Construction and Building Materials 16 2002.

49 63

Numerical analysis of time-dependent behavior of pre-cast pre-stressed concrete girder bridges

Hyo-Gyoung KwakU , Young-Jae Seo
Department of Ci il Engineering, Korea Ad anced Institute of Science and Technology, 373-1 Kusong-dong, Yusong-gu, Taejon 305-701, South Korea Received 21 July 2000; received in revised form 25 August 2001; accepted 25 October 2001

Abstract This paper deals with the analysis of uncertainties associated with the behavior of bridges constructed with pre-cast pre-stressed girders and a continuous deck. To analyze the long-term behavior of bridges, an analytical model which can simulate the effects of creep, the shrinkage of concrete, and the cracking of concrete slabs in the negative moment regions is introduced. Based on the equilibrium of forces and the compatibility of strains with time, the prediction of stresses and strains in the constitutive materials at any time is achieved. To consider the different material properties across the sectional depth, the layer approach in which a section is divided into imaginary concrete and steel layers is adopted. An element stiffness matrix is constructed according to the assumed displacement eld formulation, and the creep and shrinkage effects of concrete are considered in accordance with the rst-order recursive algorithm based on the expansion of the compliance function. Correlation studies between analytical and experimental results are conducted with the objective of establishing the validity of the proposed model. Also, many parameters related to the continuity of spans are analyzed to minimize deck cracking at the interior supports. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Continuous pre-cast pre-stressed concrete bridges; Long-term behavior; Analytical model; Creep; Shrinkage; Continuity of spans

1. Introduction Among the various types of highway bridges being constructed, the pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridge has been one of the most popular and economical types adopted. While many inherit advantages due to the mechanical connection between the cast-in-place concrete slab and the pre-cast pre-stressed concrete girder exist, the complications caused by composite action, such as the variations of stresses with time in the constitutive materials due to the effects of shrinkage

Corresponding author. Tel.: q82-42-869-3621; fax: q82-42-8693610. E-mail address: khg@cais.kaist.ac.kr H.-G. Kwak..

and creep of concrete, must also be considered. Furthermore, the differences in material properties and age at loading between the girder and the cast-in-place concrete slab lead to time-dependent differential strains, and that difference may signicantly affect the stress redistribution along the span length. Further complications arise in the case of pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges. The girders behave as simple-spans for dead loads, while, with the continuous deck providing a negative moment connection at interior supports, the bridge girders may behave as a continuous structure for loads applied after casting the deck and diaphragms. The degree of continuity also depends on time-dependent material behavior. Several analytical methods based on the creep-transformed section approach have been proposed to ana-

0950-0618r02r$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 0 6 1 8 0 1 . 0 0 0 2 7 - 7

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

lyze the cracked pre-stressed and reinforced concrete sections with the assumption of perfect bonds between the constitutive materials, while a few analytical studies for the cracked composite sections have been addressed. In addition, in spite of many numerical and experimental studies of simply supported composite members under service loads, relatively little research has been published on the time-dependent behavior of continuous composite beams subjected to sustained service loads. In the case of continuous pre-cast prestressed bridge girders, more rigorous analyses are strongly required because the structural behavior varies signicantly according to the construction sequences and material in use in different states. Besides, the lack of guidance in the design specications w1,2x causes a widespread difference in the design approach used for the connections at interior supports. In the present study, an analytical model to predict the time-dependent behavior of pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges is introduced. Concrete creep is evaluated by the rst-order recursive algorithm based on the expansion of the compliance function w3x, and the variation of concrete properties according to age is included. Moreover, to simulate the different material properties across the sectional depth, the layer approach is adopted, and the material non-linearity due to the cracking of concrete decks in negative moment regions is considered. The deections predicted by the proposed analytical model are compared to the experimental results to demonstrate the validity and applicability of the proposed model. In addition, several numerical examples are given to investigate the effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete, and their contribution to structural behavior.

strain cnm t . consists of creep strain age strain csh t ..

c

cr . c t ,

and shrink-

t. s

m . t q cnm t . s cm t . q ccr t . q csh t . c

1.

Shrinkage strain can be evaluated directly by utilizing the shrinkage model proposed in design codes w4,5x since it is dened as the volume change which occurs independently of imposed stresses, whereas creep is dened as the increase in strain under sustained stress. In this paper, the rst-order recursive algorithm based on expansion of creep compliance, proposed by Kabir and Scodelis w7x, has been adopted because that model can simulate the stress history effectively in spite of its simplicity in application. The increment of creep strain from time t ny 1 to time t n for the uniaxial stress state can be expressed as follows w6x:
m
c ns

Ai
is1

ny 1

1 y ey
i

ig

tn .

, 2.
n

A i n s A i ny 1e

tn

q ai .

2. Modeling of material properties In order to formulate the constitutive relationships in a layer of composite beam elements, the following simplied assumptions have been made: 1. the element is divided into imaginary layers to describe the different material properties; 2. plane sections remain planes to represent the linearity in the strain distribution on any section at any time; 3. a perfect bond between the deck and the girder is assumed at service loads; and 4. the constitutive materials are assumed to carry uniaxial stress only. 2.1. Concrete Based on the principle of superposition, the total uniaxial concrete strain c t . at any time t is assumed to be composed of the mechanical strain cm t . caused by short-term service loads and the non-mechanical

c where n is the increment of creep strain; i is the inverse retardation times; a i . are the constants depending on the age at loading ; m is the number of time steps; A i is the hidden state variable by which the effects of past time steps are considered. Initial values are A i1 s a i t 1 . 1 at n s 1. Before starting the calculation of creep strain by Eq. 2., parameters such as m, a i . and i must be determined. Since the use of compliance function J t, . s 1rE t . q C t, .. in the form of Dirichlet series induces some numerical difculties caused by not considering a separate term to represent instantaneous deformation, creep compliance C t, .. is used directly in this study, as shown in Eq. 2.. Accordingly m s 4 is taken, and the assumed corresponding retardation times are 5.0, 50.0, 500.0 and 5000.0. Also the values of a i . are determined by the method of least squares using Kabirs Dirichlet series creep compliance w7x.

Ct, . s

ai
is1

.w 1 y ey

i ty

.x

3.

The concrete stress at each layer corresponding to mechanical strain, can be calculated by using the stress strain relation of concrete. In describing the uniaxial stress strain behavior of concrete, the model proposed by Hognestad w8x is used after some modications in this paper see Fig. 1a... These modications were introduced in order to increase the computational efciency of the model in view of the fact that the bending behavior of a concrete structure is much more affected by the tensile than by the compressive

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

51

behavior of concrete. Moreover, the magnitudes of the maximum compressive stress f c and the initial modulus Ec increase with time as the concrete agesw2,4,5x. To simulate the cracking of concrete and to describe the tension stiffening effect, the strain softening in tension is included, and the maximum tensile strain 0 in Fig. 1a. can be determined by t 0 s 2 Gf ln3rb .rft 3 y b . proposed by Kwak and Filippou w9x, where b is the element width and Gf is the fracture energy dissipated in the formation of a crack of unit length per unit thickness and the value of 87.61 Nrm is used in this paper based on the experimental study by Welch and Haisman w10x. When the mechanical strain m . . c t in Eq. 1 exceeds t 0 , a crack forms in a corresponding layer. The normal stress and the modulus of elasticity become zero to account for the effect of cracking w9x. 2.2. Reinforcing steel Steel is assumed to be a linear elastic-perfect plastic material whose yield stress is y as shown in Fig. 1b..

Thermal strain is the only non-mechanical strain expected for steel. However, that is not considered in this study so that the mechanical strain can be directly calculated from the total strain of steel s t . s sm t ... 2.3. Pre-stressing steel Besides a large difference in the magnitude of the tensile strength, the stress strain curve of pre-stressing steel is different from that of reinforcing steel in that there is no denite yield plateau for pre-stressing steel. To accommodate this different shape, a multilinear stress strain curve, which is broadly adopted in numerical analyses of pre-stressed concrete structures w11x, is used. Since pre-stressing steel is never subjected to compressive stress, the compressive stress strain curve is not considered. The pre-stressing steel placed in the concrete with an initial tendon prole is approximated by a series of straight pre-stressing steel segments maintaining a constant force and sectional area, as shown in Fig. 2. The contribution of the pre-stressing

Fig. 1. Stress strain relations of constitutive materials.

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

and Gamble w13x. Once the pre-stressing steel force is known, its contribution to the element end forces is obtained easily by transforming the pre-stressing force, P, into equivalent loads and moments at both end nodes. More details such as friction coefcients and numerical implementation of pre-stressing steel can be found in Ref. w11x.
Fig. 2. Pre-stressing steel segment.

3. Neutral axis in a cross-section steel to the element stiffness is computed as though the pre-stressing steel segment is a steel layer located at the distance of e i q e j .r2 from the neutral axis. In addition, thermal strain is not considered, while relaxation with time is taken into consideration based on the following equation by Magura et al. w12x. fs log t s1y fsi 10 Composite members, consisting of a steel or pre-cast concrete girder and a cast-in-place concrete deck, are sensitive to creep and shrinkage so that the inuence of these phenomena on stress redistribution in composite sections must be considered. When shrinkage of concrete is considered, in consequence of the restraint on the axial deformation by a girder or a reinforcement embedded in the concrete deck, an internal axial force has occurred. Accordingly, the neutral axis of a section can not be calculated directly by the equilibrium condition of normal force only. As mentioned by Ghali w14x, the neutral axis depends upon the eccentricity of the sectional moment over the axial force. To determine the neutral axis while considering bending effects only, the mechanical strains of concrete cm . and steel sm s st . need to be partitioned m m t into an axial strain ca , sa . and a bending strain cb , t . sb as represented in Fig. 3. Since the axial strain is

fsi y 0.55 , fy

fsi G 0.55 fy

4.

where fs is the stress at time t; fsi is the initial stress immediately after stressing; f y is the 0.1% offset yield stress; t is the time in hours after stressing. Since Eq. 4. is valid only for the condition in which the strain is kept constant and fsi is the only applied stress; the total stress relaxation f rn . at time t n is obtained by summing up all the relaxation f rk . at each time interval t k y t ky1 ., that is f rn s n ks1 f rk , according to the procedure suggested by Hernandez

Fig. 3. Strain components at a section.

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

53

constant across the section and the bending strain is zero at the neutral axis, the bending strains of concrete and steel at any layer can be expressed by:
m t nm m cb s c y c y ca , m sb s t t t b s s y sa

5.

Based on the assumed neutral axis, the corresponding stress to the mechanical bending strain can be calculated from the stress strain curves of the constitutive materials, and the iterations using the bisection method are repeated until an error for the axial force calculated by the bending strain is within the given tolerance. In addition, the time rate in a stress increment has . been considered. If a stress increment c t 0 is introduced at time t 0 and sustained without a change in magnitude, the time variation of the strain in concrete follows the continuous line ABC in Fig. 4, and the total strain at time t, instantaneous plus creep, can be represented by:
cr . t s c

The concrete aging coefcient accounts for the effect of aging on the ultimate value of creep for stress increments or decrements occurring gradually after the application of the original load. An average value of s 0.82 can be used for most practical problems where the creep coefcient lies between 1.5 and 3.0 and t 0 is greater than 5 days. An approximate value of 0.8 has been frequently used for and the same value of s 0.82 is adopted in this study.

4. Equilibrium equation for a composite beam element Based on the assumed displacement eld formulation w11x, the nodal displacement vectors of a two-dimensional beam element in its local coordinate system can be expressed by u, v and see Fig. 5.. Assuming that the independent axial displacement u i varies linearly with x and the small rotation i at each node can be calculated by derivation of the vertical displacement i with respect to x. Then by adopting the plane section hypothesis and applying the virtual work principle, the equilibrium equations can be rewritten in a differential form. dRs dR j q dR nm s K dr where Ks 8.

. c t0 1 q . Ec t 0 .

6.

where s t, t 0 ., the creep coefcient. . On the other hand, when a stress increment c t, t 0 is introduced gradually between t 0 and t, the strain variation with time can be represented by the dashed line in Fig. 4. The total strain produced during the period t 0 to t can be obtained by: . c t ,t 0 cr 1 q t ,t 0 . s c Ec t 0 . where . 7.

HVB E

T B dV ;

is the concrete aging coefcient.

dR nm s

HVB E

TBd

nm

dV ;

Fig. 4. Time variation of strain caused by a stress increment

c.

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

dR j is the increment of nodal force vector; B is the strain displacement matrix; ET is the tangent modulus of the constitutive material. Because of the uncoupled characteristic between the axial force action and bending action, the element stiffness can be divided into axial and bending terms. Ks
T T B dV s

10. 12. can be calculated by using three-point Gaussian integration. In addition, with the layer approach where a typical section is divided into imaginary layers, the section integration on the right side of Eqs. 10. 12., can be expressed by the following equations.
3 nc ns

HVB E

HV

BT a yyBT b

ET w Ba ,yyB b x dV

HA
9. y

ET d A s EAs

ks1 is1

Ec i A c i q

Es
js1

As j

wk 13 .

K aa s K ba where Ba s

K ab K bb

HAE

yd A s ES
3 nc ns

1 w y1,1x L

sy

Ec
ks1 is1

y A c iq i ci

Es
js1

ys j A s j

wk

14 . 2 3 3 y1 q 2 p . , 1 y 2 p . , y2 q 3 p . , Bb s L L L y1 q 3 p . Moreover, each term of the stiffness matrix can be represented by: K aa s

HAE

y 2 d A s EI
3 nc ns

ks1 is1

Ec i yc2i A c i q

Es
js1

ys2j A s j

wk 15 .

HV

BT ET Ba dV s a

HAE

dA

H0

L T

Ba B b d x

10 . where pk is the kth Gauss integration points; w k is the kth Gauss integration weight factors; n c , n s are the mean numbers of the concrete and steel layers More details for the nite element formulation can be found elsewhere w15x. Because the horizontal shear reinforcements between the deck concrete and the girder are designed on the basis of the bridge design code w1x in a real structure, a sufcient resistance to the applied horizontal shear is ensured under service load conditions. In addition, the research aims are not on the prediction of the ultimate resistance of the structure but concentrated on the shrinkage cracking at interior supports during construction when only dead loads are applied. Accordingly, a prefect bond is assumed in this study.

K ab s K T s ba sy

HVy yB
T

T a ET B b

dV 11 .

HAE
2

ydA

H0

L T

Ba B b d x

K bb s

HV y

BT ET B b dV s b

HAE

y2d A

H0

L T

Bb Bb d x 12 .

Since tangent elastic modulus ET varies not only along the beam length but also across the sectional depth, each term of the stiffness matrix dened in Eqs.

Fig. 5. Components of a beam element.

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

55

5. Solution algorithm Every non-linear analysis algorithm consists of four basic steps: the formation of the current stiffness matrix, the solution of the equilibrium equations for the displacement increments, the state determination of all elements in the model, and the convergence check. These steps are presented in some detail in the ow diagram of Fig. 6. Since the global stiffness matrix of the structure depends on the displacement increments, the solution of the equilibrium equations is typically accomplished with an iterative method through the convergence check. The non-linear solution scheme selected in this study uses the tangent stiffness matrix at the beginning of the load step in combination with a constant stiffness matrix during the subsequent correction phase, that is, the incremental iterative method.

The criteria for measuring the convergence of the iterative solution are generally based on the accuracy of satisfying the global equilibrium equations or on the accuracy of determining the total displacements. The accuracy of satisfying the global equilibrium equations is controlled by the magnitude of the unbalanced nodal forces. The convergence criteria for the unbalanced nodal forces are used in this study, and these can be expressed as w11x:
max < Funbal . < F Tol F , max < Munbal . < F Tol m

16.

max where < Funbal. < is the absolute value of the maximum max unbalanced axial force; < Munbal. < is the absolute value of the maximum unbalanced bending moment; Tol F is the specied tolerance corresponding to the axial force;

Fig. 6. Solution procedure.

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

Table 1 Material properties used in beam B1 and B2 fc 27.44 MPa

y

Creep model ACI

cr

sh

Ec 2.45= 104 MPa

Es 2.00= 105 MPa

274.40MPa

1.68

520 = 10y6

and Tol m is the specied tolerance corresponding to the bending moment

6. Experimental verication To verify the proposed analytical model, two two-span continuous composite beams have been investigated. These beams are B1 and B2 tested by Gilbert and Bradford w16x. The geometry and cross-section dimensions of the adopted beams are represented in Fig. 7, and the material properties of concrete and steel are summarized in Table 1. Especially, the material properties of concrete including the time-dependent deformation properties were measured on companion specimens, and used in a previous analytical study w17x. The structure is modeled by dividing each span into 20 elements. The two beams are identical except for the load level. The rst beam, B1, was subjected only to its own self-weight of w 1 s 1.92 kNrm, while the second beam B2 carried an additional superimposed sustained load of w 2 s 4.75 kNrm. Fig. 8 compares the analytical results with the measured mid-span deections for both beams. Very satis-

factory agreement between analysis and experiment is observed. But, in the case of not considering the concrete aging coefcient s 1.0., overestimated deections at the initial time steps are obtained. The results are also compared with those of an earlier study by Gilbert and Bradford w17x, who used the simplied transformed cross-section approach based on the equilibrium equations and the compatibility conditions. As shown in Fig. 8, there is, however, still some discrepancy between experiment and analysis. Those differences seem to be caused by not considering the bondslip effect between the concrete deck and the steel girder. In addition, simply supported pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges BEAMS A & B. tested by Rao and Dilger w18x have been investigated. The geometry and cross-section dimensions are represented in Fig. 9, and the material properties are summarized in Table 2. The girders were pre-stressed by a force of 196 kN at age t 0 s 7 days, and a reinforced concrete deck was cast at age 41 days while the girder was shored. The formwork was removed 7 days later age t 1 s 48 days. and an additional load of 25.77 kN at the third points of the span was applied to one of the girders Beam B. at age t 2 s 53 days.

Fig. 7. Two-span continuous beam.

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

57

Fig. 9. Simply supported pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridge. Fig. 8. Mid-span deections of beams B1 and B2 1 cm s 0.01 m.. Table 2 Material properties used in beams A and B fc Slab Girder 29.02 MPa 42.48 MPa wc 24.7 kNrm 24.1 kNrm3
3 sh, cr, y6

810 = 10 811 = 10y6

2.45 2.18

cracked simply supported concrete member, while there is some restriction in application to the cracked continuous concrete members. Through these correlation studies between analytical and experimental results, we found that the layer approach can be used effectively, and the concrete aging coefcient must be taken into consideration in simulating the time-dependent behavior of structures.

Fig. 10 compares the analytical results with the measured mid-span deections for both beams, and this gure shows that the observed and predicted values of camber agree within reasonable limits of accuracy. Moreover, the response of the concrete to gradually changing stress is best calculated by the age-adjusted effective modulus method which was rst introduced by Trost w19x and further developed by Bazant w20x. This example was previously analyzed by using the creep transformed section approach by Dilger w21x, and the obtained results are marked with squares in Fig. 10. That method gives a reasonable result for the un-

7. Numerical verication In a well-known example being affected by the timedependent behavior of concrete, a double cantilever with an open joint at the center is selected for the numerical verication of the introduced model. The geometry and the cross-section are shown in Fig. 11 and the material properties are summarized in Table 3. The joint is assumed to be connected at 7 days and this example structure is subjected only to its own self-

Fig. 10. Cambers of beams A and B 1 cm s 0.01 m..

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

Table 3 Material properties used in numerical verication

cr

Creep model ACI

Es 2.01= 105 MPa

Ec 2.45= 104 MPa

fc 27.44 MPa

2.5

196 MPa

Fig. 11. Conguration of example structure.

weight of w s 2.94 kNrm . Each cantilever is modeled with ten elements and only creep deformation is taken into consideration. Fig. 12 represents the variations of bending moments with time along the span. From this gure, it can be seen that the bending moments converge to any limiting boundary values. Theoretically, the moment distribution along the span must be converged to that of the xed end beam with a span length of l s 10.1 m as time approaches innity. This illustrates the fact that moment redistribution due to creep following a change in the static system tends to approach the moment distribution that relates to the static system obtained after the change. In Table 4, the obtained xed end moment at 365 days is compared with that by the PTI method w22x. Since the shrinkage effect is not considered, it is also excluded from the equation of PTI. As shown in this table, the introduced model yields a very satisfactory agreement with the PTI results.

Fig. 12. Moment distribution for cantilever system 1 t ms 9.8 kN m..

8. Application to pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges 8.1. Effect of positi e moment continuity reinforcement Current bridge construction practices include a num-

ber of aspects such as the varying amounts of positive moment reinforcement at supports, and the varying girder age at the start of bridge construction. To evaluate the time-dependent behavior of pre-cast concrete girder bridges according to girder age under service load conditions, a sample structure, shown in Fig. 13,

Table 4 Comparison of end moment Method Formula Moment Fixed end beam q l2 12 y24.99 kN m Ms y PTI q l12 q l12 q l2 .1 y ey . q y q 2 12 2 y26.66 kN m Ms y at 365 days s 1.93. This study

y26.56 kN m

Note: the total span length l s 10.1 m, the cantilever span length l 1 s 5 m and

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63 Table 5 Material properties used in concrete beam bridge I. fc
y

59

Creep model

cr

sh

Ec

Es

wc

Reinforcement As1,2,3,4 s 800, 400, 800, 1600 mm2

27.44 MPa 274.40 MPa CEB-FIP78. 2.5

200 = 10y6

2.15= 104 MPa 1.96= 105 MPa 23 kNrm3

was analyzed. The assumed material properties are summarized in Table 5, and the live loads of HS-20 lane loading w1x are assumed to be gradually applied at 350 days after continuity by casting the deck and diaphragm simultaneously. An initial pre-stressing force of Ps 3153.05 kN is assumed constant across the length, and the applied force P is transformed into the distributed upward load of wp s 37.53 kNrm using the equivalent load concept w23x. None of the pre-stressing losses due to friction, creep, shrinkage, and relaxation are taken into consideration because the primary purpose of this study is concentrated on the evaluation of structural behavior according to girder age. Moreover, the composite member deforms along the neutral axis of the transformed section, while the relative rotation is caused from the bearing located on the

bottom face of the girder. For the given end rotation of the beam, , therefore, the additional horizontal displacement of hr2 occurs at the slab. To simulate this offset effect, the rigid members with the length equivalent to half of the beam height are imposed at the support nodes. The central support moments for continuity at the girder age of 7 days are shown in Fig. 14. A large proportion of girder pre-stress creep occurs after continuity, causing positive restraint moments to develop. Also, negative restraint moments caused by differential shrinkage between cast-in-place concrete decks and pre-cast girders are lessened because a relatively small amount of girder shrinkage has occurred before the deck is cast. Time-dependent restraint moments at the central support of point B are shown on the left side of

Fig. 13. Two-span continuous pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridge I..

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

Fig. 14, and the right side of this gure indicates moments upon incremental application of live loads at 350 days. Especially, with a small amount of positive reinforcement, positive restraint moments may be negligible, that is, the girder end rotation causes cracks to develop in the bottom of the diaphragm. The exural stiffness of the diaphragm is, therefore, reduced and restraint against girder end rotation is decreased. In contrast, when a substantial amount of reinforcement is provided, girder end rotation is more effectively restrained, and the moment redistribution according to the time-dependent behavior has occurred along the span length.

Fig. 14 also shows the decrease of support moment in four increments according to the application of live loads at 350 days. The behavior of the reinforced and unreinforced sections differs. While the central support moment has been decreased linearly up to 100% of the live load for the reinforced diaphragm, only a slight decrease in the central support moment has been caused because of the low rotational stiffness of the cracked diaphragm. Consequently, the positive moment crack at the bottom of the diaphragm must be closed prior to inducing a negative moment at the continuity connection. On the other hand, some different structural behav-

Fig. 14. Central support moments for continuity at girder age of 7 days.

H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

61

iors are expected when the age difference between the deck and the girder is large. Fig. 15 shows a timedependent restraint moment at the center support in the case of continuity at the girder age of 1000 days. Regardless of the amount of positive reinforcement at support, high negative restraint moment develops due to differential shrinkage between the cast-in-place concrete deck and the pre-cast concrete girder, because almost all girder concrete shrinkage had occurred already. As time passes, the restraint moment due to creep is also increased because the structural system has been changed from the simply supported beam to the continuous beam. However, the total restraint moment due to

the consideration of both creep and shrinkage is not equal to the moment obtained by the summing of the moments due to the separate consideration of creep and shrinkage. It may be caused by the fact that creep reduces the large negative restraint moment due to shrinkage. Similar conclusions with those obtained in this study for the pre-cast pre-stressed concrete girder bridge were also reached in a previous study w24x. Different amounts of positive reinforcing steel at support have a negligible effect on resultant moments. Because the positive reinforcing steel is in the compression zone of the section under negative moment, varying amounts of reinforcing steel have a small effect on bending stiffness. Consequently, the pre-cast pre-

Fig. 15. Central support moments for continuity at girder age of 1000 days 1 t ms 9.8 kN m..

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H.-G. Kwak, Y.-J. Seo r Construction and Building Materials 16 (2002) 49 63

stressed concrete girder behaves almost identically with the reinforced concrete girder as the girder age is increased.

neering and Construction and BK21 project funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea. The authors would like to express their gratitude to both organizations for their support.

9. Conclusions An analytical model to simulate the time-dependent behavior of pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges is presented in this paper. The effects of creep, shrinkage of concrete, relaxation and losses of pre-stressing steel, and material non-linearity caused by concrete cracking were taken into consideration, and the related numerical implementations are described. In addition, to consider the different material properties across the sectional depth and the increase of the numerical efciency, the layer approach was adopted. The developed model has been veried by comparison between experimental results and numerical examples. The representative pre-cast pre-stressed girder bridges were analyzed with the purpose of investigating the relative effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete on structural behavior, and the following conclusions were obtained: 1. the concrete aging coefcient must be taken into consideration to simulate the gradually increased time-dependent deformation; 2. the positive reinforcing steels at supports have a negligible effect on the resulting moment; 3. when the structural system is not changed during construction, the shrinkage effect is dominant, while the creep effect is negligible; 4. when the structural system has been changed during construction, the creep effect is dominant, while the shrinkage effect depends on the construction time of the deck slab and the diaphragm at support; 5. the effect of shrinkage on structural behavior increases in proportion to the increase of the difference in construction time between the deck and the girder; 6. the transverse cracking at interior supports are deeply related to the shrinkage strain of the slab. To increase serviceability and to remove the inherent structural defects, therefore, effective construction control including concrete curing at an early age is required. In addition, the parametric studies of composite girder bridges reecting the construction sequence must be conducted, and the developed model can be used effectively whenever it is needed.

References

Acknowledgements The research reported in this paper was made possible by the nancial supports from the Samsung Engi-

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