Satellite Comm Fundamentals

TCOM 750 Satellite Communications Fundamentals
Sept 15, 2004
Satellite RF Fundamentals
Announcements
Tonight we will view a video on amateur radio satellite operations and discuss some concepts presented in the class notes. Next week: Perspectives on Winning Proposals
Guest Lecturer: Steve Trieber
Recommended URLs:
Surrey Space Centre: http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/SSC/ Surrey Satellite Technology LTD: http://www.sstl.co.uk SpaceQuest LTD: http://www.spacequest.com/ Space Systems Development Lab: http://ssdl.stanford.edu/ US Naval Academy Satellite Lab: http://web.usna.navy.mil/~bruninga/satstation.html
Team Rosters
TEAM 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Naim Kassar Heng Fan Arpan Shah Mark Norton Kenneth Lim Dana Jaff
TEAM 2 David Davis Azzie Legesse Ayele Antenagegnehu Timothy Maier Shahid Nasim Padmanabhan Raman
TEAM3 Yingjie Hall Ravi Bhalotia Roger Ensminger Shelley Mountjoy Yang Liu Anouar Benahmed
Objectives
Refresh your knowledge of basic RF communications concepts related to the operation of spacecraft. Analyze how amateur radio satellite operations and methods can apply to our project.
Satellite RF Communications Architecture

Geostationary Relay Satellite(s) Spacecraft Antenna Transmitter Data Instrument Space Link Sensor Space Link
OR
Receiver EARTH
Data to Processor Receiver
Data to Processor
Subsystems of Satellite RF Communications

Pointing Loss Polarization Loss
Atmospheric Loss, Rain Loss
Space Loss
Pointing Loss
Transmitter
SPACE CHANNEL Galactic, Star, Terrestrial Noise
Receiver
Antenna
Antenna
Power Amplifier
Receiver Noise
Receiver
Transmitter
Modulator
Implementation Loss
Demodulator
Information Source
Information Sink
6
Satellite transmitter-to-receiver link with typical loss and noise sources

Definitions & Some Basics

dB = 10 log10 (x); x is usually a power ratio
dBW 10 log10 (watts)
For 100 watts; dBW = 10 log10 (100) = 20 dBW
dBm 10 log10 (milliwatts)

For 100 watts; dBm = 10 log10 (100000) = 50 dBm
Carrier Frequency
Units are Hz MHz = Hz x 106 GHz = Hz x 10 9
Frequency Bands (of interest)

S-Band = 2-3 GHz X-Band = 7-8 GHz Ku-Band = 13-15 GHz Ka-Band = 23-28 GHz
Logarithmic Scale
dBW
20 dBW 100 Watts 50 dBm Always a 30 dB difference between dBm and dBW
dBm
13 dBW 10 dBW
20 Watts 10 Watts
43 dBm 40 dBm
0 dBW (Ref)
1 Watts
30 dBm
-10 dBW
0.1 Watts
20 dBm
-30 dBW
0.001 Watts (1 milliwatt)
0 dBm (Ref)
-40 dBW
0.0001 Watts
-10 dBm A power below the reference level has negative value, for either dBm or dBW
What is Doppler & Doppler Rate?

B A
AOS
OR T BI
LOS
EARTH
Doppler Rate
+ f
Doppler Shift
Nominal (at-rest) frequency
C -f
Vs Doppler Shift = f = C V fs s
Vs = Radial velocity component between S/C and Site in the direction of the observer C = Speed of Light = 2.997925 x 108 meters/sec. Fs = Frequency of Transmission
Doppler rate of change =
f Vs = as f 2 s t (C Vs )
where as = rate of change of Vs = acceleration

Doppler shifts become greater as the frequencies become higher.

9
Doppler & Doppler Rate

Phase lock loops
Input Signal Doppler Phase & Frequency Comparer Error Signal Low Pass Filter
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Filtered Error Signal
Enable receiving & tracking of Doppler shifted signals Used in virtually all spacecraft & ground station designs to accommodate dynamic frequency changes
10
Analog and Digital Data
11

Most instrument data starts out as analog data
Volts
time
Most analog data is converted to digital data (binary 2n)

Volts 7 6 5 4 time
3 bit system
Binary 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Satellite RF Fundamentals Analog 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 1 0 1
7 1 1 1
6 1 1 0
4 1 0 0
Serial data stream transmitted 12

Why use digital data
+ Better performance vs. noise + Lends itself to computer processing & coding - Consumes more bandwidth
Volts
Analog Signal
Sampling Rate Nyquist rate ( 2 fmax)

Digital Sampling t
fmax max frequency component of the original signal
Digital Bit Stream
t 13
Spectra Basics
14
Spectra (Baseband Signals)

Frequency Domain Time Domain V(t) = Asin2ft t Period = T A Amplitude
Fourier Transform
1 f= T
Hz
- j2ft v(f ) = v(t ) e dt -

y(t) t T
Amplitude
sin x
( )
Fourier Transform
- j2ft y(f ) = y(t ) e dt -
7/T
6/T
5/T
4/T
3/T
2/T
1/T
1/T
2/T
3/T
4/T
5/T
6/T
7/T
15
Spectra (Modulated Signal)

Given: an arbitrary modulating signal M(t) an arbitrary carrier signal cos 2fct then the modulated signal V(t) M(t) cos 2fct Find: The Fourier transform of V(t)
M(f ) = M(t ) e - j2 fmt dt is the Fourier transform of M(t) - 1 j2 f t 1 j2 fc t using the identity cos 2fc t = e c + e 2 2
Then:
M(t ) cos 2fc t =
1 1 M(t)e j2 fc t + M(t )e j2 fc t 2 2
A
Then: The Fourier transform of V(t) = V(f)

1 1 V (f ) = M(t ) e- j2 ( fm + fc )tdt + M(t ) e- j2 ( fm fc )tdt 2 - 2 -
-fm M(0) M(0)
fm
f M(0)
-fc Satellite RF Fundamentals
fc
16
Coding/Spreading/Data Compression
17
The Effects of Channel Noise

In digital communications, raw data is put into the form of bits, 1s and 0s. A carrier signal is modulated using this raw data for convenient transmission over the channel. The carrier signal is subject to noise corruption in the channel, sometimes making it impossible to reconstruct the raw bits at the receiver.
If a transmitted bit is received as its opposite (e.g., a 1 received as a 0 or vice versa), then a bit error has occurred.
This results in a progressive loss of information at the receiver as the number of mistranslated bits grows.
18
BER and Eb/No

The rate at which bits are corrupted beyond the capacity to reconstruct them is called the BER (Bit Error Rate).
A BER of less than 1 in 100,000 bits is generally desired for an average satellite communications channel (also referred to as a BER of 10-5). For some types of data, an even smaller BER is desired (10-7).
The BER is directly dependent on the Eb/No, which is the Bit Energy-to-Noise Density ratio.
Since the noise density present on the channel is difficult to control, this basically means that BER can be reduced through using a higher powered signal, or by controlling other parameters to increase the energy transmitted per bit.
As the following chart shows, the BER will decrease (i.e., fewer errors) if the Eb/No increases.
Satellite RF Fundamentals 19
Higher Eb/No Reduces the BER

BER Versus Eb/No
10-3 Some ways of Increasing Eb/No
10-4
BER
Increase signal power Use a bigger antenna Use a super cooled receiver
10-5
10-6
These methods can be expensive
lower
Eb/No
higher
20
Another Strategy to Reduce BER
BER Versus Eb/No

10-3
10-4 This change in performance can be achieved by using Error Correction Coding 10-5
Another strategy is to shift the whole curve over to the left
BER
Now the same BER can be achieved using a lower Eb/No
10-6
Less expensive method of mitigating channel noise
lower
Eb/No
higher
21
Error Detecting versus Error Detecting/ Correcting Codes

An error detecting code can only detect the presence of errors, not correct them.
This implies error detection and a subsequent request for retransmission.
There are times when retransmission of the message is not practical.

If a spacecraft is transmitting a playback dump of a storage device while making a short pass over a ground station, it may not have time to stop the transmission and retransmit in a short enough time.
An error detecting/correcting code, on the other hand, has the ability to detect a defined number of errors and correct them for a prescribed environment that caused the errors, which is commonly called Forward Error Correction (FEC).
Usually, for a given code, more errors can be detected than can actually be corrected.
22
Error Correction Codes

Error control coding aims to correct errors caused by noise and interference in a digital communications scheme. In error control coding, the information bits are represented as another sequence of bits, also called coded symbols; this new sequence is sent over the channel. This new sequence will use redundant information, often called parity bits, to provide error protection (e.g., send a 0 as 00000 and a 1 as 11111). Now individual bit errors will not necessarily result in the incorrect decoding of the original information bits.
For instance, if 1 or 2 of the five 0s sent over the channel in the above example are interpreted as 1s at the receiver, the original 0 can still be decoded correctly if one makes a final decision based on the majority of the received coded symbols.
23
Types of Error Correction Codes

A rate 1/2 convolutional code, an example of one family of codes, is often used on NASA space communication links.
2 coded symbols for every 1 data symbol (i.e., 100% overhead) Provides improved performance in a Gaussian noise environment
The Reed-Solomon code, a special type of block code, also has the advantage of smaller bandwidth expansion and also has the capability to indicate the presence of uncorrectable errors.
Provides improved performance in a bursty noise environment Overhead approximately 12%
Where a greater coding gain is needed than can be provided by the convolutional code or the Reed-Solomon code alone, the two codes are often concatenated to provide a higher error-correction performance.
One code serves as the outer code, one as the inner code
24
Typical Encoded Link

Data symbols 1.12 Msps R/S Encoder Rate Convolutional Encoder Data symbols 2.24 Msps Baseband Signal RF Signal
Data Bits 1 Mbps
Modulator & Transmitter
LNA Antenna Antenna Receiver Data symbols 2.24 Msps

2.24 MHz
fc
0
1 MHz 2 MHz
0
1.12 MHz 2.24 MHz
0
2.24 MHz 2.24 MHz
fc
Convolutional Decoder Data symbols 1.12 Msps R/S Decoder
Note: Coding increases the bandwidth of the baseband RF signal Data Bits 1 Mbps (with some errors)
25
Example Error Correcting Performance

For a BER of 10-5, Theoretical Required Eb/N0 is as follows:
THEORETICAL CURVES 1
Uncoded PSK: 9.6 dB Reed-Solomon (R-S) Coding: 6.0 dB Convolutional Coding (7,1/2) PSK: 4.4 dB Convolutional + R-S (no R-S interleave): ~3.0 dB Convolutional + R-S (ideal R-S interleave): ~2.4 dB
10 -1
10 -2
IDEAL PSK, NO CODING
10 -3
CONV. CODING (7, 1/2)
R-S CODING (255, 223)
10 -4 Pe
CONV. + R-S (IDEAL INTERLEAVE)
(7,1/2), where rate 1/2 indicates that for every 1 bit into the encoder 2 symbols are output of the encoder and 7 is the number of shift registers used to generate the output symbol of the encoder. Interleaving takes adjacent bits and separates them to help protect from interference.
10 -5
CONV. + R-S (NO INTERLEAVE)
10 -6
10 -7
10 -8
10 -9
10 -10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 E /N (dB) b o
26
Data Compression
Data transmission and storage cost money.
Despite this, digital data are generally stored in efficient ways such as ASCII text or binary code. These encoding methods require data files about twice as large as actually needed to represent the information.
Data compression is the general term for the various algorithms and programs developed to address this problem.
A compression program converts data from an easy-to-use format for one optimized for compactness. Basically it discards redundant data with a prescribed algorithm. An uncompression program returns the information to its original form.
As an example of compression, a fax device compresses the data before it sends it to reduce the time needed to transmit the document.
This can reduce the cost of transmission 10 or more times. Compression will be required for the Design Project Problem.
27
Spread Spectrum Definition

Spread Spectrum (SS) was developed originally as an anti-jamming technique.
A jamming signal is a narrowband, high power signal which falls in the bandwidth of the desired signal, thus disrupting communications Jamming can be intentional, or it can result from natural phenomena such as multipath.
SS works by spreading the desired signal over a much larger bandwidth, Wss, much in excess of the minimum bandwidth W necessary to send the information.
A spreading signal, or coding signal, which is independent of the data, is used to accomplish spreading. At the receiver, the original data is recovered through a process called despreading, in which a synchronized replica of the spreading signal is correlated with the received spread signal.
Spreading used in the NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)
Reduce flux density of signals to meet Spectrum Management requirements. Provide isolation for signals on same frequency.
28
Basic Spread Spectrum Technique: Direct Sequence
Signal x(t) Symbol (Data) rate R
Filter
Recovered data
spreading code signal g(t) chip rate Rch
spreading code signal g(t) chip rate Rch Rch 10 symbol (data) rate
Multiplication by the spreading signal once spreads the signal bandwidth. Multiplication by the spreading signal twice recovers the original signal. The desired signal gets multiplied twice, but the jamming signal gets multiplied only once. g(t) must be deterministic, since it must be generated at both the transmitter and receiver, yet it must appear random to authorized listeners.
Generally g(t) is generated as a pre-defined pseudo-random sequence of 1s and 1s through the use of prescribed shift registers.
Spreading: Effect of Spread Spectrum
G(f)
Jammer with total power J JO = J/W
Before Spreading
Gss(f) After Spreading
J'o = Jo (W/Wss)
wss
30
Spreading: Overview of Various Spreading Techniques

Direct Sequencing (DS) is the SS technique described above.
Allows separation between desired signals all at the same frequency & polarization Aids in meeting required flux density regulations Enables range determination of spacecraft Rule of thumb spreading chip rate x 10 of symbol (data) rate
In Frequency Hopping (FH), the frequency spectrum of the desired signal is shifted pseudorandomly over M different frequencies.
Each hop lasts a very short time, making the presence of a jamming signal in any one hopped frequency band much less effective. FS is still a form of SS, as it requires greatly expanded bandwidth to operate.
Time Hopping (TH) uses a coded sequence to turn the transmitter on and off in a pseudorandom fashion to counter a pulsed jamming signal.
Requires, not more bandwidth, but a greater time duration for transmission. Not effective against continuous wave jammers, so it is usually combined with other techniques.
Hybrids of the three techniques above are often used.

DS/FH, FH/TH, or DS/FH/TH are examples.
31
Modulation Schemes
32
Definition of Modulation
Modulate means to change something
In telecommunications, it means to change the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal.
Digital symbols (usually bits) are transformed into waveforms by a process called digital modulation.
These digital waveforms are then used to modulate the carrier.
The following slide shows some commonly used Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) waveforms. Definition: Baseband signals are those signals that are used to modulate a high frequency carrier signal.
33
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Waveforms

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 NRZ-L 1 NRZ-M 0 1 NRZ-S 0 1 R-Z 0 1 Bi-L 0 1 Bi-S 0 1 Bi-M 0 1
NRZ-Level (or NRZ-Change) "One" is represented by one level "Zero" is represented by the other level NRZ-Mark "One" is represented by a change in level "Zero" is represented by no change in level NRZ-Space "One" is represented by no change in level "Zero" is represented by a change in level RZ "One" is represented by a half-bit wide pulse "Zero" is represented by no pulse condition Bi-Phase-Level (or SplitPhase, Manchester 11+ 180o ) "One" is represented by a 10 "Zero" is represented by a 01 Bi-Phase-Space A transition occurs at the beginning of every bit period "One" is represented by no second transition "Zero" is represented by a second transition one-half bit period later Bi-Phase-Mark A transition occurs at the beginning of every bit period "One" is represented by a second transition one-half bit period later "Zero" is represented by no second transition
1 MIS-01 NG5061
34
Motivation for Modulation

It would be very difficult to send a baseband signal directly over a channel because antennas are used to transmit electromagnetic fields through space. The size of an antenna depends on the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted.
Often the antenna size is taken to be /4.
A baseband signal has a relatively low frequency and therefore a very large wavelength that is calculated as c/f, where c is the speed of light and f is the frequency.
An antenna might need to be unacceptably long to directly transmit a baseband signal. If the baseband information is first modulated on a high frequency carrier, then the required antenna diameter will be much more reasonable.
In addition, by modulating carriers at different frequencies, more than one baseband signal may be sent over the same channel, thus increasing data throughput. This is call frequency multiplexing (similar to current radio and TV broadcasting).
The Carrier Wave/How to Modulate

The general form of a carrier wave is: s(t) = A(t) cos [wct + (t)]
wc = carrier freq A(t) = amplitude (t) = phase
S(t)
sin x
()
Modulator
fc reference
fc
The carrier can be modulated by using the baseband signal to vary one or more of the above parameters over a duration of T, the symbol period. Coherent modulation may be used when the receiver can exploit knowledge of the actual carrier phase. Noncoherent modulation is used when knowledge of the absolute phase is unavailable.
Less complicated, but comes with a performance degradation.
36
QPSK versus BPSK

BPSK modulation results in 1 symbol/Hz, where QPSK modulation results in 2 symbols/Hz).
As a result, the spectrum of QPSK is narrower than that of BPSK. The mainlobe of QPSK is half the width of the BPSK spectrum mainlobe.
The probabilities of bit error for BPSK and QPSK are equal, but QPSK can support twice the data rate that BPSK can. Higher orders of PSK can be designed (8-PSK, 16-PSK, etc.), but there is a tradeoff (higher required power or higher BER).
37
Comparison of Spectra for BPSK and QPSK for a Given Data Rate
BPSK
4.5
Required RF Bandwidth / Data Rate
QPSK
BPSK, Uncoded
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
QPSK, Uncoded QPSK, Rate 1/2 Coded
Bandwidth Difference
Co d Ga ing in
BPSK, Rate 1/2 Coded
Coding Gain
Bandwidth Difference
Theoretical Required Eb/N0 for BER of 10 -5 , dB
1a
BPSK 1 = 180 DEGREES 0 = 0 DEGREES Two states for BPSK
Inphase and Quadrature biphase signals
Q 1b
I 0a
Four states for QPSK
38
1
QPSK: Delay Data by 90 degrees on 1 channel
0b
Noise Basics
39
Sources of System Noise

The presence of noise degrades the performance of a satellite link The noise present in a satellite communications system (often called the system noise) comes from many different sources
Some of it is injected via the antenna from external sources Some of the noise is generated internally by various receiver components
The noise which comes in through the antenna can be seen as random noise emissions from different sources, and it is also called the sky noise
Terrestrial sources such as lightning, radio emissions, and the atmosphere Solar radiation Galactic background (moon, stars, etc.)
The receiver-generated noise can be caused by various receiver components

Results from thermal noise caused by the motion of electrons in all conductors The principal components that generate noise are the active devices such as LNA and random noise stemming from passive elements, such as the line from the antenna to the receiver
Noise Temperature of a Device

Noise temperature is a useful concept in communications receivers, since it provides a way of determining how much thermal noise is generated by active and passive devices in the receiving system
The physical noise temperature of a device, Tn, results in a noise power of Pn = KTnB
K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K; K in dBW = -228.6 dBW/K Tn = Noise temperature of source in Kelvins B = Bandwidth of power measurement device in hertz
Because satellite communications systems work with weak signals, it is mandatory to reduce the noise in the receiver as far as possible
Generally the receiver bandwidth is made just large enough to pass the signal, in order to minimize noise power
41
The System Noise Temperature

To determine the performance of a receiving system, we must find the total thermal noise against which the signal must be demodulated.
The combination of all the noisy devices plus the antenna noise.
This can be done by representing the receiver components as noiseless devices with their individual gains and, at their inputs, noise sources with the same noise power as the original noisy components.
The next slide shows how this is done for an earth station receiver.
It is then easy mathematically to combine all of the noise sources into one noise source, located at the input of a noiseless receiver.
The noise temperature of this source, Ts, is called the system noise temperature.
The total noise power can then be calculated easily, for link budget purposes, as Pn = KTsBG.
G is the total gain of the receiver. B is the bandwidth of interest.
42
Noise Figure and the G/T Figure of Merit

Noise figure can also be used to specify the noise generated within a device The noise figure of a device is related to its noise temperature by:
Td = T0(NF - 1), where T0, the reference temperature, is usually 290 K (room temperature)
RF AMP
NF = (S/N)in/(S/N)out
NFdB = 3 dB; NF= 103/10= 2 Td = 290 (2-1) = 290 K
The receiver gain and the system noise temperature can be combined as a ratio, Gr/Ts, often just written as G/T The G/T is often used as a figure of merit for an earth station
As G/T goes up, so does the quality of the earth station For example, if the receive antenna is 50 dBi and the system noise temperature is 500 K , then Gr/Ts = 50-10log (500) 23.0 dB/ K
43
The Calculation of System Noise Temperature (Contd)

Example:
3 dB Tsky = 50 Loss = L 1 LNA NFLNA = 3 dB = 2 GLNA = 30 dB DEMODULATOR NFDC = 10 dB = 10 GDC = 30 dB IF AMP NFIF = 10 dB = 10 GIF = 30 dB RECEIVER NFR = 10 dB = 10 GR = 30 dB
10 3 dB / 10
= 0.5
Ts @ Reference Point
System Noise Temperature Ts K
To is reference temperature of each device = 290K (assumed)
Ts Tsky + (1 )To + (NFLNA 1)To +
(NFPC 1)To + (NFIF 1)To + ...

GLNA GLNAGDC
0.5(50) + (1 0.5)290 + (2 1)290 +

25 + 145 + 290 + 2.6 + .0026 + ...
(10 1)290 (10 1)290

1000 + 1000 x1000
+ ...
462 K
44
Components
45
Components of Interest
Antennas
Receive & transmit RF (radio frequency) energy Size/type selected directly related to frequency/required gain
Gain Pattern
Omni Antenna (idealized)
0 dBi 360
Directional (Hi-Gain) Antenna
Isotropic antenna Omni Antenna (typical)

110 120 130 140 150 160
plot1 mtheta
Theta Cut 100 90 80
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 350 340 330
-3 dB Beamwidth Gain is relative to isotropic with units of dBi Side Lobes Boresight Peak Gain = X dBi
46
170
plot2 mtheta Three_dB
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
Components of Interest (Contd)

Antennas (contd)
Polarization: the orientation of the electrical field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, as observed along the direction of propagation To minimize polarization loss, the transmit and receive antennas should have the same polarization.
Linear Polarization Vertical
Linear Polarization Horizontal
Circular Polarization Left hand
Circular Polarization Right hand
47

Filters & Diplexers
Band Pass Filter f1 f2 f
f f1 f2
Receive fr Diplexer Transmit ft
fr (2106.4 MHz) ft (2287.5 MHz)
Diplexer provides isolation between transmit & receive signals


Transmitters (modulators) & Receivers (demodulators)
Transmitter Original Signal Receiver Original Signal
A
sin
A
(x )
x sin
(x )
x
7/T
6/T
5/T
4/T
3/T
2/T
1/T
1/T
2/T
3/T
4/T
5/T
6/T
7/T
fc
7/T
6/T
5/T
4/T
3/T
2/T
1/T
1/T
2/T
3/T
4/T
5/T
6/T
7/T
fc
Transponders & Transceivers

Switch Transponder Mode Transmitter Diplexer Receiver Transceiver Mode
Power Amplifier
Transmitter 1 watt (0 dBW)
Power Amplifier G = 13 dB 20 watt (13 dBW)

49
Link Equation
For an isotropic antenna in free space conditions, the power supplied to the antenna, PT, is uniformly distributed on the surface of a sphere of which the antenna is the center The power flux-density is the power radiated by the antenna in a given direction at a sufficiently large distance, d, per unit of surface P area is: Power flux density = ; d = distance 4d
T i 2
The power flux-density radiated in a given direction by antenna P G having a gain, GT, in that direction is: Power flux density (pfd) = 4d
T
T 2
The equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) = PT GT The power received by an antenna with area AR is: P = pfd A =
R R
PG A 4d
T T 2
The gain of any antenna, for example GR, is: G =

R
4A c ; = f
r 2
50
Link Equation (Contd)

PR = 2 4 d PT GT AR PT GT GR EIRP GR EIRP GR = = = where L = 2 2 L 4 d2 4d 4d
) (
= 32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log f Free Space Path Loss = (L) dB km MHz (see backup for derivation)
In general, (P )
R dB
= (EIRP)dB + (GR )dB (L)dB
PT GT
d Receiving Antenna Area = AR
(PR )dB = (EIRP)dB + (GR )dB ( all losses) dB
Hypothetical Sphere
51
Link Equation
Let the noise spectral density, No KT
where K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K; K in dBW = -228.6 dBW/K T = system noise temperature in Kelvins Gr power P Then the in 1 Hz r = EIRP KT noise No Losses
Pr G = (EIRP ) dB + r - (K ) dB - (Losses ) dB N T dB o dB
The power received to noise density is related to the data rate by the energy per bit Eb as follows: Pr Eb = Energy/bit received where: R = Bit Rate = R
No r No r
No r P Eb = r - R dB N o rdB No dB
The actual Eb/N0 can be compared to the required Eb/N0 to see how much margin the system contains.
E E Margin = b b N o rdB No Req'd dB Eb N o
is related to BER (see theoretical curves for given Req' d dB modulation and coding scheme)
If the margin is not high enough, or is less than 0 dB, then, using the link budget, a system engineer can easily determine how the communication system needs to be improved to achieve the desired performance.
Link Budget Analysis

A link budget is an engineering tool for satellite communication systems, used to demonstrate and analyze link performance
Generally the desired end result is Bit Error Rate (BER), or the Eb/N0 required to achieve a desired BER
Link performance is analyzed in terms of:

Transmit power Antenna parameters (e.g. gain) Received system noise levels (usually specified as noise temperature) Other factors (e.g. propagation losses, interference, intermodulation)
As for any budget, numbers are added and subtracted together in a table format, with the bottom line at the bottom
Factors that contribute to a higher Eb/N0 are added as positive numbers, like credits Factors that contribute to a lower Eb/N0 are added as negative numbers, like debits
53
Additional Losses on a Real Satellite Link

On an ideal link, the only power loss term would be the path loss caused by the dispersion of the transmit power over the transmitter-to-receiver range. For a real satellite communications link, many other losses need to be considered as well.
Polarization loss, caused by the a mismatch between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Rain attenuation and atmospheric loss. The receiver implementation loss. Pointing loss, caused by imperfect pointing of the antennas Miscellaneous other losses.
In the link budget, these losses are sometimes listed as line items subtracted from the received power, but some of them may be combined in different ways.
Sample Link Budget (direct to ground)

Losses = 0.67 dB 178.95 dB 0.45 dB 1.2 dB Polarization loss space loss @ 2575 KM and 5 elevation atmospheric loss rain loss 11m Ground Antenna
QPSK
8212.5 MHz I = 75 MBPS Loss = 1.13 dB SPACE
Encoder & Transmitter

Q = 75 MBPS Gain = 4.84 dBi G/T = 33.3 dB/K
LNA
Receiver
data
11.6 dBW
10.49 dBW
EIRP = 15.31 dBW
C = 95.95 dB Hz No
Eb N = 12.19 dB o r
Decoder
Eb = 4.25 dB N o REQ'D
Implementation Loss = 2.0 dB
Alaska SAR Facility 11 meter antenna

Decoded Data MARGIN = 5.94 dB
55
Example Link Budget (direct to ground)

*** DOWNLINK MARGIN CALCULATION*** GSFC C.L.A.S.S. ANALYSIS #1 DATE & TIME: 4/ 1/99 10:13:39 LINKID: EOS-AM/SGS 8212.5 MHz MODULATION: I CHANNEL --------DATA RATE: 75000.000 kbps CODING: RATE 1/2 CODED BER: 1.00E-05 99.95 AVAILABILITY GR EL=5 DEGREES PARAMETER VALUE REMARKS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------01. USER SPACECRAFT TRANSMITTER POWER - dBW 11.60 NOTE A; EOL 02. USER SPACECRAFT PASSIVE LOSS - dB 1.13 NOTE A 03. USER SPACECRAFT ANTENNA GAIN - dBi 4.84 NOTE A include multipath loss 04. USER SPACECRAFT POINTING LOSS - dB .00 NOTE A 05. USER SPACECRAFT EIRP - dBWi 15.31 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 06. POLARIZATION LOSS - dB .67 NOTE A 07. FREE SPACE LOSS - dB 178.95 NOTE B 08. ATMOSPHERIC LOSS - dB .45 NOTE B; EL: 5.0 DEG 09. RAIN ATTENUATION - dB 1.20 Include Scintillation loss 1.1 dB 10. MULTIPATH LOSS - dB .00 NOTE A 11. GROUND STATION G/T - dB/DEGREES-K 33.30 G/T with rain at 5 degrees 12. BOLTZMANN'S CONSTANT - dBW/(Hz*K) -228.60 CONSTANT 13. RECEIVED CARRIER TO NOISE DENSITY - dB/Hz 95.95 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 + 11 - 12 I CHANNEL --------3.01 .20 78.75 .20 1.60 12.19 2.00 4.25 3.00 2.94 Q CHANNEL --------3.01 .20 78.75 .20 1.60 12.19 2.00 4.25 3.00 2.94 QPSK Q CHANNEL --------DATA RATE: 75000.000 kbps CODING: RATE 1/2 CODED BER: 1.00E-05 PERFORMED BY: Y.WONG
FREQUENCY:
RANGE:
2575.0 km
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
I-Q CHANNEL POWER SPLIT LOSS - dB MODULATION LOSS - dB DATA RATE - dB-bps DIFFERENTIAL ENCODING/DECODING LOSS - dB USER CONSTRAINT LOSS - dB RECEIVED Eb/No - dB IMPLEMENTATION LOSS - dB REQUIRED Eb/No - dB REQUIRED PERFORMANCE MARGIN - dB MARGIN - dB
NOTE B; 1.00 TO 1.00 NOTE A NOTE A NOTE A 2 dB Includes diff encoding and modulation losses 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 17 - 18 I: NOTE B; Q: NOTE B NOTE A 19 - 20 - 21 - 22
NOTE A: NOTE B:
PARAMETER VALUE FROM USER PROJECT - SUBJECT TO CHANGE FROM CLASS ANALYSIS IF COMPUTED
56
TDRSS Return Link Power Received

For ease of calculation, TDRSS defines the relationship between data rate and the signal power level received isotropically at TDRS (Prec) for a Bit Error Rate of 10-5 Ideal required Prec = RbdB + K
For rate 1/2 coded signals, assume: K = -221.8 (MA); -231.6 (SSA); -245.2 (KuSA); -247.6 (KaSA)
Due to defining the Prec isotropically at TDRS, the predicted received power is calculated the same as identified earlier (see Link Equation slide); however, GR is set to 1 (= 0 dB) for the isotropic antenna. (i.e., Prec = Pr = GRGTPT(/4R)2 Watts)
In dB, this can be expressed as PR = GR + GT + PT + 20Log(/4R) dBW
Margin = Predicted Prec Ideal Prec Other Losses

Other Losses are treated as debits and encompass items such as polarization loss (mismatch of the transmit polarization with receiving polarization), pointing loss (inability of transmit antenna to point to receiving antenna), incompatibility loss, and interference degradation.
57
Example Simple TDRS Link Budget using Prec Equation

*** RETURN LINK CALCULATION -- NETWORK SYSTEMS ENGINEER ANALYSIS *** GSFC C.L.A.S.S. ANALYSIS #0 DATE & TIME: 03/03/03 10: 1:31 PERFORMED BY: R. BROCKDORFF USERID: EOS-AM LINKID: KSA8L RELAY SYS.: TDRS-East TO STGT SERVICE: FREQUENCY: DATA GROUP/MODE: POLAR: RANGE CASE: ALTITUDE: ELEVATION: RANGE: KuSA 15003.4 MHz DG-2 MODE-2A LCP MAXIMUM 710.6 Km 1.5 Deg 44592.7 Km ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I CHANNEL Q CHANNEL DATA RATE = 75000.00 KBPS MOD TYPE = QPSK SYMBL FMT = NRZ-M RATE 1/2 CODED DATA RATE = 75000.00 KBPS MOD TYPE = QPSK SYMBL FMT = NRZ-M RATE 1/2 CODED
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SPACE-SPACE LINK NOTES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 USER TRANSMIT POWER, dBW 12.00 User Provided Data 2 PASSIVE LOSS, dB 1.80 User Provided Data 3 USER ANTENNA GAIN, dBi 44.30 User Provided Data 4 POINTING LOSS, dB 2.20 User Provided Data 5 USER EIRP, dBW 52.30 (1)-(2)+(3)-(4) 6 SPACE LOSS, dB 208.95 CLASS Analysis 7 ATMOSPHERIC LOSS, dB 0.00 Not Considered 8 MULTIPATH LOSS, dB 0.00 Not Considered 9 POLARIZATION LOSS, dB 0.10 User Provided Data 10 SSL RAIN ATTENUATION, dB 0.00 User Provided Data 11 Prec AT INPUT TO TDRS, dBW -156.75 (5)-(6)-(7)-(8)-(9)-(10) 12 Required Prec AT INPUT TO TDRS, dBW -163.44 -245.2 + 10*log (Data Rate) 13 DYNAMICS LOSS, dB 0.00 Not Considered 14 USER CONSTRAINT LOSS, dB 0.00 CLASS Analysis 15 RFI LOSS, dB 0.00 CLASS Analysis 16 MARGIN, dB 6.69 (11)-(12)-(13)-(14)-(15)
Slight difference in simplified link budget vs detailed link budget due to exact customer configuration and space-to-ground link effects
58
Sample Link budget (thru TDRS)

QPSK Losses = 0.10 dB 208.95 dB Polarization loss space loss @ 44592.7 KM and 1.5 elevation
15003.4 MHz Loss = 2.2 dB I = 75 MBPS Loss = 1.8 dB
Encoder & Transmitter

Q = 75 MBPS Gain = 44.30 dBi
Space
Space Ground Link
12 dBW
10.2 dBW
EIRP = 52.30 dBW
LNA
Prec is defined here for a unity gain antenna and BER = 10-5 Predicted Prec = -156.75 dBW Ideal Required Prec = -163.44 dBW Margin = 6.69 dB I = 150 Msps
QPSK
Transparent to the link budget when using the ideal Prec equation
Receiver
data Q = 150 Msps
Note: Significantly more EIRP needed as compared to a direct downlink (52.3 vs. 15.31 dBW)
Decoder
Decoded Data
59
Geometric Coverage (Ground)

Florida ground station with spacecraft altitudes 400, 800, and 1200 km
Merritt Island
400 km 800 km 1200 km
Elevation angle is the angle between local horizontal at ground station and spacecraft

Ground station elevation angles of 0, 10, and 20 degrees
Merritt Island
El = 0O El = 10O El = 20O
61

Spacecraft altitude = 1200 km
Merritt Island
Another antenna
Building
Antenna limits
Effects of terrain and antenna limitations Elevation angel = 0


Coverage circle for Svalbard at a spacecraft altitude of 400 km
Svalbard Location
0 elevation angel

Spacecraft Orbit of 400 KM, 65 deg inc circular
Hawaii (HAW3), Alaska (AGIS), Wallops Island (WPSA), Svalbard (SGIS), McMurdo (MCMS)
Svalbard AGIS
WPSA HAW3
MCMS
64

Spacecraft Orbit of 400 KM, 98 deg inc circular
Hawaii (HAW3), Alaska (AGIS), Wallops Island (WPSA), Svalbard (SGIS), McMurdo (MCMS)
AGIS
WPSA HAW3
65
Geometric Coverage (TDRS)

Synchronous Satellite Coverage at 319 deg long
Synsat location
Coverage No coverage
Spacecraft height = 500 km

66
TDRS Basics
67
NASAs Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)

The TDRSs are in geosynchronous orbit at allocated longitudes
A geostationary satellite is in a circular orbit parallel to and 35786.43 km above the equator with an angular velocity that matches that of the earth.
It hovers above a fixed point on the equator and therefore appears to be motionless.
A geosynchronous satellite has the same orbit period as a geostationary satellite, but its orbit may be elliptical and inclined.
A geosynchronous satellite in an inclined circular orbit moves in a figure-8 pattern as viewed from earth. To maintain a geosynchronous orbit, a satellite must periodically make east-west corrections or it will drift in longitude.
The TDRSs, along with supporting ground systems, make up NASAs Space Network. The Space Network was established to act as a bent-pipe relay (i.e., repeater) and dramatically increase coverage to low earth orbiting satellites as compared to a worldwide network of ground stations.
The SN dramatically increased tracking and data acquisition (T&DA) coverage from 15% to 85% per orbit of low earth orbiting spacecraft as well as decreased operational costs (see coverage slides for depiction).
Requires ~ 30 dB additional EIRP vs direct to ground
Today, 100% line-of-sight coverage can be provided to LEO customers.

Use of 2 TDRS constellation has a Zone of Exclusion (ZOE) Use of 3 TDRS constellation does not have ZOE
TDRSS Constellation
WHITE SANDS COMPLEX GUAM REMOTE GROUND TERMINAL
F-5 174W TDW
F-7 171W (in storage)
TDRS-8 170.7W
TDRS-I 149.5W TDRS-J 150W
F-1 049W
F-6 047W TDS
F-4 041W TDE
F-3 275W TDZ
McMurdo Ground Station McMurdo TDRS Relay System (McMurdo, Antarctica)
69
TDRSS FIELDS OF VIEW
WHITE SANDS COMPLEX
GUAM
254 174 TDW 121 127 91 171 F-7 94 321 41 TDE 355 47 TDS 327 275 TDZ 251 F-7 195 TDW
-180W
0/360
180W
TDRS VIEWS BASED ON 600KM USER ALTITUDE AT THE EQUATOR
70
TDRSS Ground Segment

TWO FUNCTIONALLY IDENTICAL, GEOGRAPHICALLY SEPARATED GROUND TERMINALS AT THE WHITE SANDS TEST FACILITY THE WHITE SANDS COMPLEX (WSC) HAS FIVE SPACE TO GROUND LINK TERMINALS (SGLTs) A SIXTH SGLT HAS BEEN INSTALLED AT THE REMOTE GROUND TERMINAL ON GUAM AS AN EXTENDED WSC SGLT DATA SERVICES MANAGEMENT CENTER
OPERATIONAL HUB LOCATED AT WSC FOR COORDINATING ALL SPACE NETWORK ACTIVITIES BETWEEN CUSTOMERS AND SN
71
Space Segment: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (F1 - F7)

Solar array Power output is approximately 1800 watts Omni Antenna (S-band) and Solar Sail Single Access Antenna Dual frequency communications and tracking functions: S-band TDRSS (SSA) K-band TDRSS (KSA) K-band auto-tracking 4.9 meter shaped reflector assembly SA equipment compartment mounted behind reflector Two axis gimballing Space-to-Ground-Link Antenna TDRS downlink 2.0 meter parabolic reflector Dual orthogonal linear polarization TDRS: single horn feed orthomode transducer Two axis gimballed
Multiple Access Antenna 30 helices: 12 diplexers for transmit 30 receive body mounted Single commanded beam, transmit 20 adapted beams for receive Ground implemented receive function
Forward (FWD): link from TDRSS Ground Station through TDRS to Customer Spacecraft Return (RTN): link from Customer Spacecraft through TDRS to TDRSS Ground Station
Multiple Access (MA) vs Single Access (SA)

Multiple Access (MA):
Fixed S-band frequency (2106.4 MHz fwd and 2287.5 MHz rtn) Fixed polarization (left hand circular) Low data rate (<= 300 kbps) Forward service operations are time-shared amongst customers Return service supports multiple customers simultaneously (lower service cost to customer vs SA)
Phased array antenna and beamforming equipment allow for spatial discrimination between customers; PN spreading provides additional discrimination
Return Demand Access Service allows customers to have a dedicated return link continuously (lower service cost to customer)
Single Access (SA):

Multiple frequency bands (S-band, Ku-band, Ka-band)
S-band: selectable frequency (2025.8 2117.9 MHz fwd; 2200-2300 MHz rtn) Ku-band: fixed frequency (13775 MHz fwd; 15003.4 MHz rtn) Ka-band: selectable frequency (22550-23550 MHz fwd; 25250-27500 MHz rtn) S-band and K-band simultaneously
Selectable polarization (left or right hand circular) High data rate (up to 300 Mbps) Forward service operations are time-shared amongst customers Return service operations are time-shared amongst customers (higher service cost to customer vs MA)
Data Rates Associated with Space Network Services

Service Forward S-Band Return Forward Ku-Band WSC & TDRS F1-F7 Capabilities(3) Up to 7MBps; EIRP = 43.6 dBW (normal); 48.5 dBW (high) Up to 6 Mbps; G/T (min) = 9.0 dB/K Up to 25 Mbps(4); Autotrack EIRP = 46.5 dBW (normal); 48.5 dBW (high) Up to 300 Mbps; Autotrack G/T = 24.4 dB/K N/A N/A SSA: 2/TDRS; 10/WSC; 2/GRGT KuSA: 2/TDRS; 10 KuSA/WSC; 2/GRGT WSC & TDRS F8-F10 Capabilities Up to 7 MBps; EIRP = 43.6 dBW (normal); 48.5 dBW (high) Up to 6 Mbps; G/T (min) = 9.0 dB/K Up to 25 Mbps(4); Autotrack EIRP = 46.5 dBW (normal); 48.5 dBW (high)
Single Access
Return
Forward Ka-Band Return
Up to 300 Mbps; Autotrack G/T = 24.4 dB/K Up to 25 Mbps(5); Autotrack EIRP = 63 dBW
Up to 300 Mbps/800 Mbps(1); Autotrack G/T = 26.5 dB/K SSA: 2/TDRS; 10/WSC; 2/GRGT(5) KuSA: 2/TDRS (2); 10/WSC; 2/GRGT(5) KaSA: 2/TDRS (2); 8/WSC(5) 1/TDRS @ up to 300 kbps; 4/WSC(5) EIRP = 42 dBW (LEOFOV) 5/TDRS @ up to 3 Mbps; 20/WSC(5) G/T = 4.5 dB/K (LEOFOV) (6) Range, 1&2 way Doppler (No Ka-band Tracking)
Number of Single Access Links
Forward
1/TDRS @ up to 300 kbps; 4/WSC; 1/GRGT EIRP = 34 dBW

5/TDRS @ up to 300 kbps; 20/WSC; 2/GRGT; Formed Beam G/T= 3.1 dB/K (Does not include
DAS)
Multiple Access
Return User Tracking
Notes:
Range, 1&2 way Doppler
1. Spacecraft only 3. For customer data configurations, see 450-SNUG, Space Network Users Guide 2. The SN can simultaneously support S-band or Ku/Ka-band (F8- 4. Current WSC configuration supports 7 Mbps F10 only) forward and/or return services through 1 SA antenna to 5. Guam Remote Ground Terminal (GRGT) is not currently configured to support TDRS F8-F10 the same ephemeris. F8-F10 cannot simultaneously support 6. F8 may experience lower G/T performance less than 12 hrs per day Ku/Ka-band services through 1 SA antenna.
74
Spectrum Management
75
Purpose of Spectrum Management

Ensure that the system in which time and money has been invested to develop provides the required quality of service (i.e., Bit Error Rate) when it is deployed or installed.
Apply order to the use of the orbit/spectrum resource. Provide technical bases for coordination. Ensure that systems operate as intended. Promote the efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum. Accommodate new services, applications and technology.
76
Frequency Allocations
The radio frequency spectrum is a national and international resource whose use is governed by Federal statutes and international treaty.
Internationally: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is a specialized agency of the United Nations, acts as the global spectrum coordinator and develops binding international treaty governing the use of the radio spectrum by some 40 different services around the world.
The Radio Regulations contain a number of provisions governing the way the radio frequency spectrum is to be used.
Nationally (within the US): responsibility is broken into 2 areas:

National Telecommunications and Information Agency (NTIA) manages the Government spectrum Federal Communications Commission (FCC) manages the nongovernment spectrum
The international and national Table of Allocations shows what segments of the radio frequency spectrum are to be used by which services.
Spectrum Allocations Available to NASA LEO Missions for Telecommunications

Band S-band Link/Frequency Uplink: 2025-2110 MHz Downlink: 2200-2290 MHz X-band Uplink: 7190-7235 MHz Downlink: 8025-8400 MHz; 8450-8500 MHz Uplink: N/A Ground Network Allocated Services Primary: Space Operation, Earth Exploration-Satellite, Space Research Primary: Space Operation, Earth Exploration-Satellite, Space Research Primary: Space Research (non-deep space) Primary: Earth Exploration-Satellite (8025-8400 MHz) Space Research (8450-8500 MHz) No Allocation Link/Frequency Forward Link: 2025-2110 MHz Return Link: 2200-2290 MHz Forward Link: N/A Return Link: N/A Space Network Allocated Services Primary: Space Operation, Earth Exploration-Satellite, Space Research Primary: Space Operation, Earth Exploration-Satellite, Space Research No Allocation No Allocation
Ku-band
Forward Link: 13.75-14.0 GHz
Return Link: 14.8-15.35 GHz Primary: Inter-Satellite Ka-band Uplink: N/A No Allocation Forward Link: 22.55-23.55 GHz Primary: Earth Exploration-Satellite Primary: Inter-Satellite Downlink: Return Link: 25.5-27 GHz 25.25-27.5 GHz Note: In the band 13.75 14.0 GHz geostationary space stations in the space research service, for which information for advance publication has been received by the IFRB prior to 31 January 1992, shall operate on an equal basis with stations in the fixed satellite service; new geostationary space stations in the space research service advanced published after that date will operate on a secondary basis.
Downlink: N/A
No Allocation
Primary with Fixed-Satellite Service: Space Research (note) Secondary with all other services: Space Research Secondary: Space Research
78
Background Material
79
References
Digital Communications, Bernard Sklar Antennas, J.D. Ravs Space Network Users Guide, Rev. 8, June 2002, http://gdms.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Sign on as Guest Select CCMS Select Document Library Select Code 450
Error Bounds for Convolutional Codes and Asymmetrically Optimum Decoding Algorithum, A.J. Viterbi, IEEE Trans information Theory, Vol. IT13, April 1967, pp 260-169 Principles of Digital Communications and Coding, A.J. Viterbi and J.K. Omura Ground Network Users Guide, February 2001, http://www.wff.nasa.gov/~code452/ Digital Communications, Kamilo Feher Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) http://www.CCSDS.ORG
Compression: Lossy versus Lossless Compression

A lossless compression technique means that the restored data file is identical to the original.
This is necessary for many types of data, like executable code, word processing files, etc. GIF images are examples of lossless compressed files.
On the other hand, data files that represent images, among others, do not have to be kept in perfect condition.
A lossy compression technique allows a small level of noisy degradation to the original data. Lossy techniques are much more effective at compression than lossless methods: for a digital image, JPEG can achieve a 12-to-1 compression ratio, as opposed to a 2-to-1 ratio for GIF.
81
Link Equation: Pr/N0 for Cascaded Links

Often a satellite communications link will consist of more than one point-to-point path.
For example, a satellite at low earth orbit often will send its data up to a satellite at high earth orbit, which will then relay the data down to a ground station.
For a two-path system, the total Pr/N0 can be found as:

(Pr /N0 )Total = 1 1 1 + (Pr /N0 )Up (Pr /N0 )Down
As an example, if a link has uplink Pr/N0 of 60 dB-Hz and a downlink Pr/N0 of 60 dB-Hz, then the overall Pr/N0 is 57 dB-Hz. Sometimes either the uplink or the downlink will be much more high powered than the other.
In this case, the total Pr/N0 will be almost identical to that of the weaker link, and the link budget for the stronger link need not even be done at all.
Link Equation: Geometric Coverage (TDRS)

TDRSS Satellite System: Areas of non coverage
83
Space Segment: Tracking and Data Relay Satellites

1 of 2 Single Access (SA) Antennas S & Ku-Band for F1-F7 S, Ku, & Ka-Band for F8-F10 Field of View (Primary): 22 E-W, 28.0 N-S Extended FOV (HIJ only): 76.8 E-W*, 30.5 NS**
S-Band Phased Array for Multiple-Access (MA) Service 1 Fwd, 5 Rtn Links for F1-F7*** 1 Fwd, 5 Rtn Links for F8-F10 Field of View (Primary): 13 conical
Space-Ground Link Space-Ground Link Fwd: 14.6-15.225 Fwd: 14.6-15.225 GHz GHz Rtn: 13.4-14.05 GHz Rtn: 13.4-14.05 GHz RTN Link
FWD Link
Customer Spacecraft
Space-Space Link Space-Space Link Primary site at Primary site at White Sands, NM White Sands, NM - - STGT STGT - - WSGTU WSGTU Additional site at Additional site at Guam to support Guam to support TDRS at 85E TDRS at 85E - - GRGT GRGT Fwd: 2.025-2.120 GHz (S-band) Fwd: 2.025-2.120 GHz (S-band)
TDRSS TDRSS Ground Ground Station Station NASA and NASA and Customer Customer Ground Ground Operations Operations
2.1064 GHz (MA) 2.1064 GHz (MA) 13.775 GHz (Ku-band) 13.775 GHz (Ku-band) 22.55-23.55 GHz (Ka-band) 22.55-23.55 GHz (Ka-band) Fwd: 2.025-2.120 GHz (S-band) Fwd: 2.025-2.120 GHz (S-band) 2.1064 GHz (MA) 2.1064 GHz (MA) 13.775 GHz (Ku-band) 13.775 GHz (Ku-band) 22.55-23.55 GHz (Ka-band) 22.55-23.55 GHz (Ka-band)
* - 76.8 outboard ** - 24E-W (inboard) *** - Demand Access Service allows large expansion on the number of non-coherent return link services available through F1 F7
84
Spectrum: Available Allocations for the Ground Network and/or the Space Network
S-band
MHz 2 010 2 170 Allocation to Services Region 1 2 010 2 025 FIXED MOBILE Region 2 2 010 2 025 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) S5.388 2 025 2 110 S5.388 S5.389C S5.389D S5.389E S5.390 Region 3 2 010 2 025 FIXED MOBILE
MHz 2 170 2 450 Allocation to Services Region 1 2 170 2 200 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) S5.388 S5.389A S5.389F S5.392A 2 200 2 290
S5.388
Region 2
Region 3
Only bands that support both the Ground Network (GN) and the Space Network (SN) on a primary basis. Basic capabilities of the Ground Network at S-band are:
Command rates to 32 kbps (note) Telemetry and mission data rates to 10 Mbps (note) Support available from selected sites worldwide
SPACE OPERATION (space-to-Earth) (space-to-space) EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (space-to-space) FIXED MOBILE S5.391 SPACE RESEARCH (space-to-Earth) (space-to-space) S5.392
SPACE OPERATION (Earth-to-space) (space-to-space) EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) (space-to-space) FIXED MOBILE S5.391 SPACE RESEARCH (Earth-to-space) (space-to-space) S5.392
2 290 2 300
FIXED MOBILE except aeronautical mobile SPACE RESEARCH (deep space) (space-to-Earth)
2 110 2 120
FIXED MOBILE SPACE RESEARCH (deep space) (Earth-to-space) S5.388
2 300 2 450 FIXED MOBILE

2 300 2 450 FIXED MOBILE RADIOLOCATION Amateur S5.150 S5.282 S5.393 S5.394 S5.396
2 120 2 160 FIXED MOBILE Mobile-Satellite (space-to-Earth)
Amateur Radiolocation S5.150 S5.282 S5.395
Basic capabilities of the Space Network at S-band are:

Command rates to 300 kbps PN spread Telemetry and mission data rates to 6 Mbps Virtually global support.
S5.388 2 160 2 170 FIXED MOBILE
S5.388 2 160 2 170 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth)
S5.388 2 160 2 170 FIXED MOBILE
S5.388 S5.392A
S5.388 S5.389C S5.389D S5.389E S5.390
S5.388
Note: Maximum support data rate is dependent on the particular ground station capabilities Satellite RF Fundamentals
Efforts to control the interservice interference are underway within the ITU-R.
X-band
S5.460 Additional allocation: the band 7 145 - 7 235 MHz is also allocated to the space research (Earth-to-space) service on a primary basis, subject to agreement obtained under No. S9.21. The use of the band 7 145 -7 190 MHz is restricted to deep space; no emissions to deep space shall be effected in the band 7 190 - 7 235 MHz.
MHz 8 175-8 750 Allocation to Services Region 1
8 175-8 215
Region 2
Region 3
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) METEOROLOGICAL-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE S5.462A S5.463
8 215-8 400
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE S5.462A S5.463
8 400 8 500
FIXED MOBILE except aeronautical mobile SPACE RESEARCH (space-to-Earth) S5.465 S5.466 S5.467
Bands only support Ground Network operations on a primary basis The 7190-7235 MHz band may be used to command subject to the earth station being coordinated with terrestrial systems operating in the bands that might experience interference. The 8025-8400 MHz and 8450-8500 MHz bands may be used for transmissions in the space-Earth direction. Basic capabilities of the Ground Network at X-band are:
Telemetry and mission data rates to 150 Mbps (note)
8 500-8 550
RADIOLOCATION S5.468 S5.469
8 550-8 650
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (active) RADIOLOCATION SPACE RESEARCH (active) S5.468 S5.469 S5.469A
8 650-8 750
RADIOLOCATION S5.468 S5.469
Note: Maximum support data rate is dependent on the particular ground station capabilities Satellite RF Fundamentals 86
Ku-band
GHz 12.5-14.25 Allocation to Services Region 1
13.75-14
Region 2
Region 3
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) S5.484A RADIOLOCATION Standard Frequency and Time Signal-Satellite (Earth-to-space) Space Research S5.499 S5.500 S5.501 S5.502 S5.503 S5.503A
14-14.25
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) S5.484A S5.506 RADIONAVIGATION S5.504 Mobile-Satellite (Earth-to-space) except aeronautical mobile-satellite Space Research S5.505
GHz 14.8 17.3 Allocation to Services Region 1 14.8 15.35 FIXED MOBILE Space Research S5.339 15.35 15.4 EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive) RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE RESEARCH (passive) S5.340 S5.511 Region 2 Region 3
Bands only support Space Network Operations (13.775 GHz forward/15.0034 GHz return) on a secondary basis For TDRSS advanced publications received prior to January 31 1992, the 13.775 GHz forward link operates on a primary basis with respect to the Fixed-Satellite Service (E-S). Basic capabilities of the Space Network at Ku-band are:
Forward link will support up to 25 Mbps. Return link will support up to 300 Mbps. Virtually global support.
87
Ka-band
GHz 22.55 23.55 Allocation to Services Region 1 22.55 23.55 FIXED INTER-SATELLITE MOBILE S5.149 Region 2 Region 3
GHz 25.25 28.5 Allocation to Services Region 1 25.25 25.5 FIXED INTER-SATELLITE S5.536 MOBILE Standard Frequency and Time Signal-Satellite (Earth-to-space) 25.5-27 EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (space-to Earth) S5.536A S5.536B FIXED INTER-SATELLITE S5.536 MOBILE Standard Frequency and Time Signal-Satellite (Earth-to-space) 27.5-28.5 FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) S5.484A S5.539 MOBILE S5.538 S5.540 Region 2 Region 3
The pair of Ka-band allocations (22.55-23.55 GHz and 25.25-27.5 GHz) support only the Space Network on a primary basis. The 25.5-27 GHz band is available globally on a primary basis for S-E transmissions from Earth-exploration satellites. Basic capabilities of the Space Network at Ka-band are:
Forward links in the 22.55-23.55 GHz band will support data rates up to 25 Mbps. Return links in the 25.25-27.5 GHz band will support data rates up to 300/800 Mbps (note)
Note: Capable of supporting 800 Mbps with upgrades to the TDRSS ground stations 88
Spectrum: Definition of Spectrum Allocations

Space Research Service: A radiocommunication service in which spacecraft or other objects in space are used for scientific or technological research purposes. Space Operation Service: A radiocommunication service concerned exclusively with the operation of spacecraft, in particular space tracking, space telemetry and space telecommand. Earth Exploration-Satellite Service: A radiocommunication service between earth stations and one or more space stations, which may include links between space stations, in which:
information relating to the characteristics of the Earth and its natural phenomena, including data relating to the state of the environment, is obtained from active sensors or passive sensors on Earth satellites; similar information is collected from airborne or Earth-based platforms; such information may be distributed to earth stations within the system concerned; platform interrogation may be included. This service may also include feeder links necessary for its operation.
Meteorological-Satellite Service: An earth exploration-satellite service for meteorological purposes. Inter-Satellite Service: A radiocommunication service providing links between artificial satellites.
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Satellite Comm Fundamentals

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Satellite Comm Fundamentals

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TCOM 750 Satellite Communications Fundamentals

Sept 15, 2004

Satellite RF Communications Architecture

Data to Processor Receiver

Subsystems of Satellite RF Communications

SPACE CHANNEL Galactic, Star, Terrestrial Noise

Satellite transmitter-to-receiver link with typical loss and noise sources

Definitions & Some Basics

dBm 10 log10 (milliwatts)

Frequency Bands (of interest)

0.001 Watts (1 milliwatt)

What is Doppler & Doppler Rate?

Nominal (at-rest) frequency

Doppler rate of change =

where as = rate of change of Vs = acceleration

Doppler shifts become greater as the frequencies become higher.

Doppler & Doppler Rate

Voltage Controlled Oscillator

Filtered Error Signal

Analog and Digital Data

Analog and Digital Data

Most analog data is converted to digital data (binary 2n)

Serial data stream transmitted 12

Analog and Digital Data

Sampling Rate Nyquist rate ( 2 fmax)

fmax max frequency component of the original signal

Digital Bit Stream

Spectra (Baseband Signals)

- j2ft v(f ) = v(t ) e dt -

- j2ft y(f ) = y(t ) e dt -

Spectra (Modulated Signal)

M(t ) cos 2fc t =

Then: The Fourier transform of V(t) = V(f)

-fc Satellite RF Fundamentals

The Effects of Channel Noise

BER and Eb/No

Higher Eb/No Reduces the BER

These methods can be expensive

Another Strategy to Reduce BER

BER Versus Eb/No

Another strategy is to shift the whole curve over to the left

Now the same BER can be achieved using a lower Eb/No

Less expensive method of mitigating channel noise

Error Detecting versus Error Detecting/ Correcting Codes

There are times when retransmission of the message is not practical.

Error Correction Codes

Types of Error Correction Codes

Typical Encoded Link

Data Bits 1 Mbps

Modulator & Transmitter

LNA Antenna Antenna Receiver Data symbols 2.24 Msps

Convolutional Decoder Data symbols 1.12 Msps R/S Decoder

Example Error Correcting Performance

CONV. CODING (7, 1/2)

R-S CODING (255, 223)

CONV. + R-S (NO INTERLEAVE)

Spread Spectrum Definition

Basic Spread Spectrum Technique: Direct Sequence

Signal x(t) Symbol (Data) rate R

spreading code signal g(t) chip rate Rch

Spreading: Effect of Spread Spectrum

Jammer with total power J JO = J/W

Gss(f) After Spreading

Spreading: Overview of Various Spreading Techniques