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r s =< ry sz rz sy , rz sx rx sz , rx sy ry sx >
BAC - CAB:
a (b c) = b(a c) c(a b)
Matrix Operations:
Matrix Multiplication:
a b d e g h
c A f D i G
B E H
C aA + bD + cG F = dA + eD + f G I gA + hD + iG
aB + bE + cH dB + eE + f H gB + hE + iH
aC + bF + cI dC + eC + f I gC + hF + iI
a b c 1 a1 + b2 + c3 d e f 2 = d1 + e2 + f 3 g h i 3 g1 + h2 + i3
Determinant:
Newtonian Mechanics
Newton's Second Law
F =m r
In Cylindrical/Polar Coordinates:
Fr F Fz
= m( r2 ) r = m(r + 2r) = m z
Momentum
Rocket Motion
mv = mvex + F ext
Angular Momentum and Torque
=rp L=
Energy
T =
Conservative Forces
p2 1 = mv 2 2m 2
U (r) = W (ro r) F= U
Kinetic Energy in Polar Coordinates:
T =
1 m(r2 + r2 2 ) 2
Calculus of Variations
x 2
y = y(x)
d f f =0 y dx y
Lagrangian Mechanics
L=T U
Steps to solving for equations of motion:
1. Write down kinetic and potential energies, nding 2. Choose generalized coordinates set
L=T U
in an inertial frame
q i , , qn
3. Write the Lagrangian in terms of the generalized coordinates 4. Write down all of the Lagrange equations:
L d L = qi dt qi
Finally, solve the equations for all
qi .
2
Generalized Momentum:
pi =
If
L qi pi
is constant.
L qi
= 0,
then
qi
Hamiltonian:
H=
If
pi qi L H
is the
L t = 0, then H is conserved; if the generalized coordinates are time-independent, energy of the system:
H=T +U
1 m r M
Or, for the two-body problem:
m1 r1 + m2 r2 =R m1 + m2 P = MR
is conserved, ie.
is constant.
r1 = R +
where
m2 r M
and
r2 = R + 1 2.
m1 r, M
=
to arrive at our kinetic energy:
m1 m2 m1 + m2
T =
1 2 1 2 M R + r 2 2
The kinetic energy describes the energy of the center of mass motion, plus the motion of the particles relative to the center of mass. This leads us to the Lagrangian:
1 L = T U = M R2 + 2
3
) 1 2 U (r) , r 2
or:
L = Lcm + Lrel
But R is ignorable, meaning that the center of mass moves with constant velocity. To solve
Lrel ,
and position r:
= U (r) r
reducing the problem to a 1-body problem. This means that all previous equations work, replacing
with
= r
d Ue (r), dr
with
2r2
= r r
This reduces the problem to a one-dimensional problem with potential
Ue .
Orbital Motion
: u () = u()
2 u()2
F,
1 u() .
u=
u(),
then solve
r() =
r() =
as in this case,
c , 1 + cos
F =
Gm1 m2 r2
r2
= u2 .
2
Note that:
c= 2 ( 2 2
Gm1 m2
2
, and
E=
eccentricity
1) =
(Gm1 m2 )2 ( 2 2
1),
which gives
E E E E
Virial Theorem
< T >=
with a potential proportional to
n <U > 2 T
and
rn ,
< T >=
1 <U > 2
Finertial = mA
To account for a noninertial reference frame, we must consider
Rotation
F + Finertial .
= u
We dene an angular velocity vector with direction along the axis of rotation, For any rigid body with angular velocity
u.
v =r
Taking
dQ dt
So
to be a noninertial frame,
( =
So
dQ dt
) + Q
S
In other words, to calculate the velocity of a vector Q in an inertial frame, we nd its velocity in a convenient noninertial frame and correct for its rotation. With this, we nd Newton's second law in a noninertial frame:
m = F + Fcor + Fcf r
with the Coriolis and centrigual forces, respectively, dened as:
Fcor = 2m r
Centrifugal Force
and
Fcf = m( r)
The centrifugal force on earth necessitates a slight adjustment in our free-fall acceleration,
g:
g = g0 + m( R)
There is about a 0.3% dierence in
Coriolis Force
The Coriolis force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the moving object (use the RHR).
L=L
(motion of CM)
+L
T=T
(motion of CM)
+T
If a body is axially symmetric about a certain axis, and is rotating about this symmetry axis, then its angular momentum will be in the same direction. If the angular momentum is along the axis of rotation, this axis is called a principle axis. If
z=0
Ixz
and
Iyz
will be 0.
Inertia Tensor
m x y 2 m (x2 + z ) m z y x = y z
m x z m y z , 2 m (x2 + y )
with
and
gives:
L = I
Note that the sums can be replaced by integrals for continuous mass distributions. If two of the coordinate planes the o-diagonal elements will be 0. For a diagonal matrix, ie.
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
1 I= 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 , 3
L = I = < 1 x , 2 y , 3 z >
which means that if
T =
Finding Principle Axes
1 L 2
(Ixx ) Ixy Ixz =0 Iyx (Iyy ) Iyz det Izx Izy (Izz )
Then, for each
i,
plug in
and 3
1 , 2 , 3
1 , 2 , 3 .
With
L =< 1 x , 2 y , 3 z > in ( dL dt )
S
+L=
in a noninertial frame xed in the rotating body.
1 1 (2 3 )2 3 2 2 (3 1 )3 1 3 3 (1 2 )1 2
These are most useful when the torque
= 1 = 2 = 3
=0
Hamiltonian Mechanics
qi =
given the denition of
H pi
and
pi =
H , qi
as before.
1. Write down the Lagrangian for the system, in terms of generalized coordinates 2. Find the generalized momenta 3. Use
qi .
pi .
pi
to nd
qi ,
qi
and
pi .
Ignorable Coordinates
l is constant.
qi pi
Because the coordinate is constant, ignorable coordinates in the Hamiltonian reduce the degrees of freedom by the appropriate amount. That is, the two-dimensional problem:
H = H(q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 )
with
q2
H = H(q1 , p1 , k)
where
Poisson Brackets
[f, g]
And, specically,
N f g f g qi pi pi qi i=1
[f, H] = f
Some mathematical properties:
[qi , qj ] = 0
and
[pi , pj ] = 0
and
[qi , pj ] = ij
(1)
We can use the Poisson brackets to evolve the system step by step:
at any time
[H, p1 ] =
Sometimes we may nd
H q1 q1 ,
ie.
for which
is independent of
q1
[H, p1 ] = 0
for these ignored variables, and therefore,
[p1 , H] = [H, p1 ] = 0
So,
p1
is 0, and
p1
Poisson bracket.
Canonical Variables
Any set of q,p that satisfy (1) is called canonical. A canonical transformation is one that maps canonical coordinates to a new set of canonical coordinates. That is,
q, p Q, P
We note that the Hamiltonian itself is a canonical transformation. Denote the sh bracket as follows: Why is this important?
[[f, g]] =
where
N f g f g , Qi Pi Pi Qi i=1
the result of performing a Poisson transformation on
Qi
and
qi
(similarly for
Pi Pi ).
are dened as
Qi (q, p),
and
g.
In other words, any set of canonical variables q,p which are transformed to Q,P are physically
At each point in time, the transformed coordinates will be canonical, so we can use the Poisson