ring set must be renewed, or new lamellae fitted. When fitting new rings, check the axial clearance in the grooves, and take off any sharp edges by wrapping a piece of emery around the piston rod and rubbing the ring segments up and down against the emery. Check that all drain holes are clear, and clean all parts in paraffin before reasssembly. Ring butts are staggered down the length of the stuffing box.

July 1998 Question 4. With reference to main engine camshaft chain drives: a. b. c. d. a. Correct tension of the camshaft chain drive is essential if excessive vibration and wear are to be avoided. Tight chains will cause high loads and excessive bearing wear. Slack chains will cause increased cyclic stressing leading to possible fatigue failure, excessive wear on the wheel teeth, beating off the rubber linings on the guide bars, and in the worst case destroy the lube oil sprayers. Lack of lubrication and rubbing against the metal guide bars have caused crankcase explosions. b. describe why the correct tension is required; (2) state how correct tension is checked; (3) state how tension is adjusted; (3) describe the procedure for inspecting a chain drive system stating the faults which might be encountered. (8)

The tension can be checked by turning the engine in the direction indicated opposite, so that the slack side of the chain is on the longest span. Transverse play in the chain(s) is then measured and should be between and 1 link.

c.

To adjust the tension of the chain(s), the engine is now turned so that the slack side of the chain is now on the chain tightening wheel side. The effective length of the chain tightening bolt is now altered by turning the adjustment nuts (after locking washers and locknuts have been loosened). After adjustment re check the tension. On later engines the tension is set by compressing a spring on the tightening bolt a specified distance, which will give the chain the required tension. Latest engines incorporate a hydraulically damped automatic tensioning device. The weight of the chain tightening arm provides the correct chain tension. The amount that the tensioning device has moved is indicated by a pointer visible from outside the chaincase. It should be noted that elongation of the chain causes the camshaft timing to be affected, which should also be checked. d. Chaincase inspections should be carried out at regular intervals as laid down by the engine builder to monitor wear on the chain, teeth and wheel bearings. Before entering the chaincase to carry out an inspection, a risk assessment should be carried out and a permit to work obtained. Because the engine will be turned, check that no one else is working elsewhere on the engine or shafting system, and obtain clearance from the bridge. Check the chain(s) for elongation which is limited to 1% of the original length. This is done by measuring the length of 10 links on the tightened side of the chain, and comparing the measurement with the original length.

The sprocket wheel teeth must be examined for wear. This can be gauged as shown. Excessive wear of the teeth is caused by slack chains. Maximum wear depends on chain size, but is about 3.5mm for a large chain. The sprockets must also be checked for bright marks on the sides of the teeth which may indicate misalignment of the chain wheels. Check the bearings on the idler, tensioning, and moment balancer wheels. Check the guide bars to make sure that the rubber linings are secure and that there is no evidence of beating by the chain. Examine the lube oil sprayers to ensure the nozzles are correctly aligned and not damaged. Check also that the pipework leading to the nozzles is sound and in place. A check of the lub oil distribution can be carried out on completion of the inspection by running the LO pumps. Check the whole length of the chain(s), turning the engine as necessary. The rollers and side plates must be checked for possible fatigue cracks. Check that the chain rollers can run freely and that the chain links can move freely on the bushing and pin. Any seized or damaged links must be replaced, together with matching links on the second chain if fitted. Ensure that all bolts and fixing devices are tight and that locking devices where fitted are in place and free from defects. July 1999 Question 2. a. Sketch and describe a rotating piston arrangement showing how rotation of the piston is achieved. (10) b. Explain the advantages of a rotating piston compared with conventional trunk piston arrangements. (6) a.

The rotating piston has an alloy steel crown to maintain strength and resist corrosion at high temperatures and a cast iron skirt to guide the piston and transmit the side thrust to the liner. Three chrome plated ring grooves are machined into the crown and an oil control ring groove is machined into the bottom of the skirt. Instead of a conventional piston pin arrangement the top end of the con rod is machined to a spherical shape. This locates in a spherical bearing, which comprises of an upper and lower half as shown. A spring loaded ratchet ring is bolted to the piston skirt. The ratchet has an odd number of teeth. Two spring loaded pawls located in the top of the con rod engage alternately with the ratchet ring as the con rod swings. This imparts a rotary motion to the piston (about 9rpm). Oil is supplied up the centre of the con rod to lubricate the spherical bearing and ratchet assembly, and provide cooling to the crown. Cooling is effected by the "cocktail shaker" method and the oil returned to the crankcase through a drain bores in the piston. b. Advantages of the rotating piston are:

Each stroke of the piston presents a newly wetted portion of the skirt to the side of the liner absorbing the thrust, reducing wear. The piston rings rotate with the piston, thus any blow by through the ring gap is not blowing onto the same portion of the liner, avoiding localised overheating and burning of the LO film. The load on the spherical bearing is uniform, eliminating distortion of the piston. The piston is symmetrical in shape, therefore expansion is uniform; The piston can be manufactured with smaller clearances, avoiding piston slap at low loads.

July 1999 Question 3. a. Describe, with the aid of sketches, how a cylinder liner is calibrated. (6) b. State, with reasons, the positions on the liner at which the calibration readings should be taken (3) c. State how liner calibration readings should be recorded. (3) d. State, with reasons, the maximum liner wear you, as 2nd engineer officer, should be prepared to accept under normal circumstances. (3) a.

A cylinder liner is calibrated by measuring the internal diameter using a micrometer gauge. So that the measurements can be directly compared to previous readings and a wear rate calculated, the position of the measurements is standardised by using a gauging point template, which in practice is a piece of flat bar hung over the side of the liner. The bar has holes drilled in it at the appropriate gauging points. Usually gauged when the piston is withdrawn from the liner for overhaul, the diameter is measured both in the fore and aft and athwartships direction.

The temperature of the liner should be recorded to allow for any compensation to be made for expansion, as are the running hours for the liner at time of measurement. The micrometer should be at the same temperature as the liner. Any abnormalities, such as evidence of scoring or scuffing should be recorded, and corrective action taken. b. As seen from the sketch above, the wear is at a maximum around the position of the top piston ring at TDC. This is where lubrication is the most difficult due to high temperature and pressure exerted on the back of the ring is the highest. Wear rate decreases down the liner as conditions becomes less arduous and an oil film is built up. There is an increase in the wear rate as the rings pass over the scavenge port bars in a two stroke engine because of the decreased surface area and because the piston is slowing down. The points at which gauging takes place reflects these different wear rates. As shown on the diagram, there are

several gauging points close together at the top of the liner and then further down the points are regularly spaced out further apart. c. The liner measurements should be recorded in tabular form giving; cylinder number, running hours, position in liner, direction (fore & aft or athwartships), present reading, previous reading, hours since previous reading and wear rate per 1000 hours. d. A maximum acceptable wear rate on a large two stroke slow speed liner would be 0.1mm/1000 hours with maximum wear of 0.8% of original diameter. This gives a minimum expected life of about 8-10 years on an engine operating 8000 hours/year. On a four stroke medium speed engine, the wear rate is less, as is the max wear allowance which is about 0.4% of original diameter. However, the problem with medium speed liner wear is more likely to be ovality and here the allowance is about 0.1% of original diameter. Once a liner has worn beyond these limits, piston ring sealing becomes a problem leading to blowby, accelerated wear, scavenge fires (2 strokes) and crankcase explosions (4 stroke trunk piston engines) July 1999 Question 4. a. Sketch and describe a device employed for continuous monitoring of the viscosity of heavy fuel oil being supplied to a main engine (8) b. Explain how the system employing the device described in Q.4(a) operates to adjust the fuel viscosity. (6) c. In the event of the monitoring and control system described in Q.4(a) becoming inoperative explain how the viscosity of the fuel may be controlled. (3) a.

The sketch shows the operating principle of a viscosense, a device to measure and control the viscosity of heavy fuel oil. The sensor is suspended in the oil being measured by screwing the device into a tapped hole in a stub pipe. The system uses the principle that the damping of a vibration signal is proportional to the square root of the viscosity. Not affected by vibrations or pressure and flow fluctuations. No moving parts to wear out. The sensor comprises of a stainless steel pendulum attached to a base plate via a torsion tube. Two piezo elements are driven by an alternating signal causing the pendulum to vibrate. A second set of elements sense the torsional vibration via a feedback, and a processor measures the phase difference between the transmitted and received signals. This phase difference is processed which results in a value proportional to the square root of the fuel oil's viscosity. b. The viscosity of a fuel is dependant on the temperature; The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity. The output signal from the viscosity measuring device is an electrical signal between 4 and 20 mA. This electrical signal is used to control a motorised valve which allows the steam or thermal oil to the fuel oil heater. As the viscosity of the fuel increases so the electrical signal increases. The heater temperature control valve opens further. If the viscosity falls then the signal decreases and the heater temperature control valve closes. c.

If the viscosity measuring device becomes inoperative, arrangements can be made to control the fuel temperature manually. The device can be bypassed, and then the heater control valve operated manually. While using the same bunker fuel, the approximate temperature to burn the fuel can be obtained from the fuel oil temperature recorded when the viscosity measuring device was operational. In the event of new bunkers being taken on, then the viscosity of the fuel must be obtained (usually given in centistokes at 50C) from the bunker receipt. The temperature to which it must be heated to obtain the desired viscosity for injection can then be obtained from a chart. In the event of a failure of the transmitted signal to the heater control valve, the device can be used to measure the viscosity while the heater control valve is operated by hand. July 2000 Question 4. With reference to main engine fuel pumps: a. explain how a fuel pump may be checked for accuracy of injection timing; (4) b. explain how a fuel pump may be checked for delivery quantity at a particular fuel setting; (4) c. describe how fuel pump timing may be adjusted; (4) d. explain the circumstances in which it is considered necessary to replace a fuel pump; (4) a. With a jerk type fuel pump, injection starts when the top edge of the plunger cuts off the spill ports as the plunger is moving upwards on the delivery stroke. To check the accuracy of the start of injection, the engine crank angle for the start of injection must correspond to the manufacturers setting when the plunger is at this point. On some pumps it is possible, after isolating the fuel and draining the pump, to remove erosion plugs and sight through the spill ports while turning the engine. At the point where the edge of the plunger is seen to cover the top of the spill port, the crank angle for that particular unit is noted and compared with the manufacturers recommendation. On other pumps it may be necessary to remove the top cover of the pump and the delivery valve and measure the distance from the top of the barrel to the top of the plunger. The manufacturer will give the correct distance at which the plunger has covered the spill ports. Alternatively the distance to the top of the plunger when the unit is on TDC may be given.

b. To check the delivery quantity at a particular fuel setting, the fuel rack is moved to the measuring position. The total distance that the plunger moves between start of injection and when the helix uncovers the spill ports must be measured. This effective stroke multiplied by the c.s.a. of the barrel will give the approximate volume of fuel delivered. (neglecting expansion of HP pipes). The fuel pump is isolated and drained, and the suction/spill line and delivery pipe removed. The engine is turned to the crank position for start of injection and a low pressure low volume air reservoir fitted with a pressure gauge. is connected to the suction side of the pump. The reservoir is charged with air through a reducing valve (1bar) and isolated. The air pressure in the reservoir should remain static (oil around the plunger should seal at this low pressure). The engine is now turned slowly and the pressure gauge monitored. When the pressure drops as the helix uncovers the spill ports and vents the reservoir the crank angle and the total distance moved by the plunger is measured at the cam follower. (the discharge from the fuel pump could be led via a flexible pipe to a water seal would indicate the slightest discharge of air as the plunger helix uncovers the spill ports). c. If a standard jerk fuel pump is considered, start of injection is fixed. However if the barrel is moved relative to the plunger by inserting or removing shims under the fuel pump body, then the point at which the top of the plunger covers the spill ports is altered and thus the timing of the fuel pump is altered. Some pumps achieve the same effect by removing or inserting shims between the pump plunger foot and the camshaft tappet. MAN B&W move the barrel of the fuel pump for variable injection timing adjustment on the MC engine by using a threaded sleeve attached to a rack to raise and lower the pump barrel. d. After prolonged operation the jerk type fuel pump will wear on the top edge of the plunger, on the edge of the helix and the edge of the spill ports. This is due to erosion by the high pressure fuel as it spills back. The result of this will be late start of injection and early end of injection. The timing of

the fuel pump may be advanced to compensate for the lateness of injection and small adjustment to the individual fuel rack may be possible to compensate for the late end of injection, ensuring that the pump is still zeroed when the engine is stopped. Abrasive particles in the fuel due to poor filtration/purification (esp. catalytic fines) will cause scoring of the plunger allowing fuel to leak back to the suction side. The pump will take longer to build up to injection pressure, retarding the injection timing and delivering less fuel. When either of these situations have reached the point beyond which adjustment can adequately compensate for the wear, the fuel pump must be changed. This point can be established by inspection and comparison of the out of phase diagram for the particular cylinder, or by comparing peak pressures together with fuel rack settings and exhaust temperatures with previous readings and other units. July 1999 Question 7. With reference to main engine turbochargers and turbo-charging systems: a. state the purpose of the labyrinth seal and explain how such a seal works; (5) b. state the purpose of the water separator and explain how such a water separator works; (5) c. explain the procedure for replacing a rotor bearing. (6) a. The labyrinth seal on the turbine end of the turbocharger rotor is to prevent exhaust gas leaking along the shaft and contaminating the bearing LO supply. The seal consists of a series of fins turned on the shaft opposite a series of steps in the casing. This provides a series of narrow spaces through which the exhaust gas leaks. As the gas passes through each annular space between fin and casing, it is subject to a throttling action similar to a nozzle in which the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is dissipated as the exhaust gas swirls around in the expansion chamber before entering the next segment of the gland. The process repeats itself

as the exhaust gas passes down the gland, decreasing in pressure as it goes, where it meets with a vent to atmosphere.

To ensure positive sealing, pressurised air is led from the volute casing through a passage to a position halfway along the gland. This air now leaks back towards the turbine wheel reducing in pressure, and to the end of the gland to the atmospheric vent. A labyrinth seal is sometimes fitted on the compressor end of the rotor to prevent LO from the bearing being sucked into the compressor impeller. b. The water separator is fitted after the air cooler; Its purpose is to remove the water droplets entrained in the air which have formed by cooling the air down close to its dew point. If the water was to enter the engines cylinders it would wash away the lub oil film on the cylinder walls increasing wear.

After the air leaves the air cooler it passes across a set of vanes which change the direction of the air. The water droplets entrained in the air, being denser are thrown to the outside by centrifugal force where they deposit on the vanes, join to form larger drops and then run down the vanes away to a drain.

c. Turbochargers fitted with ball and roller bearings have the bearings changed at regular intervals (6-8000 hours). The main considerations to be taken into account when changing

the bearings are maintaining the correct axial clearances between the compressor wheel and the casing and preventing damage to the labyrinth glands. The general procedure is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Drain oil from bearing. Remove end cover. Remove oil pump. Remove oil centrifuge. Remove bearing retaining bolts. Using extractor extract the bearing 15-20mm.

It is at this stage that precautions MAY have to be taken to prevent the rotor dropping and damaging the labyrinth gland. This does not occur in the ABB VTR turbocharger as the rotor sits down on a landing in the casing and there is no contact between the labyrinth and the casing. However if the rotor has to be supported, an extension is screwed onto the end of the shaft. This is supported until the bearing has been moved along the shaft. Another support is then placed adjacent to the casing, the initial support removed and the bearing slid off the shaft.

Reassembly is in the reverse order; in addition, and the axial clearances checked and recorded before the bearing is pushed the last 15 -20 mm home and the shaft is clocked to ensure it is running true once the bearing has been fitted. July 2000 Question 6. With reference to the overhaul of a main engine piston: a. describe the procedure to be adopted prior to commencing the overhaul; (3) b. describe, with the aid of sketches, the procedure for piston removal and safe stowage out of the engine; (5) c. describe the inspection procedure explaining the type and location of possible defects; (6) d. state, with reasons, TWO checks which should be carried out following reassembly of the piston unit prior to refitting in the cylinder. (2)

a. Before commencing overhaul: Starting air shut off and locked off. Open the indicator cocks. Engine cooled down sufficiently to allow LO pumps to be shut down. Isolate fuel and cooling water. Ensure that those carrying out the work are conversant with the procedure: Read manuals. Ensure that each person knows his tasks. Confirm required spares are on board. Check that lifting tools, strops, shackles etc are within certification and in good order. Check that jacks are in good condition with no leaks. Ensure permission for immobilisation is given. Carry out risk assessment. Ventilate crankcase and obtain permit to work. Ensure that no-one else is working elsewhere on the engine (e.g. cleaning the scavenge space). Check that no-one is working in the vicinity of the shafting system, and that the bridge have confirmed that it is OK to turn the engine.

b. Drain cylinder cooling water from respective cylinder. NOTE: It is not advisable to just drain down to liner level in case the liner is disturbed when lifting the piston. Remove cylinder head and associated pipework. Turn engine to BDC and remove carbon and wear ridge from cylinder liner using a grinder. Unbolt the piston rod from the crosshead. A two piece spacer tube is bolted to the piston rod foot to protect the piston rod gland when lifting the piston. Unbolt the gland housing. The piston rod gland is removed with the piston rod Turn the crank to TDC. The spacer tube will push the piston rod gland out of its seating. Clean out the threaded holes in the piston crown with a tap. Bolt on the lifting bracket. Lift the piston, rod and gland with the engine crane and lower the assembly into the special cradle for maintenance.

c. Once mounted in the cradle, the piston should be cleaned and all deposits removed. The piston rings are removed using the correct ring expanding tool. Inspect the ring grooves for wear on the bottom landing surface. A profile gauge is used to check that the crown has not burnt excessively which would thin and weaken the crown. If the burning is excessive the cause is often poor fuel injection: Investigate and rectify. The crown of the piston must be inspected very carefully for evidence of cracking; - use of crack detection recommended if in doubt. Cracking is caused by excessive thermal stressing due to poor cooling and carbon build up or excessive mechanical stressing due to overloading. The contact faces of the rings and the skirt are inspected for signs of abrasion and scuffing which indicates poor filtration of fuel or air and poor cylinder lubrication. Excessive wear on the skirt may indicate misalignment or excessive clearance of crosshead guides. Piston rings should be gauged, and a decision based on manufacturers recommendations made as to whether to replace them. The piston is dissembled from the rod and the cooling spaces inspected. On oil cooled pistons look for build up of carbon deposits which could indicate overheating of the piston crown or contamination of lub oil by used cylinder oil. On a water cooled piston look for evidence of scale build up due to incorrect water treatment. d. Following reassembly of the piston, check that the cooling space is tight by applying a

hydraulic test. (do not over pressurize). If new rings are to be fitted check the axial clearance in the ring grooves and the circumferential clearance by placing the ring into an unworn part of the cylinder liner. March 1998 Question 5. With reference to a large crosshead engine: a. describe with the aid of a sketch, the crosshead arrangement; (7) b. detail the surface arrangement of grooves for a top end bearing and explain how effective lubrication is achieved; (5) c. state how crosshead guides are lubricated; (2) d. state the materials used for top end bearings and guide shoe surfaces. (2) a. The sketch shows a partial section through the crosshead on a modern large slow speed engine. The piston rod is bolted to the crosshead pin which reciprocates in the crankcase. The connecting rod swings about the crosshead pin and transfers the downward thrust to the crankshaft converting it to rotary motion. The side thrust is transferred into the engine by the guide shoes which reciprocate in the crosshead guides which are bolted to the A frames The top end of the connecting rod is forged to form the housing for the continuous bearing. This combined with a large pin diameter gives the maximum surface area thus reducing the loading on the bearing to a minimum. The top half of the bearing is located in a bearing cap which incorporates a slot to allow the piston rod foot to be bolted to the top of the crosshead pin.

The large diameter finely finished hardened pin is reduced at each end to form journals on which the guide shoes are located. The guide shoes which run in the crosshead guides are free to rotate a limited amount to allow for slight misalignment. To allow this rotation, the locating bores of the guide shoes are lined with a white metal bearing. A retaining cover holds the shoe in place on the journal. b. The crosshead on a slow speed 2 stroke is a difficult bearing to lubricate effectively. The load is continually downward and because the con rod swings about the pin, changing direction each stroke, true hydrodynamic lubrication cannot take place. Instead the lubrication starts as boundary, and as the rubbing speed increases, a hydrodynamic film is built up. As the rubbing speed decreases the lubrication becomes boundary once again. The bearing shell has a circumferential groove cut into it to distribute the oil. Axial grooves leading almost to the edge of the bearing have wedges machined in the bearing material which help the hydrodynamic film to be built up quickly. The grooves continue to the edge of the bearing to allow a circulation of oil for cooling. Oil supplied to the crossshead can be boosted in pressure to help with effective lubrication. A large pin diameter gives increased rubbing speeds, again allowing the oil wedge to be built up as soon as possible. c.

The crosshead slippers which reciprocate in the guides are supplied with oil from the crosshead oil supply. The oil is led through drillings to grooves in the slippers. Thus the oil is supplied to where it is needed. If the oil was supplied to the guides, there would be a danger of the slippers scraping the oil away. d. The top end bearings are subject to a high loading. The bearing material must be able to resist this pressure without breaking up. The material used is a tin aluminium alloy bonded to a steel backing. The material for the guide shoe surfaces is a good quality babbit metal which is a white metal containing tin, antimony and copper. March 1998 Question 6. a. i. Describe with the aid of a sketch, a main engine exhaust valve which is hydraulically operated. (10) ii. Explain the operation of this valve (3) b. State the materials used for the seat and valve described in Q6.(a) (3) a. i)

Shown above is a hydraulically operated exhaust valve as found on modern 2 stroke crosshead engines. The water cooled cast iron exhaust valve cage complete with replaceable seat is located in the centre of the cylinder head. The exhaust valve spindle which is designed to open inwards into the engine is located in a replaceable air cooled lubricated valve guide pressed into the valve cage. A vaned spinner is fitted to the spindle which rotates the exhaust valve as the gas passes through it. Mounted on the exhaust valve spindle is an air spring piston and a hydraulic operating piston. The chamber under the air spring piston is charged with air at 7 bar via a non return valve, ensuring positive closing of the valve. The hydraulic operating piston mounted on the top of the spindle closes into a damping pin. The adjustable clearance between the bottom of the damping pin and the top of the piston allows for expansion. A hydraulic pump, operated by the exhaust cam supplies the hydraulic oil to operate the valve. A small permanent vent ensures that air is excluded from the system. This leak off of oil is returned to the air spring cylinder for lubrication and is then drained away. The hydraulic pump is supplied with a make up supply via a non return valve and a relief valve (not shown). ii) As the cam rotates in time with the crankshaft it lifts the plunger on the hydraulic pump. Oil displaced by the pump plunger displaces the exhaust valve operating piston, moving it and the exhaust valve spindle downwards against the air spring pressure and opening the

exhaust valve. The exhaust gas passes over the spinner, rotating the exhaust valve spindle; this reduces distortion due to uneven temperatures and helps remove deposits as the valve closes. When the cam passes its peak, the pump plunger moves downwards and the compressed air in the air spring closes the valve. As the operating piston enters the damping pin, the closing is slowed, thus preventing hammering of the valve.

b. The valve spindle and seat have to withstand high temperatures ( ~540C) maintain strength and resist erosion and high temperature corrosion due to deposits caused by vanadium in the fuel. The valve spindle head is subject to harsher conditions as it is not permanently cooled. The replaceable seat is made from a surface hardened molybdenum steel alloy. The valve spindle is either manufactured from a heat resisting alloy steel with a layer of stellite welded onto the seating face, or the valve head is made from a nimonic alloy which is friction welded to an alloy steel spindle. March 2001 Question 4 With reference to a large slow speed diesel engine: a. describe, with the aid of a sketch, a bottom end bearing showing details of the bottom end assembly; (10) b. compare the loading in the bolts of the bearing described with the loading in the bottom end bearing bolts of a medium speed four stroke engine. (6) a.

The sketch illustrates a modern two stroke bottom end arrangement. A forged steel con rod complete with bottom end bearing housing has replaced the older style con rod with marine palm and separate bearing. The bottom half of the white metal bearing can either be cast into the cap or, like the top half, be a separate steel backed shell. With modern steel backed shell bearings, the clearance is built in and non adjustable; when it becomes excessive the bearing is changed. Older thick walled bearings used shims to adjust the clearance. Because the load on the con rod is always downwards on a two stroke engine, it is the top half of the bearing which takes the load. Oil is supplied down from the crosshead, through a bore in the con rod and round the outside of the top shell to the ends of the bearing half where it is fed into the bearing through two holes. The bottom half of the bearing may have a groove cut into it to assist in carrying the oil around. Studs screwed into the bottom half of the bearing cap have replaced the older style through bolts. When removing the bottom end cap, care must be taken not to damage the crankpin. Because of the varying load on the crankpin, it has a tendency to wear oval; this should be checked as excessive ovality (25% of clearance) can affect hydrodynamic lubrication. Distortion of the bearing top half due to downward oil pressure from the crosshead has been known to separate the white metal from the steel backing.

b. The varying load on the 2 stroke bottom end on the power and compression stroke is always downwards. The bottom end bolts are stretched when tightening the nuts using

hydraulic jacks and are under tension. This tensile stress remains constant during the operation of the engine. On a four stroke engine, the bottom end bolts are again under tension. However, the inertia loads due to the mass of the reciprocating parts cause a stress reversal in the connecting rod from high compressive stress (during power and compression stroke) to a low tensile stress between the exhaust and inlet strokes. This stress reversal in the con rod is reflected in the bottom end bolts where the tensile stress in the bolts is now not constant. This cyclic stressing means that bottom end bolts on a 4 stroke engine have a limited life, approx 12 - 15000 hrs. To prevent cracks starting, the bolts themselves are undercut at the bottom of the thread, changes in section have smooth radiuses and the finish is good with no blemishes. October 2000 Question 5. With reference to crankcase explosions: a. describe the operating principle of a crankcase mist detector; (5) b. state THREE alternative indications of overheating or existence of conditions that might result in a crankcase explosion; (3) c. state a course of action you as Second Engineer would take following operation of the crankcase mist detector alarm. (8) a. i)

LIGHT SCATTERING METHOD (NEPHELOMETRY)

In this form of crankcase oil mist detector individual sensors are placed at each monitoring point - each crank throw space and chain case (where applicable). A suction fan draws the sample through each detector. Light is transmitted at one end of the head where the sample flows through. Directly opposite the transmitter is a compensating receiver. This adjusts the light intensity by feeding back a signal to the transmitter. A measurement sensor picks up the scattered light produced by the oil mist particles. The result is transmitted as an analogue signal back to the monitor twice per second. The monitor compares this signal against a set point, and an average of the other readings. When the scattered light picked up by the sensor reaches a pre determined point an alarm condition will be reached. Advantages claimed for this system are:

Sampling points fitted close to crankcase - no long runs of piping. Continuous parallel sampling - no high maintenance selector valves. Fast response time - may save the engine from bearing failure.

ii) Three alternative indications of overheating or existence of conditions that might result in a crankcase explosion are: High temperatures: Some engines are fitted with bearing temperature monitors in addition to or instead of oil mist detectors. Main bearings, Bottom end bearings and Crosshead bearings are amongst those monitored. A high bearing temperature may indicate the presence of a hot spot within the engine. Noise: any unusual noise from within the crankcase esp. when in time with the engine revolutions should be investigated immediately. Smell: Any unusual smell of hot carbonising oil or burning should be investigated.

b. If the ship is operating under UMS conditions, following the operation of the crankcase oil mist detector alarm, the engine will power down. A short period of time later (giving the officer on the bridge time to override or for any generators to run up and go on load) the engine should shut down. If the engine room is manned and the engine on local control, then the engine power should be reduced immediately and shut down as soon as possible. The turning gear should be engaged and left turning. all oil and cooling pumps must be left running. Personnel should avoid the side of the engine with the explosion

doors. All personnel should leave the engine room. It may be prudent to run out hoses and prepare a fire party. After giving the engine time to cool down (at least 30 minutes), it should be safe to re enter the engine room and recheck the mist detector. Check bearing temperature monitors if fitted. If all is clear, then the crankcase can be opened up after stopping the oil pumps, and an inspection carried out on the unit which had alarmed, and adjacent units( it is not unknown for the wrong unit to go into alarm due to the circulation of the oil mist within the crankcase.) The cause of the alarm must be investigated. It could be a wiped bearing, which may have scored the crankshaft, it may be a piston seizure, or it could be a fault with the camshaft chain drive. It may be possible to repair the damage or the unit may have to be taken out of service. October 2000 Question 6. a. Describe with the aid of a sketch, a cylinder liner for a medium speed engine. (5) b. Explain the procedure used for removal of a worn cylinder liner (assume the piston has already been withdrawn). (5) c. State the checks made in each of the following: i. ii. before fitting a new cylinder liner (3) after the new cylinder liner has been fitted. (3)

a. The sketch opposite shows a half section through a medium speed liner. Manufactured from a close grained cast iron alloy containing chromium and molybdenum for mechanical strength and resistance to wear at high temperatures. Held in place by the cylinder head, it is free to expand downwards. The landing faces which locate it in correct alignment in the cylinder frame are sealed using O rings to prevent water leakage from the cooling space into the crankcase. The liner is of thicker section at the top where the pressure stress acting on the liner wall is at a maximum when the piston is just after TDC on the power stroke. So that the liner can be effectively cooled at the top of the liner where the temperature is highest, the cooling water is bought close to the internal surface of the liner by using tangiential bore cooling. Cooling is not necessary lower down the liner where undercooling of the surface (less than 140C) could lead to cold corrosion. In addition to splash lubrication, the liner has additional pressurised injection lubrication. The longitudinal drillings in the wall of the liner meet axial drillings leading to the running surface. The oil is the same as that used in the crankcase. b. All lifting equipment is examined to ensure it is in certification and free from defects. The cooling water will have been drained from the jacket prior to removal of the cylinder head and piston. Assuming the piston and con rod withdrawn, protect the crankpin with suitable material Cylinder lubricators are disconnected, and quills, if used withdrawn.

The liner must be initially moved by jacking it from its seating. This is because if it is stuck on its seating faces it is possible to exceed the s.w.l. of the lifting equipment. A simple method using a strongback is illustrated opposite. Once the liner is moving freely the engine room crane is attached to the strongback and the liner lifted clear of the engine frame and landed safely and secured.

c. i) Before fitting a new liner: check the landing faces in the entablature where the O rings seal for corrosion. check the cooling water space for scale. Try the liner in the entablature without the O rings. It should slide easily into place. Any resistance must be investigated before final fitting with the O rings.

ii) After the new liner has been fitted:

Gauge the cylinder liner bore and record the readings. connect lubricators and check for operation.

Fill the cooling water space up to the top of the liner and check for leaks. (Once the cylinder head has been fitted and the system filled and pressurized, this check is repeated.) December 1999 Question 7 a. Describe the procedure for taking crankshaft deflections, explaining all precautions that must be observed. (5) b. Explain what deflection readings actually mean and suggest the action which must be taken should readings be outside values recommended by the engine manufacturer. (5) c. Describe a safe procedure for checking weardown at a bearing. (6) a. Before taking a set of crankcase deflections observe the following precautions: Carry out a risk assessment procedure. Most companies now have this preloaded on a

computer in the form of a checklist. It will include: Permission granted to immobilise engine. Starting air shut off and locked off. Open the indicator cocks. Engine cooled down sufficiently to allow LO pumps to be shut down. On large engines where it is possible to climb inside the crankcase or to put head and shoulders inside while working, it should be treated as an enclosed space, and a permit to work is required. Ensure that no-one else is working elsewhere on the engine (e.g. cleaning the scavenge space). Check that no-one is working in the vicinity of the shafting system, and that the bridge have confirmed that it is OK to turn the engine. If the deflections are being taken after working on the engine ensure that all tools and lifting gear are removed from the engine. Only the person in charge of the operation is to operate the turning gear.

Deflections are taken by placing a dial indicator or remote reading gauge into a pop marked position between the two crankwebs of a crankshaft throw. The engine is turned to just after bottom dead centre, and the gauge is zeroed. The engine is then turned, and the gauge reading taken when the engine is 90 before TDC, TDC, 90 after TDC and then lastly just before BDC. (Note: on some engines, the manufacturer may recommend turning the engine astern to take the readings). It is normal practice to turn the engine to just after the gauge position and then reverse the turning gear to negate the lifting effect of the turning gear. It is important that the crankshaft journals are sitting on the bottom bearing shells when taking the readings. This can be checked using feeler gauges. The readings are recorded on a chart as shown. Unit No (A) BDC (1) (B) Port (C) TDC (D) Stbd (E) BDC (2) (F) A/2 + E/2 C-F B-D The vertical deflection is the reading at TDC minus the average of the two BDC readings. The horizontal deflection is the Port reading minus the Starboard reading. 1 2 3 4

b. If a crankthrow is supported between two bearings of equal height, then the weight of the running gear will open and close the crankwebs as shown. Therefore if the bearings are of equal height and perfectly aligned, the crankwebs will open and close as the engine is turned. When the engine is first installed in the ship and the ship is afloat, the alignment of the bearings is checked and a set of deflection readings taken. These are recorded in the engine documentation. If the bearings are out of alignment either horizontally or vertically, then these deflections will alter as the crankshaft bends to sit down in the bearings. If this bending becomes excessive (indicated by excessive deflections) then operating the engine may overstress the crankshaft leading to a fatigue failure. By comparing the deflections obtained with the original readings, it can be determined whether this bending is within acceptable limits. If the deflections are found to be outside the laid down parameters, then the first thing to do is to check that the readings taken were correct by re taking them. If the readings have been taken after work on the main bearings (i.e fitting new bearings), then the job must be re-examined. Perhaps the wrong type of shell has been fitted. The most obvious cause of excessive deflections is uneven bearing weardown. However, incorrect cargo loading, differential hull temperature, collision, grounding and fretted chocks can all cause distortion of the engine bedplate and thus bearing misalignment. If deflections are excessive, then ensure the cause is not one of the easily rectifiable causes (i.e. incorrect loading of cargo). Next, the bearing wear down must be checked., and if found to be uneven, rectified. If these are OK then it may be due to one of the more severe reasons. It is at this point that consultation with the engine builder and superintendancy may be required. It may be possible to operate the engine at reduced load until the cause can be more fully analysed and steps to rectify the problem investigated. c) Before undertaking any work on the engine a risk assessment must be undertaken and precautions as laid down in a) followed. Measurement of wear down may involve lifting the bearing cover, if this is the case then all lifting gear, strops, shackles etc. must be examined for defects, and checked they are within certification. If the bearing cover is to be removed, then the procedure outlined is for a large B&W

engine, but the procedure would be along similar lines for any large marine diesel engine. Take off the lube oil supply pipe to the main bearing. Mount the hydraulic jacks and loosen the cover nuts. Turn the engine so that the crankthrow is pointing to the opposite side of the engine. Remove the nuts and washers, bolt on the lifting tool and lift the bearing cover(s) using an external chain block and a pulley block bolted on the A frame. Remove the top half of the bearing. Remove any shims fitted between the two bearing halves, making note of their thickness taking care not to mix them up. Once the covers have been removed do not turn the engine unless stops are fitted to prevent turning out the bottom bearing shells. Place the bridge gauge over the shaft and measure the clearance between the gauge and shaft. Compare this reading with the testbed readings.

On some engines the wear down can be checked by removing the LO supply pipe and using a special depth gauge referenced from the transverse girder which fits through the oil hole onto the top of the crankshaft journal.

October 1999 Question 1.

a. Sketch a section through the bedplate and A frame of a large slow speed engine, identifying parts, method of construction and materials. (8) b. Explain the function of the tie bolts and how after an alignment problem these would all be tightened. (8) a. The bedplate must be strong and rigid enough to support the engine for which it forms the foundation and hold the crankshaft in alignment. However, it must be flexible enough to move with the hull as it hogs and sags in a seaway. The bedplate consists of two longitudinal members fabricated by welding from steel sections and plate with a max carbon content of 0.23%. The longitudinal members are welded to the cast steel transverse members which are situated between the crankthrows and either side of the thrust collar. The transverse members contain the tie bolt sockets and the main bearing housing, which is supported by cast in webs. After fabrication the welds are crack detected and the whole assembly stress relieved by heating in a furnace to 600C, soaking at that temperature and cooling slowly. The landing surfaces for the A frame and the chocks are machined and the bearing pockets line bored. The A frames are erected over each transverse member. They support the entablature and with the side plating form the space for the running gear (the crankcase). They carry the crosshead guides in which the crosshead slippers reciprocate. Fabricated from a low carbon steel (max 0.23%) they can be of single plate construction with stiffening webs and stringers to support the crosshead guides or of a double plate box construction. Sharp changes of section must be avoided to prevent stress concentrations and cracking. The guides can be integral with the A frame or manufactured separately from cast iron and bolted on. After manufacture, crack detecting and stress

relieving, the landing faces are machined and the frames are then erected on the bedplate, aligned and located using fitted bolts. b. The tie bolts hold the bedplate, frames and cylinder beam together in compression and transfer the firing load back to the bedplate. Without tie bolts, the entablature, frames and bedplate would separate as the engine fired. The tie bolts are designed to be as close to the crankshaft as possible to reduce bending stresses in the bedplate which could lead to cracking. Tightness of Tie Bolts is essential to prevent relative movement between the components which would cause fretting, subsequent misalignment and breakage of the Tie Bolts. If misalignment has happened because of slack tie bolts, the misalignment must be corrected before retightening. If not, the engine could be pulled further out of line and the bolts put under bending stress causing subsequent failure. Tightening is carried out using hydraulic jacks to stretch the bolts, and the bolts are tightened in pairs, starting at the centre and working outwards. If jacking bolts are used to hold the main bearing covers in place, these must be slackened before commencing tightening the Tie Bolts.

October 1999 Question 6. a. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, a piston suitable for a large slow speed crosshead engine. (8) b. State, with reasons, the materials used for the different parts of the piston described in Q.6(a) including ring material. (4) c. Compare the relative merits of water and oil cooling for a piston. (4) a.

The half sketch shown opposite is an oil cooled piston of the type fitted to the MAN B&W MC engine. The two part piston; crown and skirt are bolted together, and then bolted to the piston rod. The crown must be thick enough to resist deformation under load, yet thin enough to allow adequate heat transfer from the cooling medium to prevent overheating of the surface resulting in burning, erosion and thermal stressing. A layer of high temp corrosion resistant alloy, inconel 625 is welded to the crown at its hottest part. The crown is tapered above the top ring to allow for distortion. The 4 piston ring grooves are chrome plated which resists wear and helps prevent the build up of carbon. The very top groove on the piston is for attaching the lifting tool. The skirt guides the piston in the liner. The piston rod is bored up through its centre and fitted with a central pipe which forms an annular space. Oil, which is used to cool the piston, is supplied to the crosshead, led up the pipe, circulated through the piston as shown and returned down the annular space where its temperature is monitored before returning to the system. The piston reciprocating ensures a shaker action which maintains contact between oil and crown b. Piston Crown: Chrome Molybdenum Steel. Maintains strength and resists corrosion/erosion at high temperatures. As previously stated, this piston as a layer of inconel welded to the hottest part of the crown. Skirt: Cast Iron. Cast iron contains graphite, a lubricant. In theory the skirt should not touch the liner; in practice it does. Cast iron has good oil retention qualities, and its rate of expansion is the same as the liner in which it runs, allowing minimal clearances. Rings: Rings are harder than the liner in which they run, to give them a reasonable life. Pearlitic grey cast iron containing molybdenum, chromium, vanadium titanium, nickel and copper.

c. WATER Cheap, easily obtainable. Can remove more heat than LO and at higher temperatures. Specific heat capacity of water is 4.2kJ/kgK, approx twice that of oil.

However: Could contain hardness salts and be acidic, needing water treatment. Seperate cooling system required to minimise risk of oil contamination. Additional expense of pumps, coolers, filters, buffers to prevent hammering etc. Risk of contamination of crankcase oil.

OIL

Piston cooling part of LO system:- same pumps, coolers & pipework. Simpler arrangement No risk of contamination.

However:

Larger pumps and coolers required. Larger charge of oil in system (cost)

Longer period of cooling down after engine is stopped required to prevent coking of piston.