Lect 3

4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 3 Stefano Sanvito
4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 3

Maxwells Equations in Vacuum ... so far
_

E = /
0
Gauss
s Law

B = 0 No Magnetic Monopoles
(1)
_

E =
B
t
Faraday
s Law

B =
0
J Ampere
s Law
(2)
The equations involving

must be consistent with the
equation involving

This is the case for

E =
B
t
:

E
_
=
B
t
_
0 =
t
_

B
_
It is not the case for

B =
0
J:

B
_
=
0

J
but for non-static system

t
= 0

J = 0
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 1
The original Maxwells idea was to add a term to the
Amperes law in order to make it consistent with the other
Maxwells equations

B =
0
J +
0
E
t
Now it is compatible with the remaining Maxwells equation.
Take

B
_
= 0

J +
0
t
_

E
_
=
0
_
t
_
+
0
t
_

E
_
=
t
_
0
_
= 0
The additional term has the form of a current density. We
dene it displacement current density in vacuum
J
D
=
0
E
t
=

D
t
where

D =
0
E is the displacement eld in vacuum

Typeset by FoilT
E
X 2
The Ampere-Maxwell Law is

B =
0
(
J +

J
D
)
This tells that an electric eld that changes in time is a
source of a magnetic eld. Magnetic and electric elds are
REAL = they can be uniquely measured
J
C
S
By integrating over an open surface S and applying the
Stokes theorem to the circuit that bounds that surface
_
S
(

B) ndA =
_
C
B

dl ,
_
S
(

B) ndA =
0
_
S
(
J +

J
D
) ndA ,
then _
C
B

dl =
0
(I + I
D
)
This is the Generalized Amperes law.
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 3
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 4
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 5
Scalar and Vector Potentials
For static phenomena we can represent

E and

B in term
of scalar potential V and vector potential

A
E =
B =

A
Generalize to the non-static case. Consider the MEs not
involving the eld sources. Remember that

(

F) = 0

B = 0

B =

A
Now substitute in

E =
B
t

E =
t
_

A
_
=

A
t
_
Then
E +

A
t
_
= 0
But any vector

F such as

F = 0 can be written as

F =

f.
Then
E =

A
t
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 6
Gauge Transformations and Gauge Invariance
Are the potentials

A(x, t) and V (x, t) uniquely determined
by the charges and currents in the system?
NO
E and

B are uniquely determined they are observable
A and V are NOT uniquely determined they are not

observable (classically)
Suppose

A(x, t) and V (x, t) describe the elds of a certain
system. Than it is possible to construct other potentials
(x, t) and V

(x, t), which describe the same elds.
Gauge Transformation
A(x, t)

A
(x, t) =

A(x, t) +

f(x, t)
V (x, t) V

(x, t) = V (x, t)
f(x, t)
t
f(x, t) is an arbitrary scalar function
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 7
We can show that

A
and V

give the same elds of

A and
V
1) Magnetic induction

B

A =

B
=

(
A +

f) =

A +

(f) =

A
2) Electric Field

E
E =

A
t

V

A
t

V

=

A
t

t
_
f
_

V +

f
t
=
=

A
t

V
We say that

B and

E are invariant under the Gauges
transformations. The theory is Gauge invariant
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 8
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 9
Gauge Choices
Before working out the relation between

A and V , and the
eld sources we need to remove the Gauge arbitrariness
We need to make a Gauge Choice
The idea is to choose a convenient Gauge to do
calculations. This means to establish some condition for the
potential. There are two important Gauge choices
Coulomb Gauge

A = 0
Lorentz Gauge

A =
0
0
V
t
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 10
Coulomb Gauge

A = 0
This condition makes

A and V unique. In fact consider
the transformed potential
=

A +

f
and apply the Gauge condition
= 0

A +
2
f = 0
The only way to satisfy the Gauge condition is that
2
f = 0
but since

A satises some boundary conditions (i.e. at )
f = constant
This means that for given sources and boundary conditions
there is only one

A(x, t) that gives the correct eld and
satises

A = 0
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 11
Now work out the Maxwells equations with sources
From the Gausss law

E =

0
and

E =
V
we nd
2
V =
0
This is identical to the Poissons equation for electrostatic.
The general solution is
V (x, t) =
1
4
0
_
(x
, t)
|x x
|
d
3
x
The problem is that

A(x, t) is complicate if the system is
not-static. Coulomb Gauge is for static situations.
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 12
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 13
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 14
Lorentz Gauge

A =
0
0
V
t
The big advantage of the Lorentz Gauge is that the
equations for

A and V are not coupled.
Take the Gausss law

E =

0
Substituting the expression of

E in term of

A and V

E =
2
V

t
(

A)
Using the Gauge condition
2
V +
0
2
V
t
2
=

0
In a similar way the Maxwell-Amperes equation becomes
A +
0
A
t
2
=
0
J
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 15
Summary and Main Formulae
Displacement Current Density

J
D
=
0
E
t
Maxwell-Amperes equation

B =
0
J +
0
E
t

A and V Potentials
_

B =

E =

A
t

V
Gauge Transformations
_

A

A
=

A +

f
V V

= V
f
t
Coulomb Gauge

A = 0
Lorentz Gauge

A =
0
0
V
t
Typeset by FoilT
E
X 16

Lect 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lect 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 3 Stefano Sanvito

4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 3

This is the case for

E is the displacement eld in vacuum

A and V are NOT uniquely determined they are not

The problem is that

You might also like