Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Spillway
Hydraulics
Detailed investigation into its various elements started only about 1978 with the comprehensive laboratory tests by Essery and Horner (1978). During the 19th century and early 20 th century, Stepped waste - waterways ( also called ' byewash' ) were commonly used to assist with energy dissipation of the flow (CHANSON 1995, "Hydraulic design of stepped Cascade channels, Weirs and Spillway", pergamon UK, 292 pages Jan 1995). Now a days stepped spillways are often associated with roller compacted concrete ( RCC ) dams. The stepped geometry is appropriate to the RCC placement techniques and enhances the rate of energy dissipation compared to a smooth chute design. A related application is the overtopping protection of embankments with RCC overlays ( e.g. ASCE Task Force Report, 1994. Alternatives for over topping protection of Dam - Task force Commitee on over topping protection, 139 pages).
35.2.1 Suitability
Energy dissipation below hydraulic structures is accomplished generally by single -fall hydraulic jump type stilling basins, roller buckets or trajectory buckets. However, when the kinetic energy at the toe of the spillway would be high. The tail water depths in the river are often inadequate. Then first two devices, cannot be used as in the case of high head dams.
In narrow curved gorges consisting of fractured rocks, buckets cannot be used. In such situations, a system of cascading falls down the side of a valley, with a stilling basin in the downstream, can be used as an alternative spillway. Cascade spillways can be used for any type of dam irrespective of the material of construction. The only disadvantage with stepped spillway is that at large discharges, as the jet is not aerated for some distance downstream of the spillway, low pressure may occur and lead to cavitation damage.
Hydraulics
Nappe Flow
This type of flow occurs for small discharges. The flow cascades over the steps, falls in a series of plunges from one step to another in a thin layer that clings to the face of each step, with the energy dissipation occurring by breaking of the jet in the air, impact of jet on the step, mixing on the step, with or without the formation of a partial hydraulic jump on the step. The step height sh must be relatively large for nappe flow. This situation may apply to relatively flat stepped channels or at low flow rates. The depths can be determined from the expressions, Following equations to be checked for notations:
Hydraulics
Sh 1 y1
y1
0.425 (35.1)
Sh 1
0.27 0.22 yc q2 = S h 1 gS 3 h1
(35.2)
(35.3)
However, the steps for a nappe flow or plunge pool type of flow need to be relatively large. In otherwords, tread requires to be larger than the depth of flow. This requires downstream slope of dam face to be relatively flatter. Chanson observes that if slope of downstream face is greater than 1 : 5, the nappe flow system becomes uneconomical except in case of embankment type structure or steep rivers.
yc
yp
yp
Hydraulics
For a given step geometry, an increase in flow rate may lead to intermediate flow patten between nappe and skimming flow - the transition flow regime also called a partial nappe flow. The transition flow is characterised by a pool of circulating water and often accompanied by a very small air bubble (cavity), and significant water spray and the deflection of water jet immediately downstream of the stagnation point. Downstream of the spray region, the supercritical flow decelerates upto the downstream step edge. The transition flow pattern exhibits significant longitudinal variations of the flow properties on each step. It does not present the coherent appearance of skimming flows.
Hydraulics
sh l Recirculating flow yc V0
Hydraulics
(35.4)
h1
__
Mixing layer
sh ls Cavity (bubble)
Figure 35.7 - Hydrodynamic feature of a skimming flow
While deriving the above equation the interaction of adjacent steps and the effect of air entrainment has not been taken into account. Hence, Froude number similitude alone cannot describe the complexity of stepped spillway flows completely. Chanson showed that Froude number has no effect on flow resistance and that Reynolds number might not have a substantial effect and that the form drag was related primarily to step cavity geometry. It was also reported that in case of small scale models the developing flow regimes and flow resistance were not correctly reproduced.
Hydraulics
Essery and Horner reported that it is very difficult to distinguish between nappe and skimming flow for flatter slopes having S h1 / ls < 0.4 .
Based on available data Rajaratnam found the skimming flow to occur for yc / S h1 > 0.8 .
3 On the other hand, Stephenson introduced a term called Drop number, D= q 2 / gS h1 to distinguish between nappeflow [ D< 0.6 ] and skimming flow [ D > 0.6]
Peyras, et al. studied gabion dams consisting of four step element each 0.2 m high. It was found that the transition from nappe to skimming flow occurs for a discharge of approximately 1.5 m3 / s /m or at yc / S h1 < 0.5 while Degoutte found the onset of skimming flow on gabion steps to occur at yc / S h1 = 0.74 for S h1 / ls = 0.33 and at 0.62 for
S h1 / ls = 1.0 . Based on the available data, Chanson developed a regression equation
In which k1 = 1 +
1
2 Fb
b is the
streamline angle with the horizontal. This equation is applicable to the accelerated flow and may predict jet deflection at the first step of the cascade.
Hydraulics
1.40 Skimming Flow Essery and Horner PEYRAS et al. STEPHENSON BEITZ and LAWLESS MONTES KELLS RU et al. (1994) HORNER (1969) ELVIRO and MATEOS -20% Band +20% Band Transition fully / partially developed jump HORNER [NA1/NA2] Nappe Flow
1.20
1.00
0.80 yc / sh 0.60
0.40
0.20
c > 1.057 0.465 Sh ls Sh Further the equation 2 indicates the change of flow from transition flow to skimming flow region. Two issues must be clearly under stood.
Hydraulics
Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 were fitted for flat horizontal steps with Sh/ls ranging from 0.05 to 1.7 ( i.e 3.4 < < 60o ); there is no information on their validity outside of that range
and their accuracy is no better than 10 %; Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 characterise a change in flow regime for uniform or quasiuniform flows only.
For rapidly varied flows, the results are not valid. For example, at the upstream end of a stepped chute, the accelerating water may flow as thick free falling nappes before changing to a skimming flow regime further down stream. However, Peyras et al. data, which are for gabion (which is pervious in nature) stepped spillway, and may have different characteristic of flow, which requires to be established. Later on, Chanson also presented an analytical approach for the prediction of the onset of skimming flow expressing yc / S h1 as a function of Froude number at brink of the step angle of striking jet on the tread of the step assuming that the angle of striking jet is equal to the downstream slope of spillway at the onset of skimming flow. However, no guidelines for prediction of Froude number at the step edge has been provided which renders the estimation of yc / S h1 difficult.
Tatewar and Ingle studied the energy dissipation capacity of an inclined spillway and developed the following regression equation using available data with range of S h1 / ls from 0.4 to 0.85 and 0 from 0o to 20o to , to distinguish between nappe and skimming flow.
Sh yc = 0.888 0.00385 0 0.01195 1 (35.8) Sh1 ls They found that for slopes steeper than 0.9, the possibility of nappe flow reduces considerably. All the data when plotted in terms of Z = [( yc ) + 0.00385 0 ] and Sh1 Sh1 represented the ls
Hydraulics
Rajaratnam
0.7
0.6 0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
[ 2g(z -H)]
in which z is the vertical distance below the crest measured to the water surface at the point where y is to be determined. The value of for a stepped block was found to be considerably smaller than that for smooth spillway for large value of (ls/ yc);
Hydraulics
S h1 is the length of the step) and slope of the spillway, and hence, a considerable
energy loss at the toe of the stepped spillway. Based on the avilable data, Rajaratnam suggested the following equation for the variation of coefficient of friction, c f , for aerated skimming flow.
cf =
3 2y0 gs0 q2
The value of c f was found to be 0.18 as compared to 0.0065 for smooth spillway, while Christodoulou (1993) found c f to vary from 0.076 to 0.89 and , c f being higher down the steps. Tozzi evaluated the friction factor on stepped chutes of slope 1:2 ( V: H ) by analysing the energy loss of air flowing in a closed conduit with roughness elements designed to simulate the slope, The value of is found to be f = 0.09. It was noted that the value is overestimated if uniformly aerated flow conditions are not attained. Matos and Quentela concluded that a value of f = 0.1 can be safely considered for the preliminary hydraulic design of stepped spillway for slopes around 1 : 0.75 ( V: H ), typical of concrete gravity dams.
Hydraulics
boundary layer
Point of inception
Energy Line
PI RVF GVF DZ
UAF
PHJ
PI = Point of Inception RVF = Rapidly Varied Flow GVF = Gradually Varied Flow DZ = Developing Zone UAF = Uniformily Aerated Flow Region PHJ = Pre-entrained Hydraulic Jump
Skimming Flow
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Hydraulics
The typical geometry of the stepped spillway with the standard crest geometry and increasing step height up to the point of tangency T are shown in the above figure. The free surface profile is smooth upto crest inspite of the development of vortex in each step. The transition to rough surface flow occurs beyond point A where the air entrainment is initiated. The hydraulic features of the cascade spillway as compared to chute flow are: the flow depth is much larger than in a chute due to the highly turbulent cascade flow, and higher sidewalls are required, more air is entrained and the spray action may become an important issue. abrasion can be a serious problem for flows with sediment or with floating debris. In cascade spillways two flow types may occur as shown in Figure. Nappe flow: is the flow from each step hits the next step as a falling jet; Skimming flow: the flow remains coherent over the individual steps. The onset of skimming flow occurs for yc /sh > 0.8, where yc is the critical depth and sh is the height of the step. When uniform cascade flow occurs in long channels, skimming flow dissipates more energy than nappeflow. However, nappe flow is more efficient for a short cascade than skimming flow (Chanson, 1994) the energy dissipated hf relative to the drop height Hodepends on the drop Froude number and the slope of the spillway. Stephenson ( 1991 ) expressed the relative energy loss as H 0.84 -1/3 = F H0 0.25 in which H is the energy loss over a height H0, F0 is the (1)
0.5
( gH )
3 o
Hydraulics
Accordingly, the effect of slope is small, where as the dam height has considerable influence on the head loss. Christodoulou (1993) studied the effect of number of steps N on the energy dissipation H / H0. He introduced the parameter hc= yc / ( Nsh ) with yc = (q2 /g) 1 / 3 as critical depth sh as the step height and found for hc < 0.25
H = exp(30 h2 ) (2) c H By Increasing the number of steps the energy dissipation can be increased and hence
the performance of the stepped spillway.
For a long cascade, above 90% of mechanical energy is dissipated along the cascade and only a small Portion of energy must be dissipated in the stilling basin. According to Stephenson ( 1991 ) the efficiency of the cascade spillway depends mainly on its height and the specific discharge and marginally on the slope. The cascade flow may reach a state of nearly uniform flow (subscript n) which may be approximated with ls , as step length ( Vischer and Hager. 1995).
h n = 0.23 [l 4 q6 / ( sh g 3 )]1 / 2 s (3)
Diez-Cascon et al. (1991) conducted experimental investigation on a cascade spillway of step size ls / sh = 0.75 and slope = 53, followed by a horizontal stilling basin . The sequent depth ratio varied with the approach Froude number F1 as
Yr = 2.9 F12 /3
The resulting tailwater depth is higher than for the classical hydraulic jump, however, the value F 1 for cascade flow is much smaller. The above equation is valid for uniform approach flow. One may derive the following equation.
(4)
The sequent depth ratio varies slightly with the uniform flow depth relative to the step height.
Hydraulics
According to Chanson ( 1994) the onset of nappe flow occurs for y c > y c where y* c = 1.057 0.465 s h sh ls In the transitional regime between nappe and skimming flow hydraulic instability occurs
*
which should be avoided to prevent the problems with vibration of structures. For skimming flow, the resistance characteristics are governed by the distance between two adjacent step edges, protruding into the flow. Even though Chanson (1994) analysed the hydraulics of skimming flow, there is inadequate data to describe uniform cascade flow. A basic investigation is needed to obtain further information. Though, it was clearly stated as early as 1970 that the adavantage of steps is to dissipate energy a little at a time but this is true only at low flow rates. Where as, the energy dissipation occurs due to jet breakup in the air, jet mixing on the step, with or with out the formation of a partial hydraulic jump on the steps in case of nappe flow; the energy dissipation in skimming flow occurs due to the momentum transfer to the recirculating fluid. Hence, the methods required for estimation of the energy loss need to be different for the two types. In general, about 88% to 94 % reduction in kinetic energy was noted from the velocity measurements at the spillway toe without and with steps. For isolated nappe flow, Peyras et al., presented an equation (see table) for determining the energy loss below the stepped gabion
Hydraulics
Authors Peyras et al. (1992) Rajarathnam, 1990 Tatewar and Ingle (1999)
skimming flow Relative loss (upper limit of energy loss) Chamani and Relative Rajarathnam loss
yc N 1 (1 f ) 1 + 1.5 + 1 fi s h i =1 E = 1 E0 yc N + 1.5 s h in which f is the proportion of energy loss per step a function
s y of c and h sh ls
f
in terms of friction factor f
f E0 E 8 sin =1E0
1/ 3
2/3
It was found that actual dissipation could be 10 % more in case of gabions as compared to concrete steps due to factors like infiltration in to the gabions, difference in surface roughness and spillway slope. It was also found that their equation is valid within 10% in case of partial nappe flow.
Rajaratnam, found the ratio of energy dissipation by skimming flow to the energy contained in the flow down a smooth spillway is about 89%. He has assumed that the flow is uniform skimming flow which implies a high spillway, with many steps. The residual energy varies from 9 % to 12 % depending on the discharge. Christodoulou in 1993 studied the effect of number of steps on energy dissipation in case of skimming flow.
Hydraulics
Using his own data for S h1 / ls = 0.7 and for N = 15 (number of steps) as well as the avilable data for hc < 25, where hc = ( yc / NSh ), he showed for the same discharge the energy dissipation increases with the increase in the number of steps. The dissipation may be significantly less on moderately stepped spillway when compared to the uniform flow on high spillway. As he has not consider the effect of ls / S h1 and, the energy loss by the steps in the curved portion is likely to be more, the results of Christodoulou is not applicable to prototype. Using the weir formula to express discharge over the spillway in terms of head over the spillway including velocity of approach head, Tatewar and Ingle derived a simplified expression for energy loss (upper limit of energy dissipation) using the equation for the discharge over the weir and is given by
E
E0
1 yc 9 2 1 + Cd 8 H dam + H
Chamani and Rajaratnam established a relation for the energy dissipation in jet flow. Tatewar and Ingle based on regression analysis fitted an equation for the proportion of energy per step for the range of from 5 to 20 Sh / ls from 0.421 to 0.842 and 1
( yc ) from 0.05 to 0.833. Sh 1
They concluded that energy dissipation is more in case of inclined steps and f increases marginally for steeper slope and that the increase of f is comparatively larger for flatter slopes.
Hydraulics
1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 X 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.05 =0 Horizontal steps
0
=5 = 10 = 15 = 20
0
}
0 0 0
Inclined steps
0.1
yc/sh1
0.5
Aeration of cascades
The Quality of waters of rivers, streams, creeks etc is often expressed in terms of the dissolved oxygen content ( DOC). Low dissolved oxygen value often does not allow the development as well may cause the death of aquatic life forms and indicates some form of pollution associated with excessive waste water inflows. In natural streams, obtain the DOC from the aeration of the free surface.
Hydraulics
Stepped cascades are characterised by a large amount of self aeration and it may be used to reoxygenate depleted waters. In rivers, artificial stepped cascades and weirs have been built to enhance the DOC of polluted or eutrophic streams. Stepped cascades are also built in the downstream reach of large dams to re-oxygenate water.
Example: Labyrinth weir crest length of 640 m, single drop 2.3 m, design discharge 14 to 68 m3/s at South Houlston weir, USA and the two-step labyrinth drop structure (2 drops of 2 m height and design discharge of 110 m3/s) of 640 m buit by the French Electricity Commission downstream of the Petit -Saut Dam ( the Petit-Saut Dam is a RCC construction) installed with an overflow stepped spillway. The downstream stepped cascade is designed to re- oxygenete the tailrace waters of power station ( depleted in oxygen ). Further, there is a series of five aeration cascades built along the Calumet waterway in Chicago. The waterfalls are designed to re-oxygenate the polluted canal and combine flow aeration and aesthetics to create recreation parks. Stepped cascades could be used to reduce the dissolved nitrogen content also. In the treatment of drinking water, cascade aeration is used to remove dissolved gases ( e.g. chlorine).
Hydraulics
90 %
50 %
Longitudinal Variation of Air Concentration (isocons) along the nappe Centre line of Step 2 qw = 0.150 m2/s after Chanson and Toombes, June - 1997
The un-ventilated air cavity, the impact point and the spray region are also indicated. The main features of the air - water flow on step for q = 0.15 m2s-1 are:
the large air-cavity beneath the nappe, the sidewall standing waves and the spray ( i.e. rebounding waters ), the large amount of flow aeration in the spary region, the de- trainment at the spray re-attachment, and the substantial free-surface aeration at the end of the step ( i.e. C = 19% )
The flow patterns of the air - water flow on a down stream step : for the same flow rate at the cascade ( step No.9). (Sh = 0.143, ls = 2.4 m, = 3.4, 10 steps over 25 m long flume of 0.5 m width. In the absence of steps = 4.0 ).
in the absence of ventilation the air cavity had disappeared completely and recirculating water occupies the space beneath the nappe,
the introduction of a splitter ( into the nappe ) ventilates the nappe and induces the formation of a sizeable air cavity; as a result the nappe trajectory increases,
the spray region is important, the amount of entrained air is basically identical at the upstream and downstream ends of the step ( i.e. C = 17% to 19%); the mean air content is maximum at the downstream of the nappe impact ( in the spray region ) and minimum at the downstream end of the step . An interesting difference is the presence of a small bubble (cavity) between the nappe and the re - circulating water . The
Hydraulics
introduction of a splitter helps in occurance of larger air cavity and enlarges the nappe trajectory. In comparison the mean air content at the downstream end of the smooth chute was about 0.08 and the maximum mean air concentration was about 0.12 at a section located 4 m downstream. Overall the stepped chute flow is significantly has higher aeration than the smooth chute flow for the same flow rate. The air - water flow with the stepped channel is three dimensional in nature unlike the smooth chute flow which is two - dimensional.
Hydraulics
k s is the step depth per unit width ( normal to the flow direction ), s h is the step height. empirical correlations for stepped chutes: - The dimensionless distance from crest Li / K s and flow depth y I / ks increase with increasing dimensionless discharge F * = ks can be written as ( sh cos Thus F
*
qw g sin ( sh cos
)3
qw g sin ( ks )
3
Hydraulics
1000 500
BaCaRa [1:10] (53 deg.) BEITZ and LAWLESS (50 deg.) BINDO (51 deg.) FRIZELL (27 deg.) HORNER (36.4 deg.) Trigomil dam SORENSEN (52 deg.) TOZZI (53.1 deg.)
100 50 LI / ks 20 10 5 2 1 1.00
ZHOU (51.3 deg.) Given equation for 52 deg. Trigomil (51.3 deg.) PROTOTYPE
F* Normalised Inception length as a function of dimensionless discharge after (Chanson and Toombes)
10.00 BaCaRa [1/10 \ 53 deg. ] BINDO (51 deg.) yI ___ ks 1.00 FRIZELL (27 deg.) SORENSEN (52 deg.) HORNER (36.4 deg.) TOZZI (53.1 deg.)
F* Normalised Inception depth (yI ) as a function of dimensionless discharge after (Chanson and Toombes)
boundary layer growth rate is grater on stepped channels than on smooth chutes. Chanson in 1995 based on the reanalysed data, concluded that the experimental results are basically independent of the type of crest profile. The re- analysed data included the types of crest profile were included smooth ogee crest profiles follows by stepped chute ( with or without smaller first steps) and broad crests followed by stepped chute.
Hydraulics
Above Equations may be used for estimating Li and yi. It may be noted that one prototype observation (Trigomil dam) fills the equation 1.
y C = 1 tanh2 K 2 D y 90 in which C is the air concentration, D' is a dimensionless turbulent diffusivity and K ' is
constant of integration. D' and K' are functions of the mean air concentration C , y90 is the distance from bed at which 90% air concentration occurs.
Measurements at Brushes Clough dam spillway (BAKER 1994) Inclined downward steps (Sh = 0.19 m, is = - 5.6 deg.), = 18.4 degrees
0.8 y __ y90
0.6
__ C = 0.235 - Step 50 __ C = 0.178 - Step 30 __ C = 0.15 - Step 10 __ C = 0.20 - Step 73 __ Theory: C = 0.15 __ Theory: C = 0.235
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Hydraulics
x is the distance
__ x = 14.8 m - C = 0.25 __ x = 13.8 m - C = 0.31 __ x = 26.8 m - C = 0.33 __ Theory: C = 0.25 __ Theory: C = 0.33
0.2
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Air concentration 'C' Air concentration distribution in prototype observation after Baker and Ruff and Frizell (Chanson 1994)
D' (2) 0.007 0.037 0.073 0.110 0.146 0.223 0.311 0.423 0.587 0.878
C= 1
y 90
K' (3) 68.70 14.00 7.16 4.88 3.74 2.57 1.93 1.51 1.18 0.90
C dy y 90 0 The analysis of model and prototype data showed that the air concentration profiles in
skimming flows down a stepped chute have similar shape as those in smooth chute flows. Further the observed values of mean air concentration over stepped chute flow are very nearly same as the mean air concentration of the fully developed flow over smooth chutes : i.e., C = 27% and 36% respectively for = 18.4o and 26.6o.
( )e
The data of Baker (1994) yielded C ranging between 15% and 23% with 18.4o slope and the data of Ruff and Frizell indicate C of 33% at the end of the 26.6o slope channel.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Hydraulics
Free-surface aeration causes the bulkage of the flow and thus reducing the risks of cavitation damage and enhanaces the air -water gas transfer (e.g. re- oxygenation of the water). Futher, the presence of air nearer to the bed induces a reduction of drag and results in decrease in friction factor . The drag reduction effect and the associated reduction in flow resistance may have a significant impact on the rate of energy dissipation on stepped spillway. The above analysis [ of energy dissipation ] by chanson neglects the effects of air entrainment. The friction factor and the energy dissipation are affected significantly by the rate of free- surface aeration. The effects of air entrainment on the residual energy cannot be neglected for [ channel ] slope larger than 30 degrees " and " the residual energy is strongly underestimated if the effect of air entrainment is neglected. It is most important that design engineers to take into account aeration of flow to estimate the residual enegy and to dimension stilling basins downstream of stepped chutes".
Hydraulics
C = 32% in 2 step heights down a 22o slope for yc / sh = 1.1, (where C is the mean
air concentration). Table : Increase in Mean Air Concentration Over Stepped Spillway Increase in concentration C% 25 55 32
yc sh
5.2 < 2.0 1.1
Remarks
6.5 yc * *
Reference
1. BaCaRa, "Etude de la dissipation d' energie sur les evacuateurs a marches", (study of the energy dissipation on stepped spillways) Rapport d' Essais, Project National BaCaRa, CEMAGREF-SCP, Aix -en-provence, France, October 1991, 111 pages. 2. BaCaRa. "Roller compacted concrete: RCC for dams. "Presses de l' Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausse'es, Paris, 1997. 3. Baker, R. "Brushes clough wedge block spillway - progress report no. 3" SCEL Proj. Rewp. No. SJ542-4, University of Saford, U.K, 1994. 4. Boes R.M, "Physical model study on two - phase cascade flow" , Proc 28th IAHR Congress, Graz, Austria, Session S1, 6 pages, 1991. 5. Chamani, M.R., and Rajaratnam N. "characteristics of skimming flow over stepped spillways". J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 125 (5), 1999, 500 - 510. Discussion by Robert M. Boes; Chanson H; Jorge Matos; Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi; Tatewar S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D and closure, ibid, November 2000, page 860 - 873. 6. Chanson H and Toombes Luke "Flow aeration at stepped cascades", Research report number CE155, Department of Civil Engineering, Research Report series, University of Queensland, June 1997. 7. Chanson, H. "stepped spillway flows and air entrainment" Can. J. Civil Engineering, Ottawa, 20 (3), 1993, 422 - 435.
Hydraulics
8. Chanson, H. "Discussion of model study of a roller compacted concrete spillway", J. Hydraulic Enginnering, ASCE, 123 (10), 1997b, 931 - 933. 9. Chanson, H. "Hydraulics of Nappe flow regime above Stepped chutes and Spillways", Aust. Civil Engineering Trans., I.E. Aust., Vol. CE36, No. 1, Jan., 1994, pp.69-76. 10. Chanson, H. "Hydraulic Design of Stepped cascades, Channels, Weirs and Spillways", Pergamon, Oxford, UK, Jan., 292 pages, 1995 . 11. Chanson, H. "Air Bubble Diffusion in super critical open channel flow, Proc. 12th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference AFMC, Sydney Australia, R.W. Bilger Ed., Vol. 2, 1995 , pp. 707 - 710. 12. Chanson, H. " Prediction of the transition nappe / skimming flow on a stepped channel", Jl of Hydraulic Res., IAHR, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1996, pp. 421 - 429. 13. Chanson, H. "Air bubble entrainment in free surface turbulent shear flows", Academic Press, London, UK, 1997, 401 pages. 14. Chanson, H., and Whitmore, R.L. "Investigation of the gold creek dam spillway, Australia. "Research Report No. CE153, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia, 1996, 60 pages. 15. Chanson H. "Stepped Spillways Parts 1 and 2", Journal of Physcial Science and Engineering Periodical, TA1 17526, Volume 5, No. 4, December 1997, Engineering update, technical paper number 10, page no. 7 to 12 and Journal of Physcial Science and Engineering Periodical, TA1 17256, Volume 6, No. 1, January - March 1998, Engineering update, Technical paper No. 2, page no. 9 to 14. 16. Geoffrey G.S. Pegram, Andrew K. Officer and Samule R. Mottram, "Hydraulics of skimming flow on Modeled Stepped Spillways", Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, May 1999, Volume 125, No. 5, Paper 3557, Discussion by Robert M. Boes; Jorge Matos; Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi M; Tatewar S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D; ibid, and closure December 2000, page 947 - 953. 17. Goubet, A. "Evacuateurs de Crues en Marches d' Escalier" (stepped spillways) La Houille Blanche, No. 2/3, pp. 247 - 248 , 1992. 18. Hans - Erwin Minor and Willi Hager editors "Hydraulic of Stepped Spillways", Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2000; 201 pages.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Hydraulics
19. Houston, K.L. "Hydraulic Model Studies of Upper Stillwater Dam stepped Spillway and Outlet works". Report No. REC - ERC - 87 - 6, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Co, USA, 1987. 20. Ruff. J.F. and Frizell, K.H, "Air concentration measurements in highly turbulent flow on a steeply sloping chute", Proceeding Hydraulic Engineering Conference, ASCE, New York, Vol. 2, 999 - 1003. 21. Stephenson, D. "Energy dissipation down stepped spillways" Water Power and Dam construction, September, 27 - 30, 1991. 22. Tatewar S.P. Ingle R.N., Nappe Flow on Inclined Stepped Spillways, Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India), Volume - 79, Page- 175 - 179, Feb. 1999. 23. Tatewar S.P., and Ingle R.N, Resistance to skimming flow over stepped spillway, Proceeding International Seminar on Civil Engineering Practices in 21st Century, Roorkee, India, 1039 - 1048. 24. Tozzi, M.J. "Residual energy in stepped spillways. "International water Power and Dam construction, 1994, 46 (5), 32 - 34. 25. Virender Kumar, Stepped Spillway - a State of the art, Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India), Volume - 82, Page- 217 - 223, Feb. 2002. 26. Vischer D.L. and Hager W.H. "Dam Hydraulics", John Wiley and Sons, 1997. 27. Yildiz, D., and Kas, I, "Hydraulic performance of stepped chute spillways", Hydropower and Dams, 1998, 5 (4), 64 - 70.