2 2.

Gas turbines Applications of gas turbines generation and transport industries

gas turbines are widely used in the manufacturing, power aircraft engines:
1. jet propulsion for civil and military aircraft 2. shaft power for turboprop and helicopter engines 3. lightweight: GT gives ~0.25 kg/kW cf. IC engine ~0.6kg/kW

high speed ships:

1. hovercraft, patrol boats, frigates 2. propeller or water jet

power generation:
1. load topping because of rapid startup ability 2. high efficiency when used in conjunction with a steam turbine in a combined cycle plant, which are at present the most efficient form of large scale power generation available

road & rail: some locomotives, possible future trucks and passenger vehicles
although at present it appears unlikely 2.2 Layout of gas turbines

2.2.1 Aircraft propulsion

cut-away view of the Rolls-Royce RB211-524, used on all Qantas 747s:

 in cross section, this looks like:

note the high pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP) and low pressure (LP)
spools. A spool is defined as one compressor, turbine and shaft set. The LP turbine drives the fan, the IP turbine drives the IP compressor and the HP turbine drives the HP compressor. The three drive shafts are coaxial: the LP shaft sits within the IP shaft, which sits within the HP shaft and each spool rotates at a different speed.

as the cutaway view shows, the compressor and turbine feature annular rows of
airfoils. For example, a radial cross section of a typical low pressure turbine blade looks like:

of course, numerous other types of gas turbine exist. Those discussed above are
referred to as axial machines since the massflow through them is roughly parallel to the axis of rotation. Radial gas turbines are also very common, especially in smaller applications such as microturbines, helicopter engines and turbochargers.

2.2.2 Power generation

modern gas turbines used for power generation often look very similar to those
used for propulsion. The most significant difference is that the low pressure turbine does not drive the fan (which provides thrust via by bypass stream) but, instead, provides shaft work to the generator. 2.3 1. 2. 3. 4. Pros/cons of gas turbines small size and mass for a given power output ie. high W/m3 or W/kg low vibration: parts rotating and not reciprocating (cf. IC engines) reliable: low dynamic stresses from near constant w operation low cost per kW at larger sizes

positives

negatives
1. thermal efficiency is usually lower than diesel engines the thermal efficiency is directly related to the maximum temperature in the cycle, which is limited by material considerations. Considerable research effort is therefore spent on increasing material limits (high temperature alloys, ceramics, blade cooling, etc) 2. relatively poor dynamic performance less suitable for cars and other stopstart applications 2.4 Common types of gas turbine

2.4.1 Basic open cycle gas turbine

where C denotes the compressor, CC the combustion chamber and T the turbine
2.4.2 Open cycle gas turbine with separate power turbine

T1 drives the compressor only, T2 drives the output shaft

2.4.3 Open cycle gas turbine with heat exchanger

2.4.4 Open cycle gas turbine with reheat

gas turbines typically operate at very high air/fuel ratios (very low equivalence
ratios). More fuel can be burnt without exceeding the turbine inlet temperature limits by using reheat. Afterburning in a jet engine is a similar principle. 2.4.5 Open cycle, compounded gas turbine

each compressor/turbine pair are coaxial and referred to as spools. The spools
speeds can be different and relative spool speeds may be changed for improved off design performance two spools very common in aircraft propulsion (see earlier).

2.4.6 Closed cycle gas turbine

combustion is external to the fluid within the cycle the working fluid is typically not air: freon, benzene, butane, etc. can use low grade fuel, since the fuel does not pass through the compressor and
turbine 2.4.7 Jet propulsion

most simple configuration is the turbojet (eg. Concorde):

instead of the turbine exhaust driving a power turbine, the high velocity exhaust
provide thrust to the aircraft the earlier images were of high bypass ratio, turbofan engines, which are more complex

2.5

Analysis of simple cycles

2.5.1 Ideal, constant pressure gas turbine: Joule/Brayton cycle

assumptions:
1. 2. 3. 4. compression and expansion (turbine) are isentropic (hence primed numbers) no pressure losses constant specific heat CP air is the working fluid

2.5.1.1 Thermal efficiency

the thermal efficiency hth is defined as the work output wOUT achieved for a given
heat input qIN : hth = wOUT ( wt - wc ) = qIN qIN

where wc and wt are the compressor and turbine specific work respectively. since the compression and expansion are both isentropic, they are by definition
adiabatic (isentropic means adiabatic and reversable). If follows from the SFEE that: wc = Dht c = CP (Tt 2' - Tt1 )

and

wt = Dht t = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4' ) q = Dht CC = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 2 ')

no work is done on the fluid during heat addition. Therefore, from the SFEE: and:

CP ( Tt 3 - Tt 4' ) - CP (Tt 2' - Tt1 ) hth = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 2' )

define the stagnation pressure ratio as rP = Pt 2 / Pt1 . It follows that:

Tt 2' T = rP g = t 3 Tt1 Tt 4'

g -1

and:

1-g 1-g g Tt 3 1 - rP - Tt 2' 1 - rP g hth = (Tt 3 - Tt 2' )

collecting like terms, this becomes:

hth = 1 - r

1-g g P

so, the thermal efficiency of the ideal gas turbine depends only on the pressure

ratio rP and the ratio of specific heats g . We will see later that the thermal efficiency of the non-ideal cycle is dependent on other parameters as well.

2.5.1.2 Specific power output

the specific power output ( w ) is the power output per unit mass flow rate through
the gas turbine ( Ws / kg )

from the SFEE:

w = wt - wc T T = CPTt 3 1 - t 4' -CPTt1 t 2' - 1 Tt 3 Tt1 1-g g -1 = CPTt 3 1 - rP g -CPTt1 rP g - 1 Tt 2' T = rP g = t 3 Tt1 Tt 4'
g -1

where, as before:

let:

x=r

g -1 g P

the expression for the specific work then becomes:

1 w = CPTt 3 1 - -CPTt1 ( x - 1) x

and the maximum specific work occurs when:

dw CPTt 3 = 2 - CPTt1 dx x

 i.e.
x2 = Tt 3 Tt1

since:

x=r

g -1 g P

Tt 2' Tt 3 = Tt1 Tt 4'

it follows that:
Tt 3 Tt 2' Tt 3 = Tt1 Tt1 Tt 4' {{
x x

giving: or:

Tt 2' = Tt 4'
T rP = t 3 Tt1
g 2(g -1)

in terms of the T - s diagram, the condition that Tt 2' = Tt 4' for maximum specific
work determines the shape of the cycle for a given pressure ratio. Remember that, for an ideal cycle, the thermal efficiency hth depends only on rP and g . Thus, long skinny ideal cycles and short fat ideal cycles on the T - s diagram will have the same thermal efficiency if their pressure ratio is the same. However, if we want to produce work compactly (i.e. in a small space and cheaply), we wish to maximise w ( Ws / kg ) by letting Tt 2' = Tt 4' . This fixes the shape of the cycle in T - s space.

2.5.1.3 How can the Joule / Brayton cycle be a heat engine?

starting from Gibbs equation:

Tt b pt b sb - sa = CP ln - R ln Tt a pt a along a line of constant pressure, we obtain Tt b Tt b s -s / C = e( b a ) P sb - sa = CP ln Tt a Tt a thus, lines of constant pressure are exponential curves in the T - s plane. These curves become more widely spaced as the entropy increases.

also, for the cycle diagram above

Tt 4' Tt1 = e( 4 '
s - s1 ) / CP

= e( 3 =

s - s2 ) / CP

Tt 3 Tt 2'

Tt 4' Tt 3

Tt 1 Tt 2'

which can also be determined from the adiabatic pressure-temperature relations. now, considering the turbine work:
T wt = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4' ) = CPTt 4' t 3 - 1 Tt 4' T = CPTt 4' t 2' - 1 Tt1 T = t 4' CP (Tt 2' - Tt1 ) 4 3 Tt1 14 244 { wc
>1

ie. w = wt - wc > 0 thus, the Joule / Brayton cycle is a heat engine purely by virtue of the divergence
of the lines of constant pressure in the T - s plane.

an aside: for lines of constant r = 1/ v :

Tt b Tt a
constant pressure. 2.5.2 Isentropic efficiencies

= e( b

s - sa ) / CV

since CP - CV = R , lines of constant density are steeper in the T - s than those of

the isentropic efficiency of the compressor and turbine relates the actual work to
the ideal work for a given stagnation pressure ratio:

compression

expansion

note that for a compression, the actual work done on the fluid is greater than the
ideal work done. We therefore define the isentropic efficiency of the compression hc as:
hc C (T - T ) T - T ideal work = P t 2' t1 = t 2' t1 actual work CP (Tt 2 - Tt1 ) Tt 2 - Tt1

for an expansion (the turbine), the ideal work done on the fluid is greater than the
actual work done. Thus, ht is defined as:
ht actual work CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) Tt 3 - Tt 4 = = ideal work CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4' ) Tt 3 - Tt 4'

do not confuse the two definitions! If in doubt, think of their T - s diagrams.

2.5.3 Non-ideal cycle

the most simple non-ideal cycle includes the effect of compressor and turbine
inefficiency. We will still assume no pressure losses during combustion, although in reality, there are combustion pressure losses of roughly 2-3%.

using the SFEE, the specific power output is: and the heat addition by combustion is:

w = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) - CP (Tt 2 - Tt1 )

q = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 2 )
2.5.3.1 Thermal efficiency

the thermal efficiency hth is once again defined as the work output achieved for a
given heat input:
hth = w CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) - CP (Tt 2 - Tt1 ) = q CP (Tt 3 - Tt 2 )

including the definitions of the compressor hc and turbine ht isentropic

efficiencies and the stagnation pressure ratio rP : 1 ht (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ') - (Tt 2' - Tt1 ) hc hth = Tt 3 - Tt 2
1-g Tt1 g g-1 g htTt 3 1 - rP - rP - 1 hc = Tt 3 - Tt 2

let a = Tt 3 / Tt1 . hth then becomes:

1-g 1 g g-1 g hta 1 - rP - rP - 1 hc hth = Tt 2 aTt1

since:
Tt 2 Tt 2 - Tt1 1 Tt 2' - Tt1 1 = +1 = +1 = Tt1 Tt1 hc Tt1 hc
g g-1 rP - 1 + 1

it follows that:

1-g 1 g g-1 g hta 1 - rP - rP - 1 hc hth = g g-1 1 a - rP - 1 - 1 hc

which, when rearranged, gives:

 note:

1-g hchta rP g -1 hth = hc (a - 1) -1 g g-1 rP - 1

1. in comparing this result with that of the ideal cycle, we see that hth is no longer independent of Tt 3 . This means that the turbine material temperature limits now limit the maximum thermal efficiency achievable. 2. the loss due to hc < 1 is partially compensated for by reduced q , so hc appears in both the numerator and the denominator 3. all the loss due to ht < 1 is lost from the system and hence the term hc appears only in the numerator.

2.5.3.2 Specific power

the specific power output ( w ) is also defined in the same way as for the ideal
cycle i.e. it is the power output per unit mass flow rate through the gas turbine

from the SFEE:

w = wt - wc = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) -CP (Tt 2 - Tt1 ) T T = CPTt 3 1 - t 4 -CPTt1 t 2 - 1 Tt 3 Tt1

including the definitions of hc , ht and rP :

1-g w = CPTt 3ht 1 - rP g

g -1 T g -CP t1 rP - 1 hc

this expression can be rearranging into non-dimensional form as:

g g-1 hta 1 w = rP - 1 g -1 - CPTt1 r g hc P

sketching the derived relations for hth and w for non-ideal cycles versus rP :

 note:

1. a maximum in hth at finite rP now exists. This maximum is at different conditions to that for maximum w . 2. raising hc and ht : some increase in hth and a large increase in w 3. increasing Tt 3 : very large increase in w and some increase in hth 4. increasing ht has a greater effect on hth than increasing hc Other cycles

2.6

it has been shown that the both hth and w of the Joule/Brayton cycle are
functions of rP , Tt 3 , hc and ht : 1. rP and Tt 3 are limited by material considerations 2. hc and ht are already roughly 90% and are not expected to increase substantially in the future.

further, significant performance improvements are therefore hard won and

alternative gas turbine configurations may be desirable in certain cases. 2.6.1 Reheat

the turbine work is increased by the addition of a second combustor and second
turbine:

 the turbine work: heat addition: effect of reheat:

wt = CP ( Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) + (Tt 5 - Tt 6 ) & w56 > w4 a

q = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 2 ) + (Tt 5 - Tt 4 )

1. specific power output is increased since w56 > w4a 2. the thermal efficiency is decreased since hth = w / q and the relative increase in w is more than offset by increased q

2.6.2 Compressor intercooling

two stage compression with cooling between each stage.

and the T - s diagram looks like:

the compressor work is now: and the heat addition is:

wC = CP (Tt 2 a - Tt1 ) + (Tt 3 - Tt 2 b ) & wC < CP (Tt x - Tt1 ) q = CP ( Tt 4 - Tt 3 ) > CP (Tt 4 - Tt x )

 the overall effect of intercooling is:

1. the specific power ouput w is increased since wc is reduced 2. the thermal efficiency hth is decreased since the relative increase in w is more than offset by the increased q .

2.6.3 Regeneration

a heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from the turbine exit to the compressor
exit:

and the T - s diagram looks like:

where the heat exchanger effectiveness e is:

e=

T2b - T2 a Tt 2b - Tt 2 a ; T4 - T2 a Tt 4 - Tt 2 a

since the Mach number is intentionally low throughout the heat exchanger and at
the turbine exit.

assuming an ideal compressor and turbine, the specific power output is:
w = wT - wC = CP (Tt 3 - Tt 4 ) -CP (Tt 2 a - Tt1 )
q = CP ( Tt 3 - Tt 2b )

and the heat addition is:

= wt = CP ( Tt 3 - Tt 4 )

 the thermal efficiency is then:

hth =

wt - wc q w = 1- c q T -T = 1 - t 2 a t1 Tt 3 - Tt 4
Tt 2 a - 1 Tt1 Tt1 = 1Tt 3 Tt 4 1 - Tt 3 = 1-

Tt1 r - 1 1-g Tt 3 1 - rP g
g -1

g -1 g P

which becomes:

T hth = 1 - t1 rP g Tt 3

cf. ideal gas turbine without regeneration: hth = 1 - r

1-g g P

note:
1. regenerative cycles can have higher thermal efficiency than the basic cycle. The regenerative cycle is most efficient at high Tt 3 and low rP (i.e. top left corner of the graph, and far from the peak in w ). this is why regenerative cycles are popular in microturbines for distributed power generation, where high hth is most important and low w can be tolerated. 2. Improvement in hth reduces with increased rP . 3. the improvement in hth is also strongly dependent on the performance of the heat exchanger. The effect of the heat exchanger effectiveness on hth is algebraically complex and not discussed here.