I J B

International Journal of Behavioral Science

ISSN 1906-4675

Volume 6, Number 1, September 2011

Behavioral Science Research Institute (BSRI) Srinakharinwirot University (SWU) 114 Sukhumvit 23 Rd., Wattana, Bangkok, Thailand, 10110 Please visit http:www.ijbsjournal.com or http://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/IJBS http://www.facebook.com/ijbsjournal E-mail: journal_ijbs@hotmail.com

Aim and Scope

Behavioral Science Research Institute (BSRI), Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), Bangkok, Thailand has published the International Journal of Behavioral Science (IJBS) since 2006. The aim of this journal is to disseminate original and high quality academic research papers and articles in behavioral science, which is an important discipline that seeks explanations for the diverse behaviors at individual, groups and organizational levels. The institute encourages the integration of an interdisciplinary approach into the published research papers to obtain a clearer and comprehensive perspective of the findings. This is a peer reviewed journal, and is published in cooperation with an academic network of domestic and international universities.

ehavioral Science research institute

Behavioral Science Research Institute (BSRI) is a faculty of Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), with the status equivalent to other faculties of the university. This institute has more than half a century of history. Originally called the International Institute for Child Study, the institute was established as per the Cabinets resolution of August 10, 1953, under cooperation between UNESCO and the Ministry of Education, Thailand and began operation in August 1955. Afterwards, in 1975, the institutes name was changed to Behavioral Science Research Institute. The original purposes of the Institute were to conduct cross-cultural research on child development, to provide training for researchers, Thai and foreign, in the principle of child development, guidance and research methodology, and to disseminate research findings for improvement of the care and education of children in school and at home. Presently, the institute focuses on the behavioral science research through integration of multiple disciplines e.g. psychology, social science, political science, economics, and education, to help explain and predict individual behavior; and disseminate research findings to develop individuals and the society. As for the institutes teaching function, between 1963 to 1975 the institute collaborated with the former College of Education, Ministry of Education in offering a Masters degree program in developmental psychology, educational psychology, social psychology and experimental psychology. The graduates have performed several roles in their workplaces as behavioral scientists. However ever since 1984, the institute resumed its main teaching function by offering the Masters degree program in Applied Behavioral Science Research and also opened its doctoral degree program in the same area in 1994.

Board of Editors
Editor

Wiladlak Chuawanlee

Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

Associate Editors

Kanu Priya Mohan Yutthana Chaijukul

Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

International Editorial Advisors

Daphne Keats Stuart C. Carr Dato Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman Takashi Naito

The University of Newcastle, Australia Massey University, New Zealand International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia Ochanomizu University, Japan

Editorial Board

Somkiat Wattanasirichaigoon Chai Podhisita Bhassorn Limanonda Chancha Suvannathat Visit Sitpreecha Ian Purcell Syed Sohail Imam Max sully Rahmattullah Khan bin Abdul Wahab Khan Oraphin Choochom Dusadee Yoelao Numchai Supparerkchaisakul Narissara Peungposop Jaruwan Sakulku

Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Mahidol University, Thailand Chulalongkorn University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Thailand Counseling Psychologist, Australia International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia Murdoch University, Australia Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idri, Malaysia Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

Editorial Assistants

Sirinan Saengsingh Pichitra Thamasatit

Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

Editorial Remarks
International Journal of Behavioral Science (IJBS) is sponsored by the Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. This journal endows a platform for research works and articles providing an interdisciplinary perspective, from the social, behavioral, and health sciences, which address contemporary issues of national and international concern. The Journal compiles research works that provide a translation of theory to practice in various academic fields, focusing on issues that are of concern to our society. This edition of the journal reflects a balanced mix of research contributions from disciplines in the health sciences, psychology including work psychology, education, pharmacy, human services, and social change. Thus, the journal aims to be a source of relevant information, for the Asian region and internationally, for both researchers and practitioners by highlighting best practices in design, intervention, implementation, evaluation, and outcomes. The Editorial Board is commended for the efforts that have resulted in once again publishing this journal through an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary academic collaboration. It is hoped that this journal will continue to publish and share research works that facilitate the evolution and development of a cultured, civilized and humane existence in a turbulent world.

Instructions to Authors
Disseminating period: International Journal of Behavioral Science (IJBS) is published annually. For academic dissemination, each volume is free of charge and can be downloaded at website: http://www.ijbsjournal.com or http://bsri.swu.ac.th Ordering information: Behavioral Science Research Institute (BSRI), Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), Bangkok, Thailand. Tel. +662-2262-0809; Office of the Secretary: Tel. +662-649-5000, ext. 7611, 7612; Fax. +662-2649-5182; E-mail: journal_ijbs@hotmail.com Journal owner: The IJBS is an academic issue which belongs to Behavioral Science Research Institute (BSRI), Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), Bangkok, Thailand. Journal Standard: The editorial board consists of professors, experts in various fields, and reviewers with doctoral degree who have experience in conducting and publishing research. Some of them are outsiders (working at other universities) and some work at our institution, BSRI; at least two reviewers evaluate each manuscript. Submission of Manuscript: 1. The submitted manuscript should be in the fields of social sciences and humanities, which focuses on human behaviours research with an interdisciplinary approach. 2. Most of the required articles are research, and academic, works and review articles. 3. Before publishing, each manuscript for The IJBS, must have been considered and accepted by at least 2 reviewers. 4. Each manuscript must specify authors name, abstract, and key words in English. 5. The submission must be an original work, which has not been published previously. Instruction for preparation Manuscripts: I. The research paper should be based on the APA Style format6th edition) - The paper should not exceed 15 pages in length, including references, tables, and figures - Typed in English on standard A4 size paper (8.5" x 11") - Double spaced with 1 inch margins on all sides - Use a font of 12 pt. Times New Roman - All submissions should be Microsoft Word documents - Major sections of the paper should include: an abstract, Introduction (mention the background and importance of the problem), and brief literature review, objectives, conceptual framework (if so), hypotheses, Methodology (samples, research instruments, steps of conducting the research), Results, Discussion, and References. - Reference style should follow the American Psychological Association (APA Style format6th edition) system of citing sources. II. When submitting the paper, of each submission should clearly mention the following: - Title - Authors name and work places - Abstract of not more than 250 words - Key words must be specified beneath the Abstract. For the APA style format you can visit the link: www.apastyle.org or http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl Published by

C ONTENT
Informal Networks as Alternatives of Life Development for Return Migrants
Nittana Southiseng and John Walsh

1 12 13 24 25 40 41 58 59 72

Interpreting the Themes of Spirituality among Health Care Workers in Thailand

Dusadee Yoelao and Kanu Priya Mohan

A Conceptual Structure of Resilience among Thai Elderly

Sonthaya Maneerat, Sang-arun Isaramalai, and Umaporn Boonyasopun

A Factor Analysis and Enhancement of Adolescent Students Autonomy Through Group Counseling
Seri Maichan, Khomphet Chatsupakul, Pongpan Kirdpitak, and Dusadee Yoelao

Parents Communication Styles and Their Influence on the Adolscents Attachment, Intimacy and Achievement Motivation
Sally I. Maximo, Hylene S. Tayaban Grace B. Cacdac, Myki Jen A. Cacanindin, Robert John S. Pugat, Melvin F. Rivera, and Melowin C. Lingbawan

The Impostor Phenomenon

Jaruwan Sakulku and James Alexander

73 92

Book Review Transforming Performance Measurement: Rethinking the Way We Measure and Drive Organizational Success
Yutthana Chaijukul

93 103

SOUTHISENG AND WALSH by Behavioral Science Research Institute International Journal of Behavioral Science Copyright 2011 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 1-12 ISSN: 1906-4675

Informal Networks as Alternatives of Life Development for Return Migrants

Nittana Southiseng1, John Walsh2
Labour migration is a vital part of modern economies and the management and integration of migrants into the labour force is of great importance in fashioning its ability to adapt to and take advantage of emergent opportunities. This study applied a qualitative approach to exploring how return migrants are re-integrated into the society and the labour market once they are back in their home country, Laos. This was both to determine their own personal status post-return and also to identify means by which the government might improve return to migration for Lao workers as a whole. In-depth interviews and direct observation were used in combination with the content analysis of the secondary data. Findings were mainly based upon evidence got from the interviews. Both skilled and unskilled returnees have regularly turned to informal networks for assistance, on their own account, partly because official programs could be disorganized and lack resources. It has been found that most return migrants find themselves unemployed and have had to turn to access to their informal networks (parents, relatives, cousin and friends) to borrow money, get ideas and suggestions, locate further network connections so as to prepare to enter self-employment and personal investment in ventures such as grocery stores, beauty salons, food street vending and similar. Returnee management has been disappointing because of inadequate NGO involvement, lack of strategies to mobilize migrants knowledge and expertise, and lack of complete and up-to-date statistics, among other constraints. Nevertheless, skilled return migrants have been able to leverage their learned skills, knowledge and competencies to start new ventures when employment opportunities were not available to them. Keywords: return migrant, informal network, Laos

Labour migration is a vital part of modern economies and the management and integration of migrants into the labour force of great importance in fashioning the ability of an economy to adapt to change and to take advantage of emergent opportunities. This is particularly true of Laos, which is a low income country with limited technical capacity to increase the quality of its human resources. Many thousands of Lao citizens migrate internationally to work, principally in Thailand but also further afield. The benefits of this to the Lao economy include the remittances sent home by overseas workers and then the integration of newly acquired skills and competencies when the migrants return. However, this presupposes that mechanisms exist to facilitate the readmission of returning workers into the
1 2

SME Development Specialist, Trade & Investment Facilitation, Mekong Institute, Khon Kaen University, Thailand Lecturer, Shinawatra University, Bangkok, Thailand

INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

local economy smoothly, in such a way as to benefit from any new skills brought to it. This is the focus of this research paper, which reports on a program of qualitative interviewing conducted among return migrants in Lao. That is, the focus of investigation is both upon individuals and their experiences overseas and ability to be reintegrated into society and the labour market and, also, at the governmental level how can migrants generally find work back in Laos in such ways that they can bring to bear newly acquired skills and competencies for the benefit of the economy as a whole. From 1975-90, an unknown number of Lao people migrated to countries with better economic conditions, such as Thailand, China and western countries, due to political issues and personal aspiration. The economic differences in the Mekong Region encouraged people to migrate to relatively wealthier countries. The International Labour Organization (ILO) supported a study by the Lao Government that found that nearly 7% of households in three border provinces had family members working in Thailand. With more than half of the population under the age of 20, young Laotians migrate to fill unskilled jobs and become vulnerable to trafficking for sexual and labour exploitation, particularly in Thailand (Phetsiriseng, 2003). Economic migrants are joined by refugees from some ethnic minority groups, principally the Hmong, who fought on the losing side in the civil war that resulted in the Pathet Lao revolutionary success. Refugees often find it difficult to demonstrate their status and are in any case held in camps in Thailand in which conditions are difficult and opportunities to earn income are limited. Some refugees are, therefore, at enhanced risk of human trafficking. Even so, many of them did not opt to return to their countries of origin since, during previous return episodes, some had been fined and/or detained, even those who had been forcibly taken overseas by human trafficking gangs. Meanwhile, other recent returnees have found themselves unemployed and have turned to informal networks for help and to occupy themselves with casual work on a day-to-day basis. In addition, at a time of global economic downturn, jobs are not plentiful in the formal sector and migrants might be obliged either to start their own businesses or to return to under-employment in family agricultural ventures. An important aspect of the ability of return migrants to be reintegrated into the local economy effectively is their ability to create, sustain and obtain leverage from their informal networks of connections. Investigating the extent to which this has been possible has been one of the more important motivating factors for this research.

SOUTHISENG AND WALSH

Terms of Return for Migrants and National Development

Just as international migrant workers may be allotted to numerous different categories, so too may return migrants be treated as belonging to a range of different situations. Some of these categories have been investigated, although systematic studies of return migration aimed at providing a comprehensive theoretical framework are rare, certainly in the context of the Mekong Region. De Souza (2006), for example, explained that return migrants are retirees who always intended to return to their country of origin with the expectation of contributing to their home countries because they have become old and are no longer working in the formal labour market. Skilled return migrants in this category may be poised to become more important to local government policy, since they hold the potential to help build cross-border networks, forge further links between sending and receiving countries and directly contribute to development efforts. Corcoran (2003), meanwhile, stated that regardless of whether the returnees concerned are skilled or unskilled, they are nevertheless highly self-aware. This helps them leverage their experience overseas in their home country. Owing to the cross-cultural awareness and ability obtained from the international experience, returnees felt they had improved themselves, particularly in the areas of self-management and confidence. To develop better quality of life for the return migrants, a number of factors should be considered, such as motivations for return, relevance of acquired skills to the countrys development priorities, legislative, economic and social conditions in the country of origin and the ways that government and informal networks help returnees reintegrate into society, as observed by De Souza (2006). Skrentny et al. (2007), in a comparative study concerning return migration policy in Asia and Europe, found that Malaysia encouraged skilled former citizens to return to their home country as they were a valuable source of income and investment for national development. This was also true of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, which also appeared to have similar policies aimed at helping and encouraging return migrants as a means of boosting national development. However, this situation is complicated by the fact that many migrants left because of civil war, persecution or the fear of persecution.

INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

Migration and Return Migration in Laos

The Lao government reinvigorated its interest in fighting human trafficking in 2001 and attempted to improve its awareness of returnees identities and circumstances, promulgating new laws to assist them and increasing enforcement of existing laws. In 2006, for instance, the Thai Social Development and Human Security Permanent Secretary and the Lao Labour and Social Welfare Permanent Secretary co-chaired the Thai-Lao committee to introduce the Plan of Action to Return and Reintegrate Trafficked Victims to provide special employment schemes for those repatriated, as well as providing some vocational training and other support, such as food, household and business equipment, land for homes and so on (Phetsiriseng, 2003). The Lao and Thai governments have furthermore agreed to address the problems by legalizing workers currently in Thailand, protecting their rights as well as ensuring that they are paid the same as Thai workers. After such an agreement, around 90 Lao workers were legally sent to work in Thailand, and also got paid at least 150 Baht a day as well as social insurance. However, there is of course pressure from employers to avoid this additional paperwork, which is perceived as restrictive and a cost which removes competitive advantage most workers operate in very low value-added activities which rely almost entirely on low labour costs for competitiveness.

Methodology
This study applied a qualitative approach to explore return migrants and their informal networks in Laos as a mean of improving quality of life. Although there is quite a considerable strand of literature considering the nature of labour migration and return, to date little of it applies to the Laotian situation. This research builds upon existing knowledge about return migration and aims to extend insights gained elsewhere to the Lao people. This is, in other words, a form of confirmatory research which aims to build upon existing theoretical structures and extend them into a context in which they had not previously been considered. This approach has rigorous methodological strictures of its own (e.g., Jaeger and Halliday, 1998). Indepth interviews and direct observation were used in combination with content analysis of secondary data. Prior to interviews, the authors contacted known return migrants by using networking as well as snowball-style approaches. The potential respondents were contacted by telephone to explain the nature and purpose of the research and reach agreement and make appointments for subsequent face-to-face interviews. This means the

SOUTHISENG AND WALSH

authors had certain contacts with some known return migrants before interviewing them; and later those interviewed respondents suggested other key respondents to the authors for further interviews. Where possible, further respondents identified by this snowball approach were selected with a view to maximize diversity so as to avoid the known problem with this method that it tends towards homogeneity in the sample selected (e.g., Russell and Gregory, 2003). The respondents were returnees who had migrated to other countries such as Thailand, America, Australia, Japan and elsewhere. The interviews took place during April-June 2008. Eleven face-to-face interviews took place in respondents shelters as they were comfortable and convenient, while one additional interview was carried out via phone. The respondents of this study consisted of six men and six women, aged from 24 to 55 years old. Seven of them were single. The interviews were conducted in Vientiane Municipality and Savannakhet province, which are the sources of most emigration from Laos. Four respondents were born in Vientiane Municipality; two respondents originated from Savannakhet province before having moved to Vientiane when they were young, while the remainder were respondents from Savannakhet province. Some interviews were tape recorded for subsequent transcription and detailed notes were made on the spot in other cases. Each interview took at least one hour, and each involved using the same scope or checklist guidelines, which included 1) reasons for leaving Laos, 2) working experiences in adopted counties, 3) their lives and informal networks upon their return and 4) plans of their lives and expected required assistance. The results are presented and discussed below. The content analysis used to explore the interview transcripts is conceptual in nature: that is, it investigates the concepts described by respondents according to a framework established (at least in part) by pre-existing research (cf. Elo and Kyngs, 2008).

Results and Discussion

Reasons for Leaving Laos There are two types of return migrants: skilled and unskilled return migrants. Skilled migrants interviewed for this study were diverse in educational achievement, including those with undergraduate degrees in dentistry, with an English language major, engineering or vocational training skills in primary school teaching. These respondents generally had preferred to work and earn their living in developed countries such as the USA,

INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

Australia, Japan, France and Canada. These attempted migrants not only anticipated working there for income but also for further study, visiting relatives and improving their second language ability, especially the English language, which is considered as one of the most important abilities in obtaining a job in Laos at the moment. Unskilled return migrants had fewer choices and mostly opted to migrate to and work in Thailand. Most of them said that as soon as they finished their studies at high school (some only completed primary school), they immediately left Laos for Thailand. Some went to Thailand to follow a partner who was working in that country, while others stressed the fact that Laos and Thailand border each other and share many similarities, including language, appearance, dress and cultural values, and ease of migration. Consequently, many Lao migrants could enter Thailand with a border pass and illegally move to other provinces of Thailand, even Bangkok, to find jobs there. They may have stayed in Thailand for up to seven years, in some cases crossing or re-crossing the border legally or illegally as opportunity dictated. Thai government regulations restrict migrant workers to specific provinces and specific occupations. Owing to the many similarities between Lao and Thai people, Lao migrants find it much easier to move to other locations and jobs than, for example, Cambodian or Burmese migrants (Walsh and Ty, 2011). Generally speaking, the reasons for migration varied. Some people fled Laos to avoid fighting and persecution, while others admitted that economic and political reasons were usually intertwined. On the whole, within this sample, economic motivations seemed to dominate the migration decision. One respondent observed that several Lao emigrants moved because they expected to be paid more in the overseas countries based on their personal experiences, while others were persuaded to do so by friends and job brokers. Some respondents felt that they had little alternative to earn income because they had little or no formal education and their work performance at home was not very encouraging. They felt that they could at least sell their labour overseas. In addition, it was found that Lao emigrants tended to be in the younger age group and lower than what was expected. These included a number of young women who had followed their fiancs and spouses to Western countries. For those couples who had gone to Thailand, the men mostly found work in the fishing and construction industries, in factories, construction sites, sugar cane and rubber plantations. Women most commonly worked in factories, restaurants, entertainment venues and,

SOUTHISENG AND WALSH

mostly for women travelling alone or without their own volition, the sex industry. Many of the female respondents felt it was their duty to earn money and remit that to their families and so, they were often willing to take almost any paid job. Apart from this, family pressure was another reason which caused respondents to migrate. Family pressures are not always easy to untangle: women, especially women who are single parents, are likely to find they place pressure upon themselves to provide a better life for their children while pressure is placed upon them by their family members simultaneously. This has also been found in samples of women from China and Vietnam (Pai, 2008; Gaetano and Jacka, 2004; Thi, 2008). McCoy (2007) noted that growing levels of materialism in the young further spur the desire for more highly paid jobs and that encouraged the young to migrate to where they would be paid more and thus could obtain more consumer goods both for themselves and for their families at home. As capitalist endeavour has spread throughout the Mekong Region, often in an unregulated or semi-regulated nature, new opportunities for enrichment present themselves but at the risk of exploitation for vulnerable workers (cf. Smith, 2011). Migrants Work in Adopted Countries According to the interviews, it is not always easy to find work in the destination country, especially in developed countries such as the USA and Australia. In such cases, many migrants resorted to informal work such as part-time work in neighbours small grocery shops or doing work that could be managed at home, such as sewing, and being paid in cash. One woman worked regularly behind closed doors in designing and making clothes for Lao people living nearby. She found it not very challenging even though she had never had any experience or training in this area. Another obtained a job in a Japanese car assembly factory. Later, as a result of her proficiency in English, she was promoted to group leader and was made responsible for managing her team members, whose English abilities were lower, including providing orientation and training and problem-solving. Her undergraduate degree had been in English language from Laos and this was of great assistance. While this respondent was able to increase her skills, the other respondents said they had faced the opposite process. Nevertheless, both skilled and unskilled workers reported that at least they brought home with them new skills and competencies. These benefited them in subsequent employment and entrepreneurialism in Laos in a variety of ways.

INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

Return Migrants Lives and Informal Networks in Laos While reasons for return did vary, the most repeated reason was that economic objectives had been achieved and that a scheduled return was therefore made. Many were aware of the increased openness of the Lao economy: the number of foreign direct investment projects in agriculture and forestry, industry and handicrafts, wood products, and else have been increasing and migrants believed they would have an advantage in claiming jobs in these attractive projects, which customarily offer higher salaries and clearer career paths (IMF, 2009). In addition, they felt they could also look after their families better owing to their accumulated savings and remittances already made. According to interviews, upon the respondents return, new job opportunities opened for those returnees (especially with improved English ability), particularly as English teachers, coordinator in foreign investments and in the Poverty Reduction Programs of NGOs. However, unskilled workers seemed to have fewer job opportunities and a number of them have remained unemployed. Indeed, a new generation of cyclical migrants appears to have arisen. The alternatives involved selfemployment, for instance, selling home made ice cream and confectionery, tailoring and construction work. Nevertheless, even when obvious improvements in income or future opportunities were apparent, all respondents felt that their lives and their abilities had improved. This might be manifested in a greater sense of self-confidence or ability to adapt to new situations. Most respondents revealed that they commonly received assistance from their informal networks, such as families, relatives, friends and, also, members of society at large. Family members were usually the first to lend a hand. Assistance included encouragement, working support, suggestions concerning networks and connections, advice, accommodation and, not least, financial support where required. It is considered easier to borrow money from relatives than from the formal sector or non-family members of the informal sector. Fewer steps were necessary to arrange a loan and there was no need for formal paperwork, just a verbal agreement between those involved. Interest was rarely charged and there was no set limit for when the money had to be repaid. However, the amount of money available was limited because relatives had little and were reluctant to put all their accumulated capital at risk. In addition to relatives, friends also represented an important resource, offering assistance in knowledge about job opportunities and potential customers, as well as being possible business partners.

SOUTHISENG AND WALSH

None of the respondents had accessed relevant public assistance services, whether offered by the government or by any of the international partners. Indeed, a number of respondents reported that they had in fact never heard of such assistance projects. Some were aware of vocational training services, especially for trafficked returnees and of schemes to help Lao people find jobs overseas. However, respondents were again reluctant to access these services for fear of lengthy bureaucratic procedures and other formalities. Briefly, both skilled and unskilled returnees have turned to informal networks, partly because official programs are probably disorganized and lack necessary resources. Many returnees found themselves unemployed and had turned to self-employment and personal investment in ventures and dayto-day or casual work such as grocery stores, beauty salons, food street vending and similar. Ineffective information dissemination and law enforcement have resulted in recycling and new migration events and increased the risk of human trafficking. However, all of the respondents seemed happy to be back in their home country and to be among their family and friends, irrespective of an objective assessment of the success or failure of their migration experiences. Any income gained from overseas was, in general, happily shared with family members and friends. Regarding their future, the returnees planned to open their own businesses, either immediately or at some stage in the future. They look to apply their skills and experience to establish schools to teach English, mini mart retail outlets, beauty salons, restaurants or others. However, many found that constraints of capital, information and connections, and threat of risk and loss prevented them from realizing their plans. The returnees at this point often shied away from making the commitment, instead preferring to take another period of migration to try to close the perceived skills and resources gaps. Indeed, they may have postponed plans indefinitely and instead supported their children to obtain as much education as possible with a view to being supported by them at some later stage. Meanwhile, some returnees made plans to make new trips, preferably to developed countries, including the USA and Australia as described previously but also Japan.

Conclusions and Recommendations

This research project aimed to determine the issues and problems involved with re-integrating return economic migrants in Laos by investigating a sample of respondents from Vientiane and Savannakhet. According to the information provided by respondents, there was a clear distinction to be drawn between the skilled and unskilled returnees. The

INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

former were mostly able to integrate themselves into society well and were able to find work, often by starting their own new ventures. However, unskilled returnees found it comparatively difficult to reintegrate themselves and were unable to find work or have the resources or ability to start their own ventures. To a certain extent, of course, it is people capable of acquiring skills and competencies prior to leaving Laos who were able to use those skills and competencies on their return. Nevertheless, there is clearly scope for closer identification of critical skills and knowledge that can increase the ability to obtain work overseas and also to be able to use those skills on returning to Laos. It remains the case that, in the aggregate, return migration improves the nature of the economy of the country to some extent. As a recommendation, public awareness campaigns are probably required to help Lao people become more aware of the dangers involved in seeking work oversea but the lack of employment opportunities and grinding poverty at home are also important. These conditions may still make working abroad appear attractive. Only a stronger economy with better work opportunities and higher wages will discourage labour migration and this seems to be a distant prospect at the moment. The returnees, in describing how their future colleagues might make best use of the opportunities overseas, tended to share their own failures. They expressed the importance, for example, of being prepared for overseas conditions and being knowledgeable in both the skills necessary there as well as the need for establishing an entrepreneurial business on their return. They also talked about the importance of abiding by laws and regulations and completing all formalities, even though they themselves rarely managed to do this. Lack of knowledge benefits employers, agents and traffickers, as well as those who profit from their activities. Properly workable agreements with Thailand, in particular, are necessary in order to reduce the prevalent level of exploitation. Consequently, at the personal level, the crucial issue seems to be the ability to find skilled work overseas and the capacity to bring that skill and newly-learned skills to bear in the Lao workforces through starting new ventures or being integrated into firms that can obtain value from those skills. At the government level, meanwhile, it is necessary to take steps perhaps in partnership with the private sector and NGOs to obtain sufficient information to assist migrants both prior to and post-return overseas in line with best practice methods supported by the International Labour Organization, for example. As ever, the education of unskilled workers remains a very high priority in promoting future economic growth in a country.

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References
Corcoran, M. P. (2003). The process of migration and the reinvention of self: The experiences of returning Irish emigrants. In K. Kenny (Ed.), New Directions in Irish American History (pp.302-318). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. De Souza, R. M. (2006). Using return migration as a development tool-Are the right policies in place?. Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved from ttp://www.prb.org/Articles/2006/UsingReturnMigrationAsaDevelop mentToolAretheRightPoliciesinPlace.aspx Elo, S., & Kyngs, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(1), 107-115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648. 2007.04569.x Gaetano, A. M., & Jacka, T. (2004). On the move: Women and rural-tourban migration in contemporary China. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. International Monetary Fund. (2009). IMF executive board concludes 2009 article IV consultation with the Lao peoples democratic republic. Retrieved September 11, 2009 from http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/ pn/2009/pn09115.htm Jaeger, R. G., & Halliday, T. R. (1998). On confirmatory versus exploratory research, Herpetologica, 54 (suppl. S64-6). Retrieved from http://www. jstor.org /pss/3893289 McCoy, C. (2007). The ins and outs of leaving Laos. Asia Times Online. Retrieved August 11th, 2007 from http://www.atimes.com/atimes/ Southeast_Asia/IH11Ae01.html Pai, H. H. (2008). Chinese whispers: The true story behind Britains hidden army of labour. London, England: Penguin. Phetsiriseng, I. (2003). Lao PDR: Preliminary assessment of illegal labour migration and trafficking in children and women for labour exploitation. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/bangkok/ child/trafficking/downloads/lao_pdr_ticw.pdf Russell, C. K., & Gregory, D. M. (2003), Evaluation of qualitative research studies, Evidence Based Nursing, 6(2), 36-40. doi:10.1136/ebn.6.2.36 Skrentny, J. D., Chan, S., Fox, J. & Kim, D. (2007). Defining nations in Asia and Europe: A comparative analysis of ethnic return migration policy. International Migration Review, 44(4), 793-825. doi:10.1111/j.17477379.2007.00100.x Smith, B. (2011). Local losers in Lao casino capitalism. Asia Times Online. Retrieved August 2nd, 2011 from http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_ Asia/ MH02Ae01.html

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INFORMAL NETWORKS AS ALTERNATIVES OF LIFE DEVELOPMENT FOR RETURN MIGRANTS

Thi, L. (2008). Single women in Vietnam. Hanoi, Vietnam: The Gioi Publishers. Walsh, J., & Ty, M. (2011). Cambodian migrants in Thailand: Working conditions and issues, Asian Social Science, 7(7), 23-9. Retrieved from http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ass/article/view/8797/7980

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International Journal of Behavioral Science Copyright 2011 by Behavioral Science Research Institute YOELAO AND MOHAN 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 13-24 ISSN: 1906-4675

Interpreting the Themes of Spirituality among Health Care Workers in Thailand

Dusadee Yoelao1, Kanu Priya Mohan2
Spirituality, as a concept and its positive consequences, is being increasingly explored in research from the viewpoint of various professional groups. An important perspective is that of the health care providers, who play an important role in any society as they take care of the health problems and the needs of the sick. Working in this profession requires a spirit of empathy and selflessness while providing service, and often stirs the spiritual component within the service provider. This paper is a part of an extensive research project initiated in by a non government organization to investigate the concept of spirituality, its causes and consequences from the perspective of health care workers in Thailand. A research sample of fifty persons was selected to be representative of all the four regions of Thailand. Qualitative techniques were used to research and analyze the meaning, causes and consequences of spirituality. The findings of this research showed that the participants from the health care services shared five themes representing the core of spirituality which were related to the: goal and meaning of life, consciousness of death, insight into self, insight into others, and non material value. Keywords: spirituality, health care workers in Thailand

This research was an attempt to examine the themes of Spirituality from the perspective of health care workers, choosing the sample from different regions of Thailand and then collecting and analyzing data using qualitative techniques. The main questions that arise in the mind of the reader are: why the focus on Spirituality, what is the relationship of Spirituality and health care workers, and what is unique about this research - set in context of Thailand?. The following review would try to answer these queries. For mankind, spirituality has perhaps always been a profound mystical concept to be sought after, and has been given several interpretations through the work of philosophers, religious leaders and then through systematic research. After conducting an extensive review of contemporary definitions, Smith and Rayment (2008) identified some common features, and from these they drew together the following definition: Spirituality is a state or experience that can provide individuals with direction or meaning, or provide feelings of understanding, support, inner wholeness or connectedness.

1 2

Assoc.Prof., Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand Lecturer, Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

In terms of valuing various dimension of human life, nothing is more important that the health of a person. The various aspects of a healthy individual include the physical, mental, social and spiritual health. According to Khayat (2004), even the World Health Organization in report (WHO, 1984 as cited in Khayat, 2004), recognized the importance of spiritual health in the overall health of a person. Way back in 1984, WHO in their Thirty-seventh World Health Assembly took the historic decision to adopt resolution WHA37.13, which made the spiritual dimension part and parcel of WHO Member States strategies for health. Interest in the relationship between Spirituality and health has sustained and in fact grown due to the positive consequences observed among people. In his paper dated back to 1999, Thoresen highlighted that the role of spiritual factors in health, viewed from a scientific perspective, has been yielding interesting if not intriguing results. This interest can be further understood by examining the research of Puchalski (2001) who highlighted that spirituality in health care is linked to mortality, coping, and recovery. Furthermore, the author says that in the past few decades physicians have attempted to balance their care by reclaiming medicine's more spiritual roots, recognizing that until modern times, spirituality was often linked with health care. In the field of health, spirituality has been examined from the dual perspectives of people who are sick or suffering from some ailment (e.g. cancer patients), and also from the people who provide them care the health care workers. According to a report by World Health Organization (2006), health workers are people whose job it is to protect and improve the health of their communities. Furthermore, a health care provider or a health professional may work with an organization or independently to deliver proper health care in a systematic way, professionally to any individual in need of health related concerns. A health care provider often has a challenging task of taking care of the needs of the client/patient which could be emotionally draining for them. When faced with such challenges, a person may be required to go beyond his/her given resources and reach deep within ones self to not only understand the needs of the patients, but also to deal effectively with the demands of the role that they play as a care giver. Valuable linkages have been found between spirituality and other significant variables in the field of health care. In their research of health care managers in UK, Strack, Fottler, and Kilpatrick (2008) found the existence of a statistically significant correlation between the spirituality dimensions and the leadership dimensions, while there was also a

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statistically significant difference between the leadership dimensions mean scores and health care managers who were more spiritual than nonspiritual. In an investigation of health care providers spirituality, Fletcher (2004) found that Spirituality could be defined in a variety of ways, including a relation to ones ultimate purpose, a feeling beyond science, having a relationship with a higher power (not necessarily God), a human component in addition to mind and body, and a mystery or unknown. If we address the basic issue of this research, one would need to understand what spirituality means to the narrowed target of the research - to the people in working in health care. In their extensive research Sessana, Finnell, and Jezewski (2007) did a concept analysis about spirituality. Their findings revealed that spirituality was defined within four main themes in the nursing and health-related literature: (a) spirituality as religious systems of beliefs and values (spirituality = religion); (b) spirituality as life meaning, purpose, and connection with others; (c) spirituality as nonreligious systems of beliefs and values; and (d) spirituality as metaphysical or transcendental phenomena. The health care workers in Thailand face their own set of work demands. Wiwanitkit (2011) has reported that the main problem for Thailand's health system in has been an inadequate number of physicians and other healthcare workers in rural areas. Due to this, for decades in Thailand, rural service has been mandatory for healthcare workers. This often puts pressure of adjustment to the work demands and also to the rural living conditions. So does spirituality help a health worker to deal with the work demands in a more effective way? Keeping in perspective the various meanings of the concepts of spirituality in the field of health care and its evident positive consequences, this research endeavoured to investigate and answer the research question: How is the concept of spirituality defined from the perspective of the health care workers in Thailand? This research aimed to provide a unique opportunity to delve in to the Thai culture and gain researches based insight about the meaning of spirituality, and also compare these with the previous research findings from other cultures. This research was funded as a part of project with a wider scope that investigated not only the themes of spirituality, but also its causes and consequences. The subjects addressed were the health care workers in various hospitals of Thailand, who have demanding tasks of taking care of the sick and the needy.

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

Objectives of the study

The main purpose of this research study was to explain Spirituality from the perspective of health care workers in Thailand. For the research investigation, the following objectives of the study were outlined: 1. To build the concept of spirituality from the empirical data. 2. To explain the perceived causes and consequences of the spirituality.

Method
Participants in the study were fifty health care workers, selected from hospitals providing the humanized care. The selected participants were working in hospitals and we selected to be representative of all four regions of Thailand. The participants composed of physician doctors, dentists, nurses, and health volunteers. Some of them were Muslim, but the majority was Buddhists. The participants were divided in four groups according to their region of work. Within each group, the technique of dialogue was used to collect data by 2-3 facilitators using various activities. Each group met three times, for two days for the scheduled meetings. Each group had a facilitator and note taker. The following topics were discussed among each group: thought and experience of working as a humanized helper, activities and methods of work, aspiration for work, and self-change. Data collecting was scheduled in 2008 as per the following sequence: the central region in August-October, the Southern region in September-0ctober, the Northern region in AugustOctober, the Northeastern region in August-November. Each meeting was videotaped and tape recorded then data was transcribed verbatim. Data Analysis Qualitative data was collected for this research. Over 1,000 pages of data were analyzed in three steps of coding. First the open coding or substantial coding was performed independently by one researcher. This coding was further discussed in a group meeting of two researchers. Then all open coding were discussed in the meeting of the complete research team. Secondly, axial coding was performed by two researcher groups, and verified by the project head. Finally selective coding was done by the project head,

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and discussed with the research team. Then two external experts in the areas of Philosophy and Psychology examined the axial and selective coding.

Results
The findings of the research have been analyzed to understand the concept, causes and consequences of spirituality from the perspective of health care providers in Thailand. First the information about the domains of spirituality are explored, with the results later consolidated to understand the core of spirituality, its manifestation and consequences as experienced by the health care workers. Domains of Spirituality Through the data collected in this research, it can be said that Spirituality was described in various ways: as a state of mind, as being able to know ones goal and meaning of his/her life, consciousness of the death, having faith in something or some super power, being understanding and insightful of oneself and of others, and being non-materialistic. These elements were viewed as the core or the essence of spirituality. The perceived causes of spirituality were the presence of a spiritual model in the persons life, spiritual experiences, and the support from people. The immediate outcomes of being spiritual were showing helping behavior towards others, and heightened energy in working. The final outcomes experienced as a result of being spiritual were psychological well being, happiness and self-esteem. The Core of Spirituality Each of these five elements, that reflected the core of the concept of Spirituality, as developed from this research, is explained as follows. Meaning and Goal of Life Meaning and goal of life was described as an awareness of a goal of one life, what one wanted to achieve and understand meaning of one life, use it to determine ways of life. One of the participant said that, when I was in college there were many times that I felt good after I took care of the patients as I was told to do, then I love being doctor and intended to do it well. Other participant said, I like to set goal and try to achieve it. Also some participants showed that they had principles or ways of thinking as they go

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

through lifes goal as one said, Nobody was bad from birth, but there were some environments or causes which make a person bad, and we should try to help them to be happy. Participants showed their concern about patients dignity: I asked if the AIDS patients would be fine if we visit their home because they may not want the neighbor to know or they commented that when dealing with the patient we should let the patient decide how much he can do or how he wants to do, not demand him to do as we wanted. Not only were the participants aware about their goals but they also reported how they understood the meaning of their life during their work experience: I looked back to my life and know that nothing lasts forever. There is no problem that cannot be corrected. There is nothing best, but rather we should live for happiness of all people around us, little by little. Consciousness of Death Consciousness of death was described as being emotionally aware of the imminent death of patients and being able to change oneself after that. One of the participants stated that: I wanted to help a child to recover from a shock one evening, I started the manual heart pumping at midnight without any close supervision, but I could not help him. The child died. I felt so sad and stressed out. One of the participant reported the death of one patient motivated him to become a good doctor: I was in my 4th year at the medical school, and the patient was a skinny child having pneumonia. He was brought in by his parent, who was a street trash keeper. I took care of him as best I could, but he died. I felt sad as I thought that maybe he died between 2-5 a.m. in the morning when I had gone to sleep. I thought if I was with him, he may not have died. This inspired me to be a good doctor. Ever since that, I go to sleep only when all the patients have gone to sleep. Insight into Self Insight into self was defined as being conscious of ones thought and feelings. It had three components - mindfulness, knowing ones self, and self evaluation or self reflection. Participants narrated situations where they listened to others with mindfulness: my mind was focused on the subject he talked, and I could understand him better. One participant stated that when I arrived at the hospital, I leave my bad feelings outside. I think I was good in managing my emotions. Participants reflected on their past behavior of showing bad temper and evaluate it as being not appropriate. Then they tried

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to change for better as one said: I used to be hot tempered, and a lot of people were hurt by me. But now I learned that I should not pass my temper to the patient. One participant learnt that she was easily hurt by others and became de-motivated or sad. So she tried to cope by attempting to think positive about everything to overcome her feelings. Insight into Others Insight into others was described as being conscious of other needs and beliefs. Participants showed their awareness of others, the patients suffering the effects of sickness, and tried to help, Never before I felt aware that how much patients were suffering, but when my mother was sick, I felt such strong emotions with her suffering and almost committed suicide myself. Some participants showed that they tried to place themselves in others situation to understand their feeling. Also with their role as a superior, one participant knew how his subordinate felt and tried to help him: He was an alcoholic. At first I asked him whether he wanted to be in a re-habilitation. The next day he asked for a transfer, and then I knew how he felt. That evening I met him, gave him my hug, told him that I love you, if you need me to help please let me know, but I dont want you to take a transfer. Then he cried. After that he worked better and drank less. The participant also felt bad when she saw someone didn't aware of others suffering, sometimes I wanted to cry when I saw some of the workers ignored patients suffering. In addition, they were evidences that participants sensed the patients' personal beliefs and helped them to fulfill their needs: I used their cultural beliefs along with my treatment, and I found that they felt better. Non Material Value Non material value was described as the emphasis on the internal value not the external or instrumental value of things. Participants showed this characteristic of this behavior by doing something for its own values against doing it for recognition of others, prize, token, money, or as a mean to other achievement. One participant stated that I volunteer to do this, the hospital paid some money, but I didnt care much about it. I just wanted to help my human friends. Also one doctor said, I asked myself while I worked for helping someone in suffering, my friend worked for the sake of a private company, and he was paid ten times more than me. Then why did I stay on my job? The answer was because I valued heart more than money.

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

The Emerging Themes of Spirituality The emerging themes of spirituality are shown in the figure 1, which reflects the causes, the core of spirituality (comprised of five elements as mentioned in the above findings) and the relationships among various aspects leading to the consequences of spirituality. Spirituality was perceived to be caused by participants spiritual experiences and models. The spiritual experiences were described as learned from religious practices, by being with some persons who were dying, learned from the suffering of problems in personal life, and having directly talked with someone known as a highly spiritual person. The spiritual role models of the participants were someone in the family, someone in society who acted as a role model of spirituality. The outcome of being spiritual was engaging in spiritual behaviors, comprised of helping others, performing duties with energy, and acting with concern of others dignity. In addition to the direct causes of spirituality, there were two moderators for behavior outcomes: supports from work and family, and positive climate at the workplace. Lastly the end result of spirituality was experiencing the feelings of happiness and self esteem.
Spiritual Behaviour -Performing duties with energy -Act with concern for others dignity -Social support -Organizational climate Outcomes -Psychological well-being -Self esteem

Spiritual Experience and Spiritual Models

Core of Spirituality -Meaning and Purpose of life -Consciousness of death -Insight into self -Insight into others -Non material value

Figure 1. The emerging themes of spirituality.

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Discussion
As it was revealed from the findings of this research, the participants from the health care services shared five categories about the core of spirituality. Those were: goal and meaning of life, consciousness of death, insight into self, insight into others, and non material value. A review of research evidence indicates that Spirituality is shown to have various meanings, and structure depending on disciplines, culture, and experiences. The findings of the current research are compared with the evidence from previous researches in the Western countries. It was found that there are some dimensions of spirituality that emerge in this research but not in the previous researches. The findings of this study indicated that some elements in the core spirituality corroborated with the findings of previous researches using empirical data from qualitative studies. Concepts such as goal and meaning of life, non materialism, and consciousness of death were partly found in the study by Elkin, Hedstrom, Hughes, Leaf, and Saunders (1988), which was a study of cross cultural participants. The different subthemes were an insight into oneself, and insight into others. Also this study classified happiness and self-esteem as outcome of being spiritual, instead of being part of spirituality as was in Elkins fruit of spirituality. In this study by Elkin et al. (1988), the fruit of spirituality was described as being less stressful in life and being loved by other. It differed from the concept of this research that of happiness and self esteem being classified as an outcome of core spirituality. But result from both the studies supported the same construct that of psychological well-being. The difference in findings between the two studies may have resulted due to its study participants. In this study almost all participants were Buddhists and some were Muslim, while the participants in Elkins' study were mostly Christian and some were Muslim. In addition participants in that study were highly educated but in this study our participants had low to high education level. Insight into self and goal and meaning in life overlapped with two out of four elements in the study of Mattis (2000). Concepts of insight into others, meaning of life, faith in super power were found in three of four elements in the study of Chiu, Emblen, Hofwegan, Sawatzky, and Meyerhoff (2004). The findings of this study highly agreed with an essence of spirituality in

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

Richs study (Rich & Cinamon, 2007). The difference between this study and others were that the participants in other study were non Buddhist. Another study conceptualized the spirituality of Thais elders lived in the USA (Pincharoen & Congdon, 2003). It was found that spirituality composed of connecting with spiritual resources provided comfort and peace, finding harmony through a healthy mind and body, living a valuable life, valuing tranquil relationships with family and friends, and experiencing meaning and confidence in death. Furthermore that study reported that for the Thai participants, health and spirituality coexisted and were linked to all of life. When compare the current research, the similarity between findings of the two studies were about the meaning of life, and consciousness of death. The differences between the two studies were the ages of the participants, their occupation, and living context. As it was shown spirituality was defined differently depending on culture, age, education, occupation, and researchers interpretation. However there were some consistencies such as faith with sacred things, transcendent, and the relationship with others, and self. The differences of this study, as compared to other researches, have emerged mainly because this study attempted to separate the causes and consequences of spirituality, separate mind from behaviors, separate directed cause from moderators by using perceptions from the participants and knowledge in psychology and behavioral sciences. For example Altruism was defined as element of spirituality by Elkin et al. (1988), but we classified helping others with kindness as spiritual outcome behaviors. Also in a study by Chiu et al. (2004) power was defined as spirituality but in our study we classified it as spiritual behavior namely doing activities with energy.

Recommendations
The study findings lead to some practical considerations. Spirituality in health care patients was defined more precisely in Thai culture as having the same core element as in other cultures. Measuring instruments of the core spirituality and its related constructs could be developed for the purpose of explaining how ones spirituality should be supported or improved. Moreover all self-report measures may be used to help one learn more about their own spirituality.

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More research could be done to describe in depth how spirituality is developed, and what if it was under developed, or what happens to the person having extreme spirituality. More research maybe done to find the meaning of spirituality within some specific groups involved in service such as teachers, and social services person.

References
Chiu, L., Emblen, J. D., Hofwegan, L. V., Sawatzky, R., & Meyerhoff, H. (2004). An integrative review of the concept of spirituality in the health sciences. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 26(4), 405-428. Elkins, D., Hedstrom, L., Hughes, L. L., Leaf, J. A., & Saunders, C., (1988). Toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality: Definition, description and measurement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 28(4), 5-18. Fletcher, C. E. (2004). Health care providers perceptions of spirituality while caring for veterans. Qualitative Health Research, 14(4), 546-561. Idler, E. L., Musick, M. A., Ellison, C. G., George, L. K., Krause, N., Ory, M. G., & Williams, D. R. (2003). Measuring multiple dimensions of religion and spirituality for health research: Conceptual background and findings from the 1998 general social survey. Research on Aging, 25(4), 327-365. doi:10.1177/0164027503252749 Khayat, M. H. (2004). Spirituality in the definition of health: The World Health Organization's point of view. paper presented at the meeting of Safety and Risks of Nanotechnology Meeting of Swiss Scientists, April 20 and 21, 2004 Lucerne, Switzerland. Retrieved March 25, 2011, from http://www.medizin-ethik.ch/publik/ spirituality_definition_health.htm Mattis, J. (2000). African American Womens definitions of spirituality and religiosity. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 101-122. doi:10.1177/ 0095798400026001006 Pincharoen, S., & Congdon, J. G. (2003). Spirituality and Health in Older Thai Persons in the United States. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 25(1), 93-108. Puchalski, C. M. (2001). The role of spirituality in health care. Proceedings Baylor University Medical Center, 14(4), 352-357. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1305900/ Rich, Y., & Cinamon, R. (2007). Conceptions of spirituality among Israeli Arab and Jewish late adolescents. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47(4), 8-28. Schmidt-Wilk, J., Heaton, D. P., & Steingard, D. (2000). Higher education for higher consciousness: Maharishi University of Management as a

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INTERPRETING THE THEMES OF SPIRITUALITY AMONG HEALTH CARE WORKERS

model for spirituality in management education. Journal of Management Education, 24(5), 580-611. Sessana, L., Finnell, D. & Jezewski, M. A. (2007). Spirituality in nursing and health related literature: A concept analysis. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 25(4), 252-262. Smith, J. A., & Rayment, J. J. (2008). Spirituality in the workplace: Defining the territory (Practitioner Paper Series). Ashcroft International Business School, Anglia Ruskin University. England.

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MANEERAT, International Journal of Behavioral Science ISARAMALAI, AND 2011 by Behavioral Science Research Institute Copyright BOONYASOPUN 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 25-40 ISSN: 1906-4675

A Conceptual Structure of Resilience among Thai Elderly

Sonthaya Maneerat1, Sang-arun Isaramalai2, Umaporn Boonyasopun2
The study aimed to develop a conceptual structure of resilience among Thai elderly. A literature review and qualitative approach were adopted as its methodology. Based on Grotberg (1995, 2003), the three sources of resilience, I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN were used as the initial concept. To specify the elderly resilience, theories and research models related to elderly resilience from extant literatures were integrated to the conceptual structure. In-depth -interview and focus group discussion among 14 resilient Thai elderly were conducted to develop the specific conceptual structure of Thai elderly resilience. Based on those three sources of resilience, the results revealed 18 components contributing to the conceptual structure of resilience specifically to Thai elderly. The newly developed conceptual structure can serve as a framework for future research attempting to develop a measure or program aiming at the resilience among Thai elderly. Keywords: resilience, Thai elderly, conceptual structure, resilience scale

Resilience is a positive psychosocial function for successful adaptation despite the adversity of life events. The term is a global term used to describe the ability to adapt positively to adversity and continue on their lives. Currently, there is a growing shift of interest from the topic of psychotic disorder to positive mental health, such as resilience, to promote prevention rather than treatment. Resilience has thus been identified as a significant preventive factor to the threat of a psychological illness, usually posted after a life-threatening experience. Today, the rapid increasing in the number and the proportion of elderly population is becoming a worldwide phenomenon. Getting older, elderly go through the inevitable decline of physical function which, in turn, influences their mental health. These health problems impede the elderly abilities to care for themselves (Wang, Van Belle, Kukull, & Larson, 2002; Wolff, Boult, Boyd, & Anderson, 2005), deteriorate their mental health (Harris & Barraclough, 1998; Wulsin, Vaillant, &Wells, 1999; Osborn et al., 2007; Roberts, 2009), and have an adverse effect on their resilience (Talsma, 1995). Mental Health and health professionals should play roles in cultivating and nurturing resilience, which will ameliorate the negative effects of other health deterioration, in this population.

1 2

Suansaranrom Psychiatric Hospital, Thailand Asst. Prof., Lecturer, Faculty of Nursing, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand

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A CONCEPTUALSTRUCTURE OF RESILIENCE AMONG THAI ELDERLY

Most of current studies on resilience aim to explore the concept of resilience and attempt to create a measurement tool in children, youth, and adult population (e.g., Jacelon, 1997; Bonanno, 2004; Tusaie & Dyer, 2004). A few others focus on the concept of resilience in elderly population including have made further attempt to clarify and develop a conceptual structure of resilience among the elderly (Felten, 2000; Felten & Hall, 2001;LaFerriere & Hamel-Bissell, 1994; Sheri, Harrison, & Michel, 2001; Talsma, 1995; Wagnild & Young, 1990, 1993, 2003; Zoe, Glenn, Gopalakrishnan & David, 2008) but the literatures still fail to offer consistent definition, structures of concepts, and methodology approach. Without question, the clarity of a conceptual structure of resilience among Thai elderly is a key to help health care providers better understanding and help in promoting resilience for the Thai elderly. However, the development of resilience scale in elderly remains seriously limitation. No scales that presently exist to measure resilience in elderly population. However, there were limitations surrounding concepts and structures of the studies focusing on resilience in the aged. One was the component of resilience which narrowly described the term only as the way to deal with suffering. Moreover, the literatures also failed to provide specific measure of resilience in the aged population. These concepts and structures were criticized as uncertain and imprecise and caused more confusion than clarity. Therefore, clarity of Thai elderly resilience conceptual framework will help the researchers more understanding the elderly resilience in Thai context and also use as the framework to guide researcher for developing Thai elderly resilience scale in further. The domains are described as follows: 1. I AM refers to ones faith in ones own inner strength to survive physically and mentally through hard times. Inner strength is a characteristic that is continuously developed since a young age. A great number of studies show that inner strength can improve overall health (Koob, Roux & Bush, 2002) and is necessary for handling crisis including severe illnesses (Haile, Landrum, Kotarba & Trimble, 2002). 2. I HAVE refers to the elderly perception of having access to external support, such as people, opportunity, peer group, and feeling of spiritual security. In Thai society, family is the main lifeline of the aged. However, in the case of major adverse life events, support from other sources, i.e., peer, community, society, and government are also important. 3. I CAN refers to the ability to maintain social connection and manage problem during adverse life events. These skills are often learned through interacting with others and upbringing.

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MANEERAT, ISARAMALAI, AND BOONYASOPUN

Methods
Participants & Setting Participants were the elderly who were purposely selected from four provinces representing four regions of Thailand, i.e., Chiang Mai (north), Khonkean (northeast), Ratchaburi (middle), and Suratthani (south). All elderly participants shared commons on passing through various major adversities and yet maintained mentally healthy. The purposeful recruiting criteria were that a person must be (1) Thai elderly with 60 years old or older,(2) have past experience that required adaptability to survive major life adversity,(3) mentally healthy person judged by Thai Mental Health Indicator assessment, and (4) able and willing to discuss their traumatic past experiences. A number of 14 participants aged ranging from 62 to 82 years old. The majority were female and Buddhist (n = 10). Most were widows (n = 9) and more than half had at least two major adversity event experienced (n = 9). Their life adversities included losing home (living in shelter homes), having major chronic illnesses (cancer and stroke), and facing multiple losses of loved ones, being single mother taking care of two psychotic children, and living with poverty. Approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Human Ethics Committee, Faculty of Nursing, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand, and the leader of the village where data were collected. The elderly participants who met the recruitment criteria were informed either via verbal agreement or signing consent forms including allowed to freely express their experience in a private or participants preferable setting. Data collection Two-step approaches, an integrated systematic review of national and international publications and qualitative study were carried out. The initial conceptual structure emerged from the first step were used for generating a semi-structured interview guide for obtaining experience in facing adversity event of the elderly. In addition, Thai Mental Health Indicator (TMHI) was used for recruiting the elderly being mentally healthy to be the participants. Their successful coping experiences based on the aspects of I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN were explored. Examples of interviewing questions were: what are your personal traits that contribute to your ability to rapidly bouncing back from hardship? (I AM), what are the kinds of support that help in your successfully cope? (I HAVE), and what are your specific abilities in dealing with life suffering? (I CAN). Additionally, probing questions were used to assist the participants to directly and effectively respond to those questions.

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Data analysis Since the initial conceptual structure of elderly resilience based on three domains, I AM, I HAVE, I CAN was developed, 19 components were generated to portray the Thai elderly resilience and used to retrieve qualitative data by conducting interview and focus group. Triangulation technique using multiple sources of data and multiple methods of data collection was conducted. The data from interview were analyzed using content analysis. Constant comparison from one case to another was performed. Theoretical sampling was conducted to confirm saturation of data through emerging themes. Focus group was implemented in order to verify the existing domains capturing the structure of the Thai elderly resilience. As a result, the credibility of results was achieved when the conceptual descriptions were recognized as valid by those who have that successful adaptation experience. The transferability of data was ensuring by conducting in the natural setting at time and in place informants preferred. However, no claim was made that their experiences represented the experiences of every elderly in Thailand.

Findings
Analysis of the data gathered during the empirical investigation generated three domains, i.e., I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN which composed of 18 components. The comparison between evidences from literature reviewed (pre-specified domains) and the data from the interviews and group discussion (specified domains) can be seen as Table 1. I AM (Inner Strengths) According to Grotberg (2003), the word I AM signifies inner strength, i.e., confidence, self-esteem, and responsibility. For Thai elderly, their inner strength was determined by the state of their physically and mentally healthy. The pre-specified 12 components of I AM were extracted from literature review. After the interviewing process, three components, i.e., sense of coherence, hardiness, and optimism were found to be irrelevant and were replaced by a new component, life satisfaction. The final 10 components are explored as follows: 1. Being in good health. Being in good health refers to the elderly perception of being physically healthy, as reflected in the following statements: I am lucky to be in good health, so I can go seeking help when needed.

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Table 1 Pre-Specified and Specified Domains of Thai Elderly Resilience (N = 14)

Pre-specified domains (literature reviews) 1. I AM 1.1 Being in good health 1.2 Equanimity 1.3 Self-reliance 1.4 Life meaningfulness 1.5 Sense of humor 1.6 Positive Thinking 1.7 Caring for others 1.8 Perseverance 1.9 Health-promoting behaviors 1.10 Sense of coherence* 1.11 Hardiness* 1.12 Optimism* 2. I HAVE 2.1 Trusting relationships 2.2 Social support 2.3 Spiritual support 2.4 Opportunity for spiritual practice 3. I CAN 3.1 Maintain connection 3.2 Spiritual coping 3.3 Effective problem-solving skills
Note. *Removed component. **Added component.

Specified domains (After the interviews) 1. I AM 1.1 Being in good health 1.2 Equanimity 1.3 Self-reliance 1.4 Life meaningfulness 1.5 Sense of humor 1.6 Positive Thinking 1.7 Caring for others 1.8 Perseverance 1.9 Health-promoting behaviors 1.10 Life satisfaction**

2. I HAVE 2.1 Trusting relationships 2.2 Social support 2.3 Spiritual support 2.4 Opportunity for spiritual practice 3. I CAN 3.1 Maintain connection 3.2 Spiritual coping 3.3 Effective problem-solving skills 3.4 Help seeking*

2. Equanimity. Equanimity refers to a balanced perspective of ones life and experience (Wagnild & Young, 1990;Wagnild, 2003). Because of all respondents are Buddhists, a Buddhist teaching regarding the inescapable life cycle, birth, old age, illness, and death governed the way they controlled their thinking, mind, and emotion while facing stressful situations. The very same principle helped them develop equanimity as it taught them to recognize things as they really were, to follow the middle path, and to eliminate self. Most respondents

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believed that equanimity built resilience, as shown in the following statements: I believe in the law of karma (sin) by which series of events in this life are explained as results of actions one has committed in the past life. It is different for each individual, when it comes to me, I feel at peace when I accept my karmas. 3. Self reliance. Self reliance refers to a belief in oneself and ones capabilities. Most respondents associated self-reliance with having confidence to handle hardship and growing from negative experiences. Most respondents also stated that self-reliance contributed to resilience: Adversities make me stronger and ponder upon future. Being alive is a blessing and a profit. I must live for my son. 4. Life meaningfulness. Life meaningfulness refers to an understanding that life has a purpose. The participated Thai elderly expressed meaningfulness in their lives as follows: I believe that more experiences dealing with hardship increase my confidence to face future lifes problems. 5. Sense of humor. Sense of humor is a trait of appreciating and being able to express the humorous. When suffering brings forth an overwhelming sense of helplessness, powerlessness, or a lack of control, sense of humor helps put one back in control to a certain extent. For example, instead of giving into depression, a Thai elderly, who was a sole caregiver of her two schizophrenic children, would joke that, One good thing about living with a psychotic patient is that I don't have to worry about thieves because they are afraid of him. 6. Positive thinking. Positive thinking is an optimistic outlook of a situation, especially the negative ones. By definition, adversity is not a positive phenomenon, but adversity and hardship can present some positive aspects. The participants displayed their positive thinking as follows: Every day I tell myself, Dont give up, my life must go on. Each morning as I am awake, I say to myself, I survived yet another day. That is amazing!

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MANEERAT, ISARAMALAI, AND BOONYASOPUN

7. Perseverance. Perseverance refers to a determination to continue on ones life despite difficult times. The Thai elderly express the perseverance as follows: When dealing with hardship, I am often patient and never feel discouraged. Experience in life teaches me to be patient. 8. Caring for others. Caring for others refers to feeling compassionate and being helpful to others. Most Thai elderly recognized that helping out others was the way to earn love and help in the future as well as to build supportive network: Asking for help when needed is not difficult for me because I have often lent my helping hands to others." 9. Health-promoting behaviors. Health-promoting behaviors refer to ones tendency to engage in activities that promote healthy living. Physical exercise was recognized by most respondents as one of the most important health-promoting behaviors that had helped them cope during stressful time, as suggested by the following testimonies: Daily exercise with friends makes me feel happier and stronger. When the going gets rough, I never stop exercising because it is time like this when meeting and talking with friends help me copes well. 10. Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction refers to an understanding and acceptance that changes are a natural part of life and that life is temporary. This knowledge in turn helps one feels content of essential things such as love, well-being, and happiness. Like other components, life satisfaction was indicated by participants as one of many factors to help them cope with difficult events. Just alive nowadays is so good for me, I am happy with day to day life, happy with living condition, dont want anything more, my life is enough I HAVE (External Supports) I HAVE refers to ones external support and resources that promote ones resilience (Grotberg, 2003). Among Thai elderly, the term reflected a sense of having or belonging to a strong social and spiritual support or network. The I HAVE domain consisted of 4 specified components as those of pre-specified domains as follows.

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1. Trusting relationship. Trusting relationship refers to a sense of having at least one or more trusting persons from family, friends or other social groups. It is a significant predictor of ones social support which contributes to resilience, especially among Thai elderly: The best thing for me during hard times is to have someone to talk to. 2. Social support. Thai elderly expected to receive support, whether it is materials, guidance, emotional or financial support, from their social network when needed. Their network often referred to family members, peers, senior citizen club members, community leaders, and the governments. When I feel troubled, my husband is a trusting person with whom I can express everything. I also can turn to my neighbors and the community leaders. 3. Spiritual support. Spiritual support was indicated as a crucial component, that served as a foundation of building resilience, by all participants. For Thai elderly, spiritual support denotes a perception of having a kinship with a higher power. Most of them received spiritual support through religious practices reading religious scripts, talking to friends and family about spiritual matter, praying and meditating at home or at a holy place, worshipping sacred tokens. I have some believe that making merit, helping others, and offering dedicated to Buddhist monks will helped me get happy and can easily manage troubles

4. Opportunity for spiritual practice. Opportunity for spiritual practice refers to the time which can be dedicated to engaging in religious and spiritual practices. Spiritual practices came from praying, meditating, reading or listening to religious. Those teaching allow one to access ones own spirit. As aforementioned, spiritual support was found to be a key component in resiliency and was obtained through spiritual practice, therefore the opportunity to do so was found to be equally important. Just provided a free time for meditation in day to day life, it helped me be happier despite suffering

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MANEERAT, ISARAMALAI, AND BOONYASOPUN

I CAN (Interpersonal and Problem-Solving Skill) I CAN is a social and interpersonal skill. Thai elderly often acquired such skill through interacting with others and upbringing. The specified domain of I CAN consisted of 4 components which are described as follows: 1. Maintain social connection. Maintain social connection refers to the elderly ability to make connection and build healthy relationship with others. The example statements are as follows: Family and friends are very important in my life, so maintaining a good relationship is maintaining support for hard times. 2. Effective problem solving skills. When faced with difficulties, most participants were able to come up with effective problem solving strategies to help them overcome adversity. Some of them learned from past experience, some from their role models. Certain coping strategies are presented as follows: I have my own painful experience of losing a son in an accident. I know now anything can happen any time in this world. We thus need to prepare ourselves to such tragic situation. I have learned to Tum-jai through my loss whatever will be it will be. 3. Spiritual coping. All respondents overcame suffering by using whatever that referred to spirituality This coping strategy came from religious or some other beliefs in supernatural power in which one must find meaning and purpose of life and hope in order to survive. Some respondents believed that supernatural power or nature could help them cope with their ailments while religious teaching could prevent suffering: I regularly go to the temple to give offerings to Buddhist monks. Sometimes, I meditate with my friends in the senior citizen club. Moreover, I often listen to a dharma tape at home before I go sleep. It calms me down and goes to sleep soundly. 4. Ability to seek help. Ability to seek help is a component the elderly resorted to when they felt helplessness. If they were unable to solve certain problems themselves, they will seek help from others. Actually, resilient elderly often exhausted all options in which they could solve problems by themselves first before asking for help. Example statements are as follows:

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A CONCEPTUALSTRUCTURE OF RESILIENCE AMONG THAI ELDERLY

I dont normally like to ask for help from others but in tragic time I need to seek help to ensure my survival In conclusion, the conceptual structure of Thai elderly resilience was categorized into 3 domains (I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN) in which there were 18 components. Each domain & components, identified by this research, are shown in Figure 1. The conceptual structure of Thai elderly resilience was categorized into 3 domains (I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN) in which there were 18 components. The conceptualization of each domain is presented as Table 1, while each domains components, identified by this research, are shown in Figure 1. Each of the domains suggested numerous resilience promoting methods. Though, not everyone will utilize the entire list, some may use more than others. The more components are identified, the more options the elderly will have for selecting appropriate strategies to use in a given situation.
Thai Elderly Resilience

I AM

I HAVE

I CAN

- Being in good health - Equanimity - Self-reliance - Life meaningfulness - Sense of humor - Positive thinking - Perseverance - Caring for others - Health promoting behaviors - Life satisfaction

- Trusting relationships - Social support - Spiritual support - Opportunityfor spiritual practice

- Maintain connections - Effective problem solving - Spiritual coping - Help seeking

Figure 1. Domains & Components of Resilience Identified by Thai Elderly.

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MANEERAT, ISARAMALAI, AND BOONYASOPUN

Discussion
The present study attempted to examine and develop a specific conceptual structure of resilience among Thai elderly through cross-sectional-style research with majority of participants being resilient Thai elderly. Empirical analyses generated 3 domains and a number of components which showcased a multidimensional character of resilience. Each dimension, in relation to theories as well as previous studies, will be discussed. The results supported the evidence that resilience is a multidimensional character, varying in context, time, age, gender, and cultural background, as well as individuals subjected to different life circumstances (Garmezy & Rutter, 1985; Werner & Smith, 1992; Polk, 1997; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Connor & Davidson, 2003). Furthermore, Richardson, Neiger, Jensen, & Keumpher, 1990) proposed resilience as a bio-psycho-spiritual balance (homeostasis) which one utilized to adapt body, mind, and spirit to stressful circumstances. The three domains, I AM, I HAVE, and I CAN were categorized and broken down into 18 components. The first category, I AM, retrieved from the interviews, reflected essential positive intrapersonal characteristics of Thai elderly. Despite the increasing physical limitations in old age, participants in this study possessed the ability to minimize the impact of the inevitable physical decline. A number of the participants also emphasized that a nutritious and balanced diet, exercise, and other self-care habits had greatly contributed to their well-being during hard times. The findings of the present study echoed all the previously mentioned studies that Thai elderly perseveres life adversity if they maintained healthy lifestyle. This simply says that the better ones physical and mental health, the greater the resilience and longevity. The second category, I HAVE, consisted of 4 components and reflected the external support and resources that promoted resilience. Many participants in the present study stressed the value of social support. Family and social network were indicated to play an important role in building greater resilience. Secure interpersonal relationships provide an important source of emotional support while social support from the wider community serves as a building block for resilience (Greff, Vansteenwegen & Ide, 2006; Wagnild & Young, 1993). An emotional support, perceived by all participants as a source of affection, comfort, and companionship, was deemed as an substantial element of social support. The social support component thus served as an ensured indicator of I HAVE and influenced resilience (Hupcey, 1998). In addition, resilience includes the individuals

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ability to utilize family, social and external support system to better cope with stress (Friborg et al., 2006). Furthermore, religious or spiritual belief has been implicated as another external component that can aid resilience by instilling a sense of hope in some individuals (Connor & Davidson, 2003) In conclusion, the components within I HAVE seem to be congruent with original constructs, i.e., social roles and relationships and personal beliefs and values(Polk, 1997), having a strong faith, belief in a divine power, and prayer (Crummy, 2002)religiosity and spirituality (Felten, 2000; Ong & Bergerman, 2004), the support of others, close and secure attachment to others, and faith (Connor & Davidson, 2003); external factor such as social support (Takviriyanun, 2008). The last category, I CAN, consisted of 4 components which reflected the capacity of an individual to cope with difficulty which was vital to his/her resilience. Stress management, tension relief, and spiritual coping were essential parts of this domain. Unable to avoid internal and external stress factors, an individuals ability to cope with tension is influenced by how s/he assesses the situation, how much s/he has learnt from previous experience dealing with stress, and how successfully s/he can adapt (Connor & Davidson, 2003). Resilient individuals are more likely to feel confident that they can successfully cope with adversity by employing a range of problem-solving and emotion-focused strategies (Rutter, 1987; Masten & Reed, 2005). Evidently, believing in a divine power assured them that they were not alone and prayer or meditation helped them stay focused and positive during difficult times.

Conclusion
The findings of this study provided a better understanding of the conceptual structure of Thai elderly resilience. The study also supported the notions that resilience was a successful adaptability in the face of major lifes adversity. The elderly resiliency referred to their personal qualities that enable them to thrive and persevere in the midst of hardship. Finally, the study also showed that Thai elderly resilience was fostered by inner strength, external support, interpersonal and problem solving skills.

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Implications
The conceptual structure could provide framework in both clinical practice and further researches. The categorical components could serve as basis for a development of resilience scale and intervention programs that enhance resilience, specifically to manage through adversity, in Thai elderly. Moreover, the study can be used as a guideline to develop resilience scale for other interest groups or contexts. Furthermore, the explorative study aiming to identify process and relating factors of the resilience among the Thai elderly is highly recommended.

References
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Richardson, G., Neiger, B., Jensen, S., & Keumpher, K. (1990). The Resiliency Model. Health Education, 21(6), 33-39. Roberts, M. (2009). Physical problems often mental Health Report, BBC News. Retrieved November, 17, 2009 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/ Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(3), 316-331.doi: 10.1111/j.19390025.1987.tb03541.x Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (1996). A life-span model of successful aging. American Psychologist, 51(7), 702-714. Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology. Am Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. Sheri, B., Harrison, A. J., & Michel, W. (2001). Resilience in the oldest-old. Counseling and Human Development. Retrieved October, 12, 2011 from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-80847910.html Takviriyanun, N. (2008). Development and testing of the resilience factors scale for Thai adolescents. Nursing and Health Sciences, 10(3), 203-208. Talsma. (1995). Evaluation of a theoretical model of resilience and select predictors of resilience in a sample of community-based elderly (Doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan. Tusaie, K. & Dyer, J. (2004). Resilience: A historical review of the construct. Holistic Nursing Practice, 18(1), 3-8. Wagnild, G. (2003). Resilience and successful aging: Comparison among low and high income older adults. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 29(2), 42-49. Wagnild, G., & Young, H.M. (1990). Resilience among older women. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 22(4), 252-255. Wagnild, G., & Young, H.M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the resilience scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165-177. Wang, L., Van Belle, G., Kukull, W. B., & Larson, E. B. (2002). Predictors of functional change: A longitudinal study of non demented people aged 65 and older. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50(9), 15251534. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High-risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. (2002). Journey from childhood to mid life: Risk, resilience and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Wolff, J. L., Boult, C., Boyd, C., & Anderson, G. (2005). Newly reported chronic conditions and the onset of functional dependency. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(5), 851-855. Wulsin, L.R., Vaillant, G.E., & Wells, V.W. (1999). A systematic review of the mortality of depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61(1), 6-17.

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Zoe, H., Glenn, S., Gopalakrishnan, N., & David, B. (2008). Understanding adversity and resilience at older ages. Sociology of Health & Illness, 30(5), 726-740.

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO Science Research Institute International Journal of Behavioral Science Copyright 2011 by Behavioral 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 41-58 ISSN: 1906-4675

A Factor Analysis and Enhancement of Adolescent Students Autonomy Through Group Counseling
Seri Maichan1, Khomphet Chatsupakul2, Pongpan Kirdpitak3, Dusadee Yoelao4
The objectives of this study were to analyze adolescent students autonomy components, to reassemble group counseling programs and to compare group counseling effectiveness in enhancing the students autonomy. The samples were 1,114 grade 1-3 Thai adolescent students selected for the autonomy component study. Subsequently, eight students as an experimental group and eight students as a control group were randomly selected from 24 Sansai Wittayakom School students with total autonomy scores at 25th percentile and lower. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis verified that the autonomy functioning model was consistent with the empirical data and characterized into seven high loading factors (p < .05); namely, selfefficacy, self-regulation, self-reliance, self-confidence, self-responsibility, self-assertiveness and self-evaluation. Each factor covered four areas: academic performance, personal care, peer relationship and parental/ guardian connectedness. A three-stage group counseling, the initial stage, the transition and working stage, and the final stage, was constructed by integrating counseling theories and techniques to enhance the students autonomy. Statistically significant differences (p < .05) in the total and each autonomy component of the experimental group existed before, after counseling and after the follow up period. Moreover, statistically significant differences (p < .05) in the total and each autonomy component between the experimental group and the control group existed before, after counseling and after the follow up period. Keywords: autonomy, adolescence, group counseling

Autonomy is a psychological concept illustrating adolescents efficient daily functioning which leads to their well-being. However, Thai adolescents, particularly, are still facing challenging and difficult situations that may induce delinquent behaviors being a major concern of authorities (Office of National Economic and Social Development Board, 2006). According to the Ministry of Public Health (2011), the lack of strict regulations, for instance, on entertainment venues in several area, Thai young adolescents were able to enter the places without supervision which often led them to experiment things such as drugs and sex. Consequently, Thai adolescents, as young as 13 years have been diagnosed with sexually transmitted diseases.

1 2

Lecturer, Division of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand Assoc. Prof., Lecturer, Faculty of Psychology, Kasem Bundit University, Bangkok, Thailand 3 Prof., Lecturer, Doctor of Philosophy Program in Psychology, Kasem Bundit University, Bangkok, Thailand 4 Assoc. Prof., Lecturer, Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand

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Therefore, Thai young adolescents should be nurtured and trained to be able to live and regulate their own life more efficiently as autonomous persons. Grolnick and Ryan (1987) pointed out that autonomy is a characteristic fostering an individuals life regulation which leads to greater conceptual learning. Moreover, autonomy support was associated with more intrinsic motivation, less pressure and tension, more creativity, more cognitive flexibility, higher self-esteem, greater persistence of behavior change, and better physical and psychological health (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Additionally, Grolnick and Ryan also found that parental autonomy support was positively related to childrens self-regulation, competence, adjustment, and academic achievement. Ekstrom (2005) concluded that an autonomy promotion enhances more self-direction to ones life, greater life satisfaction, and lesser inner tension, external forces and unconscious drives. Consequently, the person can live without confusion over what to do, and alienation from certain of ones decisions and actions. According to Russel and Bakken (2002), one of the most important adolescent tasks is autonomy which refers to adolescents' ability to think, feel and act on their own by developing the sense of self-governance, selfreliance, responsibility, independence, conformity and decision-making. Though adolescence is viewed as a time of storm and stress; the period of calm and joy is also addressed to manifest an autonomy which was operationally defined as an attempt to illustrate an individuals ability to rule ones self. Accordingly, a model was proposed with the following major components of individuals autonomous functioning: self-regulation, selfreliance, self-efficacy, self-responsibility, self-confidence and self-evaluation are major components (Beckert, 2005). Noom, Dekovic, and Meeus (2001) analyzed differential conceptual theoretical perspectives resulting in an integrative autonomous model. That is, autonomy comprises choosing and defining a goal, feeling confident about one's own choices and goals, and developing a strategy to achieve these goals. In a counseling context, Corey (2004) defined autonomy as a capacity fostering individuals inherently towards self-regulation and selfdetermination and away from being controlled with awareness, spontaneity, and capacity for intimacy. In achieving autonomy, people have capacity to make decisions, thereby empowering themselves and altering the course of their lives. In terms of enhancing an adolescents autonomy, Delaware Department of Education (2002) proposed four adolescent development dimensions; comprising academic performance, personal care, peer

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

relationship and parental/guardian connectedness. Moreover, Noom (1999) also indicated that adolescent autonomy development concerns individual and social factors. According to a pilot study in the context of Thai adolescence by employing an in-depth interview (n = 12) and open-ended questionnaires (n = 452), the researcher concluded that Thai adolescents autonomy characteristics were composed of six components: self-reliance, selfregulation, self-responsibility, self-confidence, self-assertiveness, and selfevaluation. By integrating and synthesizing those adolescent autonomy concepts and models with the pilot studys results, the researcher has developed an adolescent autonomy conceptual framework. Consequently, a Thai adolescent autonomy model has been proposed. The autonomy functioning model could be characterized into seven factors; namely, selfefficacy, self-regulation, self-reliance, self-confidence, self-responsibility, self-assertiveness and self-evaluation. Moreover, each factor covered four indicators as follows: academic performance, personal care, peer relationship and parental/guardian connectedness. According to Milne (2003) counseling helps people clarify what is important to them, get in touch with their inner resources, explore feelings, thoughts and meanings to their life, and offer support during developmental, transitional periods and at times of crisis. Therefore, counseling is a means to help people resolve problems or live their lives in a more insightful and fulfilling way. Most counseling theories share a common goal in enhancing individuals autonomy (Kirdpitak, 2002). Whereas Ryan (1991) noted that autonomy is a fundamental principle of developing human beings, a criterion for mental health, and a major objective of counseling or psychotherapy. In addition, autonomy should not be thought of in terms of an essentially individualistic journey towards an abstract and determinate rationality, but as a process involving other people in whom reasons are demanded and given in dialectic. And if autonomy means having a degree of control over our lives, then we have to help each other understand the ways in which power is taken from us and exercised over us (Smith, 1998). The related research in autonomy and the evidences of group counseling in effectively developing individuals autonomy components can be proved, both locally and abroad, in the following studies. Panapithakkul (1996) found significantly positive correlations of autonomy, social adjustment, mental health, and physical health of pre-adolescent students in Bangkok ghetto. Whereas, a study of Noom et al. (2001) employed a confirmatory factor analysis to verify Dutch adolescents autonomy model which consisted

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of three latent constructs: attitudinal, emotional, and functional autonomy and the autonomy scale consisted of three observed constructs: perceptions of goals, locus of control and coping. The results yielded a consistent model with the empirical data. The researchers concluded that adolescent autonomy model comprised 3 dimensions: attitudinal autonomy, emotional autonomy, and functional autonomy. Dworkin and Lee (2005) found that the increase in autonomy of adolescents was accompanied by maintaining close relations with parents. While independence increased across childhood, parent-child connectedness decreased. Their study suggested the need to support parents in remaining connected to their children as they enter adolescence. In addition, Balakrishnan and Nasir (2009) examined the effect of arts person-centered group therapy in enhancing the self empowerment of adolescent girls. The results revealed that the intervention were effective in the self empowerment of the experimental group participants. Buranacharearnkit (2003) found that young adolescents had a significantly higher self-confidence by means of a twelve sessions of rational emotive and behavioral group counseling program. Whereas, Tangrid (2006) found that upper secondary school students self-responsibility and selfconfidence significantly improved through group counseling based on person-centered counseling theory. Falco (2008) found that middle school students self-efficacy and selfregulated learning strategies in Mathematics were enhanced by skill builders curriculum. Trotter (2006) assessed the efficacy of equine assisted group counseling on children and adolescents with at- risk of academic or social failure. Results of the study indicated that the intervention showed a statistically significant improvement in twelve behavior areas. Moreover, Jalali and Nazari (2009) studied the effects of social learning group model training on self- esteem, self-confidence, self-assertiveness and academic achievement in third grade students. The results demonstrated significantly higher mean scores of all those four components in both post interventional and follow-up stages. The autonomy enhancement, as in case of this study, was determined by A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the seven adolescent autonomy factors and the four indicators; and then counseling theories and various techniques (Corey, 2004) were applied to create group counseling programs for enhancing the autonomy of the adolescents.

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

The purposes of this study were to analyze adolescent students autonomy components, to reassemble group counseling programs and to compare the effectiveness of group counseling in enhancing adolescent students autonomy. Subsequently, the study was hypothesized as follows: (1) Adolescent students autonomy model would be composed of seven factors: selfefficacy, self-regulation, self-reliance, self-confidence, self-responsibility, self-assertiveness, and self-evaluation. Moreover, each factor covered four indicators as follows: academic performance, personal care, peer relationship and parental/guardian connectedness, (2) Statistically significant differences (p < .05) in the total autonomy and in each of the seven components of the autonomy of the experimental group exist before counseling, after counseling and after the follow up period, (3) Statistically significant differences (p < .05) in total autonomy and in each component of the autonomy between the experimental group and the control group exist before counseling, after counseling and after the follow up period. The results of this study would provide the following benefits. Adolescents autonomy could be understood and valued by means of A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Thai young adolescents autonomy components. In addition, an Adolescent Student Autonomy Scale and group counseling programs in enhancing adolescent student autonomy are obtained. Moreover, the effectiveness of group counseling programs in enhancing adolescent student autonomy could be explored. Subsequently, the research results would benefit any counselors, psychologists, teachers, and personnel in charge of Thai adolescents in terms of the research application in their own contexts.

Methods
Samples The population of the study consisted of 2,232,253 grade 1-3 secondary school students from the Office of the Basic Education Commission (2008). They were divided into two groups. The first group was randomly selected by employing a multi-stage cluster random sampling method in order to obtain 1,114 adolescent students being representative of the autonomy component study. The second group was selected by using a purposive sampling method from 24 grade 1-3 Sansai Wittayakom School adolescent students, who had total autonomy scores at the 25th percentile and lower; and they were then selected and divided into two groups which were classified as an experimental group and a control group. Each group was composed of eight students.

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A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

Instruments Phase I: A 54-item Adolescent Student Autonomy Scale was developed, following A Semantic Differential Scale (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957) and the adolescent students autonomy operational definitions, for analyzing adolescent students autonomy components and indicators. Cronbach Alpha Coefficient ( = 0.9259) yielded a high reliability of the instrument. The selected items of the scale are shown in Table 1. Phase II: Group counseling programs were reassembled to enhance adolescent students autonomy by integrating group counseling concepts, theories and techniques (Corey, 2004; Corey & Corey, 2006) and combining with group counseling activities (Geldard & Geldard, 2002; Morganett, 1990; Smead, 2000; Thompson, 2003). Procedures Phase I: Adolescent Students Autonomy Factor Analysis. The data was collected for A Confirmatory Factor Analysis from 1,114 grade 1-3 adolescent students in 30 classrooms 10 schools from 5 regions of the whole Kingdom of Thailand by using an Adolescent Student Autonomy Scale (54 items) during 3rd 18th March 2009. Table 1 The Selected Items of Adolescent Student Autonomy Scale
1. Self-efficacy When I answer a teacher incorrectly, I dont know what to do. 2 1

I believe that I could find the right answer later.

2. Self-regulation When my friends urge me to take drugs or alcoholic drinks, I hesitate and dare not to 2 1 0 1 2 I will refuse them right away. reject their persuasions. 3. Self-reliance I dont have anything for dinner because my parents/guardians come home very late. I will wait until they come 2 1 0 1 2 I will cook dinner myself. back home. 4. Self-confidence When my friend criticizes me as an indecisive person, I will ignore what they say. 2 1 0 1 2 I will do self-exploration consistently to avoid being an indecisive person.

46

MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

Table 1 (continued)
5. Self-responsibility A teacher assigns me to do a piece of work that I am not good at, I will reassign others to do it. 2 1 0 1 2 I will try harder to do it. 6. Self-assertiveness When I see a friend violate rules of sport, I do not dare to stop him. 2 1 0 7. Self-evaluation Once I leave an examination room, I never feel confident in 2 1 any of my exam results.

I will convince him to follow the rule.

I can evaluate my exam result.

Phase II: Adolescent Students Autonomy Enhancement through Group Counseling. Following Corey and Corey (2006), the three-stage group counseling programs: The initial stage, the transition and working stage, and the final stage were constructed to enhance adolescent students by integrating the concepts and various techniques of eight group counseling theories (Corey, 2004; Corey & Corey, 2006). That is, a person-centered counseling theory (Rogers, 1970, as cited in Corey, 2004), a rational emotive behavior therapy counseling theory (Ellis, 1992; as cited in Corey, 2004), a behavior counseling theory (Lazarus, 1996b; as cited in Corey, 2004), an existential counseling theory (Frankl, 1963; as cited in Corey, 2004), an individual counseling theory (Adler, 1996; as cited in Corey, 2004), a reality counseling theory (Glasser, 2000; as cited in Corey, 2004), a transactional analysis counseling theory (Berne, 1966; as cited in Corey, 2004), and a Gestalt counseling theory (Perls, 1996; as cited in Corey, 2004; Jacobs, Masson, & Harvill, 2002). The group counseling process and the application of the selected group counseling theories for enhancing each of the autonomy components are shown in Figure 1. Moreover, group activities were designed or selected for stimulating group counseling. Consequently, 10 group counseling sessions were obtained for enhancing the selected adolescent students. Following a Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design (Naiyapat, 2005), eight students were randomly selected as group counseling members, while eight students, as a control group, did not participate in the counseling. The ideal of counseling group size on a weekly basis as

47

A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

suggested by Corey and Corey (2006) that a group of adolescents might be made up of 6 to 8 people. A group of this size is big enough to give ample opportunity for interaction and small enough for everyone to be involved and to feel a sense of group. The weekly group counseling, as in case of this study, took place at a counseling center Sansai Wittayakom School, Chiang Mai Province, during 21st August 25th September, 2009. Repeatedly, the Adolescent Student Autonomy Scale was administered after group counseling and at the follow-up period for comparing the effectiveness of the group counseling. Statistical Treatments A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Jreskog & Srbom, 1993) was employed to verify the autonomy model goodness of fit to the empirical data. In order to compare the effectiveness of group counseling, ANOVA Repeated Measurements were employed (Stevens, 2002). That is, Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurements were employed for autonomy total scores comparisons. Moreover, a One-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement was used to compare the differences of total autonomy of both the experimental and control groups. Then, a Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement: a One Between and Two Within Design was employed to compare each of the autonomy factors.

Results
Phase I: An Adolescent Students Autonomy Factor Analysis. Initially, A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of adolescent students autonomy revealed highly significant correlations (p < .05) among adolescent autonomy factors, as shown in Table 2. That is, a highest significant correlation ( = 1.00) between self-efficacy (SEF) and self-confidence (SCF) was found to exist; while there was a least significant correlation ( = 0.78) between selfregulation (SRG) and self-assertiveness (SAS). Moreover, low to moderate levels of correlations ( = 0.13 0.68) among 28 autonomy indicators were obtained.

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

Table 2 Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Adolescent Students Autonomy Factors

Autonomy Factors 1 1. Self-efficacy 2. Self-regulation 3. Self-reliance 4. Self-confidence 5. Self-responsibility 6. Self-assertiveness 7. Self-evaluation (SEF) (SRG) (SRL) (SCF) (SRP) (SAS) (SEV) 1.00 0.95* 0.90* 1.00* 0.80* 0.83* 0.84* 1.00 0.93* 0.83* 0.84* 0.78* 0.79* 1.00 0.91* 0.91* 0.85* 0.87* 1.00 0.90* 0.84* 0.85* 1.00 0.84* 0.86* 1.00 0.92* 1.00 2 Autonomy Factors 3 4 5 6 7

According to the analysis for testing the adolescent autonomy models goodness of fit, the Confirmatory Factor Analysis initially revealed high factor loadings (bs) (p < .05) which equaled 0.89 0.96. Among those seven factors, together with 28 indicators, the self-reliance gained the highest loading (b = 0.96). As shown in Figure 2, the analysis of Goodness of Fit Indices (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) yielded a non-significant Chi-square (2 = 302.004, df = 273, relative 2 = 1.106, p = 0.110). The analysis verified the consistent model with the empirical data (p < .05) when considering with other indices (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001; Ho, 2006). For instance, they are Goodness of Fit Index (GFI = 0.981), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI = 0.972), Root Mean Square Residual (RMR = 0.020), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR = 0.020). Moreover, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = 0.010), Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI = 0.660), Comparative Fit Index (CFI = 0.999), Normed Fit Index (NFI = 0.992) and Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI = 0.999) also significantly indicated that the model was congruent with the empirical data.

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A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

0.84 SEF 1 0.88

SEF 2

SEF 3

0.85

0.40 0.35 0.38 0.46

SEF 4

0.79

SRG 1

0.58

SEF
SRG 2

0.49

0.65 0.71 0.59 0.67 0.94

SRG 3

0.64

SRG 4

0.50

SRG

SRL 1

0.63

SRL 2

0.71

0.88

0.60 0.53 0.60 0.65

SRL 3

0.64

SRL
0.96 0.47 0.44 0.60 0.58

SRL 4

0.58

0.77 SCF 1 0.80 SCF 2 0.64 SCF 3

1.00

AUT

0.95

SCF

SCF 4

0.66

0.95
SRP 1 0.57

SRP
0.89

0.65 0.62 0.67 0.69

SRP 2

0.62

SRP 3

0.50

SRP 4

0.53

0.90

SAS
0.62 0.55 0.62 0.58
SAS 1 0.62

SAS 2

0.70

SAS 3

0.61

SEV
SAS 4 0.66

0.52 0.61 0.62 0.66

SAS 1

0.72

SAS 2

0.60

SAS 3 0.62 SAS 4 0.57

Chi-Square = 302.004, df = 273, P-value = 0.110, RMSEA = 0.010 Figure 2. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Adolescent Autonomy Model.

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

In conclusion, the model of autonomy functioning could be characterized into seven factors; self-efficacy, self-regulation, self-reliance, self-confidence, self-responsibility, self-assertiveness and self-evaluation. Each factor covered four areas as follows: academic performance, personal care, peer relationship and parental/guardian connectedness. The factor loadings of those seven components were high at the .05 level, and they were found to be capable of measuring the autonomy functioning factors. Phase II: Comparisons of Group Counseling Effectiveness in Enhancing Adolescent Students Autonomy. In order to compare total autonomy scores of both the experimental group and the control group, a Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement was used to yield a statistically significant difference (F = 17.615, p = 0.000) of the interaction of time and group with the total autonomy, as shown in Table 3. According to a One-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement, the analysis indicated statistical differences of total autonomy scores of the experimental group (F = 42.187, p = 0.000) and the control group (F = 4.789, p = 0.026), as shown in Table 4. The results verified that a statistically significant difference in the total autonomy of the experimental group was found to exist before counseling, after counseling and after the follow up period at the .05 level. The results of the analysis evinced that the group counseling was a key factor in enhancing positive changes in the adolescent students autonomy. However, the control group also obtained a significant difference in total autonomy. In order to compare each of the seven autonomy factors, a Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement: a One Between and Two Within Design was employed. As shown in Table 5, there was a statistically non-significant difference (F = 1.014, p = 0.438) of the interaction of autonomy factors, time, and group; however, the interaction of autonomy factors and time yielded a statistically significant difference (F = 2.292, p = 0.010). Subsequently, a statistically significant difference (F = 17.885, p = 0.000) of the interaction of time and group was obtained. A conclusion can be drawn from the analysis that statistically significant differences in each of the autonomy component between the experimental group and the control group were found to exist before counseling, after counseling and the period after the follow up at the .05 level.

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A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

Table 3 The Comparisons of Total Autonomy Scores of the Experiment and Control Groups Before, After, and at the Follow-up Periods by Means of a Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement
Source of Variance Between Groups - Experiment Group and Control Group - Error Within Group - Time - Group* Time - Error
Note. *p < .05.

Sum of squares 0.990 2.028 3.959 1.915 1.522

df 1 14 2 2 28

Mean Square 0.990 0.145 1.979 0.957 0.054

F 6.832*

p 0.020

36.422* 17.615*

0.000 0.000

Table 4 The Comparisons of Total Autonomy Scores of the Experiment and Control Groups by Means of a One-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement
Group Experiment Group Source of Variance - The Measurement effects before, after, and at the follow-up period - Error - The Measurement Effects Before, After, and at the Follow-up Period - Error Sum of squares df Mean Square F p

5.451 0.905

2 14

2.726 0.065

42.187*

0.000

Control Group

0.422 0.617

2 14

0.211 0.044

4.789*

0.026

Note. *p < .05.

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

Table 5 The Comparisons of each of the Seven Autonomy Factors by Means of a Two-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement: A One Between and Two Within Design
Source of Variance Between Groups - Experiment Group and Control Group - Error Within Group - Factors - Factor* Group - Error - The Measurement effects before, after, and at the follow-up period - Time* Group - Error - Factor* Time - Factor* Time* Group - Error
Note. *p < .05.

Sum of Squares 4.620 14.424 7.479 8.517 17.932 27.828 13.899 10.880 3.570 1.580 21.803

df

Mean Square 4.620 1.030 1.246 1.420 0.213 13.914 6.949 0.389 0.297 0.132 0.130

1 14 6 6 84 2 2 28 12 12 168

4.484*

0.05

5.839* 6.650*

0.000 0.000

35.809* 17.885* 2.292* 1.014

0.000 0.000 0.010 0.438

Though, simple effects of a One-Way ANOVA Repeated Measurement of all autonomy components of the experimental group yielded statistically significant differences (p < .05), the self-regulation component was an exception.

Discussions
According to the first objective of the study, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis significantly verified that the adolescent students autonomy components consisted of seven factors; namely, self-efficacy, self-regulation, self-reliance, self-responsibility, self-assertiveness and self-evaluation. The model is consistent with Bekerts (2005) autonomy model that selfregulation, self-reliance, self-efficacy, self-responsibility, self-evaluation and confidence in ones own goals, decision-making and rationality are key factors. The model is also congruent with Noom (1999) and Noom et al. (2001) that autonomy functioning is composed of self-regulation, self-confidence, self-assertiveness and self-evaluation. Accordingly, Russel and Bakken

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A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

(2002) referred adolescents' autonomy as the development of selfgovernance, self-reliance, responsibility, independence, conformity and decision-making. Regarding adolescent autonomy indicators, the analysis is consistent with Delaware Department of Education (2002) that four adolescent development dimensions comprised academic performance, personal care, peer relationship and parental/guardian connectedness. Moreover, Noom (1999) also indicated that adolescent autonomy development concerns individual and social factors. In accordance with the second phase of the study, it aimed at comparing the effectiveness of group counseling enhancing adolescents autonomy. Firstly, an ANOVA yielded a statistically significant difference in the total autonomy of the experimental group. The result of the analysis evinced that the group counseling was a key factor in enhancing positive changes in the adolescent students autonomy. The result was consistent with Balakrishnan and Nasirs (2009) study that group therapy intervention has been effective intervention in enhancing the autonomy or self empowerment of adolescent girls. However, a significant difference in total autonomy of the control group is consistent with McLeods (1994) reasons for a control groups improvement: spontaneous recovery, help expectation, willingness and initial support from assessment interview. Secondly, each of the seven autonomy factor comparisons by an ANOVA leads to a conclusion that statistically significant differences in each component of the autonomy between the experimental group and the control group were found to exist before counseling, after counseling and the period after the follow up. The comparative results were consistent with other various studies. For instance, in enhancing self-efficacy, the result gains a support from the study of Washington (1999) that a group therapy enhanced people's belief in their ability to successfully perform tasks and control outcomes and self-awareness on self-efficacy of chemically dependent adult women. Regarding self-reliance enhancement, the result gains a sustenance from the study of Trotter (2006) that group counseling statistically significant improved adaptive behaviors of at-risk middle school students. Moreover, the result is congruent with Jalali and Nazaris (2009) study which indicated that a social skills training group was effective in improving intermediary

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MAICHAN, CHATSUPAKUL, KIRDPITAK, AND YOELAO

school students self-confidence and self-assertiveness. In enhancing selfevaluation, the result gained no supports from any research that is consistent with Beckert (2005) that self-evaluation is one of the critical components that have been somewhat overlooked. However, the self-regulation component obtained a non-significant result; and it was supported from the conclusion of Gestsdottir and Lerner (2008) that self-regulation is a challenging task for a critical basic adolescence adjustment; sometimes it has an obstacle leading to the adolescence development. The effective results can be proved in the context of group counseling for enhancing adolescent students autonomy. A qualitative-manner evaluation manifested that group members disclosed their potentialities to develop themselves with impressive performances regarding all of the confirmed autonomy components. For instance, the statement- I believe that I can practice to public speaking in front of class. represents the self-efficacy factor. To reflect the self-regulation component, a group member expressed If I share my friends personal secret with others, then I feel better. But he may not go out with me. So I wont reveal his personal life to others. Regarding the self-reliance component, a client shared his experience My parents always give my younger brother everything he wants; so I got angry and upset. My irrational belief is that I must get what I expect; otherwise I will be useless. So I myself will spend my own recourses to get what I want. Additionally, group members disclosed themselves regarding their selfconfidence I have to be confident in my own capability and attempt to reach my own goals; though there are obstacles. Clients also shared their selfresponsibility as Cleaning what a mess I made, take out the garbage, replace what is used up, return what I borrow, wake up early, conduct my own account and say sorry when I have done something wrong. According to the self-assertiveness enhancement, group members expressed It is so easy to say no when others convince me to do something wrong, e.g. just say no when a friend asks to go out at night, and say no when a friend borrows money. Group members explored both positive and negative aspects as a means to their self-evaluation, I am impulsive-cautious, relaxed-tense, interestingboring, secure-insecure, happy-sad, productive-lazy, rigid-flexible, competent-incompetent, and pleasant-abrasive. Finally, the group participants elaborated on their autonomy, I rely on myself to learn what I want. I feel confident that I can protect myself from the dangerous environment and take good care of myself. I have the courage to speak in

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A FACTOR ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS AUTONOMY THROUGH GROUP COUNSELING

public, make new friends and make others happy. I am aware that I am a good person and can give love to others.

References
Balakrishnan, V. A/P., & Nasir, R. (2009). The efficacy of expressive arts person-centered group therapy to enhance self empowerment of adolescent girls. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 317-333. Beckert, T. E. (2005). Fostering autonomy in adolescents: A model of cognitive autonomy and self-evaluation. Paper presented at the American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Utah State University, Las Vegas, Nevada. Buranacharearnkit, S. (2003). The effects of a self confidence development program and a rational emotion and behavior group counseling on self confidence of Matthayomsuksa 1 students (Masters thesis). Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand. (In Thai) Corey, G. (2004). Theory and Practice of Group Counseling (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Corey, M. S., & Corey, G. (2006). Groups process and practice (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 10241037. Delaware Department of Education. (2002). Delaware model counseling program: A guide for school districts developing a K-12 counseling program. Willmington: Delaware Technical & Community College Press. Dworkin, J., & Lee, C. S. (2005). Individuation revisited: Implications for parent education. Journal of Extension, 43(6), 83-89. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2005december/rb8.php Ekstrom, L. W. (2005). Autonomy and personal integration. In J. S. Taylor (Ed.), Personal autonomy: New essays on personal autonomy and its Role in contemporary moral philosophy (pp. 143-161). New York: Cambridge University Press. Falco, L. D. (2008). Skill-builders: enhancing middle school students selfefficacy and adaptive learning strategies in mathematics (Doctoral dissertation). University of Arizona, USA. Geldard, K., & Geldard, D. (2002). Counselling children: A practical introduction (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Gestsdottir, S., & Lerner, R. M. (2008). Positive development in adolescence: The development and role of intentional self-regulation. Journal of Human Development. 51, 202-224.

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Grolnick, S., & Ryan, M. (1987). Autonomy in Childrens Learning: An experimental and individual difference investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(5), 890-898. Grolnick, S., Ryan, M. (1989). Parent styles associated with children's selfregulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 143-154. Ho, R. (2006). Handbook of univariate and multivariate data analysis and interpretation with SPSS. Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Jacobs, E. E., Masson, R. L.; & Harvill, R. L. (2002). Group counseling strategies and skills (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brook/Cole. Jalali, D., & Nazari, A. (2009). Effects of social learning group model training on self-esteem, self-confidence, self-assertiveness and academic achievement in third grade students of intermediary schools. Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences, 7(1), Retrieved from http://journals.mui. ac.ir/index.php/rbs1/article/view Article/4059 Jreskog, C. G., & Srbom, D. (1993). Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIStm command language. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International. Kirdpitak, P. (2002). A Comparison of Counseling Theories and Practices. In S. Thongdee (Ed.), Theory and Practice in Counseling (pp. 167-249). Nonthaburi: Sukhothaithammathirat University. (In Thai) McLeod, J. (1994). Doing counselling research. London, England: Sage. Milne, A. (2003). Teach yourself counselling. London, England: Cox & Wyman. Morganett, R. S. (1990). Skills for living: Group counseling activities for young adolescents (Vol. 1). Illinois: Research Press. Naiyapat, O. (2005). Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in behavioral and social sciences. Bangkok, Thailand: Sam Lada. (In Thai) Noom, M. J. (1999). Adolescent autonomy: Characteristics and correlates. Eburon, Delft: The Netherlands. Noom, M. J., Dekovic, M., & Meeus, W. (2001). Conceptual analysis and measurement of adolescent autonomy. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(5), 577-595. Office of National Economic and Social Development Board. (2006). Thai social circumstance in the second quarter. Retrieved from http://www. moph.go.th/show_hot new.php?i dHot_new=1176 Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Panapithakkul, O. (1996). Personal status factors relating to autonomy, social, adjustment, mental health and physical health of preadolescents in the congested community (Masters thesis). Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. (In Thai)

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Russel, S., & Bakken, R. J. (2002). Development of autonomy in adolescence. NebGuide G1449. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Extension Division. Retrieved from http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/ archive/g1449/build/g1449.pdf Ryan, M. (1991). The nature of the self in autonomy and relatedness. In G. R. Goethals & J. Strauss (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on the self. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. Smead, R. (2000). Skills for living: Group counseling activities for young adolescents (Vol. 2). Champaign, IL: Research Press. Smith, R. (1998). The education of autonomous citizens. In D. Bridges (ed.), Education, autonomy and democratic citizenship (pp. 127-137). Retrieved from http://www.dur.ac.uk/r.d.smith/autonomy.htm Stevens, J. (2002). Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences (4th ed.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tabachnick, B. C., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education. Tangrid, J. (2006). The effects of group counseling based on rogers theory on responsibility and self confidence of upper secondary school students (Independent study). Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. (In Thai) The Ministry of Public Health. (2011). Thai adolescents having STD on the Rise. Retrieved from http://www.thailandnews.co/2011/04/thaiadolescents-having-std-on-the-rise/ The Office of the Basic Education Commission. (2008). The statistic report categorized in accordance with student numbers and grade levels from all schools under the supervision of the office of the basic Education Commission, Ministry of Education, Thailand. Retrieved from http://doc.obec.go.th/onwebcheck2550/report3spt.php?PG=9 Thompson, R. A. (2003). Counseling techniques improving relationships with others, ourselves, our families, and our environment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. Trotter, K. S. (2006). The efficacy of equine assisted group counseling with at-risk children and adolescents (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas). Retrieved from http://www.equineconnection.ca/uploads/ dissertation.pdf Washington, O. (1999). Effects of cognitive and experiential group therapy on self-efficacy and perceptions of employability of chemically dependent women. Mental Health Nursing, 20(3), 181-198.

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MAXIMO, TAYABAN, CACDAC, International Journal of Behavioral Science CACANINDIN, PUGAT, RIVERA, AND LINGBAWAN, Copyright 2011 by Behavioral Science Research Institute 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 59-72 ISSN: 1906-4675

Parents Communication Styles and Their Influence on the Adolescents Attachment, Intimacy and Achievement Motivation
Sally I. Maximo1, Hylene S. Tayaban1, Grace B. Cacdac1, Myki Jen A. Cacanindin1, Robert John S. Pugat1, Melvin F. Rivera1, Melowin C. Lingbawan1
The study aims to know if the four parents communication styles loving, assertive, aggressive and passive - have an influence on the adolescents attachment style, level of intimacy and achievement motivation. This descriptive-correlational study with 251 SLU students as respondents reveals that adolescents perceive their parents communication style as loving; whereas, aggressive and passive styles are less likely perceived. Both aggressive and passive communication styles are related to the different insecure attachments. Assertive style is related to dismissing attachment instead of a secure attachment as previously hypothesized. Males are more secure while females are more fearful in their attachments. While males are more achievement-oriented; females are more inclined for intimate connections. Results have implications on improving parentadolescent relationships. Keywords: assertive, loving, aggressive, passive, secure, fearful, pre-occupied, dismissing, impact on goals, activities

Parents play an important role in shaping the childs perception of the world through the way they communicate with their children. Communication transmits mental content (Zajonc & Adelmann, 1987) and likewise creates understanding among people and their relationship with each other. Through communicating, people bring about ideas, values, and identities that affect who they are and how they operate in relation to one another (Wood, 1995). In this research, the four communication styles: assertive, passive, aggressive and loving is described according to the ego states proposed in Eric Bernes Structural Analysis (1966 as cited in Cacho, Kawi & Versoza, 2005). An adult ego state promotes a more assertive communication style. This is more characteristic of open families who tend to develop and maintain a lifestyle that emphasizes dialogue, patience, collaboration as well as a willingness to hear each other out (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2000). When communication is made up of put down statements that prevent other people from feeling good about themselves, this is an aggressive communication style characteristic of the critical parent ego state. The child ego state of an individual, considered as the felt concept (Berne, 1966), would
1

Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines

59

PARENTS COMMUNICATION STYLESAND THEIR INFLUENCEONTHE ADOLESCENTS ATTACHMENT, INTIMACYAND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

likely display a more passive communication style. Last, a loving communication style would likely be displayed by the nurturing parent ego state. Parents whose communication style is loving tend to be consistently protective and attentive of their children and may make themselves a clutch to lean on. They can even make sacrifices at the expense of the self. In this study, the influence of parents communication styles on the variables attachment, intimacy and achievement motivation was explored. As gleaned from above, the theoretical background of parents communication styles begins with an understanding of family dynamics. These functional demands or rules, including that for communication, organize the way family members relate to one another. The structure that regulates a familys transactions can be understood by observing the family in action or by looking at interactions unfolding among family members (Dinkmeyer & Sperr, 2000). Child-rearing practices are important and impact attachment patterns. Attachment refers to the emotional and long lasting bond that an individual forms with an attachment figure who provides feelings of security and comfort (Ainsworth 1982; Fabes & Martin 2003; Fogel & Melson 1987). Bowlby (1982) and Ainsworth (1982) confirmed that the patterns of attachment in family systems can be seen as providing a long-lasting framework for intimate relationships in adulthood. Attachment theory assumes that an early relationship with parent figures or caregivers creates an example of expectations from adult friendship or intimate commitment (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). There are four adult attachment styles as proposed by Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991). Secure attachment means being at ease with others and finding no difficulty becoming emotionally close to others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Secure individuals reported more positive self-esteem, greater maturity and feel comfortable in engaging in friendships and intimate relationships with others without fear of closeness or distance. Those individuals who are uncomfortable getting close to others have a fearful attachment style. They are worried of being hurt if they permit themselves to be close to others. They have difficulty trusting others completely and depending on them. Preoccupied attachment is characterized by wanting to have absolute emotional intimacy with others but they often find others to be hesitant to get as close as they would like. They are uncomfortable having no close relationships and sometimes they worry that others do not value them as much as they value others. Dismissing attachment is characterized by being comfortable without having close emotional relationships.

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MAXIMO, TAYABAN, CACDAC, CACANINDIN, PUGAT, RIVERA, AND LINGBAWAN,

Dismissing and preoccupied attachment styles are believed to build up as a defensive response to insensitive care giving behavior (Owens, 2002). Communication also affects the closeness between two or more individuals. Intimacy is the feeling of proximity in a relationship and the degree to which a person can share feelings freely with another (Wood, 1995). The ways parents communicate to their children do not only form their attachment with their children but also the level of how intimate their relationship would be. Intimate relationships are characterized by high degrees of warmth and affection, trust, self-disclosure, and commitment, and are formalized through symbols and customs (Derlega & Chaikin, 1975). The attributes of intimacy are characterized by the need for a sense of emotional feelings for another and the ability to share feelings honestly with others (Adams & Gullota, 1983). This reflects a deep emotional involvement with another and is an essential skill for survival (Tan, 1988). Intimate individuals look forward to being with each other because they experience joy in each others company, they enjoy talking with each other, and they enjoy sharing experiences (Verderber & Verderber, 1998). Secure teens are comfortable with intimacy and do not have undue fears of rejection; preoccupied teens report intense needs for closeness but fear that there is something wrong with them which will ultimately drive their partner away; dismissing teens report difficulty being close to as well as trusting others (Feeney, Noller & Patty, 1993). When parents expectation of closeness is increased, it is possible that parents would be more intentional about spending time together or expressing acceptance of the child. However, parents may be more disappointed by the feelings of distance and increased conflict typical of parent-child relationship when they expect greater closeness to their child (Kerns & Richardson, 2005). In studies on adolescents' relationships with their parents, the majority of adolescents have noted feeling close to and getting along with their parents. It was found out that mother-daughter relationships are more intimate than father-child relationships. BuekelRothfuss, Fink, and Buerkel (1995) emphasized that father-child relationships are characterized more by shared activities. Achievement motivation is also affected by the parents communication styles. Parents appear to be the primary influence on a childs motivation to learn (Wlodkowski & Jaynes, 1990). Achievement motivation is an important determinant of aspiration, effort and persistence when an individual expects that performance will be evaluated in relation to some

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standard of excellence (Atkinson & Birch, 1978). Achievement motivation drives an individual to excel, succeed, or outperform others at some task (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2003). Parental involvement improves academic performance and school behavior. It increases academic motivation, and decreases the number of dropouts (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003). When it comes to achievement, parents expect and evaluate attitudes of their own achievement. In addition, they communicate in different ways to pass on these evaluative attitudes to their children. Parents who support their childrens ideas are related positively to achievement aspirations, and parents who give little feedback, and are uninvolved are negatively correlated with achievement aspirations. (Crandall, Katkovsky & Crandall, 1965). In line with gender differences, fathers and mothers treat sons and daughters differently (Berns, 2004). Parents view their sons as stronger, more coordinated, and more alert. Daughters are smaller, softer and more fragile. Fathers encourage their sons to foster more independence, competitiveness, and aggression while they encourage their daughters to be more gentle and expressive in their emotions. Fathers talk more with their daughters and engage more in activities with their sons. Mothers talk more about emotions and relationships with their daughters than with their sons. Mothers are disposed to make communication the center of their relationships, especially with their daughters (Wood, 2007). Boys are given more chances for autonomous problem solving and exploration, while girls are more closely supervised and controlled in their experiences. Boys are more curious and competitive while girls seek approval more often and are more affiliated (Berns, 2004). Mothers and fathers are important attachment figures for their children. Although both mothers and fathers are affectionate toward their children, mothers are more often the parent to whom children turn to for comfort and with whom they share personal feelings (Collins & Read, 1990). The above variables are studied in the Philippine setting where the relationship between parents and their children are difficult to describe with precision because of heterogeneity of social, economic, educational, religion and provincial backgrounds of the residents (Mendez & Jocano, 1975). Generally however, the relationship is anchored on affective and supportive ties with authoritarian discipline being imposed when extremely necessary. The collective culture may engender greater dependence in children compared to the more individualistic orientation of the west where children are more encouraged to be independent.

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The researchers used the above framework to work on the following problems and test their hypotheses.

Research Purpose/Problems and Hypotheses

The present study aims to explore the communication style of parents as perceived by their adolescent children. It tried to determine the influence of parents communication styles on attachment style, intimacy and achievement motivation. Generally, assertive communication style is viewed as more positive; hence, it is hypothesized that it will have more impact on secure attachment style, greater capacity for intimacy and higher levels of achievement motivation. The hypothesis is that a parent with an assertive communication style is likely to develop a secure attachment style in their child. It is assumed that a parent with an assertive communication style is likely to have an adolescent who would be motivated to achieve more. Gender differences were also explored given the differences in socialization between boys and girls.

Method
Subjects There are 251 valid respondents who participated in the survey. These are undergraduate students of Saint Louis University in the Philippines taken from the different schools of the institution. For gender differences, 98 males and 153 females were included in the analysis. The participants are late adolescents to young adults ranging from 16-21 years old. Instruments The descriptive surveys used were specifically the (1) Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS), (2) Relationship Scale Questionnaire (RSQ) by Griffin & Bartholomew (1994b), (3) Intimacy scale (IS) by Berscheid, Snyder, and Omoto (1989), and (4) Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ) by Elliot and Church (1997). The Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) was used to measure the dominant communication style of the parents as perceived by their children. Based on content analysis, it comprised of 40 items; ten items each describing the assertive, passive, aggressive, and loving communication styles as they relate to the different ego states. Sample items for each

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PARENTS COMMUNICATION STYLESAND THEIR INFLUENCEONTHE ADOLESCENTS ATTACHMENT, INTIMACYAND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

include: defers judgment unless sure of facts (assertive adult ego state); gives consoling remarks (loving nurturing parent ego state); tends to hurt feelings of others (aggressive critical parent ego state); often asks advice or approval for actions taken (passive child ego state). The Relationship Scale Questionnaire (RSQ) consists of items like I find it difficult to relate with other people, it is very important for me to feel independent, etc. The Cronbach alphas ranged from .41 for the secure scale to .70 for the dismissing scale. Internal consistencies of the two dimensions have been shown to range from .85 to .90 for both avoidance and anxiety, respectively. It has a moderate convergent validity of .58 for the selfdimension model and .57 for the other-dimension model. The Relationship Closeness Inventory assesses the participants close relationship with a person. The questions involve the person closest to them and the number of hours they spent with that person during the past week, activities they did together like did laundry, prepared a meal and items regarding how this person affects their plans such as vacation plans, school related plans, etc. The scale adopted has a test-retest coefficient for frequency is r = .82, p < .001, test-retest coefficient for diversity is r = .61, p < .001, and test-retest coefficient for strength is r = .81, p < .001. The Achievement Goal Questionnaire assesses the participants' performance-approach goal, mastery goal, and performance-avoidance goal in all their subjects. The items consist of questions such as It is important for me to do better than the other students, I wish my class was not graded, etc. The internal consistency of the three was presented respectively as follows: Cronbach's alpha = .89, .91, and .77. Procedure The researchers used descriptive surveys using the above set of questionnaires. These were distributed to the target respondents in their classrooms. The deans of each school or college assigned some classes where the researchers may float these questions. Some students were also approached during their free time. For the treatment of data, the following statistics were employed. Pearson correlations, One-Way ANOVA, ANOVA for repeated measures and a series of t-tests.

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Results
Parents Communication Styles The obtained F (3,750) = 283.198, p < .001 reveal differences in the way the respondents perceive their parents communication styles. Table 1 shows the result of Bonferroni Pairwise Comparisons where it is revealed that the respondents perceive their parents communication style as more loving compared to the other patterns. Compared to loving and assertive communication styles, the respondents would less likely perceive their parents communication style as aggressive and passive. Table 1 Means of the Communication Style According to Clusters Loving Assertive Aggressive Passive Influence on Attachment Style Table 2 shows that both passive and aggressive communication styles are positively related to the different insecure attachments - fearful, pre-occupied and dismissing. Passive style has a correlation coefficient of r (251) = 0.292, p < 0.01; r (251) = 0.275, p < 0.01 and r (251) = 0.150, p < 0.05 respectively. On the other hand aggressive style yields these values r (251) = 0.232, p < 0.01; r (251) = 0.142, p < 0.01and r (251) = 0.201, p < 0.01 respectively. For loving communication style, it is related to preoccupied attachment r (251) = 0.161, p < .05 and dismissing attachment r (251) = 0.156, p < 0.05. = 4.3024 Likely = 3.9331 Likely = 3.2195 Less Likely = 3.1367 Less Likely

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PARENTS COMMUNICATION STYLESAND THEIR INFLUENCEONTHE ADOLESCENTS ATTACHMENT, INTIMACYAND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Table 2 Correlation of Communication Style and Attachment Style Attachment Style Fearful Preoccupied .115 .095 .292** .275** .232** .142** .103 .161*

Communication Style Assertive Passive Aggressive Loving

Secure .049 .070 .036 -.030

Dismissing .218* .150* .201** .156*

Note. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Influence on Intimacy and Achievement Motivation Although correlations were not significant at alpha 0.05, values close to significance levels were noted between the different Communication Styles with one dimension of intimacy; that is, Impact on Goal except for Aggressive Communication Style r (251) = 0.047, p > 0.05. The values are Assertiveness r (251) = 0.107, p < 0.10; Passive r (251) = 0.105, p < 0.10 and loving r (251) = 0.114, p < 0.10. The relationship between achievement motivation with the different communication styles were all insignificant. Gender Differences Table 3 indicates that for secure attachment, the t (249) = 3.94, p < 0.01 reflect that males (mean = 3.78) tend to be more secure than females (mean = 3.47) while females (mean = 3.42) are more fearful in their attachment styles than males (mean = 3.08) with a t (249) = -2.86, p < 0.01. Males (mean = 3.81) have significantly higher achievement motivation than females (mean = 3.60) with t (249) =2.31, p < 0.05. In intimate relationships considering t (249) = -1.98, p < 0.05, females (mean = 9.99) are more inclined to spend more activities with significant others than males (mean = 8.22). Significant othersare also more likely to affect the goals of females (mean = 3.65) as compared to males (mean = 3.25) with t (249) = -2.51, p < 0.05.

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Table 3 Gender Differences on Significant Variables Gender Male Female 3.7816 3.4709 3.0827 3.4212 8.2245 9.9869 3.2454 3.6459 3.8093 3.6030 t-value 3.935 -2.863 -1.984 -2.512 2.305 Significance Level .000 .005 .048 .013 .022

Variables Secure Attachment Style Fearful Attachment Style Activities Impact on goal Achievement Motivation

Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations

The respondents generally perceive their parents as having a nurturing parent ego state. Although there is a lot of warmth and care, these parents may be quite self-effacing and may easily be manipulated by their children. If a parent is undemanding and permissive with the child but highly nurturing, the parenting style will be democratic and uncooperative (Adams & Gullota, 1983). It is possible that the Filipino culture also contributes to this particularly in the tendency to value emotionally closely knit connections. According to Mendez and Jocano (1975) parents in the Philippines are generally nurturing, devoted, affectionate, and protective. They allow their children to reason out and express themselves, to raise questions, think for themselves and their own future. The students generally perceive their parents as loving. Although this communication style is warm, it is weak in the sense that it might engender spoiled children. Hence, assertiveness in the parents communication style may still be further strengthened in order to help balance the childrens need for warmth at the same time acknowledging some limits or restrictions in behavior. Compared to loving and assertive communication styles, the respondents would less likely perceive their parents communication styles as aggressive and passive. Since college students spend less time with their parents caused by lack of proximity and time (Fogel & Melson, 1987), they will spend their time by showing their love and support rather than reminding them of their limits and restrictions.

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Assertiveness did not relate to secure attachment which is not supportive of the hypothesis of this study. The assertive communication pattern is related to a dismissing attachment style instead of a secure attachment style as hypothesized. Again, the researchers may only speculate on this. It might be likely that the respondents give more premium to warmth rather than to discipline (which may be in the form of giving limits or restrictions). Since assertiveness may also sometimes demand limits, a child who gives more premium to warmth might feel threatened and withdraw from relationships (hence, dismissing). In addition, the assertive communication styles objectivity and impersonal stance might be misinterpreted as dismissal on the adolescents part. Passive and aggressive communication styles were related to a fearful attachment style while a loving and assertive communication style were not. An aggressive stance from ones parents may instill fear. The researchers can only speculate on the relationship of a passive stance of ones parents with a fearful attachment style. Possibly, there is an identification with the parents passive pattern, that is, a kind of social modeling. After all, a passive communication style may be adopted by one who has a lot of fears. Passive and aggressive communication styles differ from loving and assertive in the sense that the latter two has no relation with fearful attachment style. Passive and aggressive communication styles have opposite qualities and yet both yield insecure attachments. In a passive style, no rules are set by parents; hence, the insecurity will more likely come from a lack of structure in the family where children are not properly guided as to what is right and wrong behavior. An aggressive communication style, on the other hand, may likely set too much rules. These rules are often rigid and absolute in nature. The element of fear may dominate child-rearing practices and this can be the source of insecurity where a child has difficulty finding a sense of identity. More likely, his/her voice is not heard and selfesteem is low. Except for aggressive style, the other three - assertive, passive and loving communication styles relate, albeit weak, to planning ones future goals. That is, they are more likely to include others in their future plans whether it be vacation, school-related, career-related or any other future commitments. An aggressive communication style, as compared to the other patterns, is not related to impact on goal which is a dimension of intimacy. Indeed, a faultfinding and dominating countenance will have difficulty establishing intimacy of any kind.

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Differences in socialization come into play when it comes to the gender differences found. Although this study did not support the impact of parents communication style on the achievement motivation of students, there is gender difference in achievement motivation favoring the males. Females are brought up to be more relationship-oriented; whereas, males are reared to be more independent and achievement - oriented. Females tend to be closer in relationships and share their personal feelings, experiences, fears, and problems to be known and to know another deeper. If not, they will be criticized by the society for not being affectionate and sensitive (Harris & Howard, 1984). Males, on the other hand, are unable to disclose their feelings and generally receive more training and support for achievement. Parents exert more demand on achievement and independence on males lest the latter are criticized for not being goal-oriented and achievement minded (Harris & Howard, 1984). As such, females compared to males tend to guide their behaviors such as their activities and goals in connection with others. Being so, females may find dissolution of relationships more threatening which renders them a higher score in fearful attachment style. Males, on the other hand, because of the accorded greater sense of autonomy, develop a more secure attachment style than their female counterparts. The study is useful in determining the relationship of parents communication styles to attachment, intimacy and achievement motivation. How parents treat their children, manage the household and create a home atmosphere affects the behavior of their children in relation with other people, in creating relationships with significant others, in having intimate commitments and in motivating themselves in order to excel in goal-directed behaviors. This study is crucial in pointing out the paramount importance of the parents role in their childrens lives. Emphasizing the significance of family would let the readers, particularly the parents, to become aware of their actions toward their children. As their children reach the adolescent stage of development, they become highly influenced positively or negatively by these actions. Hence, the study is vital in family systems especially in issues that concern parenting. It may also be useful for adolescents to assess their relationship with their parents and how this would somehow make them understand themselves in relation with others and with their achievements. Psychologist may use the results of this research to analyze parent-adolescent dynamics and recommend programs that will improve this relationship. This study may also encourage parents to be more sensitive to their children and adopt a more positive assertive communication style. Given gender differences, training programs may be developed in order to balance the needs for individual achievement and connections. Males may benefit from programs that will make them more sensitive to

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relationships; whereas, females may benefit from programs that will promote more autonomous functioning.

References
Adams, G., & Gullota, T. (1983). Adolescents Life Experiences. California: Wadsworth. Ainsworth, M. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and Prospect.In C. M. Parkes & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior (pp. 3-30). New York: Basic Books. Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1978). An Introduction to Motivation. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. (1991). Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test of a Four-Category Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226-224. Berne, E. (1966). Principles of Group Treatment (pp. 292-319). New York: Grove Press. Berns, R. (2004). Child, Family, School, Community: Socialization and Support (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. Berscheid, E., Snyder, M., & Omoto, A. (1989). The Relationship Closeness Inventory: Assessing the Closeness of Interpersonal Relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 792-807. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and Loss: Retrospect and Prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,52, 664-678. Buerkel-Rothfuss, N. L., Fink, D. S., & Buerkel, R. A. (1995). Communication in Father-Child Dyad: The Intergenerational Transmission Process. In T. S. Socha, & G. H. Stamp (Eds.), Parents, Children, and Communication: Frontiers of Theory and Research (pp. 63-86). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cacho, M. J., Kawi, C., & Versoza, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (manual). Philippines, Baguio City: Saint Louis University. Collins, N., & Read, J. (1990). Adult Attachment, Working Models, and Relationship Quality in Dating Couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(4), 644-633. Crandall, V. C., Katkovsky, W., & Crandall, V. J. (1965). Children's Beliefs in Their Own Control of Reinforcement in Intellectual-Academic Achievement Situations. Child Development, 36, 91-109. Derlega, V., & Chaikin, A. (1975). Sharing Intimacy: What We Reveal to Others and Why. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Dinkmeyer Jr., D., & Sperr, L. (2000). Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Integrated, Individual Psychology Approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. (1997). A Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Achievement Motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218-232. Fabes, R. & Martin, C. L. (2003). Exploring Child Development. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., & Patty, J. (1993). Adolescents' Interactions With the Opposite Sex: Influence of Attachment Style and Gender. Journal of Adolescence,16, 169186. Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The Role of Father Involvement and Mother Involvement in Adolescents Psychological Well-being. British Journal of Social Work, 33, 399406. Fogel, A., & Melson, G. (1987). Child Development: Individual, Family, and Society. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Goldenberg, I., & Goldenberg, H. (2000). Family Therapy: An Overview (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. Griffin, D.W., & Bartholomew, K. (1994b). The Metaphysics of Measurement: The Case of Adult Attachment. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in Personal Relationships (pp. 1752). London: Jessica Kingsley. Harris, I., & Howard, K. (1984). Parental Criticism and the Adolescent Experience. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 113-121. Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511-524. Hockenbury, D. H., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2003). Psychology(3rd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Kerns, K., & Richardson, R. (2005). Attachment in Middle Childhood. New York: The Guilford Press. Mendez, P., & Jocano, L. (1975). Parent-Child Relationship. The Filipino Family in Its Rural and Urban Orientation: Two Case Studies in Culture and Education. Philippines: Centro Escolar University Research and Development Center. Owens, K. (2002). Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Tan, E. (1988). Human Intimacy: The Psychosocial Dynamics of Personal and Interpersonal Relations. Philippines: Maryknoll College Foundation. Verderber, R. & Verderber, K. (1998). Inter-act Using Interpersonal Communication Skills. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Wlodkowski, R. J., & Jaynes, J. H. (1990). Eager to Learn: Helping Children to Become Motivated to Love Learning. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishers.

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Wood, J. (2007). Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Wood, J. T. (1995). RelationalCommunication: Continuity and Change in Personal Relationships (pp. 78-88). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Zajonc, R. B., & Adelmann, P. K. (1987). Cognition and Communication: A Story of Missed Opportunities. Social Science Information, 26, 3-30.

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SAKULKU AND ALEXANDERby Behavioral Science Research Institute International Journal of Behavioral Science Copyright 2011 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 73-92 ISSN: 1906-4675

The Impostor Phenomenon

Jaruwan Sakulku1, James Alexander2
The Impostor Phenomenon was identified from clinical observations during therapeutic sessions with high achieving women by Dr. Pauline Clance. Despite objective evidence of success, these women had a pervasive psychological experience believing that they were intellectual frauds and feared being recognised as impostors. They suffered from anxiety, fear of failure and dissatisfaction with life. This article reviews definitions and characteristics of trait Impostorism, some antecedents, such as personality and family achievement environment and psychological distress as a consequence of Impostorism. Keywords: impostorism, impostor phenomenon, impostor fears, perfectionism, family environment, family achievement values, psychological distress

The Impostor Phenomenon was first described by Dr Pauline Clance, from her observations in a clinical setting (Clance, 1985). Individuals with the Impostor Phenomenon experience intense feelings that their achievements are undeserved and worry that they are likely to be exposed as a fraud. This causes distress and maladaptive behaviour (e.g., Clance, 1985; Harvey & Katz, 1985; Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991; Sonnak & Towell, 2001). Initially, the Impostor Phenomenon was believed to only affect professional women (Clance & Imes, 1978). However, feeling like an impostor seems to be widely experienced. Subsequent research has shown Impostorism affects a wide range of people. For example, Impostorism has been observed to affect both genders (e.g., Bussotti, 1990; Langford, 1990; Topping, 1983), and to occur in people with different occupations such as college students (Bussotti, 1990; Harvey, 1981; Langford, 1990), academics (Topping, 1983), medical students (Henning et al., 1998), marketing managers (Fried-Buchalter, 1992), and physician assistants (Mattie, Gietzen, Davis, & Prata, 2008; Prata & Gietzen, 2007). Chae, Piedmont, Estadt, and Wicks (1995) and Clance, Dingman, Reviere, and Stober (1995) found Impostorism occurred across different cultures. It is estimated that 70% of people will experience at least one episode of this Impostor Phenomenon in their lives (Gravois, 2007). Harvey (1981) asserted that anyone can view themselves as an impostor if they fail to internalise their success and this experience is not limited to people who are highly successful.

1 2

Lecturer of Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia

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Most subsequent research in this area has examined the Impostor Phenomenon as a personality trait or disposition, with samples taken from professionals and students (e.g., Sonnak & Towell, 2001; Topping, 1983). The term Impostor Phenomenon was originally derived from clinical observation of female clients in therapeutic sessions, and most of the preliminary work in this area was based on clinical populations. However, most subsequent research was based on a non-clinical population with a full range of self-perceived intellectual fraudulence, from absent to severe levels. To avoid confusion, it seems more appropriate to reserve the term Impostor Phenomenon for the small subgroup of people who experience a clinical level of self-perceived intellectual fraudulence. The terms Impostorism and impostor fears (Thompson, Davis, & Davidson, 1998; Thompson, Foreman, & Martin, 2000) are used in this article to describe the psychological experience of individuals who perceive themselves as intellectual frauds and also fear being exposed as impostors. The term Impostor when capitalised in this article refers to a person who experiences impostor fears. Researchers have identified a number of factors contributing to the emergence of Impostorism, including perfectionism (Clance, 1985; Thompson et al., 1998; Thompson et al., 2000; Ferrari & Thompson, 2006) and family environment (e.g., Bussotti, 1990; Clance, 1985; King & Cooley, 1995; Sonnak & Towell, 2001). Links between Impostorism and its consequence, psychological distress, such as anxiety and depression have been well established (e.g., Chrisman, Pieper, Clance, Holland, & GlickaufHughes, 1995; Henning, Ey, & Shaw, 1998; Topping, 1983). Most Impostors are able to fulfill their academic or work requirements despite their self-perceived fraudulence. It is possible that subclinical symptoms resulting from impostor fears can, if prolonged, lead to clinical levels of depression or anxiety. A greater understanding of the factors contributing to Impostorism and its consequences may lead to effective interventions that reduce psychological distress. The aim of this article is to review definitions and characteristics of trait Impostorism, some antecedents, such as personality and family achievement environment, and psychological distress as a consequence of Impostorism. Definition of the Imposter Phenomenon by Clance The definition of the Impostor Phenomenon from Clance (1985) refers to an internal experience of intellectual phoniness (Matthews & Clance, 1985, p. 71) in individuals who are highly successful but unable to

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internalise their success (Bernard, Dollinger, & Ramaniah, 2002; Clance & Imes, 1978). Clance believed that the Impostor Phenomenon is not a pathological disease that is inherently self-damaging or self-destructive (Clance, 1985, p. 23), rather, it interferes with the psychological well-being of a person. A high level of Impostor Phenomenon limits the acceptance of success as an outcome of ones own ability and influences feelings of selfdoubt and anxiety. Clance (1985) suggested that the Impostor Phenomenon is marked by six potential characteristics: (1) The Impostor Cycle, (2) The need to be special or to be the very best, (3) Superman/Superwoman aspects; (4) Fear of failure, (5) Denial of competence and Discounting praise, and (6) Fear and guilt about success. However, the existence of these characteristics in Impostors is varied. Not every Impostor has all these characteristics but to consider someone as an Impostor, a minimum of two characteristics should be found. These six characteristics are explained in the following section. 1. The Impostor Cycle. The Impostor Cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.
Achievement-related Tasks Anxiety Self-doubt Worry

Over-preparation

Procrastination

Accomplishment
Perceived Fraudulence Increased self-doubt Depression Anxiety

Effort

Feeling of relief

Luck

Positive

feedback

Discount positive feedback

Figure1. Diagram illustrating the Impostor Cycle based on Clance (1985). The Cycle Begins with the Assignment of Achievement Related Tasks.

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The Impostor Cycle is one of the most important characteristics of the Impostor Phenomenon (Clance, 1985). The Impostor Cycle starts when an achievement-related task, such as school work or vocational task is assigned. Individuals with trait impostor fears are bothered by anxiety-related symptoms (e.g., Chrisman et al., 1995; Clance & Imes, 1978; Thompson et al., 2000). They may react to this anxiety either by extreme overpreparation, or initial procrastination followed by frenzied preparation (Thompson et al., 2000). Following task completion, there is an initial sense of relief and accomplishment, but those good feelings do not persist. Although Impostors may receive positive feedback about their successful accomplishment of the task, Impostors deny their success is related to their own ability. They reject positive messages about their personal contribution because those messages are incongruent with their perception of their mechanics of success (Casselman, 1991). If Impostors have over-prepared, they believe that their success is due to hard work. Those who initially procrastinate, likely attribute their success to luck. Impostors also hold fixed beliefs that accomplishment through hard work does not reflect true or real ability (Clance, 1985). The combination of Impostors beliefs about the mechanics of success and their perceptions of the key contribution of effort or luck influencing their success on a particular task reinforces the Impostor Cycle. When facing a new achievement-related task, self-doubt creates a high level of anxiety, and the Impostor Cycle is repeated. Overworking is one observed and self-perceived pattern of the Impostor Cycle. Overworking becomes problematic when the amount of effort and energy invested in a task exceeds that for producing work of reasonable quality (Clance, 1985), and interferes with other priorities. Even though individuals with impostor fears recognise this overworking pattern, they often find it difficult to break this cycle. Clance (1985) observed that Impostors often have strong beliefs that they will become a failure if they do not follow the same working style. Another complication is that repetition of success reinforces the feeling of fraudulence instead of weakening the links of the Impostor Cycle (Clance & Imes, 1978). Clance (1985) has suggested that Impostors have high expectation for their goals and have their own concept of ideal success. Impostors disregard their success if there is any gap between their actual performance and their ideal standard, which contributes to discounting of positive feedback. Since Impostors are high achievers who also make unreasonably low assessments of their performance (Want & Kleitman, 2006, p. 969), the repetitions of success emphasise the discrepancy between their actual and ideal standards of success as well as strengthening the feeling of being a fraud or an impostor.

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2. The need to be special, to be the very best. Impostors often secretly harbour the need to be the very best compared with their peers. Clance (1985) observed that Impostors have often been in the top of the class throughout their school years. However, in a larger setting, such as in a university, Impostors realise that there are many exceptional people and their own talents and abilities are not atypical. As a result, Impostors often dismiss their own talents and conclude that they are stupid when they are not the very best. 3. Superwoman/Superman aspects. Clance (1985) asserted that the need to be the very best and the superman/superwomen aspects are inter-related. This characteristic of the Impostor Phenomenon refers to a perfectionistic tendency. Impostors expect to do everything flawlessly in every aspect of their lives. They set high and almost impossible standards as their goals and for their self-evaluation (Imes & Clance, 1984). Impostors often feel overwhelmed, disappointed, and overgeneralise themselves as failures when they are unable to fulfill their perfectionistic goals (Clance, 1985). 4. Fear of failure. Impostors experience high levels of anxiety when exposed to an achievement-related task because they fear possible failure. For Impostors making mistakes and not performing at the highest standard precipitates feelings of shame and humiliation (Clance, 1985). Clance and OToole (1988) asserted that fear of failure is an underlying motive of most Impostors. Therefore, to reduce the risk of possible failure, Impostors tend to overwork to be certain that they will not fail (Clance, 1985). 5. Denial of competence and discounting praise. Impostors have difficulty internalising their success and accepting praise as valid. Impostors attribute their success to external factors to a greater degree than non-Impostors (Chae et al., 1995; Harvey, 1981; Thompson et al., 1998; Topping & Kimmel, 1985). They not only discount positive feedback and objective evidence of success but also focus on evidence or develop arguments to prove that they do not deserve praise or credit for particular achievements (Clance, 1985). The Impostor Phenomenon is not a display of false modesty.

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6. Fear and guilt about success. Fear and guilt about success in Impostors is related to the negative consequences of their success. For example, when their successes are unusual in their family or their peers, Impostors often feel less connected and more distant. They are overwhelmed by guilt about being different (Clance, 1985) and worry about being rejected by others. Apart from having a fear of atypical success leading to rejection, Impostors are also frightened that their success may lead to higher demands and greater expectations from people around them. Impostors feel uncertain about their ability to maintain their current level of performance and are reluctant to accept additional responsibility (Clance, 1985). They worry that higher demands or expectations may reveal their intellectual phoniness. Definition of Impostorism by Harvey and Katz Harvey and Katz (1985, as cited in Hellman & Caselman, 2004) use the term the Impostor Phenomenon to describe a psychological pattern rooted in intense, concealed feelings of fraudulence when faced with achievement tasks (Hellman & Caselman, 2004, p. 161). Harvey and Katz (1985) proposed that the Impostor Phenomenon consisted of 3 core factors: (1) the belief that he/she has fooled other people, (2) fear of being exposed as an impostor, and (3) inability to attribute own achievement to internal qualities such as ability, intelligence, or skills. According to Harvey and Katzs (1985) definition, all three criteria must be met in order to consider someone an Impostor. This definition is more specific than Clances conceptualisation (1985). Definition of Impostorism as Perceived Fraudulence Kolligian and Sternberg (1991) suggested using the term Perceived Fraudulence to describe the Impostor Phenomenon introduced by Clance (1985) to avoid confusion between those who experienced the Impostor Phenomenon as an unjustified fear and the normal meaning of impostor as a fraud. In addition, Kolligian and Sternberg (1991) asserted that Impostorism is a self-perception of fraudulence, which is a combination of cognitive and affective components, rather than an emotional disorder (Kolligan & Sternberg, 1991; Leary, Patton, Orlando, & Funk, 2000). The term Impostor Phenomenon could be easily misinterpreted because the term suggests that the experience should be viewed as a pervasive mental illness or categorical personality disorder (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991, p. 308).

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The concepts of the Impostor Phenomenon by Clance (1985) and Perceived Fraudulence by Kolligian and Sternberg (1991) share a similar constellation of factors such as fraudulent ideation, self-criticism, achievement pressures, and negative emotions. However, the concept of Perceived Fraudulence further emphasises a vigilant practice of impression management and self-monitoring in Impostors, who are concerned about their self-worth and social image (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991). Definition of Neurotic Imposture More recently, Kets de Vries (2005) introduced a broader concept to include the Impostor Phenomenon. Kets de Vries proposed that imposture in a wider sense could be recognised as a normal aspect of social behaviour, in that people are expected to conceal their weaknesses within socially accepted limits. Their imposture is a part of a continuum with two extremes outside accepted limits. One extreme is designated real imposture, while the other is Neurotic Imposture (Kets de Vries, 2005). From Kets de Vriess (2005) definition, anyone can be an impostor when they display a faade or present a public self that is different from their private self, in order to meet social expectations. Imposture becomes problematic when a person behaves outside acceptable limits. Real impostors take on a false identity to deceive others; they are presumably satisfied if they succeed in creating a false positive impression, but the degree of misrepresentation would be considered unacceptable if detected, and they may have a realistic fear of being exposed. For Neurotic Impostors, the problem lies with their subjective experience of fraudulence and not with realistic social unacceptability; the self-perceived impostor feels inauthentic regardless of the views of objective observers. The characteristics of Neurotic Imposture from Kets de Vries concept include fear of failure or success, perfectionism, procrastination, and a workaholic personality, all of which correspond to the characteristics of Impostorism as described by Clance (1985). In summary, despite some differences in definitions, Impostorism refers to a pervasive psychological experience of a person believing that they are a self-perceived intellectual fraud and fearing they may be recognised as an impostor. Antecedents of Impostorism Family environment, family dynamics, and parental rearing styles can affect the achievement values and achievement behavior of a child and

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influence how the child learns to deal with success and failure (Thompson, 2004). Predisposing personality traits, such as neuroticism and perfectionism, are assumed to be other factors which contribute to the emergence of Impostorism. These predisposing personality traits are assumed to be stable and may partly contribute to the formation of the cognitive schema of a person. Family dynamics and Impostorism According to clinical observations, impostor fears are derived from certain family situations in early childhood and are then reinforced through socialisation for achievement in adolescence and adulthood. Clance (1985) suggested four general characteristics of the family that contribute to the perpetuation of the Impostor Phenomenon from many of her patients developmental histories: (1) the perception of Impostors that their talents are atypical compared with family members, (2) family messages that convey the importance of intellectual abilities and that success requires little effort, (3) discrepancy between feedback about Impostors abilities and success derived from family and other sources, and (4) lack of positive reinforcement. Bussotti (1990) investigated the family background of Impostors, focused on the family environment, the relationship between family members, and family structure, using the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1986). With a sample of 302 students, Bussotti found that CIPS scores were negatively related to the Family Cohesion and Expressiveness subscales and positively correlated with the Family Conflict and Family Control subscales of the Family Environment Scale. These four subscales: Family Cohesion, Family Expressiveness, Family Conflict, and Family Control, accounted for 12% of the variance in the CIPS scores (Bussotti, 1990). This suggested that impostors were likely to perceive that there was a lack of support, lack of communication, and lack of appropriate emotional expression among family members. High levels of family control, expression of anger and family conflict were also present. However, the total contribution of family environment in this study is modest. Sonnak and Towell (2001) examined the relationship between parental rearing styles and the CIPS in 117 undergraduate students. In this study, parental rearing styles were measured by the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI; Parker, Tupling & Brown, 1979). Sonnak and Towell found that perceived parental control/overprotection was weakly correlated with impostor fears, r = .27, while perceived parental care was inversely related, r = -.41. Sonnak and Towell (2001) concluded that parental overprotection

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was a factor in development of impostor fears. Want and Kleitman (2006) replicated the study of Sonnak and Towell (2001) and explored Impostors perception of their mothers and fathers rearing styles in 115 participants from a wide range of occupations such as doctors, solicitors, business executives, small business owners, and graduate students. Want and Kleitman found that impostor fears were weakly correlated with high levels of control and domination by both mothers, r = .25, and fathers, r = .34. A moderate inverse relationship was found between impostor fears and the parental care of fathers, r = -.30. However, there was no significant relationship between impostor fears and the parental care of mothers, r = -.10. Path analysis suggested that the rearing style of the father (care and overprotection) significantly predicted impostor fears, while the rearing style of the mother had an indirect effect on impostor fears via its relationship with the rearing styles of the father. The results were consistent with Sonnak and Towells (2001) finding that impostor fears were best predicted by parental overprotection, although the relationship is not strong. Want and Kleitmans (2006) study additionally identified the role of overprotecting fathers in the aetiology of impostor fears. Family messages about the importance of being naturally intelligent are also assumed to influence the ambitions and expectations of Impostors from early childhood. Impostors have a strong need to please (Bussotti, 1990), which may cause children to alter their behaviour in order to prevent the loss of affection from their parents (Clance, 1985). Impostors tend to conform to the standards of the family in order to gain positive feedback and verify their sense of self-worth. These modified behaviours may in turn conflict with the needs and capabilities of the child. Without psychological support or family approval of the childs accomplishments, the child may feel that his or her achievements are dismissed, unimpressive, or unimportant. Feelings of shame, humiliation, and inauthenticity are often experienced with a lack of consistent positive reinforcement (Clance, 1985; Clance et al., 1995; Clance & OToole, 1988). King and Cooley (1995) studied the relationship between family achievement orientation and the development of impostor fears in 127 undergraduate students. A weak positive relationship between impostor fears and family orientation that emphasised achievement value and competition was reported, r = .21. This provides little support for Clances (1985) observation regarding family messages about the importance of achievement. However, family messages that emphasise success with less effort have not been investigated.

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Although a weak positive link between family achievement orientation and impostor fears has been reported, King and Cooley (1995) observed that not every child from a family that has strong achievement values becomes an impostor. King and Cooley suggested that the way in which families deliver messages about their achievement values may play an important role in contributing to the development of impostor fears and that individual differences between the children, such as personality, may also be important. Clance (1985) asserted that it is difficult for children to internalise their success when their performance is inconsistently reinforced or invalidated by parents and/or other family members. For instance, the childs family may invalidate the success of the child by sending direct or indirect message that the child is a sensitive or socially adept person (Clance & Imes, 1978). Although the child may want to validate his or her own intellectual competence, the child may come to doubt this competence this if achievements are attributed to sensitivity to a teachers expectations or good social skills. Mixed messages about achievement may influence the emergence of impostor fears. In a study of 425 undergraduate students, Dinnel, Hopkins, and Thompson (2002) reported a moderate correlation between confusing messages from the family with respect to academic achievement and impostor fears, r = .33. Dinnel et al. (2002) treated impostor fears as a factor component of failure avoidant behavior, while mixed messages about achievement from family were treated as a factor component of family environment in a broader model. In summary, studies suggested that family background could contribute to the emergence of Impostorism. However, from the review above, correlations between family background variables and Impostorism were not strong. The strongest relationship was perceived a lack of parental care in Sonnak and Towells (2001) study. Want and Kleitman (2006) suggested this perception may be specific to perceived paternal care but this correlation was slightly weaker than the one reported in Sonnak and Towells study (2001). A weak positive relationship also found between Impostorism and perceived parental control/overprotection and this relationship may also be stronger for the perception of control/overprotection from the father. In addition, confusing messages about achievement from the family appeared more strongly related to Impostorism than family achievement values that emphasised achievement via competition.

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Personality Factors and Impostorism A number of studies have examined how personality correlates with impostor fears to validate specific facets of impostor fears and to distinguish impostor fears from other psychological phenomenon. Topping (1983) found a moderate positive correlation between impostor fears and trait anxiety, r = .42, in a sample of 285 university staff, which suggested that generalised anxiety was an important component of impostor fears. Topping also found that Impostors had a higher level of achievement motivation than non-Impostors. Topping (1983) concluded that in order to eradicate their own personal sense of self-doubt, Impostors are highly motivated to prove they are capable, competent, and worthwhile. According to Chae et al. (1995), Casselman (1991) examined the relationship between impostor fears and the Eysenck Personality Inventory in medical students and found neuroticism was a significant predictor of impostor fears. This finding was supported by the study of Chae et al., using the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992). In a sample of 654 Koreans (319 males and 334 females), Chae et al. found the Neuroticism facet of the NEO-PI-R was strongly correlated with impostor fears in both males, r = .60, and females, r = .63. The relationships between impostor fears and the anxiety and depression subscales in the Neuroticism domain were similar, both close to r =.53 for both males and females. A weak negative relationship was also found between impostor fears and Conscientiousness scale of the NEO-PI-R in both males, r = -.36, and females, r = -.29. Chae et al. concluded that lower conscientiousness reflected lower self-discipline in Impostors pattern of work. When presented with work tasks, Impostors initially procrastinate and then go into a frenzy of activity in order to complete the tasks. A subsequent study by Bernard et al. (2002) in a sample of 190 college students, confirmed the findings of Chae et al. (1995) that personality profiles of Impostors are higher in Neuroticism, r = .49, and lower in Conscientiousness, r = -.49. The association of Impostorism with neuroticism is consistent with the negative affect and dissatisfaction in life, with which Impostors present. However, an association of lower Conscientiousness with perfectionism in Impostors appears less expected. Hill, McIntire, and Bacharach (1997) confirmed forms of perfectionism were positively associated with Conscientiousness in a sample of undergraduate students, though Enn and Cox (2002) found a much weaker relationship in a clinical sample.

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If the association of perfectionism and lower conscientiousness in Impostors is confirmed, it may be a reflection of Impostors work habits, as Chae et al. (1995) suggest, or because individuals with perfectionism require a higher level of organisational skills and good working habits than they attain in order to achieve their perfectionistic standards, or it may reflect Impostors tendency to self-deprecation. Perfectionism is a trait that is believed to have a marked impact on the development and maintenance of impostor fears. Kets de Vries (2005) asserted that perfectionism is the underlying cause of Neurotic Imposture. Impostors set excessively high, unrealistic goals and then experience selfdefeating thoughts and behaviors when they cant reach those goals (Kets de Vries, 2005, p. 112). Within the clinical literature on the Impostor Phenomenon, perfectionism is repeatedly discussed as a dominant theme, with Impostors setting extremely high and often unrealistic standards for their self-evaluation (Imes & Clance, 1984). The need to be the best, the need to be able to do everything flawlessly and their tendency to overwork are the characteristics of Impostors that are consistent with the pursuit of perfection. Impostors tendency to discount positive feedback and maintain high standards for self-evaluation, while being critical of their inability to realise these standards could also be considered consistent with perfectionism. The relationships between characteristics of Impostors and elements of perfectionism have been supported by some empirical studies. Thompson, Davis, and Davidson (1998) found perfectionistic cognitions in subjects reporting high levels of impostor fears, such as a tendency to externalise success, holding high standards for self-evaluation, overgeneralisation of a single failure experience to their overall self-concept, and a high level of selfcriticism. Thompson, Foreman, and Martin (2000) compared Impostors and non-Impostors in their affective and cognitive reactions to making mistakes; they found that Impostors reported a higher concern about their mistakes and a greater tendency to overestimate the number of mistakes they had made than non-Impostors. In addition, Impostors also reported greater dissatisfaction with their performance and viewed their performance as less successful than non-Impostors. These findings provided empirical support for the observations of Clance (1985) that Impostors reject any performance that does not reach their perfect standard and consider their performance as disappointing. In addition to perfectionistic cognition, a recent study by Ferrari and Thompson (2006) explored whether impostor fears were associated with perfectionistic self-presentation. In 165 undergraduate students, Ferrari and Thompson found that impostor fears were moderately associated with

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perfectionistic thoughts about avoiding imperfection, r = .59, non-display of imperfection, r = .57, and the need to appear perfect, r = .40. However, no significant correlation was found between impostor fears and non-disclosure of imperfection, r = .17. These results mean Impostors had the need to appear to be capable, competent and successful in order to gain respect and admiration from others. They also strived to conceal their imperfection by not engaging in situations when they were likely to reveal their personal limitations to others. These characteristics found in Impostors were similar to those found in perfectionists, who are highly self-conscious and have a strong desire to conceal their mistakes from others in order to appear perfect (Frost, Turcotte, Heimberg, Mattia, Holt, & Hope, 1995). The difference between Impostors and perfectionists is that perfectionists will not disclose their mistakes to other people because they fear being viewed as imperfect (Frost et al., 1995), while Impostors will openly communicate their self-perception of imperfect performance to others (Ferrari & Thompson, 2006). Impostors do not want to appear imperfect and actively attempt to conceal their imperfection, but paradoxically Impostors do openly disclose their imperfection to others. One issue is how far the characteristics of Impostors are interpersonal strategies, avoiding attributions by others, as distinct from more concerned with their own self evaluation. Leary, Patton, Orlando, and Funk (2000) argued that behaviours of Impostors can be viewed as self-presentational strategies used to avoid negative interpersonal implications of potential failure by engaging in selfdeprecating behaviours, such as discounting praise and positive feedback or denying that they are as competent as others believe. Leary et al. (2000) showed that Impostors expressed lower performance expectations than nonImpostors only when their performance would be revealed to others, while Ferrari and Thompson (2006) found CIPS scores were positively correlated with favourable impression management strategies. Ferrari and Thompson (2006) further investigated the relationship between impostor fears and social desirability to clarify whether Impostorism involves mainly self-presentational strategies. Using the Balance Inventory for Desirable Responding Scales (Paulhus, 1984), Ferrari and Thompson (2006) found Impostors did not believe they are better skilled than they displayed, r = -.42, but there was a weak tendency for Impostors to attempt to present a positive impression to others, r = .24. Ferrari and Thomson (2006, p. 345) concluded that impostor fears may be regarded as behavioural demonstrations of perfectionism (but not public admission of failure) associated with frequent ruminations over being perfect. These

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studies may indicate that impostor fears are associated specifically with displays of perfect performance, but not necessarily general self-presentation concerns. To clarify issues with perfectionistic cognitions and perfectionistic self-presentation in Impostors, it would be useful to distinguish the role of social expectations versus self-oriented perfectionism in Impostors. A study by Cromwell, Brown, Sanchez-Huceles, and Adair (1990) found Impostors are different from non-Impostors in that Impostors feel they need to achieve perfection in order to gain others approval. This suggested that there may be social components contributing to perfectionism in Impostors. This is because Impostors fear being exposed to others as fraudulent and lacking in ability and attracting negative judgments from others. Thompson et al. (2000) found that Impostors have a higher level of fear of negative evaluation than non-Impostors and the motive behind their achievement behaviour is to meet their perception of other peoples standards. These perceived social expectations may be a source of perfectionism in Impostors, which could be identified as socially prescribed perfectionism. In summary, for personality factors, while one study has shown that Neuroticism was strongly related with Impostorism, others suggested it was a bit less related. Similarly, a strong negative correlation has been demonstrated for Conscientiousness and Impostorism in one study, though a few have found smaller correlations. As perfectionism is considered one of the most important characteristics of Impostorism, aspects of perfectionism and Impostorism would be expected to correlate relatively highly. Perfectionistic cognitions and non-display of imperfection were relatively strongly correlated with Impostorism, more highly than the correlation between Impostorism and trait anxiety. However, non-disclosure of imperfection was not significantly related to Impostorism. Consequences of Impostorism For Impostors, success does not mean happiness. Impostors often experience fear, stress, self-doubt, and feel uncomfortable with their achievements. Impostor fears interfere with a persons ability to accept and enjoy their abilities and achievements, and have a negative impact on their psychological well-being. When facing an achievement-related task, Impostors often experience uncontrollable anxiety due to their fear of failure. Burnout, emotional exhaustion, loss of intrinsic motivation, poor achievement, including guilt and shame about success are reinforced by repetitions of the Impostor Cycle (Chrisman et al., 1995; Clance, 1985; Clance & Imes, 1978). The perfectionistic expectations of Impostors also

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contribute to the feeling of inadequacy, increasing levels of distress, and depression when Impostors perceive that they are unable to meet the standards they set for themselves or expectations from family and people around them. Clinical observations by Clance (1985) revealed that high levels of anxiety, depression, and general dissatisfaction with life are common concerns that motivate Impostors to seek professional help. The relationship between Impostorism and negative psychological affect has been supported by many studies. Conceptually there may be a clear distinction between negative affect as an enduring disposition, which may have contributed to the development of Impostorism in childhood, and negative affect as an outcome of a stressor like impostor fears. It is not clear that concurrent administration of assessments considered as personality and those considered clinically diagnostic can make this distinction. The substantial relationships of Impostorism with trait anxiety and depression, considered as personality, are likely to be affected by current experience of negative affect. Chrisman et al. (1995) found impostor fears moderately correlated with depression however it was significantly more strongly correlated with the Depression Experience Questionnaire (DEQ), r = .62, considered to assess the phenomenology of depression including depressive thoughts and feelings, than with assessments of psychiatric symptoms of depression or current affective state. Chrisman et al. also found a moderate relationship of impostor fears with pervasive affect, physiological indicators, and psychological concomitants, which were major characteristics of depression measured by the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZS-RSD; Zung, 1965). Sonnak and Towell (2001) found that a high level of impostor fears were associated with poor mental health, r = .33, measured by the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12; Goldberg, 1978) in a sample of 117 undergraduate students. Henning et al. (1998) found that Impostorism accounted for the largest proportion of unique variance, comparing with perfectionism and demographic background, including gender, academic year of study, marital status, race, and previous mental health treatment, on psychological distress in medical and other health profession students. Ross, Stewart, Mugge, and Fultz (2001) found depression slightly more related to Impostorism than Anxiety, with similar correlations. Review of the studies has shown the substantial role that Impostorism plays in psychological distress. Most studies have shown strong correlations, or perhaps some overlaps with measures of depressive thoughts and feelings, characteristics of depression, and aspects of psychological distress.

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However, Impostorism appeared slightly less correlated to symptoms of depression assessed by the BDI.

Summary of research and limitations

This article has presented an overview of research into Impostorism, with particular focus on family achievement values and perfectionism, psychological distress, and coping styles in relation to Impostorism. A summary of Impostorism research in areas of family factors, personality factors, and negative psychological affect is presented in Table 1. There are some issues regarding the proposed development and consequences of impostor fears that still need to be addressed. The review suggests the need to confirm the relationship between impostor fears and how achievement-related messages from family were delivered. Achievement-related messages from family that are invalidated, inconsistent, or confusing may have more effect than family achievement values on the development of Impostorism. For the relationship with perfectionism, the kind of perfectionistic cognitions and role of self presentation concerns of Impostors are unclear. For example, it has not been clearly established whether the perfectionistic needs of Impostors are derived from social expectations or within the self. Regarding the consequences of Impostorism, the review has demonstrated that impostor fears have the capacity to affect psychological health and well-being. However, the impact of coping styles on the relationship between Impostorism and psychological distress needs investigation.

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Table 1 Summary of Impostorism Research in Relation to Family Background, Personality Traits, Depression and General Mental Health
Areas of Research Family Background Study Bussotti, 1990 Relationship with Impostorism Positive Family Conflict Family Control Negative Family Cohesion Family Expressiveness .27* Perceived parental control/Over protection Accounted for 12% of variance in the CIPS scores

Sonnak & Towell, 2001 Want & Kleitman, 2006 Antecedents

Perceived parental care Perceived maternal/paternal control/ Over protection Perceived maternal/paternal care

Personality traits

Consequences

Areas of Research Depression

Emphasised achievement value and competition Dinnel et al., 2002 Confusing messages about academic achievement from the family Topping & Kimmel, 1983 Trait anxiety Chae et al., 995; Ross, et al., NEO-PI-R: Neuroticism 2001; Bernard et al., 2002 NEO-PI-R: Conscientiousness Ferrari & Thompson, 2006 Perfectionistic cognitions Avoidance of imperfection Non-display of imperfection Need to appear perfect Non-disclosure of imperfection Study Relationship with Impostorism King & Cooley, 1995 Chrisman et al., 1995 Sonnak & Towell, 2001 Henning et al., 1998 Depressive thoughts and feelings (DEQ) Characteristics of depression (ZS-RSD) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Poor mental health (GHQ-12)

-.41*** .25**(maternal) .34**(paternal) -.10 (maternal) -.30** (paternal) .21* .33** .42*** .46*** to .64*** -.22** to -.49*** .59*** .40*** .57*** .40*** .17

General Mental Health

.62** .55** .42** .33** .49*** to .62***

High level of psychological distress (BSI)

Note. * p< .05. **p< .01. *** p< .001.

References
Bernard, N. S., Dollinger, S. J., & Ramaniah, N. V. (2002). Applying the big five personality factors to the impostor phenomenon. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78(2), 321-333. Bussotti, C. (1990). The impostor phenomenon: Family roles and environment. (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 4041B-4042B. Casselman, S. E. (1991). The impostor phenomenon in medical students: Personality correlates and developmental issues. (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Consortium for Professional Psychology). Dissertations Abstracts International, 53, 5-B.

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Chae, J. H., Piedmont, R. L., Estadt, B. K., & Wicks, R. J. (1995). Personological evaluation of Clance's Impostor Phenomenon Scale in a Korean sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(3), 468-485. Chrisman, S. M., Pieper, W. A., Clance, P. R., Holland, C. L., & GlickaufHughes, C. (1995). Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(3), 456-467. Clance, P. R. (1985). The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming the fear that haunts your success. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree. Clance, P. R., Dingman, D., Reviere, S. L., & Stober, D. R. (1995). Impostor Phenomenon in an interpersonal/social context: Origins and treatment. Women and Therapy, 16(4), 79-96. Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The impostor phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 15(3), 241247. Clance, P. R., & OToole, M. A. (1988). The impostor phenomenon: An internal barrier to empowerment and achievement. Women and Therapy, 6(3), 51-64. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Cozzarelli, C., & Major, B. (1990). Exploring the validity of the impostor phenomenon. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(4), 401-417. Cromwell, B., Brown, N. W., Sanchez-Huceles, J., & Adair, F. L. (1990). The impostor phenomenon and personality characteristics of high school honor students. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5(6), 563-573. Dinnel, D. L., Hopkins, J., & Thompson, T. (2002, August). The role of family environment variables in the development of failure-avoidant behaviours. Paper presented at the Self-Concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation (SELF) Research Centre International Conference. Sydney, Australia. Enn, M. W., & Cox, B. J. (2002). The nature and assessment of perfectionism: A critical analysis. In G. L. Flett, & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 33-62). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ferrari, J. R., & Thompson, T. (2006). Impostor fears: Links with selfperfection concerns and self-handicapping behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 341-352. Fried-Buchalter, S. (1992). Fear of success, fear of failure, and the impostor pheonmenon among male and female marketing managers. Sex Roles, 37(11-12), 847-859. Frost, R. O., Turcotte, T. A., Heimberg, R. G., Mattia, J. I., Holt, C. S., & Hope, D. A. (1995). Reactions to mistakes among subjects high and low in perfectionistic concern over mistakes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19(2), 195-205.

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Gravois, J. (2007). Youre not fooling anyone. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(11), A1. Retrieved November 5, 2008, from http:// chronicle. com Goldberg, D. (1978). General health questionnaire (GHQ-12). Windsor, England: NFER-Nelson. Harvey, J., C. (1981). The impostor phenomenon an achievement: A failure to internalize success (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 4969B. Harvey, J. C., & Katz, C. (1985). If I'm so successful, why do I feel like a fake?. New York, NY: Random House. Hellman, C. M., & Caselman, T. D. (2004). A psychometric evaluation of the harvey impostor phenomenon scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83(2), 161-166. Henning, K., Ey, S., & Shaw, D. (1998). Perfectionism, the impostor phenomenon and psychological adjustment in medical, dental, nursing and pharmacy students. Medical Education, 32(5), 456-464. Hill, R. W., McIntire, K., & Bacharach, V. R. (1997). Perfectionism and the big five factors. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 12, 257-270. Imes, S.A., & Clance, P.R. (1984). Treatment of the impostor phenomenon in high achieving women. In C. Brody (Ed.), Women Working With Women (pp. 75-88). New York, NY: Snapfinger. King, J. E., & Cooley, E. L. (1995). Achievement orientation and the impostor phenomenon among college students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20(3), 304-312. Kolligian, J., Jr., & Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Perceived Fraudulence in young adults: Is there an Imposter Syndrome?. Journal of Personality Assessment, 56(2), 308-326. Kets de Vries, M. (2005). The dangers of feeling like a fake. Harvard Business Review, 83(9), 110-116. Langford, J. (1990). The need to look smart: The impostor phenomenon and motivations for learning. (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 3604B. Langford, J., & Clance, P. R. (1993). The impostor phenomenon: Recent research findings regarding dynamics, personality and family patterns and their implications for treatment. Psychotherapy, 30(3), 495-501. Leary, M. R., Patton, K. M., Orlando, A. E., & Funk, W. (2000). The impostor phenomenon: Self-perceptions, reflected appraisals, and interpersonal strategies. Journal of Personality, 68(4), 725-756. Matthews, G., & Clance, P. (1985). Treatment of the impostor phenomenon in psychotherapy clients. Psychotherapy in Private practice, 3(1), 71-81. Mattie, C., Gietzen, J., Davis, S., & Prata, J. W. (2008). The imposter phenomenon: Self-Assessment and competency to perform as a physician assistant in the United States. The Journal of Physician Assistant Education, 19(1), 5-12.

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Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (1986). Family environment scale manual (2nd ed.), Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52, 1-10. Prata, J., & Gietzen, J. W. (2007). The imposter phenomenon in physician assistant graduates. The Journal of Physician Assistant Education, 18(4), 33-36. Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 598-609. Phinney, C., & Gough, H. (1985). California self-evaluation scales. Institute of Personality Assessment and Research. Berkeley, CA: University of California. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Ross, S. R., Stewart, J., Mugge, M., & Fultz, B. (2001). The imposter phenomenon, achievement dispositions, and the five factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(8), 1347-1355. Sonnak, C., & Towell, T. (2001). The impostor phenomenon in British university students: Relationships between self-esteem, mental health, parental rearing style and socioeconomic status. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(6), 863-874. Thompson , T., Davis, H., & Davidson, J. (1998). Attributional and affective responses of impostors to academic success and failure outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences,25(2), 381-396. Thompson, T., Foreman, P., & Martin, F. (2000). Impostor fears and perfectionistic concern over mistakes. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(4), 629-647. Thompson, T. (2004). Failure avoidance: parenting, the achievement environment of the home and strategies for reduction. Learning and Instruction, 14(1), 3-26. Topping, M., E. (1983). The impostor phenomenon: A study of its construct and incidence in university faculty members. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida). Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 1948B-1949B. Topping, M. E., & Kimmel, E. B. (1985). The impostor phenomenon: Feeling phony. Academic Psychology Bulletin, 7(1), 213-226. Want, J., & Kleitman, S. (2006). Feeling Phony: Adult achievement behaviour, parental rearing style and self-confidence. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 40(5), 961-971. Zung, W. W. K. (1965). A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12(1), 63-70.

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International Journal of Behavioral Science 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 93-103

CHAIJUKUL 2011 by Behavioral Science Research Institute Copyright ISSN: 1906-4675

Book Review Transforming Performance Measurement: Rethinking the Way We Measure and Drive Organizational Success
By Yutthana Chaijukul Transforming Performance Measurement: Rethinking the Way We Measure and Drive Organizational Success, Spitzer, D. R., 2007, New York: NY, American Management Association, ISBN 0814408915. In this book, Dean R. Spitzer, a leading expert and consultant on business research and performance measurement, presents an essential performance measurement approach for organizations to achieve superior transformational performance effective, efficient and sustainable business results. Measurement system is one of the most fundamental and important system in an organization, on which almost all other organization systems are based. Results of measurement represent key indicators of organization, business unit, team, and individual performance. Organizational and business management today requires correct, accurate, and timely measurement information to propel companies and organizations toward a long-term success in the globally dynamic, intensely competitive, and increasingly knowledge-based economic environment. Nevertheless, many organizations are unknowingly still relying on dysfunctional performance measurement systems that provide deceptively adequate information for crucial decisions by executives, managers, shareholders, and other stakeholders. Such decisions may indeed lead to disastrous results, unless their measurement systems are transformed as suggested by the author. Transformation does not necessarily mean making major changes to existing measurement systems or infrastructures. Most importantly, transformation begins with changing the paradigm of organizational measurement that is, the way people in the organization view or think about performance measurement. Traditionally, measurement is considered by most people to be a specialized, technical area that does not directly concern themselves except perhaps during their periodical performance evaluation and reviews by their
1

Lecturer, Behavioral Science Research Institute, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand

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managers and supervisors. To be transformational, organization must see performance measurement through a new lens: that the primary concerns of measurement are understanding, knowledge and learning; and not numbers, data, calculation, and analysis. This new perspective of measurement will enable organizations to begin the transformation progress toward realization of the true benefits of performance measurement. Within this new paradigm, the author suggests the single critical element of success: positive context. The context of measurement, which the author insists is more important than measurement itself, determines the effectiveness of performance measurement system. Unfortunately, most people are more accustomed to negative context of measurement: i.e. inspection, control, report, judgment, etc. in many organizations. For this reason, even technically excellent organizational measurement systems are not truly effective for driving organizational success. It is most essential, therefore, to eradicate and/or avoid this negative context; and replace with and/or establish positive context of measurement (feedback, learning, improvement, etc.). Furthermore, performance measurement must be ultimately socialized positively into the social fabric of the organization. Creating an optimal context (environment) of measurement represents the core purpose of this book. Measurement must be used for the purpose of improvement and learning and not for making judgments or punishment. Only with this positive foundation can transformational measurement system then be developed as to ensure alignment with business strategy, optimize cross-enterprise integration, and build teamwork and employee collaboration to drive and maximize organizational values. Transforming Performance Measurement: Rethinking the way we measure and drive organizational success presents novel principles toward understanding and insight of performance measurement, proposes strategic guidelines to establish a high-leverage performance measurement system, recommends suitable course of planning and implementation, and provides practical guidelines on and examples of currently popular and emerging measures in use today. The book comprises 14 chapters:Chapter 1 (Why Measurement is So Powerful) reviews the importance of measurement and the challenge of effective organizational management. In addition, the author introduces an important thesis of the book: the social context of measurement.

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Measurement is the basis for many organizational and individual functions. For example, measurement directs behavior, focuses attention, improves decision-making, increase alignment, and facilitates feedbacks. More importantly, measurement functions to increase objectivity, and to motivate. One of the major points of this book is that people actually like to be objectively measured and intrinsically motivated. Objectivity to learn and improve and motivation initiative, pride, and accomplishments are considered the highest purposes of measurement. However, measurement is often perceived as subjective judgment and linked too closely with rewards and punishment. The author reasons that since measurement system is fundamental to all other organizational systems, effective performance measurement promotes effective organizational management. The most important aspect of measurement and an important thesis of the book is that measurement, at its root, is a social phenomenon. Measurement was created to facilitate socialization: human needs for social interaction, trade and commerce, etc. For this reason, development and effectiveness of measurement depend deeply on a socialization process. Chapter 2 (When Measurement Goes Bad) and Chapter 3 (Why Measurement Goes Bad) examine measurement dysfunctions, major causes of measurement dysfunctions, and contributing factors of measurement dysfunctions. Notably, it is mainly the negative context of measurement that brings about almost all dysfunctions. Measurement can be a powerful, functional, extremely positive force for organizations and employees. Nevertheless, when used poorly, performance measurement can lead to undesirable behaviors that are in fact detrimental to the organizations goals and objectives. Measurement dysfunctions among individuals, teams, or divisions are prevalent in many organizations, especially business companies. Most traditional measurement systems actually encourage unhealthy internal competition by using measurement mainly for motivational purpose, that is, by closely linking performance measures with rewards or punishment. What is rewarded or punished becomes the focal point: managers and employees often revert to self-serving behaviors, even when they know those behaviors are harming the customer or the company. Dysfunctional measurement can also arise from organizations measuring the wrong things. When organizations have difficulties identifying what is really crucial to organizational success, management often decides to manage on the

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easiest measures to quantify. Also, many functions especially in areas of non-financial and intangibles in support functions use look good measures so that they appear to be effective and successful. In these cases, measurement is particularly flawed and often subjective. Defects in measurement system represents opportunity, which is a factor which contributes to measurement dysfunctions, although the defects themselves are not the biggest part of the problem: there are flaws endemic in virtually every measurement system. The second factor is motive for people to take advantage of the weaknesses in the measurement system. Whether measurement dysfunction will occur depends less on the number of defects in the system, but more on how people respond to those defects. Reducing the motive is thus the solution to measurement dysfunction. Chapter 4 (Beginning the Transformation) describes the transformational performance measurement vision and characteristics of an organization that is on the course to that ideal. Next, the four keys of achieving transformational performance measurement are presented and explained. In an organizational that has achieved transformational performance measurement, measurement is built into the social fabric of the organization. Everyone in the organization is involved in performance measurement, with clear understanding and insight of how their own goals align with organizational mission. Discussions and dialogues on and around performance measures are routine and widespread among individuals, teams, managers, and management. Everyone is part of an empowered selfmanaging team with no need for managers to micro-manage; because the organizational performance measurement system is one fully-integrated system, in which performance is clearly visible and cross-functional measures are keys to collaboration across the organization. The most crucial characteristic of a transformed organization is that all people employees, managers, and management view measurement as enabling learning, high performance and continuous improvement; and not for making judgment and finding faults. Attitude toward measurement is positive: measurement is less tightly connected with judgment and rewards, and performance evaluations are objective and data-based. Planning, forecasting, and decisions are more accurate and are continually reassessed and adjusted based on actual data. Transformational measurement leads to improvement in virtually every aspect of organizational performance.

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There are 4 keys for an organization to progress toward transformational performance measurement: (1) Context, (2) Focus, (3) Integration, and (4) Interactivity. Context refers to the environment surrounding measurement, including attitudes, perception, and experiences of people in an organization; and is foundational to the other three keys. Focus refers to the selection of the right measures that are most important to organizational success. Lack of focus (too many routine, irrelevant measures) and wrong focus (measuring the wrong things) must be avoided. Integration refers to the alignment of measurements across the organization. Transformational performance measures must be aligned with strategy, and then integrated across the entire organization into the organizations overall measurement framework which shows how all measures are related and combined to create organizational values to create optimal value for the organization. Interactivity refers to the social process aspect of and around measurement. Transformational performance measurement requires a high level of ongoing social interaction to be effective in selecting, creating, and integrating (aligning) key measures based on organizations business model and strategy; and utilizing feedback loopsin continuous improvement of measures. Chapter 5 (Creating a Positive Context of Measurement) expands on the context key of transformational performance measurement. It gives details on major factors and components of context, provides guidelines on creating a positive context, and shows examples of organizations that have established positive context in their performance measurement. The context of measurement comprises several factors that most strongly influence performance measurement. Organizational climate the socialpsychological environment as perceived by employees conducive to transformational performance measurement are: openness, trust, honesty, collaboration, customer-focus, and flexibility. Measurement expectations the organizations measurement practices, formal and informal rules of conduct reflect organizations assumptions and beliefs about performance measurement; most importantly, the purpose of measurement must be separated as much as possible from judgment. Measurement leadership

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both at the organizational level and in functional areas is necessary, to establish expectations about performance measurement. History of measurement experiences of organization and its people with performance measurement and consequences of measurement affects how open the organization is to transformational measurement. Likewise, measurement communications, measurement resources, and measurement constraints facilitate or hinder the development of transformational measurement. The context of measurement encompasses 2 main components: the measurement system and the people. The author makes it clear that while the formal or technical measurement system is important, it is the people that ultimately determine the effectiveness of the measurement system. Positive peoples attitudes, emotions, and motivations on measurement are consequently indispensable to create positive context of measurement. Transforming context of measurement is a continuous improvement process that takes time. Chapter 6 (The Focus of Measurement) expands on the focus key of transformational performance measurement. The importance of focus is discussed, and direction on developing focus is presented, including guidelines and examples of emergent and intangible measures. To be transformational, organizations need to select those critical measures that are differentiators from their competitors, and focus everybodys attention on those measures. Successful organizations are reducing the number of variables they measure, and making sure that these are the right ones those that really drive the performance of their particular organization and create competitive advantage in the industry. To achieve focus, the organizations value-creation process, business model, and strategy must be clearly understood and constantly reviewed to find critical strategic and operational performance measures that create value and drive long-term organizational success. Transformational measures must include these emergent measures measures of difficult-to-measure intangibles. On this, organizations should realize that measurement is a process of discovery and continuous improvement; that it is about seeking truth, not necessarily accuracy: many measures are qualitative and subjective in nature, and estimates are sufficient when direct measurement is not possible. Chapter 7 (The Integration of Measurement) expands on the Integration key of transformational performance measurement. The

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importance of measurement integration is discussed and strategy for developing integrated measurement is presented. One of the major problems of organizations today is poor integration i.e., alignment of the organizations measurement system. Within an organization, many functional areas are disconnected from others, with functions and processes that operate independently, and with different measurement systems that frequently work at cross-purposes. Transformational measurement must reflect the performance goals of the organization as a whole and integrated into the overall framework and structure of the organization. Organizational strategy should be major integrating force of any organization from which measures are integrated vertically from strategy to strategic measures and horizontally i.e. between measures across organizational functions and processes. Measurement framework must be developed as a strategy map that links measures within and between all perspectives to promote understanding of strategy and translate strategic concepts into operational measures. By determining the desired organizational outcomes, the drivers of these outcomes and the relationship among these drivers, measurement frameworks ensure that managers and employees understand how their local measures fit with the organizations global measures. Measurement framework also ensures optimization of organizational goals. With clear understanding of relationship and interdependencies between measures, the right integrated decisions can be made across the organization. Cross-functional integration is another benefit of measurement frameworks. Chapter 8 (The Interactivity of Measurement) expands on the Interactivity key of transformational performance measurement. The importance of interactivity and dialogues in continuous improvement & learning process is discussed. The author then illustrates how interaction is required in all phases of the performance measurement cycle. Dialogue is the key to measurement interactivity. Dialogues should occur at every stage of measurement process, to turn plan into realities, and to transform data and information into knowledge, insight, and wisdom through ongoing, interactive learning (i.e., continuous improvement & learning). Dialogue as interactivity should incorporate learning, understanding,

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defining, listening, modeling, hypothesizing, balancing, linking, integrating, etc. The major challenge of transformational measurement is to socialize performance measurement across the organization, in which regular functional and cross-functional conversations, discussions and debates about performance measurement in organizations break down functional silos and synergize diverse resources and capabilities of everyone in the organization. In brief, transformational performance measurement is exemplified by dialogues built on foundation of positive context, focus, and integration. Chapter 9 (Measurement Leadership) explains how measurement leadership is essential to an organizations advancement toward transformational performance measurement. At the top C-level executives, the position of Chief Measurement Officer is suggested: to be responsible for organizational-wide measurement leadership in instituting and managing the four keys to transformational performance measurement. Chapter 10 (Learning About and from Measurement) reiterates the importance of learning as the primary concerns of measurement. Transformational performance measurement involves not only learning from measurement process (single-loop learning), but also learning about the measures themselves (double-loop learning). Accordingly, people in transformational organization gains understanding, insights, and knowledge from measures on individual, team, and organizational performance; while in the process, they also learn to regularly discuss and question the validity of measurement information and underlying assumptions, leading to continuous adjustment and improvement in measurement system. Chapter 11 (The Uses and Abuses of Measurement Technology) cautions on misuse of technology in measurement, and recommends the appropriate use of technology to ensure optimal balance of technical and the social aspects of performance measurement. A major problem in organizations today is that rapid advances in information and communication technologies have resulted in organizations procuring and implementing technology solutions including in measurement systems that perform most of the interpretation and sometimes even make decisions for people. As a result, many organizations are focused on data and technology, instead of their most important asset the people. The proper role of technology in the performance measurement cycle is to help people manage the flood of data for establishing and promoting dialogues of people, who are

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better at making decisions and taking action crucial to organizational success. Chapter 12 (Performance Measurement Maturity) reaffirms that the path toward transformational performance measurement is a continuous improvement, developmental progression that takes time. As they mature toward full potentials, transformational organizations should continually assess their efforts at improving context, focus, integration and interactivity of measurement. The author presents several outputs to be assessed for maturity of efforts at improving these 4 keys of transformational performance measurement; including positive attitudes & experiences, reduced dysfunction, increased use of high-leverage measures, reduced routine measures, progress toward integrated measurement system, and increased speed and quality of conversion from data to insight to action. In conclusion, the Transformational Measurement Maturity Assessment is provided as a valuable for use to communicate concepts of, and to check progress toward performance measurement maturity. Chapter 13 (Transformational Measures) recaps the necessity and benefits of transformational performance measurement, and deliberates on the challenge of transformational emergent measures; as well as on measures of intangibles which represent competitive advantage in todays market. Transformational measurement entails a change in perspective, i.e. looking at things from new angles. In fact, transformational measures measure many of the same things, only from a different perspective. Intangibles are the most important value-drivers in todays organizations, and are of true transformational potentials. Chapter 14 (Transformational Measurement Action Plans) provides examples of some major transformational and emergent measures in all organizational functions and areas, discusses and offers action plans for each of these measures. Many popular, well-accepted measures (e.g. customer loyalty, customer lifetime value, productivity, service quality, brand equity, intellectual capital) are listed; however, some of these require organizations to view from new perspectives if they are to be transformational. Also included are innovative, untraditional emergent measures with high potentials to be transformational; e.g. customer delight, innovation climate, reputation, organizational agility, and emotional intelligence. Of note, emotional intelligence is considered by the author to be the most relevant transformational measure for this book: in that it is a crucial factor in measurement socialization.

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In Transforming Performance Measurement: Rethinking the way we measure and drive organizational success, Spitzer unambiguously identifies context of measurement and interactivity of measurement as the two core dimensions of transformational performance measurement. While the other two keys Focus and Integration are essential to the organizations performance measurement effectiveness, Positive context is requisite for making possible any progress toward transformational performance measurement. Likewise, measurement socialization is necessary to maintain momentum toward transformational performance measurement. Dysfunctions of performance measurement related to Spitzers focus and integration keys of transformational measurement have for many years been discovered and investigated. These dysfunctions, for example, include: many measures diluted overall impact, strategies not linked to departments, teams, and individual goals, difficulties in identifying drivers of Vision and strategy (Bourn, Neely, Platts, & Mills, 2002) measuring the wrong things well, and pre-established one size fits all measures (Tannenbaum, 2006). Similarly, there have been systematic attempts at establishing right performance measures that reflect organizations vision and strategy, and are aligned with the overall strategy and integrated throughout all functional units (Burney & Widener, 2007; Chakravarthy, 1995; Eccles, 1991; Lebas, 1995; Tannenbaum, 2006). Spitzers approach to measurement as a social process is a breakthrough in performance measurement. The book emphasis is on social aspects of measurement, especially the social context of measurement. Previously, other academics give precedence to the context of measurement in term of situational resources:- computer, technology, leadership, financial support and so on, not including the social context. As Garengo et. al (2005) reviewed several PMSs (such as Performance Measurement Matrix, Performance Pyramid System, Balanced Scorecard, Integrated Performance Measurement System, Performance Prism etc.) in the context of SMEs, and concluded that the approaches which are developed in the last 20 years are more horizontal, process-oriented and focus on stakeholder needs, but are not taking precedence over the social context of measurement. An interesting attempt to link the social context with the performance measurement in this book is far more valuable to an organization than a measurement practice that solely focuses on organizational context or on reporting changes in employees. Thus, by empowering and motivating individuals, transformational performance measures are embraced as a learning tool for improvement and pride in accomplishment.

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The book is a roadmap of success for organizations to develop, improve, and restructure their performance measurement to achieve transformational results that truly and consistently differentiate themselves from competition well into the future. The book imparts key principles that will unlock the full potentials of people in the organization, optimize strategic initiatives, synergize all functional operations, and inspire an organization-wide dynamics of continuous improvement mentality that is the hallmark of a true learning organization.

References
Bourn, M., Neely, A., Platts, K., & Mills, J. (2002). The success and failure of performance measurement initiatives. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 22(12), 1288-1310. Burney, L., & Widener, S. K. (2007). Strategic performance measurement systems, job-relevant Information, and managerial behavioral responses role stress and performance. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 19(1), 43-69. doi:10.2308/bria.2007.19.1.43 Chakravarthy, B. S. (1995). Measuring strategic performance. In J. Holloway, J. Lewis, & G. Mallory (Eds.), Performance Measurement and Evaluation (pp. 252-279). London, England: Sage Publications and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Eccles, R. G. (1991). The performance measurement manifesto. Harvard Business Review, 69(1), 131-137. Garengo, P., Biazzo, S., & Bititci, U.S. (2005). Performance measurement systems in SMEs: A review for a research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7(1), 25-47. Lebas, M. J. (1995). Performance measurement and performance management. International Journal of Production Economics, 41(1-3), 23-35. Tannenbaum, S. I. (2006). Applied performance measurement: Practical issues and challenges. In W. Bennett Jr., C. E. Lance, & D. J. Woehr (Eds.), Performance measurement: Current perspectives and future challenges. London, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Zuriekat, M. I. K. (2005). Performance measurement systems: An examination of the influence of the contextual factors and their Impact on Performance with a Specific Emphasis on the Balanced Scorecard Approach (Doctoral dissertation). University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, England.

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