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RomainRollandandthePoliticsofIntellectualEngagement

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RomainRolland Photographer,GisleFreund.Reproducedwiththepermission oftheBibliothqueNationaleallrightsreserved.

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RomainRollandandthePoliticsofIntellectualEngagement
DavidJamesFisher
UniversityofCaliforniaPress BerkeleyLosAngelesLondon

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AllphotosareinthepossessionoftheBibliothqueNationaleinParis.ReproducedherewiththepermissionoftheBibliothqueNationaleallrightsreserved. UniversityofCaliforniaPress BerkeleyandLosAngeles,California UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Ltd. London,England 1988byTheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Fisher,DavidJames. RomainRollandandthepoliticsofintellectual engagement/DavidJamesFisher. p.cm. Bibliography:p. Includesindex. ISBN0520057872(alk.paper) 1.Rolland,Romain,18661944Politicalandsocial views.2.Politicsinliterature.3.Politicsandliterature France.4.FrancePoliticsandgovernment20thcentury. 5.FranceIntellectuallife20thcentury.I.Title. PQ2635.05Z5841987 848.91209dc19 8724387 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 123456789

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Thisbookisdedicatedtothememory ofmymother, BessKaufmanFisher, andtomyfather, MartinMiltonFisher,M.D.

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CONTENTS
Preface PartOne FindeSicleIdealist 1.TheLanguagesofEngagement 2.AnOceanicSensibility 3.AbovetheBattle PartTwo ThePoliticalandIdeologicalAmbiguitiesofRollandisminthe1920s 4.TheIntellectual'sInternational 5.TheRollandBarbusseDebate 6.Gandhian PartThree LeftWingCulturalPoliticsofthe1930s 7.IntellectualAntifascismandtheAmsterdamPleyelMovement 8.AntifascistResistance 9.ThePoliticsofCriticalSupport 10.TheCulturalPoliticsofthePopularFront 11.ThePoliticsofUncriticalSupport Conclusion:PessimismoftheIntelligence,OptimismoftheWill Notes Bibliography Index Illustrationsfollowpage114 ix

3 8 38

51 79 112

147 177 205 236 267 292 303 355 361

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PREFACE
AsIreflectbackonthiswork'svariousincarnations,Irealizethatitsbasicthrustwastowardbuildingbridges.IwastrainedinmodernEuropeanintellectualand culturalhistoryattheUniversityofWisconsininthemiddleandlate1960sandearly1970s.MadisonpulsatedtothepoliticsoftheAmericanantiwarmovement,the lifestyleexperimentsandrebelliousnessofthecounterculture,andthetheoreticalpreoccupationsoftheNewLeft.IfIneverfitintoanysinglecategoryorgrouping, perhapsafunctionofmynonconformismandmydesiretoresistexcess,Iwasinfluenceddeeplybyallthesetrends.Iattemptedtofindmyownindependentpathand tointegratewhatseemedvalidamongallthree.MystudieswerehighlightedbyanimmersioninthewritingsofMarx,Nietzsche,Freud,andSartre,includingastudyof theircontemporarycommentatorsandthemovementsgeneratedintheirnamesandagainsttheirnames.Mygraduateeducationperhapsfailedtoprofessionalizeme, andcertainlyillpreparedmeforthelifeofanacademichistorianinthe"realworld"ofshrinkingjobs,butitdidteachmehowtothink.ForthatIamdeeplygrateful. Culturalhistoryappealedtomebecauseitpresentedapowerfulmethodofanalysisandbecauseitwassoallembracing.Wereadastoundingbooksbyincredible writersnovels,philosophicalessays,poetry,andculturecriticismyetdidnotgetboggeddownintechnicalphilosophicaldisputes,circularlanguagegames,andthe formalismofcertainschoolsofliterarycriticism.Ilearnedtointerprettextscontextually,toteaseoutthevariousmeaningsintermsofthetime,place,and circumstancesoftheirproduction.Historicalconsciousnesswasexcitinginitself,workingagainstthepassionatecurrenttoberelevant,whilekeepingmeawareofthe legitimateparallelsbetweentherecentpastandthepresent.LookingtoEurope,abovealltoEuropeanthinkersandculturalmovements,meantgettingawayfrom Americaandallthatwasshallow,con

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formist,mediocre,andcorruptinAmericanpoliticsandculture.IwasselfconsciouslyalienatedandIpermittedmyselftofollowmyalienationtocertainextremes. Ibecamefascinatedwithaformofculturalhistorythatfocusedonintellectualsthemselves.Intellectualhistory,conceivedofastheverticalhistoryofintellectuals,was notnarrowatall,inthatittouchedhorizontallyontheconvergenceofculturallifewithideology,politics,andsocialmovements.Ilearnedfromthesocialhistorians, especiallythosenotintimidatedbyideas,whodidnotneedtopostureagainstthesocalledelitismofresearchingrealmsofhighculture.Ibecameobsessedwiththe problematicoftheresponsibilityoftheintellectual.IturnedtoFrenchhighculturebecausetheworldoftheFrenchintellectualwascloselylinkedtosociopolitical change.Culturalcreativityandinnovation,Idiscovered,weretiedtoanongoingcommitmenttorenovate,evenrevolutionize,modernsociety,whileresistingtheforces ofdecadenceandoutmodedtradition.Iwasintriguedbytheconceptandcontradictionsoftheintellectualservingasanavantgardeofaculturalrevolution. Therewasasubjectivecomponenttothisprocessaswell.Iwassearchingforafigurewhoworkedatthefrontierbetweendisciplines,betweengenres,between differentcivilizations,betweenwritingandpolitics,andwhoreflectedonthemeaningofbeinganintellectualinthetwentiethcentury.IfoundasoulmateinRomain Rolland.IsubsequentlydiscoveredthatIwassearchingforsomeonewhoepitomizedintegrity,anindividualarticulatinganddefending,inmomentsofcrisis,an idealisticstancegroundedinasenseoffundamentaldecency.Thisusedtobecalledhumanism,orradicalhumanism.IsupposeIamstillmovedbyit.RomainRolland wassimultaneously,oratleastserially,amanofimagination,reason,andconsciencewhoattemptedtousehistalentstocreateanewversionofcommittedwriting. Notypologyorsociologyoftheintellectualhelpedmetosituatehislifeandworkinhisownday.Thisbookcontributestotheexistingliteratureoncommitted intellectualsbydiscussingtheorigins,significance,andlimitationsofRomainRolland'sengagement. ItisapleasuretoacknowledgetheclimateattheUniversityofWisconsinintheperiodfrom1965to1973.AsanundergraduateandthenadoctoralcandidateIwas firstexposedtoaneducational

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atmospherewherepoliticsandcultureintersected.InMadisontherewasagenuinespiritofinquirystudentswereencouragedtoraisequestions,torespectauthentic learningandrigorousresearch.Myprofessorswereinspiring,andinstudyingwiththemIfeltclosetoEuropeanwaysofthinking.AtmomentstheybecameEurope itself.InMadisonarespectfortheorywentwithadisrespectforauthorityscholarlylearningwasvalued,notasanendinitself,butonlyifitprovidedafoundationfor criticalthinkingaboutoneselfandtheworld. ThisworkbeganasaGeorgeL.Mossedoctoralthesis,andIwouldbedelightedtohaveitidentifiedwithstudiesassociatedwithhisname.ProfessorMosseisaman ofvastlearning,intuition,andhistoricalprobity.IfirstlearnedofRomainRollandinhisprovocativelecturesonmodernEuropeanculturalhistory.Mossefocusedon howpersons,institutions,andculturalmovementshelpedtoshapeattitudes,values,feelings,stereotypes,andmythsthatsubsequentlydeterminedhistoricalchoices andevents.Hisdistrustofposturingandidealizationwentwithademythologizingformofanalysis.Henotonlydaredustothinkhistoricallyandcritically,butshowed ushowitwasdone.InworkingwithHarveyGoldberg,Iencounteredanoratoricalgenius.Goldberg'shistoryofrevolutionblendedhisphotographicmemory,his masteryofhistoricalnarrativeandanalysis,andhisownadmirationforcourageandcommitmentwithinaleftwingheritage.Goldberg'slectureswereundoubtedlythe bestshowintown.WiththeHistoryDepartmentdividedbetweenthedominantpersonalitiesandpointsofviewofMosseandGoldberg,therewaspressureto chooseoneortheother.Ideclinedthischoiceandtriedtoincorporatethemostsalientfeaturesofbothapproachesintomyownvision.Itwasnotaccidentalthat Goldberg'smagisterialLifeofJeanJaurs(1962)openswithanepigraphbyRomainRollandRomainRollandalsoemergedasthe"hero"ofMosse'siconoclastic CultureofWesternEurope(1961).ThisRollandbookthenwasunconsciouslyandconsciouslyconceivedasatributetoMosseandGoldbergitrepresentsmyown efforttobridgetheirdistinctpersonalitiesandworldviews. WorkingwithGermaineBreattheUniversityofWisconsinwasarareopportunity.ProfessorBrebothpracticedandtaughtadisciplined,methodicalapproachto hersubject,contemporary

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Frenchculture.Herperspectivewasmarkedbyitsbalanceandgenerosity.ShewasaCamusianpresenceformeinaSartreanera,apresenceIfoundrefreshingand invaluable. IshouldalsoliketomentiontheimpactofanumberofcourseswithHansH.Gerth.ProfessorGerthwasasociologistinthetraditionofWeberandKarlMannheim inpractice,hiscourseswereidiosyncraticversionsofculturalhistory,whereinsightmingledwithcompassion,encyclopedicknowledgewithazanyjoyofliving.My oneyearatNewYorkUniversitybroughtmeincontactwithLeoGershoy,whointroducedmetothescholarshipandpassionsgeneratedbytheFrenchRevolution.I alsoattendedthebrilliantlecturesofFrankManuel,whosearticulationofthehistoryofideaswasenormouslystimulatingandartful.Hisattemptstointegratehistory andpsychoanalysisstillfiremyimagination. IspenttwoyearsinParisfollowingthecompletionofmythesis.IenrolledinapostdoctoralseminarattheSiximeSectionoftheEcolePratiquedesHautesEtudes directedbyGeorgesHaupt.Itwascalled''TheGeographyofMarxism.''ProfessorHauptwasaRomanianintellectualwhohadsurvivedtheconcentrationcamps, beeneducatedintheSovietUnion,andfinallysettledinParis.Hehadlived,aswellasreflectedon,thehistoryoftheEuropeanmidcentury.Asadistinguished historianofEuropeansocialismandcommunism,histeachingwascharacterizedbyhisintellectualcuriosity,loveofthearchives,acapacitytoaskpertinentquestions, andapersonalwarmthandaccessibilitytostudents.Hauptlovedagooddiscussion,appreciatedambiguity,andknewhowtobringinterestingpeopletogether.He diedprematurelyandismuchmissed. LivinginPariswasitselfaneducation.Combiningelementsofthebohemian,leftwingintellectual,andpost1968lifestyles,thoseyearsofmylifewereamovable feast.HowrichitwastoliveandworkinParisasayoungman,fullofhopesanddreams,despitethepovertyandstudentstatus. OvertheyearsIhavehadfruitfulconversationswithfriendsandcolleaguesconcerningthethemesofthisbook.Thefollowingindividualswereexceedinglyempathicto me,especiallyinsomeofmymoredespairingmoments.IwanttothankbynameLaurieBaron,RichardLevine,RobertNye,JohnCammett,andWalterLanglois. RobertFrykenberg,JosephElder,andStanleyWolperthelpedme

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withmychapteronGandhiandIndia.IhadavaluablecorrespondencewiththehistorianofpacifismPeterBrock.WilliamT.Starr,aRomainRollandspecialistfrom NorthwesternUniversity,grantedaninterviewwithme,sharedhisbibliography,andwasreceptivetomywork.MorerecentlyIreceivedastuteandgenerouscritiques ofthemanuscriptfromSandiCooper,DavidSchalk,andRobertRosenstone.PeterLoewenbergreadseveralseminalchaptersandRobertWohlassessedtheentire textIhaveprofitedfromtheirsuggestions,encouragement,anddesiretohavemesubmitthebooktotheUniversityofCaliforniaPress.RobertWohlpersuadedme thattheprocessofwritingabookwasintegrallyconnectedtocuttingandrevising,evenaftertheauthorthinksitisdone.RudolfEksteinpatientlytransmittedtomethe distinctionbetween"learningforlove"andtheauthentic"loveoflearning,"whichhepossessesinlargemeasure.Amonghismanyvirtues,heunderstandsexperientially thedilemmasofthecommittedEuropeanintellectual. AlainHnonfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaPresswasatactfulanddiscerningeditor,whobelievedinmymanuscript,appreciatedtheimportanceofRomain Rolland,andurgedmetomakethisbookaccessibletomyreaders.UriHertzassistedmeineditingthetext.JillSellerswasasuperbcopyeditor.IreneBaldonwasa mostcooperativeandcompetenttypist.MikeSigman,publisheroftheL.A.Weekly,gavegenerouslyofhistimeandexpertisetoproofreadthetext.MaryRenaud, projecteditorattheUniversityofCaliforniaPress,sawtheprojectthrough,andAndrewJoronpreparedtheindex.Thebookisdedicatedtomyparents,whofirst tookmetoFrancein1961,instilledaloveofbooksinme,andtaughtmetotreasuretheliberatingeffectsoflearningandculturalactivity.Mywife,KarenFund, providedmewiththepsychologicalandemotionalatmospherenecessarytocompletethework.Herunderstandingoftheheartandabilitytogetalongintheworld havebecomeanecessarybalancetomyownorientationtowardintellectualanalysisandcriticaldialogue.Toseethisbookinprintwillmakeherproud,andmaking herproudgladdensme.

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PARTONE FINDESICLEIDEALIST

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1 TheLanguagesofEngagement
Ishallsaythatawriterisengagedwhenhetriestoachievethemostlucidandcompleteconsciousnessofbeingembarked,thatis,whenhecausestheengagementofimmediate spontaneitytoadvance,forhimselfandothers,tothereflective. JeanPaulSartre,WhatIsLiterature?

Nietzschesayssomewherethatonlythatwhichhasnohistorycanbedefined.Iwilloffernodefinitionoftheintellectualinthisbook.1 Norwilladefinitionof commitmentbeforthcoming.Rather,IproposetoinvestigatetheevolutionofintellectualengagementinthecontextoftwentiethcenturyEuropeanhistory,focusing primarilyontheperiodfrom1919to1944. RecentscholarsofmodernFrenchintellectuallifehaveemphasizeditsnegativeaspectsorhavecategorizedseveralaspectsofthephenomenon.InTheFrench, TheodoreZeldinironicallyadvised"hownottobeintimidatedbytheirintellectuals."RgisDebrayidentifiedthreehistoricalstagesofFrenchintellectuallifemarking shiftsinthesociologyofknowledge:universityprofessor,modernistwriter,andmediacelebrity.RaymondAronfocusedonthealienationofFrenchthinkersfromtheir ownsocialoriginsandpoliticalideology.MichelFoucaultdesignatedtwointellectualtraditions:the"universal"andthe"specific,"thefirstincarnatingatimeless, suprahistoricalformofjustice,mercy,andlaw,thesecondcontestingpowerconcretely,materially,andonaneverydaylevel.2 Infocusingononepivotalfigure,RomainRolland(18661944),mystudyexaminesthewaysinwhichheespousedandrevisedthenotionofbeingacommittedwriter inEuropeduringtheperiodbetweenthetwoworldwars.ThisintellectualportraitreflectsthreeyearsofrewardingresearchinParis,whereIfrequentedlibrariesfor sourcesthatarenotavailableinAmerica.Myresearchwas

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highlightedbyextensivevisitstotheArchivesRomainRolland,whereIwaspresented,thankstothegenerosityofMadameMarieRomainRolland,withthousandsof pagesofunpublishedletters,diaryentries,manuscripts,andinvaluableprimarydocuments. Afterworkingonthisintellectualportraitforoveradecade,Iamconvincedthatonewritesabiographicalstudyoutofeitheranintenseidealizationoranequally powerfulneedtodenigratethesubject.MyattitudestowardRomainRollandhaveoscillatedbetweenoverestimationandunfaircriticism.Time,distance,selfanalysis, andconstructivecriticismsfromoutsidershavehelpedmestrikeacomplexbalancethatemphasizestensions.Myperspectiveclearlytiltstowardacriticalappreciation ofRomainRollandthemanandofhisdilemmainfindinganengagedpositionpertinenttohisera. AhistoricalandcriticalstudyofRomainRolland'sengagementshouldnotonlyexploreareasneglectedbypreviousscholarsbutalsoclarifywaystomakeprogressive intellectualcommitmentmeaningfulinsocietytoday.AnanalysisofRomainRolland'sitineraryofcommitmentmayhelptodecipherthebasicambiguities,continuities, anddiscontinuitiesthatstillconstitutetheengagedstance. RomainRollanddoesnotassumeeveryconceivablecommittedstand,especiallyifoneweretoallowforafascistformofengagement,3 forleftwingCatholicforms,4 foranarchistorlibertarianMarxistforms,5 orifoneconceivedofengagementasencompassingabroadspectrum.6 Sartreishistoricallycorrectinrelatingcommitment totheconflictsandstrivingsofthenonpartyaffiliatedFrenchleftwingintellectualsincethetimeofZola.7 RomainRollandwasanonconformingwriterwho comprehendedthecontradictionsofbourgeoissocietyinEuropebeforetheGreatWarandwhoconsciouslyworkedtoreshapethatsocietyintheperiodbetweenthe wars.Healsoattemptedtosalvageandrethinkthehumaniststanceforthemanofletters.8 ThisfamiliarthemeofthecrisisofliberalEurope,particularlyofitsbelief systemandpoliticalphilosophy,takesonfreshmeaningifexaminedfromtheperspectiveoftheengagedwriter'sroleandresponsibility.9 Methodologically,IhavesituatedthisbookatthepointsofconvergenceofRomainRolland'swritingswithhistimes,movingbackandforthfromtexttocontext.The bookisorganizedarounda

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consecutiveseriesofopendebates,eachtouchingonwhatitmeanstobeanintellectual.TounderstandRomainRolland'squarrelswithhiscontemporariesisto penetratethedynamicsofFrenchintellectuallife.Publiccollisionswereoftenaccompaniedbyprivateruminationleadingtonewresearch,themodificationofprevious positions,andthereexaminationoftheintellectual'sfunction.Thepolemicappearstobethecrucialframeworkwithinwhichintellectuallifetakesshape.Thestyleof FrenchintellectualdiscourseisbothmoreideologicalandrhetoricalthanequivalentformsinEnglishspeakingcountries.InfollowingRomainRolland'sengagedcareer, Ihavediscoveredthatpolemicshaverulesandparameters.Thereareacommonidiomandcommonassumptionsamongdisputants.Thereareestablishedwaysof disagreeing,evenofexcommunicatingsomeonewhoerrsegregiouslyorwhocommitsintellectualtreason.10 RomainRollandwrotecontinuously,creatinglengthycyclesofnovels,plays,biographies,musicalstudies,andessays,whileproducingnewspaperarticles,prefaces, openappeals,protests,manifestos,andpetitions.HepennedoneofthemostconsequentialcorrespondencesinmodernEuropeanintellectualhistory,welloversixty volumes(ofwhichtwentyfivehavealreadybeenpublishedinselectededitions).Hislettersareofteneloquentandintimate.Theyarealmostalwaysorientedtoward promotingintellectualdialogue.Thepublicoutpouringwasmatchedbyprivateautobiographicalmusings:foreveryfouryearsofhislife,hecomposedwellovertwo thousandpagesofanintimatediary,recordinghisimpressionsaboutpeopleandeventstouseforhisownprojectsandselfclarification. MychoiceofthetitleRomainRollandandthePoliticsofIntellectualEngagementimpliesthatthewriter'sengagementtakesplaceontheborderbetweensolitary, contemplativeactivityandsociopoliticalactivity.Commitmentoccursatthisinterface,whereintellectualactivityimpingesonthepoliticalstructuresandstrugglesofthe day,andpoliticizedactiontransformsthecontoursandchoicesofthoselivingalifeofthemind.EachofRomainRolland'slanguagesofengagementencompasses values,feelings,andmetaphorsthatmakeitpossibleforthewritertocriticizethepresentandthepast,whileaffirmingpossibilitiesforthefuture.Iftheengagedstance is

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alwaysonthefrontierbetweenpoliticsandculture,ifitisalwaysideologicalandutopian,itisalsodesignedtopromotedeeperconsciousnessandreflectivenessonthe partoftheintellectual. InRomainRolland'ssearchforaviableformofintellectualpoliticsconsistentwithhisworldvisionandyetpertinenttohistimes,heexperimentedwithfivediscernible languagesofengagement:thelanguageoftheoceanicsensibility,thelanguageofthefreemind,thelanguageofpacifism,thelanguageofantifascism,andthelanguage offellowtraveling. Chapter2willillustratehisoceanicsensibility.RomainRolland'svisionincludedaprogressive,democraticpoliticaloutlookandamysticalformofreligiousbelief.The oceanicfeelingturnedonametaphysicalnotionofthewholenessofhumanbeings,theirinherentcapacityforheroism,andtheirabilitytotakeanethicalstanceandto establishamorousbondswithotherpeopleandtheenvironment.Hewouldnotrelinquishtheoceanicfeelingascircumstanceschangedorasheevolvednewstylesof commitment.Chapter3tracestheparametersofRomainRolland'santiwarstancefrom1914to1919,distilledenigmaticallyintheslogan"AbovetheBattle." Chapters4and5describehisversionofthefreemind,adefenseofcriticalthinkingthatwascombinedwithmilitantinternationalism,extremeindividualism,arefusalto acceptoneunifiedphilosophicalsystemofthought,andareluctancetojoinpoliticalpartiesorsocialmovements.Chapter6depictsRomainRolland'scontributionas theEuropeanpopularizerofGandhi.GandhismextendedhisroleasantiwardissenterduringtheGreatWarandsharpenedthepacifistandantiimperialistdiscourses inwhichhetraffickedduringthe1920s.Chapters7and8mapouthisformulationofanintellectualantifascismandhissubsequentmergerofantifascistresistanceand aneffectiveformofpoliticalaction.AntifascismwastheculminationofRomainRolland'sintellectualpolitics.ItdeterminedhiscommitmentsduringthePopularFront era,hisrepudiationofpacifisttheoryandpractice,andhisgrowingsympathiesforinternationalcommunism.Chapters9,10,and11exploreRomainRolland'scareer asafellowtraveler,documentinghismetamorphosisfromcriticaltouncriticalsupporteroftheSovietUnioninthe1930s. InRomainRolland'sjourney,therewerenosudden,unmediatedleapsforwardinthearticulationoftheengagedstand,inthetransformationofoneformof engagementintoanother,orinthe

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politicizationofengagement.Therelationshipofwritingtocommitmentwasdialectical.Hecouldbeengagedanddisengagedatthesametime.Atmoments,hewas almosttotallydisengaged.HisvariouslanguagesofengagementwereinextricablylinkedtothecircumstancesofEuropeandtheworld.Hewascommittedwhile thinkingcriticallyabouttheproblematicofcommitment.Tobeengagedisnottobemarriedtothepoliticsofdogmaorblindfaith.11NordoesRomainRolland's careersupportthetheorythatengagedwritingdebasesartwhileofferingonlyasuperficialgainintheartist'smoralstature.Thepoliticsofhisintellectuallifeserveto raisequestionsaboutthefunctionofcultureandmoralityanditsintersectionwithpoliticsinthetwentiethcentury. RomainRollandsummeduphisversionofintellectualengagementinonebrilliantdialecticalphrase:"Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismofthewill."Mytaskwillbe toanalyzeandelucidatewhathemeant.

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2 AnOceanicSensibility
Itisafeelingwhichhewouldliketocallasensationof"eternity,"afeelingofsomethinglimitless,unboundedasitwere,"oceanic." Freud,CivilizationandItsDiscontents

SigmundFreud'sCivilizationandItsDiscontents(1930)openswithacommentabouttheroleofthewriterinsociety.Infact,FreudhadRomainRolland specificallyinmindwhenhereflectedontheuneasinessofmaninmoderncivilization:
Thereareafewmenfromwhomtheircontemporariesdonotwithholdadmiration,althoughtheirgreatnessrestsonattributesandachievementswhicharecompletelyforeignto theaimsandidealsofthemultitude.Onemighteasilybeinclinedtosupposethatitisafterallonlyaminoritywhichappreciatesthesegreatmen,whilethelargemajoritycares nothingforthem.1

Freudcomposedtheselinesatamidpointintheperiodbetweenthetwoworldwars.HepresentedRomainRollandassomeonewhousedauthenticstandardsof judgmentandsoughtneitherpower,position,normoneyforhimself.FreudpointedtotheFrenchman'suniqueculturalachievementsasdistinctlycontrarytothedaily activitiesofthemultitudes.RomainRolland's"greatness"consistedofmasteringtheprocessofculturalaffirmation,inacontextofmiscomprehension,indifference,even hostilityfromlargesectorsofthesociety.Heparticipatedinculturalproductionwhileappreciatingthewidelydivergentideasandcontrastingmethodsofinquiryof othersalsoinvolvedintheworkofcivilization.2 ForFreud,RomainRolland'ssensibilityblendedartisticintuitionwithintellectualrigorandpsychologicalprobitywithencyclopedicerudition.Hiswritingswerepleasing andexaltingtohisreaders.Hisplays,novels,biographies,andessayswererecurrentsourcesofconsolation.FreudrecognizedthatRomainRolland'sidealism

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wasnotsentimental,passive,ormystified.Nordiditspringfromanaivefaithintheomnipotenceofideasorinthesoothingbutillusoryidealsofbeauty.Rather,itwas anchoredinstruggleandadversity.Hehadthecourageofhisconvictionsanattributethatwasespeciallytellingwhenhewasconfronteddirectlyorchallengedina crisis.Heaffirmedidealisticallythepossibilitythatloveandgoodwillcouldbeextendedtoallofhumanity.3 FreuddidnotcustomarilycomposetributestolivingEuropeanintellectuals.RomainRollandreceivedthishomagepreciselybecauseheaskedprofound,ifelusive, questions.Justasheunderstoodthelimitsofavailableknowledge,sotoodidherecommendfurtherresearchandreflectiontoexpandwhatwasknowable.Romain Rolland'slivingpresenceasawritercouldnotbeignored.Hisideasescapedfacilelabels,simplisticcategories,ormechanisticrefutations.Hisaudiencelivedwithor againsthisperceptions,welcomingtheinvitationtoenterintodialoguewithhim.Toreadhisworkswastoconfrontone'sownculturalassumptions,torethinkone's methodsofanalysis.Thus,Freud'sdeepestacknowledgmenttoRomainRollandwasintakingseriouslyhiscriticalperspective.ManyEuropeanintellectualsofthe interwarperiodreactedasFreuddidtoRomainRolland'swritings,whetherintheformofapublicdebateorinprivateformsofselfclarification.4 FreudhadsentRomainRollandacopyofTheFutureofanIllusionin1927.RomainRollandrepliedinaletteron5December1927,coiningthephrase"oceanic feeling"anddescribingitinevocative,vitalisticimagery:
Youranalysisofreligionsisfair.ButIwouldhavelikedtoseeyouanalyzespontaneousreligiousfeelingor,moreexactly,religioussensation.... Iunderstandbythatquiteindependentlyofalldogma,ofallCredo,ofeveryChurchorganization,ofeveryHolyBook,ofallhopeinapersonalsurvival,etc.thesimpleand directfactofthesensationofthe"eternal"(whichmayverywellnotbeeternal,butsimplywithoutperceptiblelimits,andinthatwayoceanic).Thesensationis,asamatterof fact,subjectiveincharacter.... I,myself,amfamiliarwiththissensation.ThroughoutmywholelifeIhaveneverlackeditandIhavealwaysfounditasourceofvitalrenewal.InthissenseIcansaythatIam profoundly"religious"withoutthisconstantstate(likeanundergroundbedofwaterwhichIfeelsurfacingunderthebark)inanywayharmingmycriticalfacultiesandmy freedomtoexercisethemevenifagainsttheimmediacyof

Page10 thisinternalexperience.ThusIcarryonsimultaneously,freelyandsmoothly,a''religious''life(inthesenseofthisprolongedsensation)andalifeofcriticalreason(whichis withoutillusion).... Iaddthatthis"oceanic"feelinghasnothingtodowithmypersonalaspirations.Personally,Iaspiretoeternalrestsurvivalhasnoattractionforme.ButthesensationthatIfeelis thrustuponmeasafact.Itisacontact.5

Spontaneousreligioussensation,hetoldFreud,wasaprolongedintuitivefeelingofcontactwithimmenseforces.Theoceanicfeelingwasconnectedwithanenergy thatsurpassedtraditionalcategoriesoftime,space,andcausality.Ittranscendedlimits,empiricalboundaries,andscientificdefinitions.Ithadnothingtodowith organizedreligionorfaithinpersonalsalvation.ItpromisedtobeaspontaneoussourceofactionandthoughtthatmightregeneratedecadentEuropeandthe underdevelopednationsoftheworld. Theoceanicfeelingwasanintimatesensationofidentitywithone'ssurroundings,ofsublimeconnectiontootherpeople,toone'sentireself,tonature,andtothe universeasanindivisiblewhole.Itendedtheseparationoftheselffromtheoutsideworldandfromothers,anditallowedtheindividualtoparticipateinhigherspiritual realms.RomainRollandattributedthesensationtoaprimevalforceinallpeople,nothinglessthanthedivineinnercoreofexistence.Ithadthequalityofperpetual birthitwasanideaforcethatcouldmediatebetweenhumanbeingsastheywereandastheycouldbecome.Becausethesensationfosteredrelatednessamong individuals,itcouldbreakdownthebarriersofclass,ethnicity,nationality,gender,culture,andgenerationandsoleadtouniversalfraternityinthedistantfuture.The oceanicsensationrepresentedanindestructiblemoralaspectofhumanity'sspiritualnature.Itwasthebasisofreligiousexperience:spontaneous,innate,and omnipresent.Itpropelledtheindividualtomakeamorousbondswithotherhumansandtheuniverse.RomainRollandassertedthattheoceanicsensationcontained enormousimaginativepossibilities,providingtheartistwithreservoirsofinspirationandunconscioussourcesofcreativity.Itunifiedtheworksofliterature,music,and humanisticculture.Explorationoftheoceanicfeelingcouldleadtonewformsofselfdiscoveryandselfmastery,tothepurificationofideas,andtoinsightsaboutthe nonrationalfoundationsofbeing.Notsimplyafantasy,thissort

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ofmysticismwasaformofknowledgethatoperatedthroughtheemotions. FreudwasthoroughlyperplexedbyRomainRolland'sdescriptionoftheoceanicfeeling.Itdidnotneatlyfitintothetheoreticalframeofhiswritingsonreligion.He confessed,"YourletterofDecember5,1927containingyourremarksaboutafeelingyoudescribeas'oceanic'hasleftmenopeace."6 FreudnonethelessofferedacompellinganalysisoftheoceanicsensationandapenetratinginsightintoRomainRolland'ssensibility.Hedeniedthehypothesisthatthe oceanicfeelingwasattherootofreligiousbeliefs.Theoceanicsensationwasratherrelatedtoaprimitive,preverbalperiodofegodevelopment.Thesublimefeelingof fusionwiththeuniversereflectedsensationsofearlychildhood,whentheinfantdistinguishedimperfectlybetweentheselfandtheexternalworld.Withtheego's boundariesblurredorincorrectlydrawn,theinfantexperiencedanindissolublebondwithhissurroundings."Ourpresentegofeelingis,therefore,onlyashrunken residueofamuchmoreinclusiveindeed,anallembracingfeelingwhichcorrespondedtoamoreintimatebondbetweentheegoandtheworldaboutit."7 Freudsuggestedthattheoceanicsensationrecurredinadultlifeasawishfulfantasy,reassuringtheindividualaboutsuchdisagreeablefeaturesofexistenceas mortality,theharshnessofeverydaylife,andthecompromisesandaccommodationsnecessaryforsurvival.Oceanicfeelingswerepowerfulformsofconsolationfor theprecariousnessofhumanexistence. Inthefinalanalysis,Freudviewedtheoceanicsensationaslargelyaregressiontoachildlikestateinwhichthesubjecthadnoconceptionofselfasdifferentiatedfrom individualsorfromtheenvironmentandinwhichanecstaticfeelingofwellbeingwasexperienced.Itwasrelatedtothefunctionoftheegowherebytheselfcouldbe extendedtoembracealloftheworldandhumanitya"limitlessnarcissism."Freudrejectedmysticalandidealistpositionsasirrationalretreatsfromexternalreality. FromthepointofviewofFreud'spsychologyandhisvaluesystem,mysticismwasamystification.HewrotetoRomainRolland:
Weseemtodivergeratherfarintheroleweassigntointuition.Yourmysticsrelyonittoteachthemhowtosolvetheriddleoftheuni

Page12 versewebelievethatitcannotrevealtousanythingbutprimitive,instinctualimpulsesandattitudeshighlyvaluableforanembryologyofthesoulwhencorrectlyinterpreted, butworthlessfororientationinthealien,externalworld.8

ForRomainRolland,however,theoceanicfeelingwasaboveallabondthathadnothingtodowithknowing,desiring,orevenbelieving.Theoceanicfeeling expressedhisdeepestlongingforwholenessandforvisceralrelationships.Harmony,synthesis,reconciliation,infinity,andunitywereotherwordschosentoexpress theoceanic.Heusedwaterimagerytocondensethisjubilantstateofwellbeingintoonesymbol.Attheborderbetweenmentalandemotionallife,RomainRolland's oceanicsensibilitywasmarkedbyapreoccupationwiththeepic,theunbounded,theuniversal,theethical,thelifeaffirmingaspectsofexistence:

Ibelongtoalandofrivers....Nowofallriversthemostsacredisthatwhichgushesouteternallyfromthedepthsofthesoulandfromitsrocksandglaciers.Thereinliesprimeval ForceandthatiswhatIcallreligion.EverythingbelongstothisriveroftheSoul,flowingfromthedarkunplumbedreservoirsofourBeing,theconscious,realized,andmastered Being....Fromthesourcetothesea,fromtheseatothesource,everythingconsistsofthesameEnergy,oftheBeingwithoutbeginningandwithoutEnd.9

RomainRollandcertainlyhadanoceanicsensibility.Threemajoragenciesoftheoceanicsensationcanbeidentifiedinhisprewarwritings:thepopulistandsocialist collectivity(thepeople)themusicalorliterarygenius(thehero)andthehealingpowerofEuropeanculturalintegration(Europe).RomainRolland'searliest experimentswithintellectualengagementwereobjectificationsoftheoceanicfeeling. <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRolland'sbackgroundwasCatholic,provincial,andpetitbourgeois.Descendedfromalineofnotaries,RomainRollandwasborninthesmall,sleepyvillage ofClamecyon29January1866.ClamecyisinBurgundy,150milessoutheastofParis.TheNivernaissectionoftheCted'Orisnotedforgentlegreenrollinghills, finevineyardsandmustardfields,Romanesquecathedralsandruins.Thelonghistoryofthispicturesqueandsweetcountrysideisanendlesssourceoflocalprideand tradition.10

Page13

RomainRolland'sprovincialandlowermiddleclassoriginsinfluencedhislifelongattitudesandculturalorientation.Hisparentswerereliableandconscientiousfolk likeothernotariesinsmallcommunities,theywererespectableandconservative.Throughouthislife,RomainRollandmaintainedthetraditionalvalueofloyaltyto familyandintimatefriends.Heremainedfrugalandnonexperimentalinhismannerofliving,consideringsuchthingsasluxury,materialcomfort,andostentatiousdisplay ofwealthorsocialstatussuperfluous.Hehadnouseforfashionorfad.Hisdomesticlifewasextremelyorderly,simple,andunpretentious.Thoughintellectually curious,hehadtheFrenchnineteenthcenturyreluctancetotravel.Fromhisprovincialupbringing,RomainRollanddevelopedverymixedfeelingsabouturbanlifeand adeepsuspicionofParis.Hepreferredtoliveandtoworkinsolitude,awayfromcities.11Duringthecrucialyearscoveredbythisstudy1914to1939helived primarilyinFrenchSwitzerlandamongthemountains.Theirmajestyinspiredwonderinhimandmadehimawareofanalpineboundlessness,anothervariationonthe oceanicsensation. TheGermanpoetRainerMariaRilkedescribedRomainRolland'sdomesticlifeas"alittlespinsterish(Iexaggerage,butashadeinthatdirection)anddiscreetly quiet."12RomainRollandremainedconservativeinlifestyleanddress(inhishighwhitecollar,darktie,anddarksuitheresembledasomberclergyman).Outwardly heradiatedsobriety,earnestness,andausterity.Notagregariousorfrivolousman,helivedareclusiveexistence.Hewasnotapossessiveindividualistbesideshis booksandsimplepiecesofart,mostlygiftsfromfriendsorinexpensiveobjectshecollected,heownednoelaboratefurnishings.Heavoidedmindlessamusements, trivialsocializing,gossiping,pleasureseeking,andallformsofbanalentertainments.Heloathedcafsocietyandthesalons.Therewassomethingstern,even disembodied,aboutRomainRolland'smodeofliving,somethingexcessiveabouthisconstantneedtowriteandhisstrictpuritanicalmorality.Hehadanearlyintensity abouthismissioninlife,amonumentalsenseofpersonalresponsibility.Creativeendeavors,heinsisted,requiredrenunciationofpleasure.Charactermeantavoidingall formsoftemptation.Hedevelopedaselfconsciousandmonitoringconsciencethatbecamecentraltohischaracterandsubsequentlytohisworldvision.13

Page14

RomainRolland'searlyschooldaysattheCollgedeClamecy,from1873to1880,wereundistinguished.Hewasanemaciatedandsicklylookingboy,andhekept tohimself.Asanantidotetosolitude,hefantasizedandtookflightfromrealitythroughreadinghewasparticularlydrawntoJulesVerne,GustaveArmand, Chateaubriand,andCorneille.14Hewashismother'sfavorite,evenafterthebirthofhissisterMadeleinein1872.(Anearlierchild,alsonamedMadeleine,wasborn in1868butdiedattheageofthree.)Madeleinesubordinatedherentirelifetoherbrother,servinghimasaloyalconfidantandcollaborator.Thatservicecontinued afterhisdeathin1944,whenMadeleinedevotedherselftocollectingtheFrenchwriter'spapersandtohelpingsetupsocietiestohonorhismemory.15 RomainRolland'smotherbelievedinthenaturalgeniusofherson.Toensurethathisgiftswereproperlynurtured,sheconcentratedonadvancinghiscareer.Itwould bethroughtheFrencheducationalsystemthathersonwouldmakehismark,shethought.AtherinstigationtheentirefamilyuprooteditselffromBurgundyandmoved toParisinOctober1880toallowRomaintopursuehishighereducationunderoptimalconditionsandhersupervision.Hewasfourteenyearsold.ThemovetoParis resultedinalossofsocialstatusandincomefortheRollandfamily.Itwas,moreover,disorientingpsychologicallytobesuddenlywrenchedfromthesecurityand muchslowerrhythmoflifeintheprovinces.16 AfterthefamilysettledintoitsParisianapartmentontherueMongeontheLeftBank,RomainRollandpreparedfortheentranceexaminationstotheEcoleNormale Suprieure(ENS).Anomnivorousbutunsystematicreader,hewasmoreabsorbedbythetheaterofShakespeareandVictorHugoandtheoperasofWagnerthan bygainingadmissiontotheprestigiousENStheclassicaltraininggroundfortheThirdRepublic'sintellectualandpoliticalelite.RomainRollandfailedhisentrance examinationstwice,in1884andagainin1885.17 From1886to1889,RomainRollandwassecludedinthe"cloister"oftherued'UlmashedubbedtheENS.Throughouthisstudentdaysandforthedurationofhis life,heloathedtheFrenchuniversitysystem.Professors,heonceremarked,knoweverythingbutunderstandnothing.18Afterpassing"victoriously"theagrgationin history,acomprehensivenationalexaminationentitlinghim

Page15

toteachintheFrenchsecondaryschoolsanduniversities,RomainRolland'scontemptbrimmedover:"Oh,howIdespisealltheseexaminations!"19 Thehistoricaldisciplinerequiredthemasteryofscientifictechniquesofarchivaldocumentationandrigorousmethodsoftextualcriticism.Rollandlearnedhowtoplace sourcesintheirhistoricalframeworks.FromhismastersattheENS,heimbibedaconceptuallypreciseuseoflanguage.Intellectualdisciplinecurbedhisleanings towardabstractspeculationandhisflightsintocosmicrealms.Heprovedtobeafirstrateresearcher,makingimportantarchivaldiscoveriesintheVaticanaboutthe seventeenthcenturycomposerMonteverdi.Hisprinciplethesis,"TheOriginsofModernLyricalTheater:HistoryoftheOperaBeforeLullyandScarlatti"(1895),20 wasthefirstFrenchstatedoctoralthesisintheareaofmusicalhistory.RomainRolland'sLatinthesiswasentitled"OntheDecadenceofItalianPaintingintheSixteenth Century."21 RomainRollandregardedthesixhourdefenseofhisdoctoralthesisasa"formality."Hewasamusedandangeredbytheanticsoftheprofessorsonhisjury:"Sothat's whatthedoctorateis!Sixhoursofemptychatter,ofdiscussionwhichmissesthepoint,tosaynothing."22Hedevelopedastyleofjudgingthejudges.Heregarded himselfasanexception,neverfeelingboundtoobeyconformistrulesandlaws. RomainRollandwasdissatisfiedwithhisteachingcareerfrom1895to1910,whichhespentinParisasafacultymemberof,respectively,theENS,theEcoledes HautesEtudesSociales,andtheSorbonne.Althoughrespectedbyhisstudents,hewasdisenchantedwithprofessorialposturingandconsideredhimselfunsuitedto theroleplaying,exhibitionism,theatrics,andoversimplificationrequiredofuniversitylecturers.Pedagogyboredhim.Heinteractedwithhisstudentsinakindly, remote,ratherformalway.Moreimportant,preparinglecturesanddoingscholarlyworkweretimeconsuming,adeflectionfromhisgrandioseliteraryprojects.Once hewasabletomaintainhimselfasafreelancewriter,heresignedhisuniversitypositionandnevertaughtagain.23Heneverdevelopedatasteforpublicspeakingor oratory.Evenattheheightofhiscareerasanengagedwriter,herarelymadepublicappearancesandhedeclinedinvitationstoaddressralliesorlargedemonstrations. RomainRolland'sfifteenyearteachingcareercoincidedwith

Page16

aproblematicRadicalrepublicansynthesis.HedefinedhimselfsharplyinoppositiontothehegemonyoftheDurkheimians,positivists,anticlerics,andfalse,sentimental idealistswhopervadedtheFrenchuniversitysysteminthedecadesbeforeWorldWarI.Bergsonwasthesignificantexceptiontothesetrends,andRomainRolland, asavitalistandamanofintuition,wasalwaysindebtedtotheBergsoniantradition.24HedistrustedtheprofessionalizationoftheFrenchacademic,holdingthatitwas selfservingandhypocritical.Healwaysdrewsharpdistinctionsbetweenacademicsandintellectuals.IftheFrenchuniversityservedtheFrenchstateasacenterof ideologicalconsensusandeducationalconformism,itwasalsomarkedbyaconspicuousabsenceofcriticalandcreativethinking.Tohaveanauthenticintellectual commitment,andcertainlytobeanartist,wasfundamentallyinconsistentwithbeingaFrenchacademic.25 Despitehismordantcriticismoftheinstitution,theyearsattheENSwereonesofintellectualgrowthandselfdiscovery.Ifthegrandescoleswereoutdatedand stifling,oneneverthelessleftthemeducated,abletowrite,tosolveproblems,touselogic,andtoraisepertinentquestions.Whileimmersinghimselfinnineteenth centuryRussiannovels,particularlythoseofDostoevsky,Turgenev,Goncharov,andaboveallTolstoy,RomainRollandconductedaprobingselfanalysis.26In1882 hebeganhissixtyyearhabitofrecordinghisthoughtsinapersonalnotebook. Hisearliestautobiographicalrenderingswereofayoungman"mysticalandretiredwithinhimself."Hesufferedfromrecurrentboutsof"nervousandcerebralfatigue," precipitatedbyaconstantfearofdeath.Hewastormentedbythenotionthathewoulddieprematurely,perhapsattheageofthirtyfive.WhatRomainRolland describedasa"nihilisticcrisis"wasinfactadepressioncoincidingwithhisrupturewithorganizedCatholicism.Disorientedbydoubt,obsessedbyfeelingsofhisown fragility,desiringseparationfromandyetrelationshiptohisparents,theadolescentRomainRollandalsoexperiencedgreatpangsofconscienceaboutbreakingaway fromhismother'scherishedbeliefs.Hisneedfordistancefromhermayhaveseemedlikeabetrayal,generatinggreatguiltandremorse.27Inaddition,hewashaunted byafearthatabloodywarwasinevitablebetweenFranceandGermany,aprospectthatreinforcedhisanxietyaboutdeath.Heprojectedhis

Page17

fearontothewholeFrenchgenerationbornafterFrance'sdefeatbyPrussiain1870.ThesurvivalofFrance,ofEurope,ofculture,allseemedboundupwithFranco Germanreconciliation.28 RomainRolland'searliestliterarycreationsweredramatic.From1895to1904,hecompletedtenfulllengthdramas,includingatrilogycalledTheTragediesof Faith,andthefirstthreevolumesofaprojectedtwelvepartdramaticcycleentitledTheTheateroftheRevolution.Theplaysinauguratedhisinvolvementinthe people'stheatermovement.Theywerealsohisfirstsustainedcampaignincreatinganengagedformofliterature,andhisfirstexperienceanddefeatasacommitted intellectual.29 InMay1892,attheageoftwentysix,RomainRollandjotteddownsomegoalsforhistheaterprojects.Herejectedtheprincipleofartforart'ssakeandhopedto developalifeaffirmingartthatdidnotcapitulatetothewhimsofthemarketplace.30Twentiethcenturyarthadtoidentifyitselfwith,serve,anddirectthepeople. Dramaswithapopularformandcontentwouldmediatebetweenthe"imperishable"realmsofartandaculturewithdemocraticroots.Thepopulistplaywrightwas urgedtospeakinanidiomcomprehensibletoallclasses.31 RomainRolland'swritingsaboutpopulartheateroscillatedbetweendenunciationsofanachronisminFrenchtheatricalgenresandthedesiretopreservewhatwasvalid inthem.ToaninquiryonthevalueofFrenchdramaticcriticism,herepliedthatitssuppressionwouldbeusefultothepublicandtoartists.Heprovocativelysuggested thatartisticinnovationwouldbetheresultofa"socialmovement."32Hesharpenedhisanalysisoftheculturalcrisisof1900bypolemicizingagainsttheuncritical assimilationofGermaninfluencesinFrance,particularlyWagnerian"neomysticism."Acommittedidealistwasalwaysmoreopposedtohypocriticalidealismthanto thereductionismofmodernmaterialism.Hecondemnedinsincereidealisticthought,notonnationalistgrounds,butratherforitsrhetoricalexcessesanditssterile abstractions.Falseidealismwasapoisonthatencouragedromanticillusionsandenervatedhumanity.Itpreventedclearsightedobservationfrom"realfacts,real feelings."Modernpoliticsandartwerelinked,heproclaimedthe"sentimentalism"and"illusions''ofsuchworksasRostand'simmenselypopularCyranodeBergerac benefitedthesameclientelethe''politicalandliteraryreaction."33Whenaskedtocommentonthecon

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temporaryroleofthestatesupportedComdieFranaiseRollandstoppedjustshortofcallingforitsclosure.34 Healwaysconsideredthedivisionsbetweenartandsocietytobearbitrary.Hebecameinvolvedwiththepeople'stheatermovementinordertocombinecreativity withaction.AsearlyasNovember1897,hetoldMauricePottecher,thefounderofthePeople'sTheaterofBussangintheVosges,35thatheregrettedhavingno influenceintheliteraryworld.Ifhewerebetterknown,hissupportofthepeople'stheaterwouldcarrymoreweight.Hiswritingwouldultimatelybeinextricablefrom commitment:"Iamwaitingtohaveamoresolidbasetoengagemyselfinstruggle."36Thismaybethefirstexplicitconnectionbetweenintellectualactivityandpolitical commitmentinmodernFrenchhistory.Theassertive,evenabrasive,styleoftheengagedwriterwasinitsfirstutterancehesitatingandambiguous.Beforestruggling,he neededtoconstructa"solidbase." Longbeforehebecameattunedtoideologicalnuances,RomainRollandwastemperamentallyamanoftheleft.However,tobeasocialistwithanoceanicsensitivity didnotnecessitateactiveparticipationinsocialorpoliticalstruggles.WhentheDreyfusAffairexplodedinFrancewiththenewsofanotherinquiryintothecaseinJune 1897,RomainRollandwasthirtyoneyearsold.HelivedinParisduringthevariousstagesofthecrisisandherecordedtheseeventsasacontinuousoutburstof "frenzy"and"delirium."37Hehadinheritedagenuinerespectforhistoricalcontinuity,thepreservationofvalidFrenchrepublicaninstitutions,andthedemocratic traditionsofcivilliberties.Hehadalsoinheritedapetitbourgeoisfearofrapidsocialchangeandpoliticaldisruption.YethewasmarriedtoaFrenchJew,Clotilde Bral,andwasexposedtoanarticulateDreyfusardviewpointinhiswife'sfamily:theBralswereprominentParisianintellectualsandacademics.Mostofhisliterary andpoliticalfriendswereDreyfusardorsympathetictotheDreyfusards.Emotionallyandideologically,heappearedanaturalrecruittotheDreyfusardcause.38 Nonetheless,headoptedastanceofsilenceandsolitarydistancefrombothcamps.Hisdetachmentreinforcedfeelingsofrepulsionforboth"parties."Heallegedthat DreyfusardsandantiDreyfusardswereselfserving,manipulative,contemptuousofthetruth,andextraordinarilyviolent.Withdrawalfromaclearchoice

Page19

allowedhimtomaintainhis"lucidreason,"asheputit,anexceptionalpostureinacontextthatthreatenedcivilwaror,evenworse,a"warofreligion."Likemanyother literaryfiguresofhisgeneration,RomainRollandhadmixedfeelingsabouttheJews.HerecoiledagainsttheBralfamily'sinsistencethathetakeadefinitepublicstand ontheDreyfuscase.Hisfailuretodosoexacerbateddissatisfactionsinhismarriageandpreparedthegroundforadivorceinearly1901.HeindiscreetlytoldLucien Herrthatherefusedtotakeapositionfor"ZolaDreyfus"becauseofhis''antiSemiticfeelings."Thisremarkexpressedaspecificdissatisfactionwithhiswifeanda temporaryperceptionthattheFrenchJewishcommunitywasexploitingtheaffairopportunistically,withoutademonstratedcommitmenttofairness,justice,and democraticprinciples.39 HewasdisgustedbythevirulentantiSemitismofDrumont,thedemagogueryoftherightwingpress,andthemilitaristicexcessesandauthoritarianismoftheanti Dreyfusards.France,hefelt,wasbeingrippedapartbytheconfrontationoftwoformsoffanaticism.Hefeltthreatenedbythetransformationofthe"bestialand murderousinstincts"ofthemultitudesintocollectivepathologyandmasshysteria.RomainRollandwasclearlyappalledbytheantiSemiticriotsandviolent demonstrationsinthestreets.40 HethoughtthatthemobilizationofFrenchintellectualsoneithersideofthepoliticalspectrumvastlyincreasedtheclimateofhatred.Writersontheleftandright seemedoblivioustologic,evidence,andthecomplexityoftheissues.Theytookrefugeininventionorinflatedverbiagetheirsloganspanderedtotheworstprejudices oftheirpartisansandthusintensifiedtheconfusionandspreadthefear.Unabletoprovidedirectionorclaritytothemasses,Frenchintellectualsrespondedtothe anarchicsituationinjudiciously,byobscuringprofoundprinciplesandjugglinglanguagetothedetrimentofideals.Themystiqueofsocialjusticeandofdemocratic rightsforallFrenchcitizenshadbeentwistedintovulgarpolitics.RomainRollandwouldnotlethisnamebeexploitedbyeitherside.Inanapocalypticmood,he yearnedfortheinterventionofa"greatconscience,"animpeccablemanofhonor,someoneofthestatureofVictorHugo.41Yethehimselfwasunabletobecomethat prophetatthishistoricalconjunction. Instead,hechoseapositionofdetachedneutralityanddidnot

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trytomediatebetweenthetwocamps.Heassertedthatadisinterestedcritic(presumablyhimself)couldnotdeny"thechaoticgrandeurandbenefitofthestruggle." Movingfrompoliticaltomoralterrain,fromthecontemporaneoustotheabstract,RomainRollandretreatedtoanelevateddefenseof"Reason"andof"Love."He wasnotluredintoapragmaticpoliticalquarrel,preferringtoremainremote,uninvolved,stubborn,andpure.42 Thesearesanctimoniousrationalizations.RomainRolland'sperceptionofandreactiontotheDreyfusAffairrepresentedagreatevasionofitscentralissues,afailureof historicalimagination.Thiswasaregressivemomentinhisownemergingstyleofintellectualengagement.Hisrefusaltotakeapositionduringtheperiod18971900 wasasingularinstanceofnonengagementandretreatinacareerofsocialandpoliticalresponsibility.NeutralitycontrastedvividlytohisstrongantiBoulangistposition duringthe1880s,asastudent,whenheopposedthedemagogueryandmasshysteriageneratedbythatdubiousmilitaryhero.InajudiciousselfcriticismwrittenJune 1940,RomainRollandcommentedonhisownpoliticalandintellectualimmaturityduringtheDreyfuscrisisandreprovedhimselfforhavingneglectedajustcause.43 RomainRolland'splayLesLoupswasfirstperformedattheThtredel'OeuvreinParisinMay1898,aclimacticpointintheDreyfusAffair.Theplayfailedto communicatehisadvocacyofanintermediate,conciliatoryposition.Itreflectedtheambiguousandultimatelybankruptnatureofhisaloofstance.Inaletter,he complainedthat"itisdifficulttobeindependentinamilieuoffanatics."44Thatsentencecondensesthedilemmasofanindependentleftwingintellectualinthecontext offindesicleParis.Standingselfconsciouslyalone,hisintentionwastoavoidsullyinghimselfinthemuckofmasspoliticsandcollectiveemotion.45Theconceptof criticalsupportfortheDreyfusardsdidnotposeitselfasanalternativetotheyoungidealist. RomainRolland'spreoccupationwiththeFrenchRevolutiongrewoutofhishistoricaltraining,thepopulismgeneratedbytheDreyfusAffairandtheinternational socialistmovement,andhiscrusadetorejuvenatetheFrenchdramatictradition.HeoncereferredtotheFrenchRevolutionasthe"IliadoftheFrenchpeople."46He aspiredtobecometheMichelet,nottheHomer,oftheFrenchtheater.

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Tocapturethepanoramicsweepoftherevolutionarydecade,RomainRollandconceivedanepiccycle.Thiswork,TheTheateroftheRevolution,reflectedthe potencyoftherevolutionaryheritageamongFrenchintellectualstherevolutioncouldstillraise,inaculturalframework,unresolvedsocialandpoliticalquestions unleashedacenturybefore.47 WhereasimportanthistorianssuchasAulardandJaursinvestigatedthepoliticalandsocialaspectsoftheFrenchRevolutioninthesameera,RomainRollandfocused onitsculturalorientationandtheory.Inadaringstanceforhisperiod,heinsistedthatonecouldnotdismisstheTerrorasanaberrantperiodofrevolutionaryviolence orunfetteredtyranny.Rather,itsculturalassumptionswerepositiveandworthyofemulation.48 Hisinterestinsocialismarosefromhisfascinationwithhistory(particularlytheFrenchRevolution),collectivepsychology,populistaestheticsandideology,and individualmorality.Asearlyas1895,RomainRollandrecordedtheimprint,oftenagainsthiswill,ofsocialistideasonhisconsciousness.Hedescribedhimselfasa "Socialistoftheheart"or,moreparadoxically,asan"individualSocialist."Nonetheless,hewasunwillingtocompromisehisartisticintegrityandunabletoacceptthe discipline,dogma,andpoliticalprioritiesoftheorganizedsocialistmassmovement.Thisstancewascomplicatedbyhisunequivocalsympathieswithsocialistgoalsand bytheperceptionofhimselfasamanoftheleft. DespitehisknowledgeofGermanculture,RomainRolland,likemostFrenchmenofhisgeneration,hadreadneitherMarxnorEngelsnortheearlyFrenchtranslations ofMarxistworks.49Hehadalsofallenoutwithinfluentialintellectualsocialists,mostnotablywithLucienHerr,thelibrarianattheEcoleNormale.Inarhetorical formulathatcrystallizedhispessimisticidealism,heprophesiedthat"Europewillbesocialistinahundredyears,oritwillnotbe."Typically,heconsideredFrench syndicalismamoreprofoundexpressionofthepopularwillthanparliamentarysocialism.Thesemiclandestineworkerunionsandcooperatives,withtheirhostilityto bourgeoispolitics,werea"formidablesubterraneanmovement."50 Intheperiod19001901,RomainRollandalignedhimselfwiththe"extremeleft"oftheFrenchSocialistParty.HeattendedsessionsattheChamberofDeputiesboth toobserveandcollectim

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pressionsofpeople'stheater:"ThePalaisBourbonwasthen,inmysense,thefirsttheaterofParis."HisfeelingstowardtheSocialistleader,JeanJaurs,werehighly ambivalent.TheSocialistPartyleadershipfurnishedadirectionandlenta"grandeur"tothecausethattherankandfilelackedbecauseoftheirinexperienceand immaturity.Notleastofall,heloathedthepoliticalenemiesofthesocialistsinFrance,associatingthemwiththeobsoletetyranniesandmindlesssuperstitionsofthe past.51 Neveronetotakehisrolelightly,heagonizedoverhisrelationshiptosocialism.Duringoneofthemostdifficultpersonalcrisesofhislife,thebreakupofhismarriage in1901,RomainRollandseriouslyconsideredaffiliatingwiththeFrenchSocialistParty.52Heresolvedthepoliticalquestionbyposingitinpsychologicalandaesthetic termsandbyplacingthedecisionwithinamoralframework.Socialismmightbeanecessaryingredientinconstructinganonalienatedandmodernsociety,butthe oceanicfeelingwasabsolutelyessentialinmaintainingafundamentalrespectforindividuals,artisticindependence,andapersonalsenseofjustice.Hisoceanicfeeling madehimasocialist,allowinghimtofeelbondedtotheFrenchworkingclass.Mostcontemporarysocialistsresistedsuchamysticalconstruct.Detachmentfrommass partiesallowedhimtoworkfortwoparallelgoals:thedemocratizationofFrenchcultureandtheethicalmissionofkeepingthe"divine"aliveinthesocialrevolution.He wouldaccomplishthefirstthroughthepeople'stheatermovementandthesecondthroughavoluntarycollaborationwithCharlesPguy'sCahiersdelaQuinzaine.53 Whatdistinguishedintellectualsympathizersfromsocialistswasmerelytherealmofthestruggle,nottheend:"Wepursueananalogoustask:theyinpoliticsandIin art."ForRomainRolland,Pguy'siconoclasticsocialistpositionbecamebothamodelandanideologicalalternativetomembershipintheSocialistParty.Heassumed thathecouldserveasanunrelentingcriticofcapitalistsocietyandbourgeoisculturewhilesimultaneouslyopposingSocialistabuses,sectarianism,andintolerance. RomainRolland'splayLe14juilletexpressedmostcomprehensivelythesocialpopulismoftheperiod.Intermsofhiscollectiveportraitofthepeopleandhis insistencethatthemassesthemselveswerefullyabletomaketheirownhistoryandforgetheirown

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destiny,itwasfarmoreadvancedinconceptionthaneitherLesLoups(1898)orDanton(1900). TheplaywrightsituatedthedramainParisatthecrucialmomentleadingtotheassaultontheBastille,consciouslysubordinatingtherolesoftheindividualcharacters andspokendialoguetotheheroicactionsofthemasses.Thepeoplebecamethedrama'skeyactorsandthebeneficiariesofthepopulartriumphattheconclusion.54 RomainRollandendowedthepeoplewithpositiveattributesinLe14juillet.Theycouldbedefiant,impetuous,enthusiastic,andfraternal.Theyweremotivatedby collectivepride,selfdefense,asenseofdecency,andtheawarenessthattheywereparticipatinginthefirststageofaglobaldramaoffreedom.Theywereunitedin theiroppositiontotheOldRegime.Certainmembersevenarticulatedaprimitiveclassconsciousnessconcerningthefuturespecifically,adistrustofthebourgeoisie. RomainRollanddemonstratedthatthetakingoftheBastillewasaspontaneousoutburstofmoralindignation,thatthepeoplewerecapableofactingalone,rapidlyand intelligently.Theroleofleaderswasconspicuouslysmall.Thosewhovilifiedthepeople(withsuchepithetsasscum,rabble,trash,vermin)representedtheforcesof thepast,whocapitulated,intheend,tothepeople'ssuperioridealismandforce.55 RomainRollandelevatedthestormingoftheBastilleintoaworldhistoricalstruggleagainstdarkness,oppression,bruteforce,andcenturiesofinequality.Theessence ofthecollectiveactivityofLe14juilletwasthe"heroismandfaith"ofthemasses,outofwhichwasbornmodernrepublicanism.Hesignificantlyreferredtothe peopleasthe"popularocean"ametaphorsuggestingtheirfraternity,vitality,vastness,andabovealltheircreativepossibilitiesformakinghistoryandseizingcontrol oftheirdestiny.Hedepictedtherevolutionariesof14July1789asmatureactivistsunitedtofightforjustice,riskingdisorderintheirresistancetooppression.Firedby theidealismofthisfirstactofcollectiveemancipation,modernaudienceswouldcompletethesocialandpoliticalworkthathadbeeninterruptedin1794.56 Theplayconcludedwithaspontaneouspeople'sfestival.Revolutionaryviolencegavewaytobacchanaliansong,dance,andprocession:"Thegeneralimpressionof theplaymustbethatofanationalpopularfestivalwhereallclassesfeelunited,andwhere

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theyarenotseparatedintothisorthatfaction."ForRomainRollandthe"conquestoffreedom"in1789reflectedtherationallypurposefulandvitalisticmassbehavior ofthepeople.57 <><><><><><><><><><><><> Inthespringof1902,aftertheclosingofLe14juillet,RomainRollandinauguratedaseriesofpubliclecturesattheEcoledesHautesEtudesSocialesonthehistory ofmusic,includingpapersonpopularmusicandmusicduringtheFrenchRevolution.58Thepracticalfailuresofthepeople'stheaterexperimentssuggestedthathis conceptmightbepremature.Asanidealistheworkedforvastculturalundertakingswithoutguaranteeofsuccess.Iftheyfailed,hestruggledagainstdespair,preferring togetonwithhisothercreativeendeavors.Heastutelysawthephilosophicalandpoliticallimitationsofhissociallyengagedexperiment.Intellectuals,however dclass,werenotmembersoftheworkingclass,norcouldtheyeasilyshedtheirmiddleclassbackgroundsandideologies.59 RomainRollandemergedastheprincipalfigureofthepopulartheatermovementhewasitsleadingjournalist,propagandist,dramacritic,populistplaywright, historian,andtheoretician.His1903manifesto,ThePeople'sTheater,summedupthemovement'stheoryandpracticeandproposedastrategyforqualitativeforms ofpopularcultureinFrance.Italsodemonstratedhisconsiderableabilitiesasawriterofmanifestosoneofthekeygenresofengagedliterature.ThePeople's Theaterwastheclimaxofpopulisttheatricalinnovationfortheyears18951904.Subtitledan"AestheticEssayforaNewTheater,"itspublicationinPguy's CahierscoincidedwiththeexistenceofsevenapparentlyviableFrenchventuresinpopulartheaterandheightenedexpectationsofstateormunicipalfundingforafull timeParisianpopulartheater.60 Theessaywasneitheracomprehensiveaestheticsystemnorablueprintforthepeople'stheater,butitsynthesizedsomeofthesignificantconceptsunderlyingthe perspectiveofsocialpopulism.WithoutusingMarxistvocabularyorreferringto"alienation,"RomainRollandshowedthattheworkingclasseswerebrutalizedbothby theappallingconditionsinwhichtheyworkedandbytheirlackofaccesstospirituallyenrichingformsofleisureandentertainment.Hiscritiqueofbourgeoissociety emphasizedthecultural

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fruitsofeconomicoppression.Heopposedthecapitalistsystemforperpetuatingahugegapbetweenthebeneficiariesandnonbeneficiariesofavariegatedculture. InRomainRolland'spositiveviewofthepopularmasses,theywerecapableofactingreasonablyandmaturely,withoutleaders.Theyhadoftenbeendefeatedand betrayed,buttheyhadalsowonimportantbattlesandweredestinedtobevictoriousinthedistantfuture.UnlikeMichelet'srelativelystaticconceptofthepeopleas exemplarsofgoodnatureanddevotion,RomainRolland'semphasizedtheircollectiveenergies,virtues,andpotentialforintellectualandpoliticaldevelopment.He contendedthatthemasseswerecorruptedbycivilization,inparticularbythemaniaforearning,consuming,andpleasureseekinginmodernurbancenters.61 Thepeople'stheatermovementhopedtoencouragemassparticipationbybringingthetheatertoworkingclassneighborhoods,drasticallyreducingadmissionprices, offeringcollectivesubscriptions,producingshowsofhighqualityandwidevarietymusicalconcertsaswellastheaterandbyconvertingthehallintoacommunity centerorhouseofculture.Thepeople'stheater,incontradistinctiontothechurch,school,ortownhall,wouldbecomethefocalpointofneighborhoodactivities. RomainRollandurgedhispartisanstousemodernpropagandatechniquessuchasnewspapers,posters,andpublicmeetingstopublicizethetheater.Heexpected butwasunabletomobilizewidescalecollectivesupportforthepeople'stheaterfromexistingpopulistandworkingclassassociations:unions,consumer cooperatives,socialistorganizations,andthepopularuniversities.62 Inthedistantfuture,RomainRollandenvisagedthepeople'stheaterasaninternational,secular,andhumanisticartformthatwouldcontributetothefoundationofa "newEurope."Howeverflexibleitsformorcontemporaryitscontent,hehopedthatthepeople'stheaterwouldremainrelativelysteadfastinitseducational objectivenamely,toraisetheconsciousnessofthepeople.63Adisciplinedeffortwasrequiredtoendtheculturalannihilationofthepeople'sclassidentity.A primitivelevelofclassconsciousnessresultedfromtheabsorptionoftheupwardlymobilebymiddleclassinstitutionsandvaluesandthepulverizationofthelower sectorsoftheworkingclassbyoverworkandextrememisery.Bothdevelopmentswerereinforcedbythestate'smo

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nopolyofculturalandeducationallife.Classprideandmemoryrepresentedthepeople'sonlyantidotestocollectiveassimilationormanipulation. Thisnotionofclassconsciousnessoperatedoutsidesocialistorpoliticalcategories.RomainRollanddidnotintendtoaggravateexistingsocialhostilitiesorto precipitateclassrevolt.Onthecontrary,headvocatedasocialpopulistversionofclassidentitythatwouldunitetheoftensectariananddividedheterogeneouspopular massesandsimultaneouslygenerateahealthymentalperspectiveamongthepeople.Classconsciousnesswasselfpreservative,adoubleedgeddefenseagainst ignorancefromwithinthelaboringmassesandexternalcontaminationbyacorruptedbourgeoissociety.64 RomainRollandonceremarkedthatwhatinterestedhimmostprofoundlyaboutthetheaterwasthe"dramaticsenseofthecrowds."65Thepeople'stheaterwas merelyaminiatureformofcollectiveactivity.Hisultimategoalwastosurpassthenarrowparametersofart,encompasstherealmofsocialpsychology,andcreatea moderncollectiveconsciousnessanewpopulistmentalit.Regularpopularfestivalswouldbethehighestexpressionofjoy,force,andintelligence.Thefestival wouldembraceallrealmsofciviclifeexceptcommerce,narrownationalism,andviolence.Themodernmassfestivalwouldapproximateanewkindof communitarianism.Therecouldbenohighertributetothepeople's"sovereignty"thanfestivalsthatheightenedthemasses'"consciousnessoftheirownpersonality."66 Yettherecouldbeneitheranetworkofpeople'stheatersinFrancenorpopularfestivalsunlessthereexistedahighlyselfconsciousandrevolutionarypeople.Sensing thatthepopularmassesthemselveshadtowinandexperienceequality,RomainRollandplacedtheresponsibilityforthestruggleforemancipationonthepeople.To democratizeFrance'sculturalrealm,itwouldbenecessaryforthepeopletoliberatethemselvesfromignorantbiasesandparochialdogmasaswellastoradically renovateFrance'sinstitutionsandsocialvalues.Populismwouldneverconquerculturalformsunlessitwerelinkedtoacriticalspirit.67 Althoughthepeople'stheatermovementproposedtocreatenewformsofpopularculturebyandforthepeople,itsdeeperorientationwastheformationofamodern culturalvanguard,con

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sistingofartistsandintellectualswhohadpartiallytranscendedtheirmiddleclassoriginsandideologies.Inreachingouttothepeopleandinrejectingmuchofwhat passedforbourgeoisculture,thesewriterswereactingassociallycommittedintellectuals.Consequently,theirconceptofpopularculturewasengag,presupposinga postureofprotesttowardpastandpresentformsofculture. RomainRollandasengagsocialpopulistwascaughtinanultimatelytragicbind:hebecameafellowtravelerofsocialistmassmovementswhilerefusingtomake majorconcessionsinhisart,inhislifestyle,orinthetheatricalfareofferedtothepeople.Hechosenottointegratetheavailableentertainmentsandspiritualcultureof thepeopleintotheartisticfabricofhisplaysorintohisaesthetictheories.Instead,heinvitedthepeopletojourneywithhimintotheimaginaryworldsoftheirheroic pastandtheirdignifiedandfestivefuture. Heplainlybelievedthatpopulistartistsandtheworkingclasspubliccouldmakethisvoyagetogetherandthatitwouldbemutuallybeneficial,butthetravelerswould notyetbeequalpartners.Heimpliedthattheculturalemancipationoftheworkerswouldultimatelybetheworkofthelaboringclassesthemselves.Butinthepresent, sociallyconsciousintellectualshadtopreparetheway,formulatethegoals,andignitetheculturaltransformation. <><><><><><><><><><><><> ThroughouthislifeRomainRollandsearchedforexemplaryguides.Hewasaninveterateheroworshiper.Hewasdrawntomale,nonFrench,artisticheroesofearlier ages.Hisfaithingeniusmergedwithhisartisticromanticismandhisoceanicreligiosity.Greatmenwerevast,unchartedcontinents.Toexploretheirlivesandworks wastocomeintointimatecontactwithmysteriousforcesofenergy,strength,andautonomy.Toknowanauthentichero,evenvicariously,wastocomeintocontact withaboundlesssourceofvitality.RomainRollandretainedasenseofwonderwhilecontemplatingthesegreatmenandtheirmasterpieces.Ifwerememberthathis ownfatherhadbeenrelativelyineffectualinlife,wecanspeculatethathisidealizationofheroeswasasearchforasurrogatefatheritmayhavealsobeenaprotection againsthisownpassivity,femininity,fragileandsicklynature,andpowerfultiestohismother.Identi

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ficationwithaherowasaconstructivewayoutofhisfrequentstateofdejection.Reflectingonthepastsofgreatartistsprovidedsolaceforhisinferiorityfeelingsand compensationformelancholiaandsocialisolation.Meditationontheherobecameapositiveoutlettochannelhissocialandpsychologicalresentments.He mythologizedgreatpersonalitiesintosourcesofspiritualnourishment,godlikepresences,orarchetypalforcesofnature.AshewrotetoHenrikIbsenin1894:

Greatmenaretreeswithprofoundrootsaroundthemthewindblowstherestofmenlikedeadleaves.Inthedisarrayofthehumanconsciousnessatpresent,inthedizzinessof thoughtthatoscillatesfromfrivolousskepticismtoinsipidmysticism,itisasalutaryspectaclethattheviewofaMan,ofapowerfulbeingwho,equaltoaforceofnature,carriesin himselfhislawandhisnecessityofbeing.Thatisacomfort.68

Geniusesradiatedstrength,willpower,andsinglemindedness.Theirintransigencecontrastedwiththemediocrityofspiritandcommercialismsonoticeablein everydaylife,includingthecompromisesofculturallife.Thefeelingofcontactwiththeartistgeniusrevitalizedhim.Hisidentificationwiththesefiguresfosteredthe fantasythathewasnotaloneinhis''sorrowandgrief."69 RomainRollandcomposedfivepreWorldWarIheroicbiographiesMillet(1902),ViedeBeethoven(1903),ViedeMichelAnge(1906),Handel(1910),and ViedeTolsto(1911).Heattemptedtomake"thesegreatsouls"knowntothegeneralpublic.Hisaim:toallowthe"commonman"aglimpseofthe"Eternal."70 Throughhisbiographicalmonographs,theyoungFrenchwriterhopedtotransferthepsychicenergiesofthegeniustothepublic.Thistransferwouldhaveregenerative power,rescuingtheeducatedmassesfromtorpor,mediocrity,andspiritualimpoverishment.Inaworldwithoutsecurityorthefoundationsofestablishedreligion,the artistsymbolizedhumanity'sdivinepossibilitiesandcapacitytoachievehumansplendor.This"greatman"theoryofhistorypositedthatthecreativegeniushadsacred value. IntheViedeBeethoven,RomainRollandperfectedthegenreofthepopularbiographicalessay.ItwaspartofalargerseriesofbiographiesentitledLivesof IllustriousMen.Intoxicatedbyhisfirstliterarysuccess(hewasthirtysevenyearsoldwhenthebookappeared),he

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imaginedhimselfa''newPlutarch,"whowouldproduceunendingcyclesofmodernlifehistoriesdocumentingcourage.71 TheViedeBeethovenwasalaboroflovetorepayapersonaldebttothecomposer.Becausethetextwaswrittenduringtheruptureofhisnineyearmarriage,ithad astrongsubjectivecomponent,atransferofamorousenergyfromhiswifetothegloryofBeethoven.Evocativeportraitureanddeftlyselectedbiographicaldatawere imaginativelywovenintoahistoricalsetting.Thetextwasunencumberedbyacademicscholarshiporthetechnicaljargonofmusicaltreatises.Tomakeartistic personalitiesandtheiroeuvrescomprehensibletothepopulation,RomainRollandwroteaccurate,linear,immenselyreadablehistoricalnarrativesthatresonatedwith thepublicwithoutpanderingtophilistinetasteandwithoutsensationalizingthesubjectmatter.BycastingBeethovenasaneoromantichero,andbyconstructinga "Beethovianreligion,"hemadetheGermancomposer'sintegrityandachievementpalpabletoaFrenchpublicthathaddevelopedanantipathytoallthingsGerman. TheauthorhadmasteredtheFrenchgenreofhautevulgarisationinaworkthatwasneitherhighnorvulgar.Hepopularizedwithouttrivializing.72 Ultimately,RomainRollandconceivedofthehero'slifeasaperpetualcombatagainstinternalenemies.Sincetheessentialterrainofstrugglewaspsychological,the battleswerewagedinsolitude.Beethoven'srenunciationofsocietyandphysicalpleasurewas"forthegoodofuniversalhumanityanddedicatedtotheunhappy."73By inference,theartistelevatedandconsoledthepublic,contributingtothesocialcommunityandtoposteritythroughhisworks.Thismeant,paradoxically,thathis excessiveselfabsorptionresembledtruegenerosityofthespirit.Artisticheroism,however,wasincompleteunlesscoupledwith"goodnessofheart"andagenuine commitmenttothecategoricalimperative.RomainRollandrejectedtheNietzscheanversionofselfovercomingascontemptuousofthemasses,glorifyingpower,and lackinginauthenticempathywiththedominatedinsociety.Beethoven'sheroismwastriumphantbecauseofitsresignedconquestofdespairanditsmoredemocratic conceptofjoy.Heacceptedthetragicvisionthattherecouldbeneithercharacter,faith,norbeautyunlesstheartistsufferedinlife.Miserable,inillhealth,painfully awareofhisownmartyrdom,Beethovenwasvulnerableyetwillingtofightagainsthis"physicaland

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moralgrief."Overcomingdeafnessbecameametaphorfortransformingphysicaldeficienciesintolastingculturalachievementandtranscendence.Thepersistent antagonismbetweentheindividualartistandhissocialexistence,hisheroismandhisoutcastsituation,givesrisetoenduringart.74 RomainRolland'sViedeTolstowaswrittenontheoccasionoftheRussianwriter'sdeath.InithepaidtributetoTolstoy'sseminalinfluenceasanartist,critic,and aboveallasanintellectualandmoralmodel.75Tolstoywasthekeypointofreferenceinhisearlyliteraryendeavorsandhisculturalpoliticalinterrogations.The TolstoymonographbeganapatternoflookingtotheEastforculturalstimulation.RollandfeltlinkedtoTolstoybytemperamentandbysharedcommonvalues:both implacablyopposedthebrutality,shallowness,andhypocrisythatpassedforcivilizedbehaviorbothdesiredtohavetheirartreachacrossclassbarriersandnational linesbothsoughtanartformthatwouldentertain,enlighten,andembraceallliteratepersons.76 Impelledtocommunicatedirectlywithlivingculturalheroes,youngRomainRollandhadwrittenTolstoyinquiringabouttheRussian'srepudiationofmodernart.Inhis letterofApril1887,thetwentyoneyearoldFrenchmanwonderedifTolstoyhadnotexaggeratedtheintrinsicimmoralityofart,whileoverestimatingthecleansing powerofmanuallaborandoflivingclosetotheearth."Don'tyouthink,"heaskedTolstoy,"thatartcouldhaveanimmenseroletoplay,eveninyourdoctrine,among thosepeoplewhodiefromthecomplexityoftheirfeelingsandfromtheexcessoftheircivilization?"77 MuchtoRomainRolland'sdelight,Tolstoyansweredhiscovertpleaforhelpwithaletterinhisownhand,inFrench,dated4October1887.Thesubstanceofthe letterwaslessimportantthanthefraternaltoneoftheresponse,andthefactthattheelderwriterhadtakenthetroubletoreply."Dearbrother!Ireceivedyourfirst letter.Ittouchedmyheart.Ireaditwithtearsinmyeyes."78 AlthoughhereveredtheRussianwriter,RomainRollandwasnotuncritical.HefoundTolstoy'sadvice"truthfulandhelpful"butrejectedhisfuzzyconceptual frameworkandthemoralausterityofhispropositions.Tolstoy,hefelt,wasinclinedtoimposehismoralgospelonhisartisticworks.RomainRollandwaslearningthat he

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couldnotdependonothers,heroesincluded,intheprojectofdevelopinganauthenticworldvisionandapersonalvoice.79 IndiscussingTolstoy'swritingstyle,RomainRollandrevealedhisownconceptofartisticcreation.HecalledTolstoythe"leastliteraryofwriters,"whosubordinated stylisticconsiderationstodelineationsofcharacterandideas,withoutforgettingthesymphoniccomplexityofsocialexistence. Tolstoy'sartbroughttogether"absolutesincerity,pitilessinsight,andindependenceofjudgment."80Fortheremainderofhislife,RomainRollanddeifiedcriticaland unfetteredthinking,whichhelinkedtoindividuallibertyandthefreedomtoconductresearchandtopublishresultswithoutexternalcensorship.Theprocessof discoveringandutteringthetruthrevealedthatonesystemofthought,nomatterhowscientificorrigorous,couldneverfullyencompassthetruth.Heremainedan iconoclasticpluralist,boundbynosingleschoolordefinitivemethod.Hehadnowishtobeperceivedasamasterthinkerwithacultofdisciples.81 RomainRollandconnectedTolstoy'santiinstitutionalreligiosityandhisadvocacyoftheGoldenRuletohisprotestagainstwarfareandhisnotionofaChristian nonresistancetoevil.Tolstoyhadsettheprecedentofamajorwriter'spubliclydeclaringhisoppositiontowar.82RomainRolland'sTolstoyismwasacrucialpointof departureforhisownbrandofantiwardissent,forhiselaborationofapacifistpoliticalphilosophyafter1919,andforhisreceptivitytoGandhismintheearly1920s. HeastutelyassessedTolstoyasa"revolutionaryconservative,"inthathisconceptofnonobediencetothestatechallengedestablishedinstitutionssuchastheczarist statehierarchy,thearmy,andthechurch.Tolstoy'spropagandaforconscientiousobjectionandhisrenunciationofwealthwereradicalnegationsintheRussian context.Hewasconservativeinhislackofsympathyforsocialistrevolutionariesorevenfordemocraticradicals.TolstoyralliedtoRussiandissidentsonlywhenthey weresavagelyrepressed.Aboveall,Tolstoyclaimedthateconomicmaterialismaddresseditselftopeople's"lowestneeds,"thusneglectingtheirspiritualneeds, conscience,andfeelingforhumanfellowship.Tolstoy'spreoccupationwiththetensionbetweenmoralrevolutionandsocialrevolutionwastopervadeRomain Rolland'sitineraryasanengagedintellectual.83

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AfterTolstoy'sdeath,RomainRollandimaginedthatthetorchhadbeenpassedontohim,bothasawriterandasaresponsibleintellectualwithaninternational reputation.HeappointedhimselfaEuropeanTolstoy,attemptingtodestroyidolsandtoseerealitywithmercilessinsightwhileremaininga"dreamerandloverof mankind."84RomainRollandmodernizedtheTolstoyantemperament,whilemaintainingTolstoy'sfundamentalvalues,senseofmission,openness,andlargenessof view. CharlesPguy,intheParisiancontext,wasanotherprototypefortheresponsibleintellectual,particularlyduringtheyears19001905.IntheyoungPguy,Romain Rollandfoundamanofpassionateandimplacableidealism,anarrestingblendofconscienceandintegrity.Pguyhadcharacter,acommitmenttopersonalhonor,in additiontoaphilosopher'sconcernforthetruth.Asearlyas1900,RomainRollandwasdrawntoPguy'sCahiersdelaQuinzaine.HeassociatedPguy's"cause" withasecularcrusadeagainsttheintellectualterrorismofmanyParisianculturalchapels.WritingfortheCahiersmeantworkingforculturalrenewal,andhededicated himselftoitferventlyandwithoutcompromisinghispessimisticidealism:"[Pguy]hasundertakentopurifythepublicsense,tofoundasocialRevolutiononareformof customsandofintelligencelikeMazziniandthegreatRevolutionaries."85 RomainRollandcontributedtotheCahiersbecauseofthewidelatitudeandeclecticspiritwithwhichPguyinfusedhisreview.Affiliationmeantneitherjoininga hermeticallysealedcoterienoridentifyingwithanarrowliterarysectorevanescentbutflashymovementsotypicalofParisianavantgardes.TheCahierspublished originalliteraryendeavors,openeditspagestoyoungwriters,andcombinedthoughtprovokingessayswithmuckrakingjournalism.Thereviewcutacrossseveral disciplinesandblurredtheboundarybetweenpoliticsandculture.Itspoliticswereleftwingbutindependent,anditeschewedallformsofdogma,includingthatofthe left.ItservedasanoutletformanyofRolland'screations,includingthecycleofFrenchrevolutionaryplays,hisearlybiographies,thefirsteditionofthenovelcycle JeanChristophe,andhisessaymanifestoThePeople'sTheater.TheCahiersalsoprotectedthepuritanicalRomainRollandfromthewhimsoffashion, commercialism,irreverence,andthesectarianspiritsorampantinParisianintellectualcirclesduringthe"BanquetYears."Mostofthesubscriberstothe

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Cahiers,estimatedatabouttwelvehundred,weretolerantandindependentintheirthinking.Manywereschoolteachersandmembersoftheliberalprofessions. WritingforPguy'sCahierswouldneverleadtocooptationorcelebritystatus.EditorPguydidnotinterferewithhisneedforsolitude.Althoughthetwonever developedanintimatefriendship,PguyhadhighesteemforRomainRolland,whorepaidhisdebttoPguylateinlifewithatwovolumebiographyofhisformer collaborator,editor,andmentor.FromPguy,RomainRollandgainedanintuitivegraspofthefrontierwherepoliticsandcultureconverged.Hewasdestinedtolive onthatfrontier.86 Pguywascommittedtopreservinganintegratedviewoftwentiethcenturyman.RomainRollandadmiredtheyoungerPguy'scourageouscampaigninfavorof DreyfusandhisaudaciousbreakwiththeopportunisticFrenchSocialistParty,inwhichheretainedhissocialistfaith.RomainRollanddepictedPguyasatoughand stubbornman,anoriginal,totallyescapingclassification.Pguydidnotmutehisidealismbyabdicatingpersonalresponsibilityorrefusingtotacklecontroversialor elusiveissues.ForbothPguyandRomainRolland,politicsandmysticismwerecompatible:theycouldbefused.RomainRollandfundamentallyagreedwithPguy's mottofortheCahiers,afelicitousmlangeofsocialistpoliticsandmysticism:"ThesocialRevolutionwillbemoral,oritwillnotbe."Hewasproudtobeaffiliatedwith Pguy'sreview."Itisthereforeanelite,lessintellectualthanmoral,andanavantgardeofSocietyonthemarchtowardnewformsofcivilization."87 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRolland'sprewarfictionalmasterpiece,JeanChristophe,waswrittenbetween1903and1912.ItwasserializedintheCahiersdelaQuinzaineand concurrentlyreleasedintenvolumesbytheParisianpublishinghouseofOllendorff.Hewrotemostofthenovelwhilelivingalone,deeplyisolated,inhisLeftBank apartmentat162,boulevardduMontparnasse.Theprocessofwritingwashisonlydeliveranceinajoylessandfriendlessperiod.Inthenovel,heexpressedhis extremeambivalencetowardfindesicleEuropeanculture.OneofthelongestbildungsromansinthecorpusofEuropeanliterature(thedefinitiveFrencheditionis 1,600pagestheEnglishtranslation1,580),JeanChristophetracedthe

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birth,development,conflicts,creativeresolution,maturation,anddeathofitscomposerhero.88 Fortheintellectualhistorian,JeanChristophecanbeconsideredthegreatEuropeannoveloftheprewarepoch.ItsthesiswasthatFrenchGermanreconciliationwas crucialbothforthesurvivalandrenewalofEuropeancultureandforthefoundationofastableEuropeanpeace.RomainRollandconceptualizedFranceandGermany astwopowerfulforceslivingonoppositesidesofariver.Theproblematicofthenovelwashowtowedthetwosides.Musicwastobridgetheriver,enablingeach culturetocompletetheother.IfEuropeansrealizedtheycouldchoosetointegrate,ratherthantoselectonesideandannihilatetheother,theresultingcultural productionmightbeabundant.FranceandGermanyweretwocivilizationsthatmingledinthesamestream.Unionwouldpermiteachnationtomaintainitsbalanceand politicalequilibriumwhileabsorbingforeignenergiesandperspectives.Culturalinterpenetrationwasvastlypreferabletomilitarypreparationsandimperialisticrivalries. Itwasmusic,muchmorethanliterature,thatbrokedownnationalbarriersandrestoredhealth,joy,solace,strength,andhopetohumanity.89 TheheroChristophecomposedmusicembracingthenationalcharactersofbothFranceandGermany.RomainRollandmadeChristopheaGerman,inorderto exploreFrenchattitudesandvaluesfromanostensiblynonFrenchorientation.Christophe'smusicmediatedbetweenbothcivilizationsbydiscountingthebarriersto interpenetrationasartificialandbyemphasizingthebasicsimilaritiesbetweenthetwocultures:commonideas,commontasks,andacommonmoralfrontier.This blatantlyidealisticnovelofEuropeanharmonyposedtwofrightening,realisticwarnings:IftheFrenchandtheGermansdidnotcollaborateonthegreatprojectsofthe presentandthefuture,culturemightbeseverelyrupturedorevendestroyed.Iftheyfailedtoestablisharapprochement,worldwarmightbeunleashed.90 AsanartistintheBeethovianlineage,Christopheexpressedhisworldvisionthroughtheuniversalartformofmusic.LivinginexileinParisfreedhimfromthe oppressivenatureofGermanfamilylifeandfromGermany'shierarchical,authoritarianculturalandsociallife.InParis,heremaineddistinctlyGermaninappearance, accent,taste,andsensibility,alwaysanoutsidertothemain

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streamofFrenchartisticlife.Hetotallyrejectedthebasictenetsandpracticesofmodernismascowardly,decadent,immoral,andoverlyaesthetic.Heresistedthe infighting,snobbishness,ideologicalpolarities,andintellectualterrorismoftheParisianavantgarde.RomainRollanddepictedChristopheasamanofforceandvitality. YethewasnoovermaninthesenseoftheNietzscheanwarrior.HewasagentleNietzscheanwhostruggledtoovercomeinternalinterferencesincreativeexpression.

91

Christophe'sarttranscendedspatial,temporal,andinstitutionalboundaries.Heintuitivelysearchedforthetotality,motivatedbyanethicalimperative"tosee,toknow, tofeel,tolove,andtograspeverything."Thehighestfreedomwasthefreedomtocreate,andtocreatehewasobligedtospendmostofhistimeinsolitude. Foreshadowingtheextendedexileofthenovelist,ChristophemovedtoSwitzerlandinorder"tostandaboveEurope."InSwitzerland,hebreathedbetter,remainedin contactwithelementalforces,andexperimentedwithamodelforapotentiallyunitedEurope.ThematureChristophebecameanincarnationofa"moralforce,"his music"irradiatedlife''andsetaloftyexampleforotherstoemulate.Christophe'sartwastrulyuniversal:itaimedforcommunionwithothermenitsenergieswereall embracing.92 RomainRollandsplithisvoiceinthenovelbetweentwocentralcharacters:ChristopheandOlivierJeannin.OliviernotonlybecameChristophe'sloyalanddevoted comradebutalsorepresentedthefindesicleFrenchidealistintellectual.WhereasChristophewascandidandunsophisticated,Olivierwascosmopolitantothecore andexcessivelycomplicated.Thenovelclearlyhelpedtopopularizetheword"intellectual."ItalsoevokedtheinternalambiguitiesofFrenchintellectuallife.Olivier cametostandforauthentic,asopposedtodilettantish,formsofintellectuality.ThroughOlivier,thenovelistlaunchedacomprehensivecritiqueoftheParisiancultural marketplace(LaFoiresurlaplace).WhatsettheretiringandsensitiveOlivierapartfromhispeerswashispsychologicalunderstandingandhisabsorptionofavast EuropeancultureinformedbynonFrenchsources.Hisformofintellectualinquirywassincerelyinternationalist.Hewasfrequently"overwhelmed"byexamplesof injusticeandsufferedinordinatelyfortheoutcastandhumiliatedinsociety.Havingknownpersonalinjuryandhavingbeenvictimizedhimself,heexpressed"generous sympathy"forotherslessfortunateorless

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verbalthanhimself.Yettherewassomethingdesiccated,remote,andaristocraticabouthim.Afteryearsofstudy,Olivier'sanalyticaldetachment,his"loftyoutlook," andhisabilitytojudgepeoplewithoutillusionsmadehiminaccessible.LikeChristophe,helivedasolitaryexistence,removedfromanyviableformofcollective association.Havingacquiredhisindividualismaftergreatinternalstruggle,Olivierhated,perhapsfeared,the"herd"mentalityinintellectualgroupsorpolitical movements.93 Becauseofhisprecariousmentalstability,obsessiveruminations,skepticism,andselfdoubt,Olivierneverlinkedthoughttopractice.Hebecametheparadigmfor RomainRolland'sfreespirit,theintellectualwholiberatedhimselffromreligious,political,national,orartisticdogma.Heemancipatedhimselffromtheparochialsideof Parisianintellectuallifebutwasstillcatalyzedbythepassionatedebatesandtheenthrallinglifeofthemindinthatgreatcity.Olivier'sstrengthandhealthwerecerebral. HewasaParisianintellectualwho"abhorred"Parisianintellectualcoterieswhilespeakingtheiridiom.He"dreaded"militantpoliticalaction,yetironicallyhedied fightingfortheFrenchworkingclassonthebarricadesinthestreetsofParis.Asanintellectualfreedfromtheparochialismofpoliticalparties,academies,organized churches,andcompetingintellectualcliques,Olivierrefusedtosanctionanyexpressionofnationalisthatred,justasheopposedsocial,ethnic,orclassinjustice.He remained"justtohisenemies,"hopingtopreserve''theclarityofhisvision"inthemidstofviolenceandchaos.RealizingthatEuropehoveredonthebrinkofsocial revolutionorworldwar,Olivierwasintransigentonbasicmoralquestions.Ifworldwarweretobedeclared,hewouldhaverefusedtoparticipateinitortolegitimize itinanyway.Anticipatingthestanceofthenovelisthimself,Olivierwouldcallfor"loveandunderstanding"ifhostilitieswereunleashed,whileattemptingtokeephis ''reasonuncontaminated."94 JeanChristophecelebratedthegrandioseethicalandsocialpossibilitiesofart.Itarguedthattheideaofmoralfrontiersbetweennationswasshallowandabsurd.It attemptedtofillthevoidleftbythedeathofGodandthedeclineoforganizedreligioninthelatenineteenthcentury.TheBeethoviancultofheroismwasofferedasan alternativetotheneurastheniaanddoubtsaturatingEuropeanartandthought.Theauthenticcultureherocouldserveasanideal.Trulyepicliteraturehadtobe addressedtoallpeopleintheirown

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languages.RomainRollandcontributedJeanChristophetothehealingofEuropeanfragmentationandthegapopenedbythedeclineinspiritualityandlossoffaithin humantranscendence.JeanChristophewasdesignedtobe"acommonbookforallofEurope."Theresponsibleartistdidnotaddressatiny,privilegedminorityof refinedsensibilities,butendeavored"tothinkandtowriteforall."95 TheenormouspopularityofJeanChristophedecisivelychangedRomainRolland'slife.Thenoveldevelopedanenthusiasticcultofreaders,inspiredbythe characters,thestory,andthethoughtfulandeffusiveidealism.Perhapsupuntil1945,amultitudeofreadersregardedJeanChristopheasatrustedcompanionand sourceofspiritualnourishment.Parentspassedthebookontotheirchildren.Astheauthorofaclassicrecognizedinhisownday,Rollandwasnolongeranobscure teacherofthehistoryofmusicattheSorbonneorareclusiveLeftBankartist.ThesuccessofJeanChristophe,bothinFranceandinthemanycountriesinwhichit wastranslated,madeRomainRollandfinanciallyindependentfortheremainderofhislife.Hecouldnowwritewhathewantedandpublishhiswritingsalmostwhere hepleased.HehadbeenonleavefromtheSorbonnesince1910heofficiallyresignedinJuly1912.HewontheprestigiousGrandPrixdeLittraturefromthe AcadmieFranaiseon9June1913.TheFrenchhavealongtraditionofhonoringtheirnovelists.Characteristically,RomainRollanddenigratedtheliteraryaward: "Thehellwithalltheseprizes!"HeandhisworkbecamesourcesofdiscussionandcontroversyintheFrenchliterarycommunity.Hisnameandfacebecamefamiliarto theFrenchpublic.Theentirenovelwaswidelytranslated.Forthemostpart,itwasextensivelyandfavorablyreviewed,althoughliterarymodernistsfoundithopelessly anachronisticandnineteenthcenturyinform.96RomainRolland'sreputationwasthatofaFrenchmanwhohadhumanitariansympathies,internationalistperspectives, andanempathicbutcriticalunderstandingofGermany. HavingearnedthesolidbaseofauthorityandcredibilitylackinginhiscampaignfortheFrenchpeople'stheater,hewasnowpreparedtoengagehimselfinintellectual andpoliticalbattles.

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3 AbovetheBattle
ForPeaceisnotmereabsenceofwar,butitisavirtuethatspringsfromforceofcharacter. Spinoza,APoliticalTreatise

RomainRollandwasdisengagedduringtheDreyfusAffairandpartiallyengagedduringthecampaignforapeople'stheater.HisactivitiesduringtheGreatWarmarked anotherstageofhisentranceintothepoliticalarena. Justbeforethedeclarationofwar,RomainRollandwasintransition.Heconceivedofanallianceofinternationalwriters,clusteredaroundareview,thatwouldleada "crusadeagainstwormeatenliterary,moral,andsocialdogmas,againsttheliesofournations."Intellectualcollaborationwouldalsohaveapositivethrust:"These smallfraternalarmieswouldstruggleforarenewaloflifeandofthought."1 Againsttheracialandmilitaristicexcessesofthosewithfixednationalistideas,exemplified byActionFranaisewritersBourget,Barrs,Maurras,Bazin,andPrvost,hecalledforafusionofidealisticthoughtandrealisticaction.Hisengagementwas predicatedonbothacriticalanalysisofthepresentandacapacitytoact.2 RomainRollandincreasinglydisassociatedhimselffromPguy'sbrandofnationalismandCatholicrevival.Pguycouldnolongerbecountedontogivedirectiontoan internationaljournal."IdonothaveworseenemiesthanthenewfriendsofPguy."Torecruitintellectuals,thecrucialcriterionofthereviewmustbethatitenlarged freedomofthemind.Onehadtobestrictaboutmembershipinsuchanassociationoffreethinkers.AlthoughheappreciatedAndrGide'stalent,RomainRolland wouldexcludehim.Gidewasagreatdilettantehisintelligencewasprimarily"critical,contemplative,andstatic."3 RomainRollandhadbrieftieswiththeItalianjournalLaVoce,publishedinFlorenceunderthedirectionofGiuseppePrezzolini,

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GaetanoSalvemini,andGiovanniPapini.UnlikemostFrenchwritersofhisgeneration,hewasencouragedbythenewdevelopmentsinItalianculturallife.Histwo yearfellowshipinRome,18891891,taughthimtolovetheItalianpeople,landscape,language,andartisticandmusicalsensibility.LaVocearticulatedacourageous andvitalpanEuropeanvisionthatincisivelyaddressedsocialquestionsandpositioneditselfattheinterfaceofwritingandpolitics.4 OntheeveofWorldWarI,RomainRollandseriouslyentertainedtheideaofinauguratinganinternationalreview.Hehopedtounitewritersofdistinctionfromall EuropearoundaculturalconceptionofEuropeancommunity.HewasindirectcontactwithsuchfiguresasLonBazalgette,H.G.Wells,RainerMariaRilke,Stefan Zweig,JeanRichardBloch,andEmileVerhaeren.5 Thewartemporarilypostponedhisdreamofintellectualfraternityitdidnotentirelyshatterit.Afterthewar,in 1919,andagaininthe1930s,hereturnedtohisprojectofrecruitinganinternationaleliteofprincipled,nonpartyaffiliatedthinkerswhowouldstandforindependence andmutualunderstandingbetweencultures.RomainRolland'soceanicideaofintellectualfraternityhisbeliefthatunitedvoicesswayedpublicopinionmorethan solitaryvoicespredatedthewar.Itbecamealeitmotivinhiscareerasanengagedwriter. WhentheGreatWarwasdeclaredon3August1914,RomainRollandwasfortyeight,toooldtobeconscripted.HeremainedinselfimposedexileinSwitzerland throughoutthewaryears.ThoughthisisthemostwelldocumentedperiodoftheFrenchwriter'slife,itisstillsubjecttoavarietyofinterpretations.Themeaningofhis activitieshasbeenobscuredbytheultimatelyambiguousconnotationofthewords"AbovetheBattle"(Audessusdelamle),thetitleofRomainRolland'sbest knownessayandsubsequentlyofacollectionofwritingsfromtheperiod19141915.Fromthesummerof1914untilhisdeath,hisnameandintellectualpolitics wouldbeassociatedwiththatphrase.6 AbovetheBattlecontainedsixteenarticles,primarilyopenletters,essays,appeals,manifestos,literarycriticism,andpoliticaljournalism.Thesepiecesaddressedthe lossofgoodsensebyalltheparticipantsinthemassslaughterofWorldWarI.Despitethedetachment,neutrality,superiority,anddistanceimpliedbytheword "above,"RomainRollandwasprofoundlytouchedbyallaspectsofthewar.Thesourcesdispelanydoubtabouthisthoughtful,subjec

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tiveinvolvement.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromtheoceanicfeelingthantherealityoftotalwar.Helamentedthedestructionofreasonandtheabandonmentofcritical judgment,whichwereearlyandseriouscasualties.IfEuropeweretoavoidfurtherholocausts,reasonedjudgmenthadtoberestored.Tobeginthatprocessafew isolatedvoicesmustbeheard.7 ForRomainRolland,Europeanwarmeantcivilwar,theunnecessarybutdeadlyduelbetweenmisguidedbrothers,exacerbatedbythedeploymentofnewscientific andtechnologicalweaponry.IntheinternationalaswellastheFrenchcontext,whereforceconfrontedforceonthemostprimitivelevelimaginable,hissituationasa writerbecameanomalous.Hedepartedfromthealmostuniversalcapitulationofwriters,philosophers,scientists,andacademicstothewareffort,regardlessoftheir prewarideologicalpositionsorofnationality,regionality,class,generation,orgender.Everyonewantedwarandralliedtothewareffortinthefirstmonthsof mobilization.Thisbellicositywasstrikinglyevidentamongsocialists,syndicalists,pacifists,andreligiousleaders,whohadbeenvociferouslyantiwarinpeacetime. Duringthewaritself,veryfewwereheardeithertoopposeitortoraisequestionsaboutit.8 AbovetheBattlewasRomainRolland'srefusaltobendtotheconsiderablepressuresofthehistoricalmoment,includingthemassuncriticalsupportforthe"Sacred Union."HechallengedthesacrednessoftheSacredUnion,aswellasthenotionofunityinwar.Hiscallfortherestorationofsanityonallsidesofthetrenches disruptedtheunprecedentedunanimityinfavorofwar.Byliftingtheveilofconsensus,heprovidedEuropeanswithanotherperspectiveontheseeventsbesides nationalismanexample,ifonlymoralatfirst,ofhowtoopposethewarcolossus.Hearguedthatamindlessandpretentiouscollusionwiththewareffortintensified thecatastrophe.Thevirulentintellectualcounteroffensiveclearlyshowedthathiswritingstouchedasensitivenerve.9 RomainRolland'swarcriticismderivednotfromsocioeconomicanalysisbutfromthevantagepointoftheindignantmoralist.Hiswritingsunmaskedtheways intellectualsenlistedtheirlearningandtheirimaginationsintheefforttolegitimizethewar.Hespokeoutagainstthewarpreciselybecauseoftheunexpected,neartotal collapseofmovementsorganizedtopreventwarsoratleastto

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keepwarcircumscribed.HewasnotsurprisedbyinstitutionalChristianity'sdirectsponsorshipofthemilitaryeffort,buthewasperplexedbytherapidandalmost completebreakdownoftheSocialistInternational.HewasshakenbytheassassinationofJeanJaurs,amonumentalfigureintheSecondInternational,whomight havebecomeanantiwarleaderandspokesman.10Herefusedtoallowhisintelligenceandoceanicsensibilitytobemobilizedin1914orintheyearsthereafter.11 Hewassensitivetothescopeofdestructionbutdidnotforgetthesmallertragediesinthelivesofthesoldiersfightinganddyingontheirrespectivefronts.The incantatoryopeningof"AbovetheBattle"conveyedatendersorrowfortheyoungsheddingtheirbloodgenerouslybutuselessly:

Comeletusmakeastand!Canwenotresistthiscontagion,whateveritsnatureandvirulencebewhethermoralepidemicorcosmicforce?Dowenotfightagainsttheplague, andstruggleeventorepairthedisastercausedbyanearthquake?...No!LoveofmycountrydoesnotdemandthatIhateandkillthosenobleandfaithfulsoulswhoalsolove theirs,butratherthatIshouldhonorthemandseektounitewiththemandforourcommongood.12

Therewasanapparentparadoxinhiscallingfortemperatenessandcompassioninthemidstofthemostfuriousandbarbaricofpassions.RomainRolland'stactful moderationrequiredthathecontrolhisownfeelingsofmoralrepugnanceforthewar.Inacontextmarkedbyfreneticexpressionsofhatred,nationalisticdiatribes,and racialexcesses,hiswritingssuggestedthatlove,cooperation,andempathicunderstandingwerepossibilitiesunextinguishedbythehostilities.Hisselfrestraintandfaith intheunityofmankindstoodinstarkcontrasttotheverbiageextollingtheinherentsuperiorityofonecivilizationoveranother.Heappealedtointellectuals,whose learningandcriticalmethodshouldhavemadethemimmunetonationalismandmilitarism,butwhohadbeenthemosteasilysweptawaybyxenophobiaandprimal imperialisticemotions.Hehadnoillusionsabouthisabilitytoconvinceothers,breakthroughthedarknessofcensorship,orcalmtheubiquitousferocityofmurderous rage:"Iknowthatsuchthoughtshavelittlechanceofbeingheardtoday."13 Inattackingtheunanimityofwarsupport,RomainRollandrec

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ognizedWorldWarI'smodernity.Aprolongedandsavagewarrequiredawellorchestratedideologicalreinforcementtomaintainnationalunity,highmorale,andthe willtofight,techniquesofmasspersuasionandmanipulationwereemployed.Theculturalsectorbecameaninvaluablecollaboratorbecauseofitsspecialabilityto jugglewordsandideas.Languagewasdenaturedintheattempttojustifytheimmensityoftheviolenceandsacrifice,allsanctifiedinthenameofpatrioticprinciples.14 RomainRollandinsistedthatthemanufacturersofwarmongeringrhetoricwerehypocriticalandnihilistic.Herefusedtorecognizeanymetaphysicalormetalinguistic legitimacyforwar.Heorganizedhisprotestsaroundthiskeyperception:thatintellectuals,publicofficials,journalists,laborleaders,andclergyhaddeepenedthe murderouspassionsofthewarandthusperpetuatedtheconflagration.Theynotonlyunderminedthepossibilityofacompromisepeace,butpreparedthegroundfor futurebloodshed.15 IntellectualshadbetrayedtheirfunctionasguardiansofEuropeanculture,preserversofknowledge.TheGreatWar,RomainRollandpredicted,wouldbe rememberedasthewaroftheintellectuals:"Theintellectualsonbothsideshavebeensomuchinevidencesincethebeginningofthewar,theyhave,indeed,brought somuchviolenceandpassiontobearuponitthatitmightalmostbecalledtheirwar."16Theresponsibleintellectualshouldmeetthechallengeofwarbyretaininghis commitmenttosocialjusticeandunderstandingofothers,byrefusingtocirculatedistortionsandpartialtruths,andaboveallbyrejectinganypositiongroundedin hatredandcruelty.GeneralizingfromhisownassociationwiththeInternationalRedCross,providingaidtoprisonersofwar,RomainRollanddemonstratedthat meaningfulhumanitarianworkwaspossibleinthemidstofcombat.Anidealistwithoutillusions,headmittedthat"wecannotstopthewar,butwecanmakeitless bitter."17 Heexhortedintellectualstousetheliberatingelementsoftheirculturalandhistoricallegacies,neversubordinatingthemselvestolegalistic,military,orgovernmental authorities.Againstthefrighteningspectacleofthe"militarizationoftheintellect,"morepronouncedinGermanybutinsidiouslypresentinFrance,heurgedintellectuals topracticeantiwarprotest,aimedatciviliansbehindthelines,whoconstitutedpublicopinion.Theapparentmonolithofwarenthusiasmwasnotuniversallysolid. Thoughthegovern

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mentsmonopolizedthemedia,thougharticulatevoicesrefusedtospeakout,RomainRollandintendedtomakedissentingideasaccessibletothepublic.18 RomainRolland'sidealintellectualservedasamoralguideespeciallytountutoredyouthandtomisguidedintellectuals.Thecriticaltaskwastoseerealityclearlyand tomaintainahumaneperspectiveonallthecombatants.Warresistancemighttaxinternalresources,buttheantiwarthinkerdidnotpermitemotionalbiases,personal preoccupations,orpoliticalallegiancestodistortreality.Theintellectualliberatedbycontestinganddissolvingallformsofcultworship.Idolssuchaspatriotismand nationalhonorwereamalgamsoftheirrationalandmediocre,servedbyconformismandtheblindacceptanceofauthority.Topreventintellectualsfromfurther fetishizingthenation,afewmustillustratethatanoppositiontosuchgrotesqueanddisorientingformsofdevotioncouldbemounted.19 Worldwardemandedthatthinkersdemonstratethefullnessoftheircharacters.Resistancetowar,groundedinanalyticunderstandingandtherefusalofcollective murder,becamecentralinthemodernintellectual'sscaleofvalues.Withoutitaninsanechauvinismwouldprevail.20 TheAbovetheBattlearticleslaunchedacareerofhereticalintercessionsaroundthequestionofhowtopreventwar.Thesubstanceofthesewritingscontradictedthe regrettableassociationsoftheword"above."RomainRolland'smessageshouldnotbemisconstruedasobjectivity,aloofness,insensitivity,orselfrighteousness. AbovetheBattle,contextually,wasanactiveformofengagement,directlyaddressingtheallpervasiveatmosphereofmassacreinEurope.Composedattheheight ofhispopularity,thesepiecestransformedthepublic'sperceptionofhim.Hebecametheproverbialintellectualtraitor.Hisnamewasbanishedfromtheliterarypress. Manyparentsforbadetheirchildrentoreadhistexts.Inmonths,thedarlingoftheFrenchliteraryleftandthecultivatedpublicbecameapariah.Hewasaccusedof theultimatetreasonthebetrayalofFranceatthehourofitsgreatesttrial.Heopposedthewaratgreatrisktohislife,hisreputation,andhisfutureinfluenceasaman ofletters.After1914hisworksweremisrepresentedandslanderedbecauseofthisopposition.Fortheremainderofhislife,opponentswouldattackRomainRolland adhominembyinvokingtheslogan"abovethebattle."21

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TherewasaneighteenmonthinterimbetweenhislastpublicstatementinAbovetheBattleandhisfirstjournalisticpieceinlate1916.Afterbeingactivelyengaged,he disengagedandenteredaperiodofintrospectivemeditation.Thecombinedpressureofhisisolation,viciousattacksfromFranceandGermany,andthedesertionof respectedfriendspromptedhimtoreevaluatehisposition.On9November1916,theSwedishAcademyawardedhimtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturefor1915.The NobelPrizesymbolicallylegitimizedhishumanitarianantiwarstanceandwaswidelyregardedbyEuropeansasasurrogatePeacePrize.RomainRolland'sname reverberatedinternationally.HewasirritatedaboutbeingawardedtheNobelPrize,whichmightinjurehisclaimofindependenceandinterferewithhisneedfor solitude.22 In1914and1915,RomainRollandhadaprepoliticalconsciousness.Ifthewareducatedhim,opposingthewargraduallypoliticizedhim.Hiswritingsbegantostir people,andfrom1916to1919hewasapointofreferenceforantiwaropinioninEurope,America,andtheworld.Afterstudyingdocumentsonthewar,heasked searchingquestionsaboutitscausesanditsconsequences.Selfexaminationandthedictatesofconsciencegavewaytomorepoliticalandideologicalconsiderations. Hereluctantlyrealizedthathisowngenerousfeelingshadbecomedangerousandthatacquiescenceinamurderousatmospherewasimpossible.Hearguedthatthe realresponsibilityforthewarlaynotwithEuropeanleadersofstate,butratherwiththefinancialandindustrialoligarchywhoreapedhugeprofitsfromthehostilities. Eventually,hisoutrageatthecontinuationofthewarfueledamajorcritiqueofEuropeancapitalismanditscomplicitywiththepoliticalreaction.Heconnectedthese developmentstotheworldwidepoliciesofimperialism.RomainRollandabandonedhisEurocentricworldviewduringthewarandbecameincreasinglyreceptiveto nonEuropeancivilizationsandtheemergingmovementsofnationalliberationindevelopingareas.23 DuringtheearlyyearsoftheGreatWar,itwasdifficulttodistinguishhisantiwarsentimentsfromtheantimilitarismofminoritySocialistsandsyndicalistsinFrance. RomainRolland'srelationswithcertainSocialistandsyndicalistjournalistsweremoreoftenprecariousthancomradelyhedisagreedwiththeiradvocacyof

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classstruggleanddesiretoseeaviolentsocialistrevolutionemanatefromtheglobalwar.24 RomainRolland'srelationshipwithHenriGuilbeauxillustratedthetenuousnessofhisconnectiontotherevolutionaryleftZimmerwaldiansandunderscoredthepolitical limitsofhisantiwardissent.ToavoidhavinghisnamecompromisedorhisthoughtannexedbyGuilbeaux,RomainRollandseparatedhisvisionfromthatofthe revolutionarysocialists.SeparationwascomplicatedbythefactthathepublishedinGuilbeaux'sjournal.HeadmiredGuilbeaux'scourage,talent,andloyaltybut disapprovedofhisexcessivelypolemicaltone.EspeciallyhedeploredGuilbeaux'seffortstotransformDemain,theGenevaperiodicalheeditedfrom1916to1918, intoaleadingpropagandaorganfortheBolshevikwingoftheRussiansocialistsexiledinSwitzerland.ThroughGuilbeaux,RomainRollandbecameperipherally associatedwiththegreatrevolutionaryadventuresoontobegininRussia.BeforereturningtoRussiainhissealedcar,LenintelegrammedGuilbeauxto"bringRomain Rollandifheagreesonprinciple."Obviously,RomainRollanddisagreedwithBolshevikprinciplesatthatmoment.DespiteeffortstolinkhimwiththeRussian revolutionaries,heremainedunenlisted,asympatheticbutcriticaloutsider.25 DuringtheGreatWar,hetendedtodrawculturalandmoralconclusionsfromhisownpublicpositions.Iftherewereimplicitpoliticsinhismessagetheywerereformist andpacifist.YethistextscogentlycriticizedthesocialconditionsofadecayingEuropeansocietyandwereoftenaccompaniedbyangrydenunciationsofthepolitical andeducatedelite.HiswritingsechoedamongthetinypocketsofsocialistsandrevolutionarysyndicaliststhroughoutEurope.RomainRolland'sthemesmade membersoftheVieouvriregroup,inFrance,consciousthatpoliticalactionwaspossible.InveterateEuropeanrevolutionariesreadhimforspiritualaswellas politicalsustenance.26RosaLuxemburg'slettertoLuiseKautsky,writtenwhileLuxemburgwasimprisonedinBreslaujail,isapoignantexample:
Itoolearnedtolovehim(RomainRolland)andsuggestedtoHannesthatweeithertraveltoParistogethertomakeR.R.'sacquaintance,orelseinvitehimtocometoGermany. Afterall,welivebutonceandgoodmenofthiscaliberarefewandfarbetweenwhyshould

Page46 weforgotheluxuryofknowingthemandseekingspiritualcontactwiththem?...Shallwenotcarrythisideaout,''Godwilling?''
27

Lenin,livinginexileinSwitzerland,expresseduneasinessthataBolshevikcomradehadnotreceivedRomainRolland'sarticles:hevolunteeredtogotothelibraryto makeexactcopiesofthetexts.EvenBolsheviks,whodisagreedwithhisantiwarposition,foundRomainRolland'swritingsilluminatingonthemassiveupheavals createdbythewar.Duringtheentirepostwarperiod,RomainRollandwasinvokedasasymbolofintellectualoppositiontowarbycommunists,syndicalists,and revolutionarysocialistsofmanynations,notjustFrance.28 ThethreattoindividualconscienceandintellectualresponsibilitykeptRomainRollandfromacceptingmasspoliticalmovementsontheleftastheexclusiveagentsof progressivesocialchange.HefearedthatasocialrevolutionaftertheGreatWarwouldleadtogravedistortions.Hewithheldsupportfromrevolutionarymovements inWesternorcentralEuropebecausetheylackedleadership,organization,discipline,andanappropriatesenseoftiming:itwouldbeprematuretounleasha revolutionaryoffensiveonanexhaustedEurope.Revolutionwouldinevitablydegenerateintoafailure,ajacquerieitwouldtriggeraviolentrepression.Hestruggled toarticulateanautonomousantiwarvisionbasedonthedictatesofconscience.Histhoughtwasnottobeexpropriatedbythosewithapoliticalorideologicalaxto grind.29 RomainRolland'sstancewasessentiallyhumanitarian,charitable,Christian,andapolitical.Hedesignedhiswritingstodestroythefallaciousjustificationofthewar,to demystifyallidealizationofmilitaryglory,andtosignalhisdisapprovaloftheconsensusmentality.Indoingso,hetransformedthecontentandstyleofintellectual commitment,popularizedbyZoladuringtheDreyfusAffair,intoaninstrumentofantiwareducationandresistancetothewarlikepoliciesofthestate.Hisperspective wasmilitantlyinternationalandcosmopolitan.Hispublicstatementsweretypifiedbyaspiritoftoleranceandfairness,aconcernforaccuracyanddocumentation,and bythewishtodiffusetheclimateoffuryandparanoiaonbothsidesofthetrenches.Inaclimateofwarpsychosis,hespokethelanguageofsoundjudgment, unfetteredintel

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lect,andcompassion.HisoppositiontothedehumanizingandhypnoticmasseffectsoftheGreatWar,heclaimed,wouldbevindicatedbyhistory.30 RomainRollandhadnoillusionsaboutthepracticalefficacyofhisstandorhispowertoalleviatesufferingeitherathomeoronthefronts.Hiswordswerereligious actsthatwouldnotaltertheshapeofthewar.Hespokeouttobeatpeacewithhimselfandhisconscienceandtobetruetohisownoceanicsensibility.Afterthewar, heexpectedtoberegardedbyaminorityofleftwingandprogressivepublicopinionasanexampleofhumbleheroism,intellectualindependence,andmoral intransigence.Hisnamemightremindtheyoungandidealisticthatitwaspossibletorefusewar.31 Intheperiod19171919,RomainRollandagainplayedwiththeideaofafraternalorganizationofintellectuals,an"intellectual'sinternational"ofthinkerswhohadnot capitulatedtowarpropaganda,buthadhonoredthecommitmenttofreeandopeninquiry,pursuitofthetruth,andrigorouslogic.Theintellectualofconsciencewas theheraldofahumanitariansocietyinthefuture.RomainRolland'shonorroleofpotentialmembersincludedBertrandRussell,E.D.Morel,NormanAngell,Israel Zangwill,GeorgeBernardShaw,H.G.Wells,HenriBarbusse,MarcelMartinet,P.J.Jouve,MaximGorky,MaxEastman,JohnReed,G.F.Nicolai,AugustForel, AlbertEinstein,HermannHesse,andGerhardGran.Thesemenupheldtheideaofmutualcooperationbetweennationsintheirwritingsandintheirpersonallives. Theywithstoodvituperativeattacks,personalthreats,andtheprospectoftrialandimprisonment.HeendowedtheseintellectualswithPrometheanpower.Theywere lifeaffirming,creative,courageous,nonconformist,andunalterablyopposedtothemenaceofmodernwarfare:"Theregisteris,asitwere,apictureofthe untrammeledsoulsoftheworldwrestlingwiththeunchainedforcesoffanaticism,violence,andfalsehood."32 RomainRollandexitedfromthewarwithoceanicsensibilityintact.Hewasreadyinghimselftoreassembleaneliteofworldthinkersaroundhisownpluralistic internationalist,pacifist,andhumanitarianvision.Ashehadopposedtheaffiliationofintellectualforerunnerswithleftwingparties,soheurgedthemtoremainseparate fromtheinstitutionalnetworksofthenationstate

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anditsartificialborders,whichobstructedthecirculationofantiwarthought.Hislibertarianstanceheroicizedthepowersofindependentthinkersintheirresistanceto thestate:
TheStateisnotourcountry.Itismerelytheadministrationofourcountry,sometimesagoodadministrator,sometimesabadone,butalwaysfallible.TheStatehaspowerand usespower.Buteversincemanhasbeenman,thispowerhasinvariablybrokenvainlyagainstthethresholdofthefreeSoul.33

RomainRolland,thefreeSoul,emergedfromthedebacleofWorldWarIemotionallyandintellectuallypreparedforfuturebattles.

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PARTTWO THEPOLITICALANDIDEOLOGICALAMBIGUITIESOFROLLANDISMINTHE1920S

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4 TheIntellectual'sInternational
WeareinonewordandletthisbeourwordofhonorgoodEuropeans,theheirsofEurope,therich,oversupplied,butalsooverlyobligatedheirsofthousandsofyearsof Europeanspirit. Nietzsche,TheGayScience

RomainRolland'simmediatepostwardilemmawastodiscoverameansofstruggleagainstfuturewarthatwouldpreserveintacthisnineteenthcenturyconceptionof theresponsibilityoftheintellectual.HisengagementduringtheGreatWardidnotpermithimtobeswallowedbypostwarideologiesormassmovements.Beginningin 1919andcontinuingthroughoutthe1920s,hetriedtosalvageapurposefulroleforthecommittedEuropeanwriter. LikeFreud,RomainRollandemergedfromWorldWarIwithanalteredandmoretragicsenseofdeath.1 Hisexperienceasanantiwarwriterreinforcedhisrefusalto supportpostwarcynicism,violence,orrealpolitik.Topreventfurtherwar,heurgedEuropeanstoworkactivelyforpeace.HecitedSpinozatounderscorehispoint: "ForPeaceisnotmereabsenceofwar,butitisavirtuethatspringsfromforceofcharacter."2 Hetriedtorestoreasenseoffellowship,mutualcomprehension, tolerance,andauthenticitytotheintellectualeliteofEuropeandtheworld.Heaimedhiseffortsattheliteratiandtheyoungmembersoftheculturalsector. Thenotionofaninternationalofthemindwasoriginallyanantidotetoallthatwasretrogradeaboutthewar:nationalism,militarism,theuncriticalconsensusmentality, themassdeliriumanddestructivefrenzy.3 Withtheprolongationofthehostilities,RomainRollandfearedthatthefundamentalfabricandexistenceofEuropeanculture wereinjeopardy.Inearly1919,hebegantomobilizeforhisdreamofanintellectual'sinternational.Hedidsowithouthavingapracticaloradministrativesenseand withoutthe

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secretarialoreconomicresourcesofexistinginstitutions.Itwasaonemanventure,expensiveintermsoftime,money,andenergy. Theintellectual'sinternationalwastobeavoluntaryassociationofartists,scientists,andthinkersorganizedarounduniversalist,supranational,progressive,and humanisticprinciples.RomainRolland'svisionpresupposedanintelligentsiaindependentofnationalinstitutionsoracademies,theLeagueofNations,theSocialist International,ortheCommunistInternationalinauguratedinMarch1919.Incrisissituationsthesefreethinkersmightretainadissentingandnonconformingview. Heproposedthattheintellectual'sinternationalholdregularcongressesandconferencestoprovidestimulatingscholarlydialogue.Ifitwereestablishedinconjunction withaninternationaluniversity,theinternationalwouldcreatenetworksofstudentandeducationalorganizations.Hehopedalsotolinkittoapublishinghouseandto issueanewspaper,abulletin,andamultilingualjournalmixingliterature,biography,science,andscholarship.Europeanswouldextendtheirknowledgeofother culturesthroughreadingexcellenttranslationsofnonEuropeanclassicsandthroughtheproliferationofpopularbiographiesofseminalculturalfigures.4 Romain Rolland'sproposaltookdirectaimatculturalnationalismandethnocentrism,bothofwhichwerefosteredbyignorance,thestereotypingofnationalcharacters,and xenophobia.Thewarhadexacerbatedsuchprimitiveformsofthought.Boththeinternationalpublishinghouseanduniversity,heargued,mightbetterpursuetheirgoals inRussia,Asia,orAmericaanywherebutParis.5 TheFrenchwriterlinkedtheintellectual'sinternationaltothedisseminationofEsperanto,theinternationallanguage forwhichhepropagandized.6 Moreover,heanticipatedmonumentalcollectiveenterprises,suchasanEncyclopediaoftheTwentiethCentury.7 IfRomainRolland'sideaofpreservingandreinventinghighculturewaselitist,theelitismwasmutedbytheproposalthatwritersshouldmediatebetweenhighand popularcultures.Culturalendeavorsshouldbeimmediatelyaccessibletothemassesandnotrestrictedtoprivilegedgroups.Thisinternationalwasapoliticalinits organizationandideology.Itcouldneitherbetiedtoexistingpoliticalparties,groups,programs,andelectoralstrategiesnortomassmovementsorpoliticizedworld views.Heinsistedthat

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itbegenuinelyeclecticinthesearchforanewpoliticsoftruth,worldpeace,andcrossculturaldialogue.Internationalismwasconsistentwithanintransigent individualismandasentimentalformofsocialism.Hesawhimselfastheprototypeofthepacifistinternationalistintellectual.Heproclaimedthatthevalidroleofthe intellectualwastosynthesizeandunify,tosetupbridgesbetweenpeoples.8 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRollandreactedambivalentlytotheRussianRevolution.Itcausedhimtoreflectonmodernsocialrevolutionandtoreappraisehisdeepestculturalpriorities. HewasoneofthefirstWesternwriterstobereceptivetodevelopmentsintheSovietUnion,buthiscareerasafellowtravelingintellectualremaineduneasy.Overthe interwaryears,heagonizedoverandreevaluatedhisproSovietstance. RomainRolland'senigmaticpositionontheBolshevikRevolutionwasbuiltonfragmentaryandattimescontradictoryevidence.Newswasalwaysfilteredthroughthe presuppositionsofthereporter.MuchofhisinformationcamefromwrittenaccountsandfromdiscussionwithRussianintellectualswhospentthewarinSwitzerland. ThemostimportantofthesewereAnatoleLunacharsky,destinedtobecomeSovietministerforenlightenmentNicholasRubakin,anencyclopedicscholarand philologistwithproKerenskytendenciesandPaulBirukof,aTolstoyan.9 SomeofhisconfusionsabouttheRussianRevolutionreflectdiscrepanciesintheiraccounts. HeremainedinclosecontactwiththeFrenchmilitanttradeunionistandradicaljournalistHenriGuilbeaux,editorofDemainandintermediarybetweentheEuropean Zimmerwaldianleft,whichwasmountinganoppositiontothewar,andtheBolsheviks.10ManyfirstvisitorstotheUSSR(AlfredRosmer,JacquesMesnil,Victor Henry)visitedRomainRollandinSwitzerlandandsharedtheirimpressionsoftheearlydaysoftherevolution.11 NeitherazealousadvocatenoranunyieldingopponentoftheRussianRevolution,hetooktheroleofafriendlybutcriticalsympathizer.Withoutenrollinginthe CommunistPartyoritsinternationalorganizations,heproclaimedaninternationalsolidaritywiththeeventsinRussiaandwelcomedsomeofitsgoals.Onecould

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offeranempathicunderstandingoftheRussianRevolutionwithoutbeingaBolshevik,withoutabandoningone'scriticalperspective.Throughouthiscareerasan engagedwriter,hiswritingsontheSovietUnionremainedpersonalandimpressionistic. RomainRollandstressedwhatwasuniversalandliberatingaboutthisworldhistoricaldevelopment.WritingoptimisticaccountsprimarilytoaFrenchandEuropean audience,hequicklyanticipatedthattheRussianRevolutionmightcounterWesternpoliticalstalemateandobsoletesocialstructures.Revolutioncouldbecomea viablealternativetodecadence.TheRussianRevolutioncouldfreehumanbeingsfromthefutilesensethathistorycouldnotbemadeorunderstood.Onthepessimistic side,hewarnedtheBolshevikstoavoidthedistortions,isolation,andarroganceoftheireighteenthcenturyFrenchpredecessors.Hespecificallycounseledthe RussianCommunistsandtheirEuropeanfollowersagainstgratuitousviolenceandinternalfactionalism.TheSovietmissiontranscendedRussianborders:itwasto bringtheworldpeace,liberty,fraternity,andaheightenedawarenessofthehistoricalpossibilitiesforfreedom."LetyourRevolutionbethatofagreat,healthy, fraternal,humanpeople,avoidingtheexcessesintowhichwefell!"12 Writingcontemporaryhistorywasariskyundertakingadvisingrevolutionariesaboutrevolutionwasnolessso.Hiscriticalsupportfortherevolutionlefthim vulnerabletoattacksfromthecommunists,thecenter,andtheright.RomainRolland'swritingsstressedtheprocessofperception,theproperspiritinwhichtoreceive informationabouttheSovietRevolution.HeurgedhisaudiencetoconfrontthesocialupheavalinRussiawithanopenandnonpartisanattitude,toputasidetheir receivedandpejorativenotionsaboutcommunistinsurrectionaries.HedistrustedinterpretationsofRussianeventsthatwereemotional,demagogic,anduninformed andthatfueledtheanticommunisthysteriafromEuropeanrightwingandmiddleclasscircles,includingthepress.Heinsistedonmakingdistinctionsamongthevarious groupingsandpartiesontheleft.13Throughouttheinterwaryears,heneverembracedaonedimensionalantiSovietstandpoint,butcarefullydifferentiatedhimself fromthoseunnuancedvilifiersoftheSovietUnionwho,hebelieved,alwaysservedreactionaryinterests. HerealizedthattheSovietUnionwassurroundedbyhostileenemiesandneededdistinguisheddefenders,individualsofcon

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science,whowereclearlynonBolshevik.InOctober1919,RomainRollandpennedadramaticpieceofhumanitarianpropaganda,entitled"ForOurRussian Brothers:AgainsttheStarvationBlockade."Helinkedthewarmentalitytocounterrevolutionarypolitics.HebitterlydenouncedtheAlliedinvasionofRussianterritory. ThecrusadebythebourgeoisdemocraciesofAmericaandEuropeagainsttheSovietswasa"hideouscrime."Aboveall,thisinvasionrevealedtheclassinterestsof therevolution'sopponents.14TheRussianRevolutionbelongedtothose"chaoticandgrandioseventuresofrenewingtheoldandcorruptedorder."Heportrayeditas asymbolofhumanpotentiality,representingtheunextinguishablepossibilitiesofliberation. ToposturingcriticswhoequatedtheSovietUnionwithbloodyanarchism,RomainRollandrepliedthatitwasprematuretodiscusstheresultsoftherecentlyinitiated socialexperiment.NoEuropeancoulddismisstheRussianRevolutionasdestructivegivenEurope'sdismalrecordinfourandahalfyearsoftotalwar:twentytothirty millionpeoplekilledormaimed,economieswrecked,landandindustrydevastated.Incontrast,theSovietRevolutionarosefromthedebacleofthewar,poseditself asacorrectivetoempireandtomilitarism,andpromisedaneraofvastindustrialandagriculturalplanning."Bolshevismisnotdisorganizedithasattemptedto organizechaoticdisorderithasattemptedtoprovidenewsocialformulasinthemidstofthemoralandmaterialruinofEurope."15 HowevermuchhepraisedtheRussianRevolution,herefusedtoacceptthemechanicalexportationofBolshevikleadership,partydiscipline,politicalagitation,or socialanalysistotheWest.TowardtheBolshevikleadersandtheMarxistLeninistideology,headoptedamixedbutonbalancenegativeattitude.Russian revolutionariesweredifferentfromthedemocraticsocialistsorsocialisthumanistsheadmired.HeviewedLeninandTrotskyashonest,driven,faithful,andenergetic leadersandneverdoubtedthattheywerehighmindedandselfeffacing.Bothweremotivatedbyanidealofajustsocialorder.Bothhadwellarticulatedideasabout internationalismandhadlivedabroad.YethefeltthatLeninandTrotskyhadanunusualcapacityforviolentdiscourseandactions.Theirtemperswerefanaticaland despotictheyactedoutofpoliticalexpediencytheyrepeatedlydisplayeddoctrinalintransigenceandpersonalauthoritarianism.Classconsciousnessandclass struggle,hepre

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dicted,wouldnotinaugurateapeacefulworld.HewasalarmedthattheBolshevikswantedto"revolutionizetheworld"andresortedtoforcetoaccomplishtheirgoals. HisinitialimpressionsofMarxismLeninismwereequallynegative.HesawLeninismasavulgarizationofsocialism,anamoralideologythatsystematicallyeliminateda spiritualorpsychologicalcomponentofhumanendeavor.Itsironlawofeconomicdevelopmentstemmedfromanarrowviewofproductiverelationsandpolitical economy.Itcynicallyjustifiedaprovisionalclassdictatorshiptolegitimizenewformsoftyranny.Itsviewofhistoricalprocessappeareddeterministicand reductionistic.16 RomainRollandfundamentallydisagreedwiththeBolshevikideasofaminoritydictatorship,centralization,secrecy,andregimentationofintellectualandartisticlife.He foundLeninismtoopoliticized,dogmatic,intolerantofopposingpoliticalviews,andblindtoalternativemethodsofcriticalanalysisandintuition.Leninists,helearned fromhisfriendshipwithGorky,weresuspiciousofintellectuals,ifnotantiintellectual.Thevanguardpartyhadnotoleranceforotheravantgardes.Lenin,inwantingto transformworldwarintorevolutionaryclasswarfare,dismissedallantiwarpositionsduringthewarassimpleminded,dangerous,petitbourgeois"bacilli."17Despite therevolution'ssuccesses,RomainRollandwouldnevercondonetheBolsheviks'centralizingopinionandcurtailingindividualordemocraticfreedoms.Herefusedto sanctionanylimitsimposedfromaboveonpoliticaloppositionfromworkers'unions,artists,orthinkers.Thesegroupshadtoconducttheiraffairswithoutharassment orpartydiscipline.18 RomainRolland'sideaofanintellectual'sinternationalin1919wasdiametricallyopposedtoLenin'sviewoftheCommunistInternational.Yetheappreciatedthe grandeuroftheSovietexperimentfromitsbeginning.TheBolshevikshadorganizationalpowerandwereinitiatingworthwhileeconomic,scientific,educational,and culturalendeavors.Theyfacedconsiderableinternalandexternalobstaclesinthegiganticprojectofsocialreconstruction,includingthehostilitytotheirsuccessesby thebourgeoiscountriesoftheworld.19 TheendoftheFirstWorldWarandthesuccessfulRussianRevolutionsparkedrevolutionaryactivityincentralEuropeancountries.TherepressionoftheEuropean revolutionsleftaprofoundimpactonhim.20RomainRollandsummarizedhisattitudestowardthese

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abortiverevolutionsinapiecedocumentingthecrushingoftheSpartacistrevolt.''BloodyJanuaryinBerlin''narratedandinterpretedtheeventsoftheSpartacist uprisingfrom5Januaryto11January1919,whichculminatedinthedoubleassassinationsofKarlLiebknechtandRosaLuxemburgon15January.Onceagain contemporaryGermanydemonstrateditsworshipofnakedforce,thedrunkennessofitsrulingclassestablishment,andtheobsequiousmentalityofitspeople.21 RomainRollanddefendedtherevolutionarysocialistsagainstthesavagerepression.Hewroteasanindependentintellectualconcernedwithhistoricalaccuracyand disgustedbythemonstrousnessofthemurders.HesensedthatthesuppressionofthisuprisingwouldhavecalamitousconsequencesforboththeGermanrevolution andthecauseofworldpeace.HedramatizedtheseissuestoalertprogressiveFrenchopinioningeneral,Frenchsocialistsinparticular,tothemoralandpolitical dangerofthesituation.22 RomainRollandviewedLiebknechtandLuxemburgasattractive,impeccablysincerechampionsofrevolutionaryandMarxistdemocraticsocialism.Theywere thinkersofstatureandactivistswhohadcondemnedtheGreatWarandworkedforFrancoGermanreconciliation,beginningwiththefraternalcontactsbetweenthe workingclassesofbothcountries.Hecontrastedthekind,disinterestedqualityoftheircommitmenttoworkingpeoplewiththeruthlesssmashingoftheirmovement.23 ThisbloodyrepressionclarifiedthedepthofthemilitaristicandconservativereactioninGermany,characterizedbyitsnationalisticrage,visionsofrevengeagainst France,andthefictionofthestabintheback.TheestablishmentoftheWeimarRepublichadnotsubstantiallychangedtheGermanpeople.Germancapitalists,with thebourgeoispress,seizedonsuchemergenciesastheSpartacistuprisingtodefendtheirclassinterestsandmaterialpossessions.TheSpartacistrevoltbecamean opportunitytoeliminaterevolutionarySocialists,whileretarding"theprogressoftheSocialistidea."24 RightwingSocialDemocratsthusestablishedadreadfulhistoricalprecedent,whichtheylegitimizedinthenameofdemocracy.AmajorityofGermansocialistshad supportedtheGermanSacredUnionandallowedthewartodomesticateandbureaucratizethestructureoftheSocialDemocraticParty(SPD).In1919socialist headsofgovernmentbehavednodifferentlyincrisesfromliberals

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orreactionaries.GermansocialistshadnoscruplesagainstcallingintheimperialarmyandtheFreikorpstocrushtherevolutionwithforce.NordidtheSocialists ScheidermannorEbertshowremorsefortheirmurderousdeeds:"Thefratricidalvictorsrejoicedwithoutshame."25 Theorganizedworkingclass,RomainRollandconcluded,wouldhavetobeeducatedbythiscatastrophicturnofeventstounitearounditsowninterests.Spontaneous revolutionwasadeadendthatonlyfacilitatedpoliticalrepression.Moresignificant,workermovementshadtobeonguardagainstthedivisive,treacherous,and opportunisticactionsoftheirformerleaders.Socialistsinpowerwouldusetheinstrumentsofstateviolenceagainsttheorganizedworkingclass."Butitwasthefirst timethatSocialismfounditselfonthesideofpowerandagainsttheproletariat."26Hepredictedthatitwouldnotbethelastsuchincident. Reactingtothebetrayalanddeceptionbysocialistsofsocialists,RomainRollanddistancedhisintellectual'sinternationalfromtheSocialistInternational.Throughout theinterwaryears,hemaintainedaskeptical,evendistrustful,posturetowardEuropeansocialistpartiesandpolitics.Hesupportedneithertheextremeleftwingof socialism,whichbelievedrevolutionwasimminent,northerightwingandcenter,whichwerereformist,legalistic,anddoubledealing.Postwarsocialism,including Frenchsocialism,lackedleadership,ideologicaldirection,faith,andtheabilitytodistinguishitselffromtheestablishment.27 RomainRolland'sattitudestowardWoodrowWilsonshiftedduringtheperiodfromOctober1914tothespringof1919.HefirstimaginedWilsontobeamoderate anddisinterestedmanofgoodwill.HewascaptivatedbytheAmericanpresident'slanguage,whichappearedgenerousandenlightenedwhileitcamouflagedhisclass interests.ButRomainRolland'shopesweredashedbyWilson'srefusaltointervenetoendthehostilitiesduringthewarandhisinabilitytoasserthimselfasanarbiter forajustpeace.AftertheArmistice,WilsondidnotcurbtheappetitesoftheAlliesforrevenge.28BytheopeningofthePeaceConferenceon18January1919, RomainRollandsawthatWilsonwasafraudandthatthetreatybeingnegotiatedwouldlaythefoundationforafutureworldwar.29 RomainRollandneveracceptedthecredibilityofWilsoniandemocraticideologists.TheTreatyofVersaillesandtheLeagueofNa

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tionsrepresentedthefinalapotheosisofliberalidealism,thecollapseoftheexpectationsraisedbytheEnlightenmentandtheFrenchRevolution.Wilson'sbetrayalwas unusuallyharshbecauseittrampledsomanyofRomainRolland'simmensehopes.Heremainedcriticalofsuchfalseprophets,distrustingparliamentarypoliticians, includingtheFrenchRadicals,whopreachedWilson'sbrandoflegalisticinternationalismanddemocratichumanitarianism.Justastheintellectual'sinternationalstoodin neithertheBolsheviknorthesocialistcamp,sotooitrejectedanyofficialallegiancewithpostwarliberalism:

ThemoralabdicationofPresidentWilson,abandoninghisownprincipleswithouthavingthefranknesstoadmitit,signalstheruinofthatgreatbourgeoisidealismthatfora centuryandahalfinsuredtherulingclassofitsprestigeanditsstrength,inspiteofitsmanyerrors.Theconsequencesofsuchanactareincalculable.30

Clartwasinitiatedin19161917byfouryoungFrenchwritersandjournalists:HenriBarbusse,VictorCyril,RaymondLefebvre,andPaulVaillantCouturier. BarbusseandLefebvrewereinspiredbyRomainRolland'santiwarpositionandweresympathetictohisformofpacifisticleftwingintellectualism.Theiroriginal conceptionofClartcoincidedwithRomainRolland'sprinciplesofintellectualindependenceandtheregenerationofculturallife.Underitsumbrella,Clartattempted toassemblewarveterans,antimilitarists,republicans,Radicals,protocommunists,socialists,pacifists,academics,andevennationalisticintellectuals.31 In1919,RomainRollandexpresseddeepmisgivingsabouttherecruitstotheClartmovement.Itsmemberslackedliteraryandintellectualauthority,werearrivists, andresembled"thefashionableworldofParisatadressrehearsal."32Acollectionofjournalistsandtheatricalcelebrities,suchasColetteandEdmondRostand,might producesomeglitterandsome"facilecamaraderie"intimesofrelativecalm,butinacrisistheywouldproveunreliable.TheParisiantoneoftheClartmovement disturbedhim.Itsparochialismsuggestedanevanescentcommitmenttopeaceandinternationalism.ManyofClart'smembers(J.H.Rosyn,PaulFort,Anatole France)hadtakenselfservingandplainlychauvinisticpositions.

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ManyadherentswerevirulentlyantiSoviet.Ratherthanturntheintellectual'sinternationalintoameaninglessgatheringofFrenchliterati,hesuggestedamore democratic,moreinternationalorganization.SuchassociationswerebetterlocatedoutsideParis,where"foreignthoughtandaction"werereceivedmoreopenly.33 RomainRollandfoundtheorganizationalstructureofClarttobemisconceived,overlyeclectic,anddiffuse."Aboveall,thepresentsituationdemandstheconstitution ofaclosed,solid,resistantnucleusofintransigentsoulswhocarrythenewfaith."34Headvocatedasmaller,morecarefullyselectedgroupofthinkers,earnestly preparedforpermanentoppositiontowar.Asapostlesofpeaceandinternationalism,theywouldbeinflexibleonkeyissues,personallyhonorable,andundeflectedby practicalconsiderationsofcareer,reputation,orpoliticalaffiliation.TheexperienceoftheGreatWarwouldhavetaughtthevalueofrefusal.Thepostwarcontext wouldconfrontintellectualswithsharpchoices:"Prudentsilence,theamiableneitheryesnorno,mustbeinterpreted'No.'"35 HeobjectedtoClart'sequivocationoncontemporaryeventsin1919.NotspeakingoutsuggestedeitherideologicalconfusionatClartor,worsestill,adesirenot tooffendcentristornationalisticmembersoftheadvisoryboard.ThisimpliedthatClartlackedtheresolvetoemergeasanoppositionalvoice.36Privately,Romain RollandfearedthatClartwastoomuchunderthemoralpatronageofAnatoleFrance.HehadcondemnedtheFrenchVoltaireanforhisxenophobicoutburstsduring thewarandforhiscalculatedsilenceabouttheunjustpeacetreaty.37 BeforeheresignedfromtheClartcommitteeon23June1919,RomainRollandtooksharpissuewithitsdeceptiveeditorialstructure,consistingoftwoparallel committees:anornamentalbutimpotentcommitteecomposedofrecognizableinternationalnames(AnatoleFrance,ThomasHardy,UptonSinclair,StefanZweig)and aninvisiblebutpowerfulcentralcommitteedominatedbytheParisianinnercircleofClart.Hefeltitwasantidemocraticandirresponsibletomakedecisionswithout consultation.38HewasfurtheralienatedbythebunglingbureaucraticmediocrityofVictorCyril,theleasttalentedofClart'sfounders.39 RomainRolland'srefusaltostaywiththeClartgroupdemonstratedthehereticalandpuristicnatureofhisideals.Hispursuitoftheintellectual'sinternationalwas withouttacticalfinesse,flexibil

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ity,orthespiritofcompromise.Hewasstubbornlypreparedtoriskbecomingthe"oneagainstall."ClartwouldnotacceptRomainRolland'sassumptionsorhis needforabsolutemoraldecency. RomainRolland'sintransigentindividualism,hisdesiretocompleteongoingculturalprojects(novels,plays,biographies),andhiseffortstoreorientEuropeancultural lifetothesacred,allmadehisrupturewithClartinevitable.Yethecouldnottoleratetotalbreaks.HeremainedfriendlywithBarbusse,Lefebvre,andVaillant Couturier,hopingstilltocollaboratewiththemonjointendeavors.Inlate1919andearly1920,suchanopportunitypresenteditself.AlongwithBarbusseandthe FrenchwriterGeorgesDuhamel,RomainRollandattemptedtoprepareforthefirstinaseriesofInternationalCongressesofIntellectuals.Thiscongresswasnever held.40 Aboutthesametime,hewrotetoE.D.Morel,secretaryoftheUnionofDemocraticControl,anEnglishbasedpacifistandinternationalistorganization,thathewas unwillingtobecomeanactivememberofthatorganization.41Hecouldbeatoncecommittedandnonalignedjoininganassociationmightbeafulltimeaffair, distractinghimfromhisartandhisreflectivesolitude.Hisworkforanintellectual'sinternationalwentforwardwithouttheaidofpoliticalandideologicalassociations suchastheUnionofDemocraticControl,evenwhenheagreedwiththeirgoalsandesteemedtheirleaders:
I,too,havearrivedatthestageofintegralinternationalism,andIbelieveinthenecessityforhumanevolutionofaradicaltransformationforthebenefitoftheworldofLabor.But essentiallyIlimitmyselftomyowntaskas"workerofthemind."Thatisconsiderableenoughtodemandallofmyenergies.Iwouldliketointroducethegreatintellectualsof diversenationswhohaveconservedtheindependenceoftheirthought,posingtothemprinciplesofanInternationaloftheMind,whichstrugglesagainstthedisastrousworkof intellectualsformedintoregimentsservingtheenemynationalisms.42

RomainRollandopenedhispostwarcareerwithaforceful,highlyvisibleproclamationofintellectualautonomyandliberty,"TheDeclarationofIndependenceofthe Mind."Heunequivocallyassertedthedignityoftheintellectual'svocation.FirstpublishedinParisintheFrenchSocialistnewspaperL'Humaniton26June1919, twodaysbeforethesigningoftheTreatyofVersaillestranslatedintothemajorlanguagesofthedayreadinthenewspapersand

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journalsofFrance,Switzerland,England,Italy,Germany,Austria,andAmericacosignedbyaselectcircleoftheworld'sintellectualpersonalities,hismanifesto receivedbothattentionandsomemeasureoflegitimacy.43ThecontroversytriggeredbytheDeclarationillustratedthathehadtouchedasensitivenerveinEurope. Thediscourseaffirmedhissenseoftheintellectual's"RightsofMan."RomainRollandemphasizedtheintellectual'srightandobligationtothink,research,write, publish,andcommunicatehonestly,withouttheshacklesofcensorship,nationalism,orpoliticalallegiances.Afterfiveyearsofconflict,hecalledforintellectualsto standupagainstdestitutemoralrelationsandthesilence,acquiescence,andembittermentamongthemselves.Heaskedthemtocleanuptheirownaffairs,thenmake fraternalallianceswiththedemocraticmasses. ThefinaldraftoftheDeclarationread:

DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind WorkersoftheMind,comradesscatteredthroughouttheworld,separatedforfiveyearsbyarmies,censorship,andthehatredofnationsatwar,weaddressanAppealtoyouat thishourwhenbarriersarefallingandfrontiersarereopening,toreviveourfraternalunion,butasanew,moresecureandreliableunionthanthatwhichpreviouslyexisted. TheWarthrewourranksintoconfusion.Themajorityofintellectualsputtheirscience,theirart,theirreasonattheserviceofgovernments.Wewishtoaccusenoone,todirectno reproach.Weknowtheweaknessofindividualsoulsandtheelementalforceofgreatcollectivecurrents:thelatterhassweptasidetheformerinaninstant,fornothinghadbeen preparedtohelpintheworkofresistance.Letthisexperienceatleasthelpusforthefuture! Andletusfirstofallacknowledgethedisastersthathavebeenbroughtaboutbythealmosttotalabdicationoftheintelligenceoftheworldanditsvoluntaryenslavementto unchainedforces.ThinkersandartistshaveaddedanincalculablesumofpoisonoushatredtotheplaguethatdevoursEurope'sfleshandspirittheysoughtinthearsenaloftheir knowledge,theirmemory,theirimagination,oldandnewreasons,historicalreasons,scientific,logical,andpoeticreasonstohatetheyworkedtodestroycomprehensionand lovebetweenmen.Andthustheyhavedisfigured,debased,lowered,degradedThought,ofwhichtheyweretherepresentatives.TheymadeThoughttheinstrumentofpassions and(withoutknowingit,perhaps)oftheselfishinterestsofapoliticalorsocialclan,astate,acountry,oraclass.Atpresent,outofthissavagebattlefromwhichalltheinvolved countries,victoriousorvanquished,emergebattered,ruined,andinthebottomoftheirheart(thoughtheydonotadmitit)

Page63 ashamedandhumiliatedbytheirexcessofmadness,Thought,compromisedwiththemintheirstruggle,emergeswiththem,fallen. Standup!LetusdisentangletheMindfromitscompromises,itshumiliatingalliances,itshiddenbondage.TheMindistheslaveofnoone.Itiswewhoaretheservantsofthe Mind.Wehavenoothermaster.Weexisttouphold,todefenditslight,torallyarounditallmisguidedmen.Ourdutyistomaintainafixedpoint,topointtothepolarstar,inthe midstoftheswirlingpassionsinthenight.Amongthesepassionsofprideandmutualdestruction,wemakenochoice.Werejectthemall.WehonorTruthalone,free,frontierless, limitless,withoutprejudicesofnationsorcastes.Assuredly,wearenotuninterestedinHumanity.ItisforHumanitythatwework,butforitasawhole.Wedonotknowpeoples. WeknowthePeopleunique,universalthePeoplethatsuffers,thatstruggles,thatfails,andthatconstantlyrisestoitsfeetagain,andthatalwaysmarchesalongaroughroad drenchedinitsbloodthePeopleofallmen,allequallyourbrothers.Anditisinorderthattheymay,likeus,becomeconsciousofthisfraternity,thatweraiseabovetheirblind conflicts,theArchofAlliancethefreeMind,oneandmanifold,eternal.44

Thefirstparagraphemphasizedfraternalunitybetweenintellectualsandareopeningofthefrontiersofthemindcoincidingwiththereopeningofnationalborders.By referringtotheintellectualasa"comrade"anda"workeroftheMind,"heaffirmedtheprincipleoflabor'sfundamentalsignificance,whileraisingtheelusiveissueofthe linkbetweenworkersandintellectuals.Intellectualsolidaritymightstemfromnegatives:oppositiontotheforcesofmilitarism,nationalism,censorship,andhatredthat haddividedthemduringtheGreatWar.Prewarculturalandscientificassociationswereanachronisticandinsufficienthepressedforanewmodelofintellectual dialogue. Inparagraph2,hecriticizedEurope'sintellectualsforallowingtheirintelligenceandimaginationtobemanipulatedbywarringgovernments.Hemutedhiscensorious thrust,however,byavagueproposalforplannedresistancetowarinthefuture.Topreventarepetitionofthecatastrophe,heexhortedintellectualstorememberhow subjectiveprinciplesandexpectationshadbeenbetrayed.Consciencewasascrucialasconsciousnessandmemory. RomainRolland'sthirdparagraphindiscriminatelyattackedEuropeanintellectualsforcontributingtotheatmosphereofuniversalhatredduringthewar.Knowledge hadbeenmobilizedandtwistedintoaninstrumentofwar.Thinkershadlosttheirperspectiveoneventsandontheirownproperresponsibilitiesinanemergency.

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Intellectualshadshamelesslyproducedwarpropagandaanddisseminatedracistandchauvinisticslander.Theycolludedwiththeliesofrulinggovernments,Alliedas muchasCentralPowers. "Abdicationofintelligence"meantthesurrenderofrationalandethicalbearinginamomentoffrenzy.Europeanintellectualshadviolatedtheirauthority.Theyhad renouncedtheirprerogativetodefendculture,reason,andhumanvalues.Thewarhadrepeatedlynegatedthetruefoundationsofcreativityandcriticalinquirythese freedomsextendedtotherighttoresistwarfare,oppression,andonedimensionalopinion.Themind,RomainRollandinsisted,hadnomaster,noprivilegedhierarchy, nosetofstandardstowhichitmustsubmit.Themindandthespiritwereendsinthemselves:pure,sacred,indivisible,inalienable. IfEuropeanintellectualshaddegradedthought,theyhaddegradedtheirowncharactersintheprocess.Hisrepetitionofscathingadjectives("disfigured,debased, lowered,degraded")revealedthedepthofhisfuryatthebetrayal.Intellectuallifewouldremainunhealthyunlessintellectualsdemonstratedtheircapacityfor selfcriticismanddiscoveredeffective,consciouswaystocombatpassionbyreasonandtostruggleagainstmurderouscollectivecurrents. Inthefinalparagraph,RomainRollandtriumphantlycalledforintellectualstorisefromthedebrisofawarinwhichtherewasnowinner.Toredeemtheirownbadfaith andtorevitalizeculturalproduction,thinkersshouldrefrainfromanycontributionstodeathanddestruction.Theyshouldavoidallentanglingalliances,includingthose ofnation,state,party,group,orclass. RomainRollandconnectedhistotalizingnotionofhumanitytohisoceanicconceptionbothofthepeopleandoftheintellectual'smissiontoembracetheuniverse.This mysticalideaworkedagainstthenationalist,liberaldemocratic,socialist,andBolsheviknotionsofpopularandconcretehistoricalstruggle.Theidealintellectual workedfraternallyforthemiserableorexploited.RomainRolland'sideaoffreedomwashighlyabstract,butitpermittedhimtolinkmentalandmanuallabor.To reemphasizethenecessityforintellectualautonomy,toovercomethetaintofintellectualsubmission,hismanifestoclosedonanoteoftranscendence.Freedom,truth, andfraternitycouldonlybeattainedifthethinkerroseabovethepetty,blindingconflictsofeverydaylife.Stillechoingthe

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slogan"AbovetheBattle,"heurgedthewritertoactasadetached,universalist,humanistic,morallyuncorruptedindividual. ThepublishedmanifestowasvirtuallyidenticaltothefirstdraftRomainRollandpennedon16March1919.45Onlyonesentence,strategicallylocatedinthefinal paragraph,whichaffirmedtheintellectual'smission,waschanged.Theoriginalread:"WeareengagedtoserveonlyfreeTruth."(Nousprenonsl'engagementdene servirjamaisquelaVritlibre.)Thepublishedversiondeletedtheword"engagement":"WehonorTruthalone."46RomainRollandimpliedthatmoralistscould beengags,buttheiroverridingconcerns,obligations,promises,pledges(allsynonymouswiththeFrenchtermengagement)mustbetodiscoverdeeperlayersof meaninginhumanlifeanditsrelationshiptotheworld. RomainRollandelaboratedontheDeclarationinAugust1919inE.D.Morel'sEnglishpacifistjournal,ForeignAffairs.47Tojustifyhisinitiatingthedialogue betweenworkersandintellectuals,heremindedhisaudienceofhisminoritystanceduringthewar.Toadvocateuniversalbrotherhood,socialjustice,andmutual comprehensionamongthewarringnationswasnecessary,butnotsufficient.Inaddition,intellectualsmustcoordinatetheireffortsagainstconservativeideasand politicalforces,tostruggleagainstthereassembledforcesoftyranny.RomainRollandhopedtousehisprestigetomediatebetweentheculturalsectorandtheworking classes,oratleasttopreventanincreaseinexistingmisunderstandings. Heurgedtheorganizedworkingclassnottodismisstheintelligentsiaoutofhand.Justashecouldnotsanctionintellectualcontemptforthepeople,soRomainRolland refusedtocountenanceworkerantiintellectualism.HewasparticularlyupsetaboutdevelopmentsintheSovietUnion,whereintellectualsweredistrustedandactively harassed,wherelatentBolshevikparanoiaaboutartistswascomingintotheopen.48 AlthoughheopposedintellectualcensorshipbytheSoviets,RomainRollandpraisedtheRussianexperimentinsocialreconstructionandtheefforttoeliminatematerial scarcity.TheBolshevikRevolutionwasamodelofparticipatorysocialandeconomicdevelopmentwithenormousglobalsignificance.49Toseparateintellectualsfrom theworkingclassatthisjuncturewastocutlaborofffromthenaturalcreativityandcriticalperspectivecrucialtotheconstructionofadurablesociety.Workers neededintellectualex

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pertiseandvisionintellectualswouldgrowenervatedandantiquatedwithoutmeaningfulcontactwithworkers.Evenmoredangerouswastheprecedentof intellectuals'turningagainstsociallyconsciousworkerstobecomeanideological"toolofoppressioninthehandsoftheexploiters."50 RomainRollandpredicatedtheproposeddialogueontwonotions:first,thatthegoalsofmanualandmentalworkerswereequallydignified,despitethedivisionof laborandsecond,thatfraternitywasbestimplementedoutsideofpoliticalpartiesormassmovements.Forthemoment,RomainRollandworkedtolaybare unexaminedbiases,includingthosestereotypesacceptedbytheworkingclassanditsrepresentatives.51 ForRomainRollandtheveryfutureoftheworlddependedoncollaborationbetweenworkersandintellectuals.HeconcludedhiscommentaryontheDeclarationby echoingMarx'srousingCommunistManifestoof1848:

Manualandintellectualworkers,letusunite.Letusuniteallwhobelieveinthepossibilityofafreer,dignified,andhappierworld,inwhichtheforcesofproductionandofcreation wouldbeharmoniouslyassociatedratherthanworkingtowardtheirmutualdestruction,astheyaredoingnow,inpartthroughourmutualopposition,whichisabsurdand criminal.Letusnotwearyofhopeandofaction:lettheintellectualsilluminatetheroadthattheworkershavetoconstruct.Therearedifferentlaborgangs.Buttheobjectoflabor isthesame.52

InanappendixtotheDeclarationpublishedinL'HumanitinAugust1919,RomainRollandreiteratedhiscriticalsupportfortheSovietUnion.Heregrettedthat"our Russianfriends"werepreventedfromsigninghismanifesto,condemnedtheAlliedmilitaryinterventionandtheblockadeoftheSovietUnion,andproclaimedthat "Russianthoughtistheavantgardeoftheworld'sthought."53"Russianthought,"inRomainRolland'scontext,meantnotLeninismbutrathertheRussianliterary heritageorSovietartisticdevelopments.54 RomainRollandcomposedanimpassionedrevolutionarydedicationtoasecondvolumeofhisantiwaressays,LesPrcurseurs.HedatedthededicationAugust 1919:

InMemory oftheMartyrsofthenewFaith: thehumanInternational.

Page67 ToJeanJaurs,KarlLiebknecht,RosaLuxemburg, KurtEisner,GustavLaundauer, victimsofferociousstupidity andofthemurderouslie, liberatorsofthemenwhokilledthem.55

Inthisdedication,RomainRollandvoicedhissolidaritywiththeassassinatedmartyrsofEuropeansocialism,communism,andanarchismparticularlywith revolutionarymilitants.Thefivecelebratedpersonshehailedinthededicationweredevotedtorevolution,internationalism,andsocialisthumanism.Theywereatonce revolutionariesandintellectualsofhighcaliber.Inmovingclosertotheproletariat,RomainRollandseemedtoimplythathesawsocialismastheonlymethodof eradicatingthematerialrootsofworldwarandsocialrepressionandestablishinginternationalism.RomainRollandconnectedviolencetoignorance,insincerity,and classmystification.Socialism,onthecontrary,appearedtobetheallembracingideologyof''thehumanInternational''andthustheuniversalroadtopeaceandto bothcollectiveandindividualfreedom. ThisemotionalidentificationwithsocialistrevolutionarieswasincompatiblewithRomainRolland'smoremoderateandapoliticalcommitmenttofreedomofthought. Significantly,heopenedLesPrcurseurswiththisengageddedicationbutclosedwiththeidealistDeclaration.Inbetweenwerearticlespublishedbetween1916and 1919thatsupportedtheidealsofanintellectual'sinternational.ButthetensionbetweenthededicationandtheDeclarationremainedunresolved.Whetherthereal forerunnersofthefuturewereembattledworkingclassleadersorpacifistintellectualswasundecided.Thecontradictionbetweenoutrightallegiancetosocialist revolutionandthedutytoexerciseone'sfreespiritcoloredallofRomainRolland'scommittedwritingsinthe1920s.Inofferingunsolicitedadvicetoworkerswhilenot beingaworker,inpraisingmartyrsoftheEuropeansocialistmovementwhileremainingoutsidesocialistorganizationsorrevolutionarydiscipline,inurginganendto theantagonismsbetweenworkersandintellectualswhilerejectingpoliticalstruggle,hefoundhimselfentangledinamazeofcontradictions.Tosoftenthepaternalistic ringofhiswritings,heformulatedanimageofthefutureharmoniousminglingofall

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formsofproductivelabor.Heoptedagainforanidealoftotalityandtranscendence. <><><><><><><><><><><><> On25April1919,RomainRollandsentGeorgeBernardShawacopyoftheDeclaration,requestinghissignature.56Thismovewasconsistentwithhisoriginalplan ofsecuringsignaturesfromadistinguishedindependentwriter,artist,andscientistfromeverymajorcountryintheworld.57Theinvitationtriggeredaprivate controversythatrecapitulatedhisstormyrelationswithShawduringthewar.58 RomainRollandtoldShawthatthemanifestowouldnotonlyhelprestoreintellectualautonomyinterruptedbythewar,butalsoreversethedisillusionmentoftheyoung andsilentmembersoftheculturalsector.InanattempttodisarmShaw'scausticwit,heconfessedthatsuchappealswereromanticattemptstotakeastandagainstan apparenteviltheirauthorswereDonQuixotes,attackingwindmills.Insteadofswords,idealistintellectualsemployedtheirpens.YethewantedShaw'ssupportto reinforcetheshakenconfidenceofan"intellectualyouthwhichwaits,disoriented,anguished,foritselderstorallyitandrenderitconfidentinthepowerofthe liberatingMind....IhavetakenaccountoftheQuixotismofthisappeal.ButonceinhislifeDonQuixotedidunhorsehisadversary."59 ShawrepliedinFrenchon7May1919,adamantlyrefusingtosignandreturningparagraphsoftheDeclarationwithunsolicitededitorialcorrections.Hedeflated RomainRolland'sunsubstantiatedclaimsofvirtueforthethinkerwhilepokingfunathisownlinguisticdeficiencies:
Wemusthaveaconfessionratherthanareproach:withoutthatwewillhavetheairofbeingPharisees,evensnobs.ToavoidthisIhavedaredtocorrectyourdraftalittle.What doyouthinkofit?Naturallyyouwillknowhowtoeditmygibberish:Iamavilelinguist.60

Shaw'srevisionstressedthenecessityofnationaldefenseandtheimpossibilityofdetachedneutralityintimesofwar.Survivaltookprecedenceoverintellectual oppositionordetachment:"Searchaswemighttosoarabovethebattle.Useless:inwarthefirstdutyisto

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thehome,totheneighbor,thesupremetaskistodivertdeathfromthem."61 RomainRollandfoundthatShaw'schangesdistortedthespiritofthediscourse.Shawtheentertainer,playingsemanticgames,simplycaricaturedhisstance"abovethe battle."He,inturn,accusedShawofofferinganapologyforthepatrioticexcessesofintellectualsduringthewar.Throughhisirasciblesarcasm,Shawjustifiedthe sacrificeofallformsofresistancetonationaldefenseandbrutesurvival.RomainRollandretorted:"Idonotputthenation,thecountry,thehome,beforeeverything. Aboveall,Iputthefreeconscience."Shawguaranteedthefuturewarmongersa"blankcheck.''RomainRolland'svigilance,however,wouldnotpoliticizeintellectual commitment:''Iseenofutureintheeffortsoffreethoughtadaptingitselftopoliticalnecessities....Ifit[thought]wantstosaveothers,letitbeginbysavingitself.Letit makeititsbusinesstoconstitute,overandabovenations,anInternationalofthought,aworldconscience."62 Shaw'sreplyridiculedRomainRolland'sseriousnessasanidealisticmystificationoffreethinking.Shawbluntlyremindedhimofthematerialandbiologicalneedsofthe ordinarymanandsoldier,aswellastheimperativeto"muddlethrough,"especiallyintimesofmilitaryemergency.Heconsideredtheadvocacyofanintellectual's internationalexcessivelypompousandselfrighteous,evenhypocritical.Withhumorousselfdeprecation,ShawmockedRomainRolland'sideasaboutthe omnipotenceofThought.Themanofthoughtwasalinguisticconstruct,notahistoricalreality:
Youflatterwarandman."Themanofthought"doesnotexist.Iamnotthought.IamBernardShaw.YouareRomainRolland.Weeat,andeighthoursafter,weforgetour philosophy,andonlyfeelhungry....AllthatyousayofThoughtistrue.Therefore,letThoughtsignyourmanifesto.ButJohnSmithandPierreDuvalcannotsign.Theyhave foughtforusandweatleastpaidthetaxes.Nomanhasbeenabovethebattle.Suchapretensionwouldberepugnanttotheworldandwouldbreakourinfluence.Excusemy bluntness:inwritingEnglishIhaveenoughtactbutinaforeignlanguageonewritesasonecan.63

RomainRollandrejectedShaw'sdichotomiesasfalseandcynical.Materialnecessityrequiredneithertheabandonmentofvisionnortherenunciationofrational conduct.Hedefendedhisantiwar

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positionandaffirmedcharitableprinciples.Intellectualsoughttousetheirideasandtheirethicalsensitivitytoemphasizecommunion,notdistinctions,betweenpeople andnations:
Itisnotstrictlynecessarytoforgetideaswhenonefeelshunger.Inalltimestherearemenwhodiefortheirideas.Therearesomewhohavediedfortheminthiswar.Therewillbe someinthispeace....Iamnotabovethebattlesallbattles.Ihavebeen,Iam,Iwillalwaysbe"abovethebattle"ofnationsandcountries.Iamstrugglingagainstnations, countries,castes,againstallbarriersthatseparatemen.64

RomainRolland'snextletter,inwhichheincludedacopyofhisacerbicantiwarplayLiluli(1919),wastheturningpointofthisexchange.Shawimmediately appreciatedthecausticironyofLiluli,lavishingpraiseonitwithGermanadjectives:"Liluliiskolossal,grossartig,wunderschn,magnificent.Ihavetastedit enormously,boundlessly,withecstasy."65UnderShaw'saegis,itwasperformedbeforetheBritishpublic.RomainRollandfinallydecidedthatShaw'sjabswere aimedatform,notcontent.Shaw'ssatirealsoworkedto"brandtheservileaberrationofunregimentedthoughtduringthewar."66ButShawdidnotsignthemanifesto thedebateendedasitbegan,deadlocked. RomainRolland'sDeclarationoffendedmanypostwarMarxistintellectuals,mostofwhomlookedinsteadtotheCommunistInternational.HesentMaxEastman,the Americanbohemianandantiwarwriter,acopyoftheDeclaration,extendingtheamicableexchangehehadenjoyedwithyoungAmericanleftwingwritersduringthe war.EastmanpublishedthemanifestointheNewYorkCityperiodicalTheLiberator,butheofferedaMarxistcritiqueintheverysamenumber.67 EastmanconsideredRomainRolland'sviewofintellectualsagrandioseselfdeception,shroudedinPlatonicrhetoricthatblurredtherealchoiceforintellectuals:toopt fororagainsttheproletariat."Wemustplaceourselvesandallourpowersunreservedlyuponthesideoftheworkingclassinitsconflictwiththeownersofcapital. Wemustadaptatleastsofarasweareengageduponthissocialquestafightingmentalityandwemustengageinaconsciousclassstruggle."RomainRolland's notionswereeffusiveandsentimental.Eastmandoubtedtherealpossibilityofindividualautonomyinaclasssociety.TheFrenchwriteroverestimatedintellectual activity,

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therebygivinghismanifesto"theflavorofselfconscioussuperiorityorimportance."Helackedanysenseofhowtoapplyideasinpracticalcircumstancesandfailedto deviseaninstrumentalviewofhumanknowledge.68 Eastmanarguedthatthecurrentstruggleforlibertyanddemocracywassynonymouswiththeglobalmissionofcommunism.JustasMarxismwasthebestscientific methodforunravelingthecomplicatedeconomicrootsofsocialrelations,sotheinternationalcommunistmovementhadbecomethekeyagencyofsocialchange.The trulycommittedintellectualjoinedwiththeproletariattowagetotalclassstruggleagainstthebourgeoisie.Mostintellectualscouldnotbecountedontoparticipatein theserevolutionarystruggles.EastmanpraisedRomainRolland'smoralcourageduringthewar,butheexpectedlittlefromwriterswhoproudlyheldthemselvesapart fromtherevolutionaryventure.Eastmanreaffirmedhisgeneralsuspicionofintellectualswhilerepudiatingthemetaphor"AbovetheBattle"asapretenseofOlympian detachmentandcosmicindependence.69 RomainRollandansweredEastman'spublicdenunciationprivately:"Thedisagreementbetweenusis,ineffect,complete.SocompletethatIwillnottrytodiscussit here.IprefertoexposethesetwothesesinamoreobjectivefashioninaworkthatIamnowwriting."Hedeniedthathisidealismwasareligion,insistingthatitwasan experimental,openendedstrategyofdiscovery,whichstemmedfromradicaldoubt:"Iamnotabelieverinafaith,religiousorMarxist.IamfromMontaigne'scountry thatdoubtseternallybutthatsearcheseternally.Isearchforthetruth.Iwillneverreachit."70Againsttheinjunctiontointellectualstoworkactivelyinproletarian socialstrugglesorjoincommunistorganizations,hearguedthathappiness,socialjustice,andthegeneralwillofthepeoplehadneverbeenservedbyminority dictatorshipsordogmatictheories."Asocialcommunitythatcouldonlybesavedbyarenunciationofthefreeintelligencewillnotbesavedinreality,butlost.Forit wouldrestoncorruptedbases."HeironicallynotedthatEastmanwantedtosubordinatefreeintellectualinquiryandindividualconsciencetotheserviceofthe''new science,''Marxism.Thiswasanaiveformofintellectualarrogance.71 Eastman'sattackwasthefirstinaseriesofconfrontationswithMarxistintellectualsthatwouldpunctuateRomainRolland'scareer

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asanengagedintellectual.ItanticipatedhiscelebrateddebatewithHenriBarbussein19211922.RomainRollandwelcomeddialoguewithtwentiethcenturyMarxist intellectuals.Intheframeworkofthesecontroversies,healwaysdistinguishedpersonalitiesfromissues.HeretainedpersonalesteemforEastmanandrespectedhis reviewdespitetheirirreconcilabledispute.72 Duringthewar,RomainRolland'srelationswithAlbertEinsteinhadbeencordial.73In1919,hefullyexpectedEinsteintojoinhiscampaignforintellectualfreedom andtohelpsecurefollowersforhisDeclarationinGermany.OnthefifthofJune1919,herecordedEinstein's"consent."74 Einstein'smotivesforsupportingtheDeclarationweremixed.Heviewedsigningasthelesseroftwoevils,althoughcollectiveappealswereriskyatthatmoment.They mightsimplyprovokecounterappeals,ortheymightconfusethebasicissues.Einsteinsuggestedthatquietdiplomacythroughone'sprivateconnectionsmightbemore efficaciousthanopenprotestsagainsttheinternationalclimateofdistrustandrevenge.HeurgedtheexplorationofGermanwarguilt:

Iwasnotamongtheauthorswhodraftedtheappeal[theDeclaration].Beingonlytoowellawareofthebitternessprevalentinthevariouscountries,Idonotbelievethatsuch effortstowardinternationalreconciliationholdoutmuchpromiseofsuccessatpresent.IgavemysignaturebecauseitwouldhavebeenworsetowithholditbutIwasconvinced thattheappealwouldnotproducemuchofaresponse.75

RomainRollandhadbeengenerallysympathetictoHeinrichMann'seffortsduringthewartopromoteFrancoGermanreconciliation,andtohiscontroversywithhis brother,ThomasMann.In1919,HeinrichMannwasoneofGermany'smostcelebratedmenofletters.AlthoughhesignedtheDeclaration,hecarpedatthephrase "Weknownothingofpeoples.WeknowthePeople."RomainRollandregardedMann'ssuggestedrevisionastoogreataconcessiontonationalism.76 GeorgFrederickNicolai,professorofbiologyattheUniversityofBerlinandpacifistauthorofTheBiologyofWar(1917),emergedastheearliestandmost energeticsupporteroftheDeclaration.RomainRollandhadpraisedNicolai's"greatEuropeanism"duringthewar,andin1919NicolaicatalyzedtheFrenchwriter's ideaof

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composinghismanifesto.77NicolaicirculatedtheappealallovercentralEuropein1919,partlytopopularizeRomainRolland'spointofviewandpartlytodocument the"Germananswer"toit.HepublishedboththeformerandthelatterinhisbrochureRomainRolland'sManifestunddiedeutschenAntworten(1919).Nicolai lobbiedtohavetheDeclarationappearinseveralGermannewspapers,reviews,andevenintheaterprogramsin1919,includingDemokratie,Forum,Freiheit, BerlinerTageblatt,DeutscheallgemeineZeitung,Vorwarts,andGermania.78 KarlKraus,theeminentViennesesatirist,socialcritic,andpoet,refusedtosignRomainRolland'sDeclarationandgavehisreasons.Krauswasunpreparedtoforgive Germanintellectualsfortheirsordidbehaviorduringthewar.Norcouldheexpresssolidaritywithothernamesalreadyonthelist.Kraus'soppositiontothewarwas basedonaconservativedesiretopreservecultureandtraditions.HeneithersharedtheassumptionsofEuropeanpacifistsorleftwingintellectualsaboutthewarnor agreedwiththeirmethodsforposingcomplicatedmoralquestions.79 RomainRollandandtheItalianidealistphilosopherBenedettoCrocehadnotcorrespondedduringthewarbutknewofeachother'sactivitiesthroughintermediaries. CrocesignedtheappealintermsthatunderscoredhisambiguousrelationshiptoRomainRolland'santiwarthought.80CrocepedanticallyreferredtheFrenchwriterto atextthatsummarizedhisownwritingsontheGreatWar:
ItisverywillinglythatIfixmysignatureunderyournobleappeal.ButIwish,sothatyoumayunderstandthesenseandthelimitofmyapproval,thatyoureadthebook[L'Italia dal1914al1918]Iamsendingyou,whichistherecordofallthatIhavewrittenduringtheWar.Youwillfindyournamesometimes,andthusthereasonforourdivergences.I believethatwarissacred,butthattruthisequallysacred,andthatitmustnotbeemployedasaninstrumentofwar.Theinstrumentsofwararemadeofothermaterials.81

RomainRollandadmittedtoCrocethatthetwohaddistinctsocialandideologicalpreferences.Inexchangeforthebookhehadsent,CroceshouldconsultRomain Rolland'santhologyofantinationalistandantiimperialistwritings,LesPrcurseurs.Despitetheirdifferences,asidealiststheycouldconcuronintellectualliberty, whichwasimplicitintheirsacralizationofthemind.82 RomainRollandencounteredunexpectedrefusalsfromfourdis

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tinguishedmembersoftheFrenchintellectualandscientificcommunity.TheFrencheconomistandpacifistCharlesGideobjectedtotheDeclarationonthegrounds thatit"neglectedthenation'srightofexistenceinordertorecognizeonlytheunityoftheuniversalproletariat,whichwillbecomethedoctrineoftheInternational."83 Likewise,CharlesRichet,aNobelistinphysiologyandmemberoftheFrenchAcademyofSciences,refusedtoendorsethetext.84MarieCurie,Nobelistinphysics andinchemistry,declinedtosign,perhapsoutof"timidityornationalistobstinacy,"wroteadisappointedRomainRolland.HehadreluctantlysolicitedAnatole France'ssignature,evenafterexpressinghisreservationsaboutincludingFranceonClart'sboard.Heangrilyremarkedthattheelderlyskeptichad''shuthimselfup smuglyinadiscreetandpaddedsilence."85 Thereweremanyfavorablereactionstohisappeal,severalofwhichopenednewintellectualrelationshipsinhislife.Thecordialityandemotionalintensityofthese lettersreassuredtheFrenchwriter.86 RomainRollandwasbothdelightedandirkedattheresponseoftheBritishphilosopherBertrandRussell.Russellwrotewarmly:"Idonotknowhowtoexpressto youhowIrejoicedatreceivingyourletterandtheDeclarationwhichaccompaniedit.Itmarkstheendoftheisolationofwartime."87Russellsympathizedwith RomainRolland'seffortstoreconcileintellectualsinallcountries.Nevertheless,hehadreservationsaboutthethirdparagraphofthetext,whichhefoundtoo accusatorialandselfrighteous,andwhichcontradictedthemanifesto'sclaimoffellowship:
Idonotdesiretoimposeonthemthetaskofsayingpublicly:Peccavi[Ihavesinned].Iwouldprefertomakethereconciliationaseasyaspossible.Iwouldnotwanttoproclaim thatwearetheirtotalsuperiorsfromamoralpointofview.Iwouldliketodoeverythingthatispossibletodiminishrancorswithinnations,aswellasinternationalrancors.Formy part,Iwouldpreferaconstructiveparagraphratherthanacriticism,aparagraphattendingtothefutureandthegreattaskswhichnowremainforintellectuals.88

RomainRollandinterpretedRussell'sanswerasencouragingandgenerallyapproving.Thoughdisinclinedtoembracethosethinkers"whobetrayedonceandwhowill betrayasecondtime,"89

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heurgedRusselltopetitionforEnglishsignatoriestotheDeclaration.
InEngland,BertrandRussell,whosignswithenthusiasm,asksthatonecutoutoftheDeclarationalldisavowalsofpastmisdeeds.Andcertainlythesentimentwhichinspiresthis demandisnobleandpure:itisfinetobemodestbutwemustknowhowtoguardajustpride,intheinterestsofagreatcause,andnotrushtowipeawaythetreasonsof yesterday,fortheywillgivewaytothetreasonsoftomorrow.90

TowardtheendofthecampaigntocirculatetheDeclaration,RomainRollandwasdisillusionedbyitsimmediatereception:
ItisnotevenpossibletounitethesmallhandfuloffreeintellectualsofEuropearoundatext,howevermildandattenuated.Onecouldsaythatcertainofthosewhostruggledmost energeticallyduringthefiveyearsofwarareatpresentexhaustedanddoubtthemselves....MyDeclarationhasreceivedsomanydemandsformodificationsorattenuationsfrom differentsides,thatinrealizingthem,nothingwouldremainotherthanthetitle.91

TheprincipalobjectionsconcernedtheDeclaration'sexplicitlyinternationalistoutlookanditsdemandthatintellectualscriticizemisbehaviorandrecantbeliefsheld duringthewar.Moreover,inanopenappeal,itwasconsideredinappropriatetotreatnationalistsandconsensusintellectualsimpartially.Compassion,itseemed, couldbeexpressedinamoralhistoryorinapsychologicalnovel,"butnotinaDeclaration,whichisanaction,arallyingcry,anappealtoindecisiveanddisheartened youthwhowaitforadirection,aguide,inthedisarrayofsouls."92 Intellectualsmustbeheldaccountablefortheiractions,inaction,badjudgment,andlackofmoralfiber.Thinkershadserveddeathandconfusionbypromotinga hatredthat,RomainRollandcharged,"devastated,devastates,andwilldevastateEuropeforalongtimetocome."93Thesameunrepentantmenwouldprepare Europeforitsnextwar,whichseemedincreasinglyinevitable.Henearlyabandonedtheprojectofcollectingsignaturesfortheappeal.Asalastresort,hemightturnto youngerintellectualsorenlightenedwarveterans.Iftheyfailedhim,hewouldlaunchtheDeclarationunderhisownname,despitethepersonalrisk,"becauseonemust neverstiflethecryofconscience,whetheroneisorisnotunderstood."94

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RomainRollandexplainedhisintransigencetowardEuropeanpacifistsinalettertoRussell.Manyprewarpacifistsliberalinternationalists,Christians,and antimilitaristicsocialistshadbecomechauvinisticandwarmongeringduringthehostilities.TheirantiwarrhetorichadevaporatedwhentheSacredUnioncommenced. Theirpeacetimepacifismhadtoberegardedcautiouslyunlesstheycouldcandidlyconfronttheiropportunisticreversalduringthewar.Hewoulddoubttheirgoodfaith untiltheyprovedtheircommitmentstopeacewithaction.Hepredictedthatthese"elementsofmoralcompromise"wouldmanifestthemselvesagainassoonasa nationalemergencyoccurred.95 RomainRollandlamentedhisfailuretoestablishacenterforintellectualinternationalisminaneutralcountry.ThefreemindsofEuroperemainedisolatedintheirown countries,"hermeticallyclosedoff"fromoneanother.Commonstrugglewasmoreefficaciousthanindividualcombat.Whilespeakingoutagainst"thecorruptinglie... whichinfectedallofEuropeanthought,"hearticulatedhisprivateconflictsaboutbeingengagedanddisengagedatthesametime:

Ispeakinanycaseagainstmyowninclinations.ForIamfromtasteasolitarypersonwholovesnothingmorethanlivingfarfromcitiesandfromaction,inartandinnature. Circumstanceshaveconstrainedme,andIamnotgratefultothemforthat.ButIwouldatleastliketobeengagedtoaidtheyoung"workersofthemind"ofEuropeandof America(indeedofsomeothercountries)tomultiplytheoccasionstoassemble,todiscusstogether,tocooperateifpossibleoncommonworksandprojects,sothattheycan preparefororcopewiththenewhurricanes,whichweseeamassingonthehorizon.96

In1919RomainRolland'sengagementwasclearlymoreculturalthanpolitical.Hebeganhispostwarcareerwithanotionthatactionandspirit,politicsandmorality, collectiveandindividualstruggle,couldbefused.Hiswritingsglorifiedhumanfraternity,panhumanisticideals,andthemoraltenacityofthosehistoricalactorsand witnesseswithanidentifiableethicalconsciousness.Hewrotetoinspirehisreaderswiththegoalshedeemedtranscendentandeternal.Inthisheadheredtoanolder traditionoftheFrenchmoralist.Despitedisclaimers,RomainRollandtendedtoattributetotheintellectualpriestlyqualitiesanddivinefunctions. RomainRolland'swritingsin1919wereoppositional.Heurged

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intellectualstoprotesttheillconceivedandvengefulVersaillesPeaceTreaty,torepudiateallformsofimperialismandlatentandmanifestformsofnationalism,toinsist onhisversionofunofficial,nonlegalisticinternationalism,andespeciallytoreopendialoguewithoneanother,takingthefirststepstowardaninternationalofthemind. Last,helinkedarudimentarypacifistoutlookwithaWestern,secular,idealistandindividualistposition.Aboveallelse,hewantedtodemonstratethattheantiwar visioncouldnotbedomesticatedbytheAlliedvictoryandthatitcouldbedifferentiatedfromaBolshevik,socialist,orliberalposition. Thus,manyaspectsofRomainRolland'sengagementwithhiscontemporarysociopoliticalrealityveeredtowardtheconcrete,whereasmuchoftheidiomremained abstractandaloof.Tohispoeticwartimeconfidantandsubsequentbiographer,PierreJeanJouve,hewrote:"Theonlyfecundactionthatwecantakeatthismoment mustbeslow,tenacious,deliberate."97Creativeactionandquietmeditationpresupposedmentalreadinessandunderstandingofprocesstoyieldlastingcultural results.Politicalintercessionwasevanescentandofdoubtfulefficacy. RomainRollandrecognizedthattherewereurgent,immediateabusesthatrequiredthecommittedintellectual'sconcern,ifnotactiveintervention.Theendofthewar didnoteraseglaringinstancesofsocialinjustice,politicaloppression,economicexploitation,andculturalexclusion.Battlesremainedtobefought. In1919RomainRollandwasengagedanddisengagedatthesametime.Ifhecontinuedtoaddresspresentcenteredcauses,itwasalwaysinthenameofhigher humanisticvalues.Hewasmovingfromthepositionof"GoodEuropean"towardaplanetaryvision.RomainRolland'soceanicfeelingenabledhimtotakepublic positions,oftenradicalandmilitantones,frequentlyuncompromisingandimpracticalones,whiletranscendingtime,space,causality,andparticularity.Hisoceanic mysticismshowedhimhowthepartmergedwiththewholeandpreventedhimfromgivingwaytoapersistentsenseoffutility.Hecontinuedtostrugglewithout expectingafavorableoutcome,alwayskeepinghumanityitselfatthecenterofhisengagedoutlook:
WhatpreservesmefromlastingdespairisthatIcanalwaysescapethepresentwhetherbyhabit,orbynature,mymindembracesgreat

Page78 spacescenturiesandtheentireearth.Inspirationrequiresacalm,large,equalrhythmasuitablerhythmwhichovercomesfevers.Ibelievethatwemustaccustomourselves tothisgreatbreadththeenormousworldcrisis,inwhichwearenowengaged,doesnotadmitofspeedthereisacentury,perhapsmore,foraddressingitwewillnotseetheend ofitbutletusmarkitwiththerhythmofourpulsesletoursecularthoughtsmakesomethingofit....LeteachofusbethewholeMan.98

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5 TheRollandBarbusseDebate
Whenonehasnocharacteronehastoapplyamethod. AlbertCamus,TheFall InasmuchastheunsurpassableframeworkofKnowledgeisMarxismandinasmuchasthisMarxismclarifiesourindividualandcollectivepraxis,itthereforedeterminesusinour existence. JeanPaulSartre,SearchforaMethod

EverydecadeorsotheFrenchintelligentsiaproducesapublicquarreldramatizinganinternalconflictofmajorimportance.TheRomainRollandHenriBarbusse debatewasoneofthese"great"controversies.1 AfterthefailureofEuropeanrevolutionsfrom1918to1920,Europeenteredaperiodofpolitical,economic,andsocialstabilization,markedbyattemptstoexclude socialistsandcommunistsfromanydecisiveinfluenceonthestate.ThemodernizationoftheEuropeaneconomyalongcorporatistlinescoincidedwithareassertionof theforcesofconsensus.RaymondPoincardominatedFrenchpoliticsfortheperiod19201924.HewasharshtowardGermanyandpushedforfullreparations. Domestically,Poincarwasconservative,sociallyrepressive,andnationalistic.France,preoccupiedwithitssecurity,triedtokeepGermanyinaninferiormilitaryand diplomaticpositionandhopedtoachieveitsowneconomicrecoveryfromtheFirstWorldWarwithoutexacerbatingclassstruggle.2 HistorianshaveconventionallydatedtheBolshevizationoftheFrenchCommunistParty(PCF)from1923to1925.3 IfweexaminethePCF'sperceptionof intellectuals,wecanseethatthishardeningoflineoccurredearlier.ExceptforthebriefinterludeoftheFrenchPopularFront,thePCF'sapproachtointellectualsinthe early1920sforeshadowedthemainfeaturesofitspolicythrough

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outtheinterwarperiod,specifically,itsintoleranceofdemocracywithinCommunistorganizationsanditsavoidanceofcriticaldialoguewithworkers,tradeunions, leftistorganizations,andanarchistmilitants. ThePCFwasformedaftertheacrimoniousCongressofToursinDecember1920.HavingsplitfromtheSFIO(SectionFranaisedel'Internationaleouvrire),the FrenchCommunistsacceptedLenin'stwentyoneconditionsforjoiningtheThirdInternationalandadoptedanantagonisticpolicytowardSocialistandSocial Democraticparties.4 ThesituationofthePCFinearly1922wasprecarious.TheprospectsforpostwarrevolutionintheindustrialWestfizzledoutby1920,andwiththeabsenceof dynamic,competentleadership,thePCFfounditsmembershipandinfluencedeclining.Theonesuccessfulupheaval,theSovietRevolution,leftaprofoundimprinton theFrenchCommunists,whoacceptedBolsheviktacticsandtheLeninistemphasisonorganization,discipline,andcentralization.AsimplemindedformofLeninist theoryalsoprevailed. After1920theCommunistParty'spressbecamemorecentralized.OrganssuchasL'HumanitevolvedfromthespiritandcontentofJaursiansocialism.AsMarxist dogmatriumphed,theFrenchcommunistsoutBolshevizedtheBolsheviksandadoptedapositionofloyaltytotheofficiallineoftheCommunistInternational.The partyoffereditsfollowersafundamentalchoice:expulsionorcapitulationtoMoscow.Noindependentpathwasacceptable.By1924theleftworkers'oppositionhad beenexpelleddissidentshadbeencondemnedandeliminated.Followingthesepurges,thePCFdevelopedabureaucraticleadershiponthemodeloftheRussian CentralCommittee.WithTrotskytheleadingSovietarchitectofCominternpolicytowardFrance,heterodoxfellowtravelersandhereticswereexposedand discreditedtothemassesandpartymilitants.5 Frenchcommunismwasactionoriented,antiparliamentary,antimilitaristicandnontheoretical.Itbuiltitselfintoacoherent,strategicallyflexible,andtightlydisciplined politicalmovement,whosemembershipacceptedthenecessityofamonolithic,hierarchicalorganization.TotightenitslinkswiththeindustrialworkersofFrance,the partyembracedbothlegalandillegaltactics,suchaselectionsandsubversionofthearmy.Thetacit,unconditionalloyaltyofitsleadershiptotheSovietUnionoften ledtotragicpolicies

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inFrance.BytheendofBolshevizationin19261927,thePCFhadbecomeanidentifiablemassmovementwhosegoalsweresubordinatedtotheprioritiesofSoviet foreignpolicy. FrenchcommunismdevelopedaparadoxicalrelationshiptoFrenchsocietyandpolitics,whichledtotheghettoizationofthePCF.Itremainedideologicallyprimedfor arevolutionthatnevermaterialized.PartyrepresentativeshadapuerileandvulgarizedgraspofMarxisttheory.ThePCF,proclaimingitsintoleranceofdemocracy, disassociateditselffromtheFrenchsocialisttraditionsoffreediscussionandparticipationbythemembershipindecisionmaking.6 RomainRollandhadalifelongcommitmenttoharmonyandreconciliation.Heconsideredthesplitin1920betweentheFrenchcommunistsandthesocialists disastrous.Thisschismmadeiteasierfortherighttomaintainitseconomic,cultural,andpoliticalhegemonybyweakeningtheproletarianmovement,confusingthe workingclass,anddeflectingitfromitsowninterests.WhenhecontributedtotheFrenchleftwingpress,headamantlyrefusedtolendhisnametoonepartyasan instrumentofauthorityagainsttherival.Thushewrote:''IwillnotmingleintheunholystrugglesthathavedividedandweakenedthetwohalvesofSocialism."7 Forhim therewerenoenemiesontheleft.Therealopponentswerethosewhoinhibitedprogressivesociopoliticalandculturalchange.Heresistedfratricidalwarfare,trying instead"topromoteinsideFrancetheconfederationofallforcesoftherevolutionaryLeftagainstreaction."8 Whereasactivistshadtolimittheiraimsandnarrowtheirfocustobeeffective,intellectualandcreativeactivityhadanabsoluteandtimelesscharacter.Ashis orientationshifted,RomainRollandabandonedashortpoliticalbiographyofKarlLiebknecht.Heexhortedyoungerwriterstoemulatehimandconcentrateon projectsthatwouldrestoreconfidenceinindividualismandpreventthemfrom"gettinginvolvedinsocialandpoliticalactivity."Heneverunderestimatedrevolutionary actionortheeducationalpossibilitiesinpropaganda,butheconsideredsuchprojectsunsuitableforintellectuals.Intellectualshadtobedisposedto"stronger,more vastandprofoundaction."9 <><><><><><><><><><><><>

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Coincidingwiththesigningofthepeacetreaties,RomainRollandpublishedthreeexperimentalworks,aplay,anovella,andanovel,thatintegratedacoherentantiwar stanceandanaestheticvision. TheplayLiluli(1919)wasRomainRolland'sfiercestcritiqueofthewishfulfantasiesandconformistthinkingofthewaryears.10Heparadedanentiresocietybefore hisaudience,acivilizationmarchingfreneticallytowar.Thefarcicaltechniqueunveiledthewaysinwhichwartwistedpeople,institutions,andideasinto onedimensionalforms.Intheend,noindividualorcollectivitycouldopposethepilgrimagetoannihilation."LiluliistherevoltofaFrenchJeanChristopheagainstthe Frenchlie."11The"lie"wasthecapitulationtoahypocriticalidealism,specificallynationalism. Lilulidepictedhowtechnologyandpropagandaintensifiedthemomentumofmassaggression.Violencereproduceditself,astheintellectualsofEuropeindulgedan uncannytastefordeath,glory,andnostalgiafortheirlostyouth.Ideologuesoftheslaughter,theysangamonotonoushymntowar.RomainRollandmadethemthe chorusoftheplay,portrayingthemcollectivelyassillygeesesolemn,stupid,selfsatisfied,conformist,andmanipulated.12 Liluli,theenchantressofillusion,caredfornothingandbelongedtoeveryoneandnooneinturn.Herelusiveamoralityturnedmen'sbrainsinsideout,preparingthem tokillortobekilled.RomainRollandshowednowayoutofcollectivemurder.Theplaywaswrittento"shakethestupidassuranceofthereader."13Itslastlaughwas alethalone. InthenovellaPierreandLuce(1920),RomainRollandrevealedtheuniversalityofwarthroughtheexperiencesofinnocent,amorousadolescentsathome.Setin 1918,andclimaxingwiththebombingofthechurchofSaintGervaisinParisonGoodFriday,PierreandLuceshowedthatnoonewassparedintotalwar.The authorcharacterizedtheGreatWarasanimmense,meaninglessmassacrethattrivializeddeathandmadepeopleinsensitivetoloss.Thewarerodedsuchsecure prewarinstitutionsasreligion,country,andfamily.Whencertainty,calm,andmemorywereeradicated,therewasnoescapefromthepresent,eveninromantic love.14Thedeathsoftheattractivebutdoomedadolescentsmadeasinglepointaboutthewar:namely,thattheydiedfornothing.15 RomainRollandwrotethemeditativenovelClrambault(1920)between1916and1920.Itsummeduphisphilosophicalposition

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duringthisperiod.Thenovelisflawedbydidacticpassagesandbythehero'svirtualcanonization.Inexperimentingwiththegenreofantiwarliterature,Romain Rollandarticulatedmetaphorsthatweretopervadepacifistdiscourseinthe1920sand1930s.Heofferedtwotheses:thattheGreatWarwascriminalandthatthe ideaofcountrywasafetish.16 Thenovelofferedmorethananindictmentofchauvinism,pride,humancruelty,andmilitarism.InClrambault,RomainRollandadvancedtheintegralorabsolute pacifistposition,whichcondemnedallformsofviolence,includingtheuseofforcebyrevolutionaries.Subtitled"TheHistoryofaFreeConscienceDuringtheWar," thebookaddressedthepostwardilemmaofpacifistintellectuals."Freeconscience"wasindependenceofthemind,theintellectual'sinherentcapacitytobe autonomous,to''standaloneandtothinkaloneforall."17Thefreethinkerthinkswithhisheart,understandsallsides,anddefends"eternalvalues,"evenifheis perceivedbycontemporariesasapublicenemy.Thusthehero,Clrambault,couldaddresshisreadersinamanner''inoffensive,fraternaltoall,comprehendingtoall sides."18 YetClrambault'sunlearned,spontaneousintelligenceoftheheartwasnotdevoidofcontradictionsandselfdoubts.Itincludedfeelingsofdeeplonelinessand personalinadequacy.Consciencewasfreedthroughguiltandpenance.Asheevolvedfromamancapturedbypatrioticenthusiasmtooneguidedbycompassion, Clrambaultexperiencedthealienationoftheunpopulardissenterfromwife,family,friends,colleagues,andcountry.Thewarprovokedacrisisofconsciencein Clrambault,callingintoquestionmanyofhisnineteenthcenturyvalues.Thekeytohistransformationwasthedeathofhisson,Maxime,inthetrenches.Grief destroyedhisuncriticalidealismandmadehimconfronthisownresponsibilityforhisson'sdeath.Heuniversalizedtheresponsibilityofparentsforthedeathsof Europeanyouth. Clrambaultdiscoveredthatideaswereasmurderousascannon.ThewarhaddomesticatedEuropeanmenofletters,robbedtheirindependenceandcritical intelligence.TheGreatWarrevisedtheviewofhistoryascontinuousprogresstowardharmony.Totalwarunderscoredtheroleoftreacheryandforceinhistory. Clrambaultindictedintellectualsfortheircollectivebadfaith,theircollusionwithmurder:"ThedeathofEuropeanyouth,inallcountries,

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liesatthedoorofEuropeanthought.Ithasbeeneverywhereaservanttothehangman."19 Clrambault'spacifiststandduringthewarstirredupsocialtensionsandpoliticalanimosities:"Foralltruepacifism...isacondemnationofthepresent."20Hesoon ranintotherealitiesofcensorshipandtheconfusionsgeneratedbypartialinformation,misinformation,andrumor.Becausetherewerefewoutletsfordissentingviews inwartime,hepublishedinjournalsoftheextremeleft.Thushecameintocontactwithworkermilitantsandsocialistrevolutionaries.Clrambaultacceptedneithertheir analysisofthewarnortheirsolutions.Hisownwritingsexplicitlycondemnedcapitalismandimperialism,butalwaysinthecontextofacritiqueofthestate,of nationalism,andofWesterncivilization.Clrambaultspokeaclassvocabulary,butitwasneoJacobinandpopulist,notmarkedbyaMarxistconceptionofhistoryor classstruggle.21 Whileadmittinghewasaprisonerofhisownindividualism,Clrambaultremainedoutsidetherevolutionarysocialmovementandrefusedtosubordinatehisfreespirit tothedirectivesoftheproletarianleaders.Actionforthesakeofactionwasmindless,selfdestructive,andcontrarytotheworkofbuildinganewsociety.Faithin directactionactuallydisguisedaprofoundworkerantiintellectualism.Hecontestedallpoliticalphilosophiesthatrestedonthepremisethattheendjustifiesthemeans. ClrambaultdefendedsacredvaluesandsawtherevolutionariesasyoungSaintJustshotheaded,dictatorial,simplistic,andscornfuloftheopposition.Inpolitical practiceaswellasintheory,meanswerefarmoresignificantthanends.22 Clrambaultremainedasolitarywarresister,alonewithhisfreeconscienceandinternationalism.Hewascalledatraitorforhispacifistwritings:deaththreats multiplied,andhewastriedforcirculatingpacifistpropagandaamongtheworkingclass.ThenationalistpressencouragedviolentattacksonClrambault,fearingthat hisseditiousideasmightweakenmorale.Finally,ClrambaultwasmurderedbyanationalistinmuchthesamemannerastheFrenchsocialistJeanJaurs.23 ThepacifismoutlinedinClrambaultwasidealistic,psychological,anddecidedlytragic.Individualsmustpreparetoresist,bepersecuted,anddietoopposesocial brutalityandthemenaceofworld

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war.Postwarpacifistsmustbemoralwithoutbeingsanctimonious,religiouswithoutbeingintolerant.Anoncoercive,harmoniousworlddidnotrequirethepacifist intellectualtoadoptshortterm,practicalsolutions.Themajorstrugglewouldbeagainstpersonalimpatienceandweaknessandtheconflictsofadividedself. ClrambaultfurnishedRomainRollandwithatemporaryideologicaljustificationfortheindividualautonomyhecraved.Itarticulatedhispersonalsenseofmission, illustratinghisreceptivitytononviolentpoliticalstrategies.Clrambault'sabsolutepacifism,internationalism,individualism,anddefenseofmoralfreedomsremained abovedirectpoliticalinvolvements,whichwerepollutingbydefinition.Hemadenoefforttolinkhispacifismtoexistingorganizations,toproposeprinciplesof leadershiporanationalorinternationalprogramoforganizationoraction.RomainRolland'spacifismdidnotdrawonthepre1914Frenchpeasanttraditionof antimilitarismandresistancetoconscription.24Itlackedasystematicsocialandeconomicanalysisoftherootsofwarorofthehistoricaloriginsandpolitical limitationsofpacifism.ItdidnotappealtothelongingforrevoltthatcommunistsandfascistsalikewereabletotapafterWorldWarI.Mostimportant,hispacifism didnotseemdestinedtogripalargersecularpublic.25 "Integralpacifism"wasmergedwithnonEurocentrismandantinationalism.RomainRolland'soppositiontoimperialismstressedtheculturalimplicationsratherthanthe economicandstrategicdimensionsoftheLeninistview.ItwasdifficulttodistinguishintegralpacifismfromcontemporaryEuropeanliberalismorlegalistic internationalism,asembodiedbysupportersofWilsonandtheLeagueofNations.Hedidnotadequatelyaddresscrisissituations.Whatwouldpacifistsdoincaseof foreigninvasion,anewworldwar,orthefascistthreatsthatby1922becameincreasinglyreal? RomainRolland,atfiftyseven,foundhisintellectualsituationinFranceunique.HenolongerhadreliablealliesintheFrenchuniversitysystem,anoldcenterof intellectualinfluence.HewasnotassociatedwithaParisreview,norhadheestablishedaschoolofthought.Hewroteepisodicallyfortheleftwingdailypress.He wasstigmatizedas"antiFrench"byrightwingandliberalopinion,whichblurreddistinctionsbetweenpacifistinternationalismandcommunism.26Yethiswritingswere popularthroughoutFranceandhisbookssoldextremelywellathomeand

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abroad.ThenovelColasBreugnon,bonhommevitencore,publishedinthespringof1919,ranthroughfiftytwoprintingsinthatyear.By1920,severalvolumesof JeanChristophehadbeenrepublishedin125Frenchprintings.Heearnedacomfortablelivingasafreelancewriter.Hisworkswerealmostimmediatelytranslated intothemajorEuropeanlanguages. Atthesametime,theprizewinningnovelistdiscoveredthathisnamehadalmostdisappearedfromtheFrenchliterarypressandnewspapers.Hebelievedtherewas anintentionalboycottofhisworks,motivatedbypoliticalresentmentsorthevindictivenessofofficialintellectualcirclesinParis.27Hedidnottakeintoconsideration developmentsinaestheticorliterarytasteafterthewar. RomainRolland'sliteraryreputationwasdamagedbythefactthatAndrGideandimportanteditorsoftheNouvelleRevuefranaise(NRF)dislikedhim,hisstyle, andhisviewsonart.GideonceremarkednastilythatJeanChristophewastheonlyFrenchnovelthatreadbetterinGermantranslation.28TheNRFexerciseda decisiveinfluenceonculturalattitudesinParis.RomainRollandneverwrotefortheNRFandtheNRFseldomreviewedhisworks.Reviewsthatappearedwere overwhelminglynegative.29 RomainRolland,forhispart,hadenormouscontemptfortheNRF.Heconsidereditsstableofwriterstohavebeenexcessivelynationalisticduringthewarandtheir aestheticismtobemorallybankrupt,narrowminded,andimpotent.Theymighthavetasteandtalent:
ButwhatgreatantipathyIhaveforthisN.Revuef.[NRF].Theyarepeopleforwhomtheoryisthewholeoflife!Sincetheycancreatenothing(orsolittle)bythemselves,they manufactureboxes,boxeswiththemanicdeterminationofconfusedwaspswhobuildcellswithouteverputtinganythingintothem.Andhowproudtheyareoftheirboxes!... Theyareverydistinguishedminds.Franceiswellguarded.Oh!HowgladIamtobeoutsideitall!30

Nevertheless,RomainRollandwasnotcompletelyisolated.Intheimmediatepostwarcontexthehadinfluenceandarticulatedisciples.Althoughhisengagementwas toodiffusetobeacoherentdoctrine,Rollandistsexistedwhowerepreparedtopopularizethemessage.HisactivityduringtheFirstWorldWarinspiredaseriesof criticalstudiesandbiographiespublishedbetween1919and1921byclosefriendsandassociates:PaulColin,theeditorofthe

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Brusselsreview,L'ArtlibreStefanZweig,thepopularAustrianwriter,translator,andbiographerPierreJeanJouve,theFrenchpoetandnovelistJeanBonnerot, FrenchliterarycriticandMarcelMartinet,communistpoet,playwright,andtheoreticianofproletarianculture.31Jouve'sbiography,introduced"asapoemandan actoffaith,"exemplifiedthereverentialnatureofthesestudies.Theywerelaborsoflove,writtentorepayapersonaldebttoRomainRolland,viewinghislifeasa workofartandamodelofheroism,goodEuropeanism,andmoralwisdom.Zweig'sdedicationtohisintellectualportraitvergedonhagiography.32 Intheearly1920s,RomainRolland'srelationwithintellectualssympathetictocommunismwasrichbutexceedinglycontradictory.Hisexchangeswiththesewriters revealedtheirdifferences,reenactedthedilemmassketchedinthenovelClrambault,andsetthestageforhismajorcollisionwithHenriBarbusse. ThenovelistandessayistJeanRichardBlochoptedforBolshevisminDecember1920attheCongressofTours.Hewasdeeplydisillusionedbynationalismandby thebehaviorofthesocialistmajorityduringtheGreatWar.33YetBlochhadsignedRomainRolland'sDeclarationandheremainedreceptivetoparticularfeaturesof RomainRolland'spopulist,antiimperialist,andhumanisticvision.Internationalismcouldbesharpened,Blochinsisted,ifitwerelinkedtoanunequivocalprotest againstcapitalism.34 RomainRollandreiteratedthattheauthenticintellectualopposedanypolitical,religious,orclassdictatorshipandresistedallformsofintellectualrepression.The InternationaloftheMindremaineduncontaminatedbyLeninistandotherpoliticizedviewsofaninternationalassociation.
IwillalwaysmaintaintheInternationaloftheMindoutsideofthe2nd,3rd,orthe4thInternationalofAction.Theseworldsarenotjuxtaposable.AnInternationalofActionis alwaysrelative:itaimsexclusively,narrowly,towardagoalthatwillbeandmustalwaysbesurpassedanditaimswithoneeyeinclosingtheother.TheInternationaloftheMind hasanabsoluteandeternalcharacter:nottolie,eitherinword,orinthoughtnevertotolerateashacklingofthefreesearchforandpublicverificationofthetruth.And consequently,itadmitsfreegroupings,butitrefusesallofficialunitarianism,commandedbyState,byChurch,orbyParty.35

InareviewofRaymondLefebvre'snovelLeSacrificed'Abraham(1920),RomainRollandpennedoneofhismostmemorablephrases,

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exemplifyingthetaskofthecommittedintellectual:"Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismofthewill."LefebvrewasoneofFrenchcommunism'smosttalented writers.Hepreservedwhatwasvalidinthepastwithoutdiminishinghisinventivenesshisintellect,probity,skepticism,andfaithwerecombinedwiththedetermination toact,todream,andtotakeaudaciousrisks.Histrialsbecamethesourceofhisresilientstrength.

ButwhatIespeciallyloveinRaymondLefebvreisthisintimatealliancewhichformemakesthetruemanofpessimismoftheintelligence,whichpenetrateseveryillusion,and optimismofthewill.Itisthisnaturalbraverythatistheflowerofagoodpeople,which"doesnotneedtohopetoundertakeandtosucceedtopersevere,"butwhichlivesin struggleoverandabovesuffering,doubt,theblastsofnothingnessbecausehisfierylifeisthenegationofdeath.Andbecausehisdoubtitself,theFrench"WhatdoIknow?" becomestheweaponofhope,barringtheroadtodiscouragementandsayingtohisdreamsofactionandrevolution:"Whynot?''36

Lefebvre'sreviewofLesPrcurseurstypifiedtheorganizedFrenchleft'sperceptionofRomainRollandinthisperiod.Socialistsandcommunistsesteemedhimforhis impeccableinternationalismandcourageduringthewar.Sketchinghistransitionfromprewarwriterofgeniusintoonewho"soundedtherallyoftheInternational," LefebvrefoundRomainRolland'sjudgmentsconsistentlygenerous:"HewhoneverhadaredcardinhisportfoliobecametheleaderofanInternationalofwhichhe wasnotamember."37 HenriBarbussehadalsobeeninspiredbyRomainRolland'santiwarstance,regardinghimassomeonewhohadpreservedthehonoroftheintelligentsia.38Romain RollandhadapplaudedBarbusse'simpressionisticantiwarmasterpiece,LeFeu(1916),asoneofthemostpowerfulworksofliteraturegeneratedbythewar.39 RomainRollandresigneddefinitivelyfromtheClartcommitteeon23June1919.ThesubsequentevolutionofClartconfirmedhisinitialfears.Frompacifist internationalismin1919toThirdInternationalcommunismin1920,Clartresolveditsideologicalambiguitiesbyhardeningitsline.Excessiveeclecticismhadgiven waytodogma.Barbusse'sdenunciationofprewarpacifism,accompaniedbyanincreasingnumberofunbalancedarticlesontheSovietrevolution,vindicatedRomain Rolland'sdecisiontostandapartfromthereview.HefoundthetoneofClartincreasinglystrident:the

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reviewdidnottransformtheconsciousnessofitsreadersbutaddressedonlytheconvinced.Clart'ssectarianismwouldalienateFrenchandGermanintellectualsand preventcommunismfrombeingproperlystudiedandfromtakingrootintheculturalsector.IndependentfiguressuchasEinsteinwouldrecoilfrom"theextremismof opinions,tone,andfollowersofthegroup."40 RomainRolland'sinitialimpressionsofBarbusseweremixed:"Verynice,amiable,butabittooflattering."41Barbusseingratiatedhimselfheyearnedforpublic acclaim.Intheirsocialgoalsandorientationtheyshared"thesametirelessconstancyandwholehearteddevotion,"butRomainRollandenvisagedalternativemeansto achievethosegoals.Barbusseseemedmoreorientedtojournalismandmassmanipulation.42 RomainRollandresentedBarbusse'sdesirefor"readymadesuccess."HeinvidiouslycomparedhisownyearsofsolitudeandworkdisciplinewhilewritingJean ChristophetoBarbusse'sinstantaneousfamewithLeFeu,whichfailedtopreparehimforthecrucialworkofthepresent.ByApril1920,RomainRolland consideredBarbusseafailurewhohadsquanderedhismoralauthoritybypreferringthe"roleoforatoratliterarymeetings."43BarbussewasjustanotherFrench celebrity,amanoflettersmomentarilyinfashion.Hewouldnothavealastingimprintonhispublic.Barbussehada"weaknessofcharacter":hewasslighty,notwell groundedinbasicvalues,easilyseducedbyfameandbycircumstances.44 From1919to1922,HenriBarbussetriedtowinleftistwarveterans(theAssociationRpublicainedesAnciensCombattants)andintellectuals(theClartgroup)to thecauseoftheThirdInternational,whiletakingpainstopublicizehispoliticalindependence.HedidnotjointheFrenchCommunistPartyuntil1923.Intheshorttract TheKnifeBetweentheTeeth:TotheIntellectuals(1921),Barbusseequatedcommunismwithreasonandtheeternaltruthsofconscience.45Communistdoctrine was"atthesummitofthehistoryofideas."Workersofthemindnotinsolidaritywiththismovementwerejudgedincapableofassumingtheirsocialresponsibilities. BarbusseaddressedtheFrenchintellectuals'lackofrealismandcongenitaldistrustofpolitics,bywhichtheyupheldthestatusquo.Intellectualsfailedtoseethe necessaryrelationshipbetweenpoliticalactionandsocialthought,toseethat"politicsislife."

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Barbussediscountedthedifferencebetweenpoliticalinactivityandconservatism:"Thosewhoarenotwithusareagainstus."46 Barbusse'sbrochureboreoutitstitlebyaggressivelyattackingsuchcompetingideologicalstandsasliberalism,pacifism,humanitarianism,anarchism,andmoralismas outmodedandsocioeconomicallyungrounded.IntellectualshadtoacceptthedoctrineoftheCommunistInternationalaswellasindicatetheirfraternalsympathyfor theSovietRevolution,"thebeginningofthesecondphaseofhumanity."Barbusse'sadvocacyofviolencetoachievesocialprogress("Todayviolenceistherealityof justice")wasconsistentwithhissupportforaLeninistdictatorshipoftheproletariat.Violenceandclassdictatorshipweretemporary,justifiablemeanstotheendof socialism. Barbussebluntedtheedgeofhisknifebymakingtwoconcessions.ThefirstreassuredwritersthatanalliancewiththeCommunistPartyphalanxwouldnotmeanthe totalsubordinationoftheirworktopoliticsorsociology.Norwouldtheyberequiredtojoincommunistorganizationsorobeypartydisciplinestrictly.Thesecondwas agestureofconciliationtowardRomainRolland,"splendidincarnationofconscienceandincensedperspicacity."47SuchpraisewascuriousafterBarbussehad defamedpacifistsforconfusingthefantasyofpeacewiththereality.ItunderlinedhisreluctancetoexcommunicateRomainRollandandhisprestigefromcommunist frontorganizations. <><><><><><><><><><><><> FromDecember1921tothespringof1922,HenriBarbusseandRomainRollandcarriedonaheatedexchangeofopenlettersoverthepoliticalandsocial responsibilitiesoftheintellectual.ThedebatewastriggeredbyBarbusse'spolemicalClartarticle"TheOtherHalfofDuty:ConcerningRollandism."48Romain RollandrepliedintheBrusselsjournalL'Artlibre,andhisrejoinderswerereprintedintheItalianRassegnainternazionaleandtheParisiandissidentCommunist newspaper,Journaldupeuple. Ostensibly,Barbusseaimedhisattackatthe"numerousandvaguedisciples"ofRomainRolland,whoremainedunawareoftheimpotence,socialhazards,and "intellectualerror"ofRollandism.Theonly"Rollandists"actuallynamedbyBarbusseweretheGer

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manpacifistintellectualGeorgNicolaiandtheEnglishpacifistE.D.Morel.Barbusseleveledthreeseriouschargesagainstthisnonreactionary"intellectualleft":that theydemonstratedaninfantileantipathytopoliticsthattheyhadanahistoricalphobiaaboutviolenceandthattheytraffickedinmoralisticandnonapplicableideas. BarbussecondemnedtheRollandistsfortheirselfimposeddistancefromeventsandtheirfaultyanalysisofthesocialcausesofwarandmisery.49 IntransigenceontheissueofintellectualautonomycloudedtheactualcommitmentsoftheRollandists.Althoughtheyposedasrepresentativesofadvancedthought, theircritiquesoftheexistingsocialorderwerealwayspartial,insufficient,andafterthefact."Theroleofthepuremoralistsisnegative."Barbusseinsistedthatprotest andrefutationwereonlyhalftheintellectual'sresponsibility.BarbussediscoveredthedetachmentandsentimentalivorytowerhumanitarianismoftheRollandists beneaththetrappingsofmodernismorlibertarianism.Theirdomainwasthatofpureideas.Withoutorganization,collectiveregulation,andscientificanalysisofsocial problems,theywereunabletoreacteffectivelytothepresent.Barbussearguedthattheirpacifistandliberalideologiesweredatedandirrelevant.50 InanellipticalreferencetothenovelClrambault,Barbussecondemnedtheattitudeofthe"aloneagainstall"asinadequateinthestruggleagainstapowerfulenemy. Rollandistposturingwasmerely"moralceremony."BecausetheRollandists'critiqueofsocietywasfragmentary,itcouldeasilybeturnedinareformistdirection. Gradualchangesandineffectiveprotestsobstructedthetotalrevolutionaryemancipationoftheworkersbyenticingthemwithtemporaryrewardsandfalsepromises. TheRollandistsremainedpessimisticbecausetheywereunabletoenlistcompletelyinthesocialrevolution:theylackedaunifieddoctrine,acoherentmethodof inquiry,andaviableprogramtoreplacewhattheycondemned."Therevolutionarymindisthecomplementofthespiritofrevolt."51 BarbusseadvancedthemodelofClart,animplicitrevolutionarycommitmenttotheThirdInternationalandtoLeninistsocialism.Socialismwassynonymouswith scientificinfallibility,realism,reason,advancedrepublicanism,andtrueinternationalism.ThestrengthofClart'scommitmenttosocialismderivedfromitscapacityto unitephilosophyandaction,"ideaandwill."Noother

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stancecouldmediatebetweentheoppressivepresentandtheliberatingfuture.Barbusse'ssocialistscienceoperatedbyapplicablelaws,whereastheRollandistview wasimprecise,ornamental,andimpressionistic.Independenceforthesakeofindependencewascircularandhistoricallyantiquated.Intellectualsneededcommunism toactualizetheirdreams.52 Barbusse'sagencyofsocialchangewasthepopularmultitudes,mobilizedbytheircollectiveawarenessoftheinequitiesofthecapitalistsystem.Theproducers (workers)implementeda"revolutionarysocialgeometry"throughviolenceandconstraint.Violenceremainedaprovisional,butneutralinstrumentintheworkof socialistreconstruction.Rollandistsexaggeratedtheroleofforceinclassstruggles,forgettingthat"theimperialist,militaristregime"restedonsocialcrimes.Barbusse urgedhisaudience,presumablyyoungerFrenchintellectualsandstudents,tojudgeviolencesituationally,accordingtoitshistoricalutility.Violencewasnecessaryto disarmthecapitalistprofiteersandparliamentariansandtobegintheprocessoferectingamorerationalandjustorder."Violenceisinthetotalityoftherevolutionary socialconceptiononlyadetailandonlyaprovisionaldetail."53 RomainRollandenteredthecontroversybyattackingBarbusse's"neoMarxistCommunist"theoryforclaiming"theinfallibilityofitsfundamentallaws."54Such absolutecertaintywasunwarrantedbytheevidence:itreflectedcommunism'sarroganceanditsintentiontouniversalizetheSovietmodeltoincludenonRussian societies.Hefoundthepostulationofa"revolutionarysocialgeometry"tobebothabsurdlyrationalisticandreductive.55 RomainRollandrefusedtojustifySovieterrorsbypointingtothehistoricalcontext.Certainly,theperiodofthecivilwarandofwarcommunism,includingthe villainousinterventionbythegovernmentsofEuropeandAmerica,hadcontributedtointernalSovietdifficulties.ButBolsheviksandtheirWesternsupportersmust bearresponsibilityforthecurrentrepressionandtherigidificationofthepoliticalline.Hehadobservedtheirsecrecy,intoleranceofanyorganizedopposition,and tendencytowardcentralization.TheyhadmadethenobleaspirationsoftheRussianpeopleintovehiclesofpoliticalexpediency:"Idonotstruggleagainstonereason ofStateinfavorofanother.Andmilitarism,policeterror,orbrutalforcearenotinmyeyessanctifiedbecausetheyarethe

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instrumentofaCommunistdictatorshipinsteadofbeinganinstrumentofaplutocracy.''HefoundSovietcommunistpracticetoopragmatic,tooresponsivetolies,and toopoliticaltosuithisvisionofwhattheRevolutioncouldbe.HerefusedtheManicheanchoiceposedbyBarbusseasintellectualblackmail.Hesimultaneously opposedWesterndemocraticandSovietformsofoppression.56 RomainRollandparticularlydislikedthepartyspiritamongtheBolsheviks.Hedistrustedtheautomaticattributionoftruth,justice,andprogresstotheSoviet CommunistParty.TheclaimsofabsolutecorrectnessandscientificvalidityforMarxismremainedunprovedandunprovable.Leninremainedtheonlyfreecommunist, becausehewaspermittedtocriticizeandexercisehiscapacityforjudgment.AllotherBolshevikswereepigonesmouthingapoliticalhymn.EvenLenin'sfreedomwas limitedbythedoctrinaireparametersofhisideologyandbyhisisolationintheKremlin.57 Ontheissueofthecommunistjustificationofviolence,RomainRollandextendedtheargumentfirstexpressedinClrambault.Thecommunistlegitimizationof violenceupsethimmorethanthecrueltyofthepast.Hewasunabletodifferentiatethecommunistmentalityfromthelabelsandcollectivepsychologyofrightwingand nationalistgroupsaftertheGreatWar.Theideologiesofbothleftandrightonlyintensifiedaggressionandbloodshed.Hisrefusaltosanctionviolenceevenasa temporaryexpedientstemmedpartlyfromhisdivergencefromBolsheviksaboutthepossibilityofrevolutioninWesternEurope.Hisreadingwasthattheeraof revolutionhadpassed.Europewasonthevergeof"alongcrisis...ofaneraofupheavals,duringwhichthenationswillhavetosufferagreatmanymoreattacksthan thosetheyhavejustexperienced.Wearearmingourselvesforthisageofiron."58 HecompletelyrejectedBarbusse'spropositionthatviolencewasa"provisionaldetail."Headvancedatheoryoftheselfperpetuatingnatureofhumanaggression.The experienceofviolencewastraumaticitleft"indelibletraces"inthehumanmindandmemory,scarsthatenduredforalifetime.Thustheexperienceofviolenceas victimorvictimizerwasnevertemporaryortrivial.Repeatedactsofaggressionpredisposedindividualstoactviolentlytoprotectthemselvesandtheirterritoryif threatenedbyanassault.Contemporarycommunistsdidnotseeminterestedinendinghumanaggressionbutpromisedtoescalateclasswarfare.No

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matterhowrationalizedtheuseofviolence,pastexperiencedeterminedthatthehumanpsychewouldanswercoercionwithfurtherformsofcoercion.59 RomainRollandreassertedtheintegralpacifistpositionofClrambault.Thequestionofmeanswasmorecrucialinrevolutionarythanin"normal"times.Althoughhe acceptedthenecessityforradicalsocialchange,hehopedtominimizethedisparitybetweenbrutaltechniquesandthesocietythatwasthegoal.Becausepeoplewere moldedbyparticipationindailystrugglesandbecausethefinalgoalwasrarelyreached,theemphasiswasonthefree,voluntary,andmoralnatureofconflict. Distortedbytheexcessivenessandarbitrarinessofviolence,themeansmightoverwhelmthegoal."Themeans,however,shapethemindsofmenaccordingtothe rhythmsofjusticeortotherhythmsofviolence.Andifitisaccordingtothelatter,noformofgovernmentwilleverpreventtheoppressionoftheweakbythe strong."60 Communistintellectualsmadeafetishofendsandovervalueddirectaction.Thustheywereunwillingtopromotedebateswithintheirranksorexchangeideaswiththe progressivemembersoftheEuropeanintelligentsia.Theirpropagandistsbelittledopponentswithmindlessnamecallingandabuse.Ratherthanliftthediscussiontothe levelofideasorstrategies,theydismissedthedefendersofconscienceandloveas"anarchistic"or"sentimental."RomainRollandpredictedthatcommunistintolerance wouldseparatetheintellectualleftfromtherevolutionmoreimportant,itwouldpolarizepoliticallines.61 RomainRollandknewthatearlierrevolutionshadgrownauthoritarian,ifnotdespotic,onceinpower.ThevictoriousBolshevikRevolutionmightalsodeteriorateintoa newformofdominationandinjustice.Heretainedhisindependenceandafirmresolvetoopposealldespoticformsofgovernment:
WithyouandtheRevolutionariesagainstthetyranniesofthepast!Withtheoppressedoftomorrowagainstthetyranniesoftomorrow!Schiller'sphrase:(ithasalwaysbeenmy motto)Intyrannos!(Againstalltyrants)62

Barbusse'ssecondopenletterallegedthatRomainRollandhimselflackedgenerosityforrevolutionaryactivists.Conceptslike

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"harmony"and"wisdom,"derivativesofmetaphysicalwordplay,postponedactiveparticipationinstruggle.Barbussecriticizedhisworldvisionforthe"absenceofa viable,practicalrealsolution,whichitbringstohumanunhappiness."RomainRolland'scritiqueofcommunism,withitsobsessivefixationon"violence,''paralleled those"oftheanarchistsandthebourgeois.''ThoseprofoundlytroubledbyviolenceshoulddenouncethepoliciesofWesternimperialistcountrieswhowereplundering theentireglobeandholdingtheSovietexperimentincheck.ThedisenchantmentofmensuchasRomainRollandhinderedtherevolution,retardingthecommunist effortsinsocialreconstruction.63 RomainRolland'ssecondlettertoBarbussespokedirectlytothelatter's"convenientandoratorical"placementofRollandistsintheranksofthebourgeoisie.64He ironicallynotedthatcommunistsmouthedtheirclassconsciousrhetorictothedetrimentoftheiropponents,forgettingthatmembersofthebourgeoisiewerealsotobe foundintheCommunistPartyanobliquereferencetoBarbusse'sownmiddleclasssocialorigins.HeofferedanexpansiveviewoftheRussianRevolutionasan alternativetotheCommunistPartyview.Heuniversalizedtherevolution'screativepossibilitiesandhopefora"betterandhappierhumanity,"whileBarbussenarrowed ittotheexclusivepropertyofaprofessionalvanguard:"TheRevolutionisnotthepropertyofaparty."Rollandstressedthecoexistenceoftherevolutionwithliberty Barbussefusedtherevolutionwithequality.65 Totalfreedomofthoughtoughttocomplementrevolutionaryactivism.Intellectualswereobligedtoprotestagainstallsloganizing,whetherofaparty,church,orcaste. Flagwavingofanysortwasanathema,nomatterwhatcolortheflagorhowattractiveitssymbols.Intellectualsmustbeunceasinglyvigilantagainstallauthority. RomainRollandcalledforprotesttobepracticedduringandafterthemakingofarevolution,toquestionpowerpermanently,andtotakepublicstandsagainst injusticeandtheusurpationofrights.Heassertedthatphilosophicallyinclinedwritersnotonlypreparedtherevolutionbutalsowerecrucialinconstructingthejust societyaftertheupheaval.AgainsttheBolshevikdenigrationoftheintelligentsia,heevokedthetraditionoftheeighteenthcenturyphilosophetobuttresshisideaofthe intellectual'sresponsibility:

Page96 [theresponsibility]toridicule,tocastigate,toflingstonesatabuses,inemulationofthemordantcriticism,theembitteredironyofVoltaireandtheEncyclopedistswhodidmore forthedownfallofthemonarchythanthehandfulofrashmenwhotooktheBastille.66

RomainRolland'sassessmentofthepotentialforradicalchangeinWesternEuropeclashedwithBarbusse's.Thewarhadlefttheworkingclassapatheticand exhausted.Thecommunistanalysislackedpsychologicalrealismifitfeltthatthese"profoundmasses"couldimplementaprogramofmassivesocialchange.Hewas notreassuredbythecaliberofexistingFrenchCommunistPartyleadership.TimewasneededtohealtheinjuriesoftheFirstWorldWarandtoaccomplishthe immensejobofsocialreconstruction.Suchataskrequiredgenerations.Barbusse'sremedywasprecipitateanddestructive.Theunleashingofrevolutionaryforcesin Europein1922wouldbedisastrous,triggeringapainfulrepression,reopeningthewoundsofthewar,andsappingthelastresourcesoftheprogressiveforces.67In relegatingsocialistvictorytothedistantfuture,Rollandsuggestedthathisperspectivewasactuallyanevolutionaryone. Switchingfromrejoindertoaffirmation,RomainRollandintroducedanovelelementintothecontroversyGandhiannonacceptanceofthestate.Hesketched Gandhi'scontributionasaspiritualquest,apoliticalphilosophy,andapowerfultactic.Gandhi'slifeandworkwerelittleknownincontinentalEurope,buttheviability andadaptabilityofthedoctrinehadbeenprovedbytheworkof"thousandsofAngloSaxonConscientiousObjectors"andbyGandhi'seffortstoundermineEnglish colonialdominationofIndia.RomainRollandpresentedGandhismasastrategicandethicalalternativetoBolshevism.ItcontradictedtheBolshevikovervaluationof collectiveforcesbydemonstratingtheefficacyofindividualresistancetothestate.Itrefutedthecommunistinsistenceonthenecessityofviolencebyrevealingthe practicaloptionofnonviolenceinstrugglesofnationalliberation,strugglesagainstconscription,andlaborbattles.68 HeintroducedGandhi'stheoryandpracticetodisprovetheaccusationthathisvisionwaspartialanddisconnectedfrompoliticalpractice.Gandhismpromisedto breakthecycleofviolencebegettingviolence.Neitherpassivenornegative,itrequiredenormouswillpowerandselfdisciplineoftheindividualresisters,heroic

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moralrefusaltocollaboratewiththe"criminalState."ThepoliticalandreligiousaspectsofRomainRolland'sGandhismintermingled.Implacablerejectionofthestate threatenedexistingpowerrelations,whiletheindividual'swillingnesstomakesacrificesrepresentedareturntothesacred,areleaseofmoralforces,"thefireof conscience,thequasimysticalsenseofthedivinethatisineverybeing."69 GandhismcreativelyextricatedRomainRollandfromhispoliticalimpasseandenabledhimtointegratetheprocessesofindividualandcollectiveemancipation.The workofconstructingarevitalizedandjustsocietywouldtapthemoralresourcesoftheindividualsbutallowresistersrelativeautonomy.Individualswouldbe accountabletothemselves,nottoapartyoracoterie.70 InapostscriptRomainRollandofferedBarbusseanobjectlessoninmodernscience.HedissectedtheepistemologyofBarbusse's"socialgeometry"toshowthatit wassimplyanotherformoffaith.Barbusseconfusedscientificfactswithirrefutablelaws.Alawrequiredanabstractconceptionexpressingrelationsbetweenfacts. Lawsdidnotexistinnature,butinpeople'sminds.Therewerenolawsthatdidnoteliminatecertainfacts,thatdidnottakeintoaccountthemindofthescientist. Science,likeallotherhumandisciplines,hadaselfreflexivecomponent,wasrelative,asEinsteinhadestablished,andonlyapproximatedanexactviewofnature.To thinkthatonecouldarriveatpreciselawswastoindulgeinmetaphysics.71 Barbusse'scommunistmethodologyshiftedabruptlyfromthepuretotheappliedsciences.Anunmediatedleapfrommathematicstosociologystemmedfromabstract reasoning,whichfailedtoconsiderthelivingcomplexityofthehumanorganismaswellastheroleofpsychologyinallsocialinteractions.Atitsbestmodernsociology offereda"calculusofprobabilities,""roughapproximations"ofexistingreality,hardlyBarbusse'sgeometricclarityandrigor.72 Inhisthirdandfinalletter,BarbusseagaininsistedthatRollandismwasutopian.73Goodwill,faith,andhonestywereexcellentvirtues,butinsufficienttorestructure society.Intellectualprotest,too,wasadmirablebutlimited.Rollandistslentprestigetotheforcesofreformism,diffusingthemilitancyofcompetinggroupswhocalled forradicalchange.Steepedinselfcontradiction,these

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"halfliberals"and"halfpacifists"tookrefugeinthepoeticexaltationofindividualfreedomandconsciencewhileomittingallreferencetotheprivilegednatureofthat liberty.74 BarbusserevivedRomainRolland'sdistinctionbetweenlibertyandequality,butturneditagainsthisopponent.ThatRomainRollandchoselibertywasperfectly consistentwithhisposition:libertywasavaguenotionreadilymodifiablebyexternalcircumstances.Equality,incontrast,wasscientificallyexactandattainable.Nor wouldBarbusseretractthepejorativeepithets"bourgeois"and"anarchist"todescribeRomainRolland'sthought:theywerejustifiedbythefragmentaryand inapplicablenatureofhistheoryandhisdeductiveapproachtosocialproblems.Toglorifyindividualistsolutionsandtocharacterizeallcollectivebehaviorasmasking hiddenformsoftyrannywastoindulgeaninfantileantiauthoritarianism.RomainRolland'sargumentscouldbeliftedbytheWesternrulingclassto''discreditthe Russianrevolutionaryexperiment."Rollandistsrefusedtotakerisks.Ratherthanacceptrevolutionarypractice,theywouldchoosenoninvolvementinthedailypolitical tasksrequiredtoimplementtheirhumanitariandreams.75 AsforRomainRolland'sreflectionsonviolence,Barbussefoundthem"confused,arbitrary,lostinverbalism."Heconcededthattheword"constraint"waspreferable, beinglessemotionallycharged.Constraintwasanessentialelementnotonlyofsocialstrugglebutalsoofthecohesionanddisciplineofafunctioningcollective movement.RomainRollandmisinterpretedcommunistrealismasbloodthirstinessoradesireforreprisals.76 Barbusse'sreactiontoGandhi'spoliticalphilosophyandmethodswascontradictory.Hegrantedtheefficacyofnonacceptanceinspecificcircumstances,seeing"this heroicpassivity"ascloselyrelatedtotheweaponofthepoliticalstrike.A"peacefulrevolution"mightalsobepossibleincertainhistoricalframeworks.Thesuccessof thenonviolenttacticdependedonthenearlyunanimousconsentofitsparticipants.Unlessthevastmajorityresisted,violencewouldbemultiplied.Ifonlyafew conscientiousobjectorsrefusedtomobilizeforwarinFrance,theiractionswouldbackfiretheywouldbejailedandsummarilyexecuted.Individualismintheabsence ofacollectiveandinternationalorganizationcouldnotstandagainstthedeadlyforceofrepressiveagencies.Consequently,Gandhianresistancewasbesidethepointin France.77

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NotwithstandingtheSovietUnion's"faults"anditswaveringsofdoctrine,Barbussecomparedcontemporarysocialistrealityfavorablytomoderncapitalistsociety, dominatedby"imperialism,therapacityofthemetallurgicalandmilitaryoligarchy,theoppressionoftherichwithallthepretextsofnationalism."Barbussepreferred communism,withitsscientificpredictabilityandpracticalattemptstobuildabetter,moreegalitarian,future.HeregrettedthatRomainRollanddidnotchoosethesame paththeformermastermustbesurpassedtomeetthepressingdemandsofthetimes:"Whatyouhavesaidwhatyouhavedonewillalwaysremainsacredand precioustous,andinspiteofyou,wewillusethemtogofurtherthanyou.''78 TheimmediatebackdropforRomainRolland'slastletterwasapolemicalarticlebyAmdeDunoisandseveralilltemperedjournalisticpiecesbyMarcelMartinet, literaryeditorofL'Humanitandacloseassociateofhis.TherhetoricalviolenceofthesepiecescoincidedwiththeannouncementofanopentrialinRussiaofthe SocialRevolutionaries,apartyinoppositiontotheBolsheviks.ThetrialwasscheduledtobegininMarch1922,atthesametimeastheGenoaConference.Thisnews suggestedfurtherideologicalintoleranceandageneraltighteningofthepoliticaldictatorshipinRussia.MostWesternobserverswereunawarethatthetrialwas orchestratedbygeneralsecretaryStalinwhileLeninwasill.Afterward,theSocialRevolutionariesandallotherorganizedpoliticaloppositionintheSovietUnionwere banned.79 RomainRolland'slastopenletterfocusedonthedistortionsinLeninisttheoryandpractice,ratherthan"prolongingtoeternity"theBarbussedebate.80Hisletterwas pervadedby"anxiety"and"doubt''abouttheopentrialoftheSocialRevolutionaries.81SucheventswereeasilyexploitedbytheantiBolshevikforcesofWestern Europe.AprogressiveWesternintellectual,heinsisted,couldcriticizeboththecredoandthepoliciesoftheUSSRwithoutbeingdenigratedasabourgeoisora reactionary.82 Helinkedcommunistmaterialismtorecentdevelopmentsincapitalistindustrialtechnology.Communistsacceptedmostofthepoliticalandeconomicassumptionsof modernindustrialismbutwereignorantoftheadvancesinphilosophyandpsychology.Theydebunkedandpersecutedpeopleoffaithandspirit.Drawnfroma"single book"(presumablyCapital),Marxismwasillequippedto

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explainthediversityofhumannature.NorwerethelegalisticandmechanisticformulasofSovietMarxismsuppleenoughtograspthecomplexityoflivedexperience. Marxistrationalismtriedtoencompassallofhumanbehaviorundera"unitarian"politicalandeconomicsystem,forgettingthoseaspectsofmotivationthatsprangfrom culture,education,orthepsyche.83 Headvisedhis"Communistfriends"tobemorehumble,selfcritical,andaboveallwillingtomakeallianceswithpotentialsupporters.TheBolshevik"brutalizationof Europeanliberalopinion"wasbothunrealisticandselfdefeating.AlienatingsuchwritersasBertrandRussell,GeorgBrandes,andAnatoleFrancemightseverthe socialrevolutionfrom"moralforces"whoinfluencedpublicopinion.AnatoleFrance,despitehisallegiancetoClartandselfproclaimedadvocacyofcommunism, hadpubliclyprotestedthetrialoftheSocialRevolutionaries.Bolshevikdenunciationsoftheintelligentsiafor''petitbourgeoissentimentality"rupturedalinkwiththose attemptingtoreconcilethe"exigenciesofthesocioeconomicRevolutionandthenolesslegitimatedemandsofspiritualliberty."Theintellectualsvilifiedbythe communistpresswereinclosertouchwiththeemotionalpulseofWesternsocietythanwerethesectariancommunists.84 Thecommunistswereignorantofthehistoryofrevolutions.DuplicatingthefatalmistakesoftheFrenchRevolution,theylaudedorganizedcoercion,rationalizedtheir conspicuouserrors,deliberatelyrebuffeddistinguishedforeignpartisans,andnegatedthehumanisticprinciplesthathadoriginallymotivatedthesocialupheaval.Above all,theywereunabletoforestallanauthoritariandictatorship.InRussiaandinFrance,communismwasblindtothepowerofemotionandimagination:
ThepoliticsofviolenceandabovealltheclumsyeffortstoextolthatpolicyhavehadtheinevitableconsequencesofestrangingfromtheRussianRevolutiontheeliteliberal thinkersofEurope...justasthemassacresoftheFrenchRevolutiondefinitelyalienateditfromtheWordsworths,theColeridges,andtheSchillers....Inmyopinionthatwas oneofthecausesoftheruinoftheFrenchRevolution.LettheRussianRevolutionariesbeadvised.Woetothosewhoscorntheforcesoftheheart!85

RomainRollandpittedhisconceptofthecomplexityofthehumanorganismandofsocietyagainsttheMarxistmaterialismthat

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reducedthismultidimensionalitytoadogma.Marxisthorizonswere"fartoonarrowlycircumscribedbyeconomicmaterialism."ImplicitlyretreatingfromGandhism,he wasnowunabletoconceiveanalternativeroutetocommunism.Nevertheless,hewouldpatientlywaitforastrategytoextricatehimfromhisdilemma.Thearticle endedwithanidealistglorificationof"Mind"asanautonomousuniverse,aforceofnature.Heremainedapartfromallmassmovements,attemptingtoharmonize insurrectionaryforceswiththoseoftheheartinhisefforttofindthe''revolutionaryformulaofthefuture."86 RomainRollandwasconcernedthatBarbusse,byinitiatingthisquarrel,notonlyplacedRollandistsonthedefensivebutalsodividedtheleftandweakenedtheforces forinternationalism.Theonlybeneficiarywaspoliticalandintellectualreaction.87Moreseriously,hewasappalledbyClart'srefusaltopublishtheentiredebateinits pagesastheaffairunfolded.Thisintolerantattitudemirroredcommunistviewsonintellectuallibertyandfreedomofthepress,anticipatingthekindofrepressive societythatcommunistsmightconstruct.HisreplieswerepublishedintheBrusselsperiodical,L'Artlibre,directedbyPaulColin.88 TheFrenchCommunistsjumpedintothemidstofthepolemicbypublishinganarticlebyAmdeDunoisinL'Humanitcalled"ConcerningtheCommunist Manifesto."Dunoisofferedsomerudimentaryclassanalysis,relyingontheMarxistdistinctionbetweeninfrastructureandsuperstructure.Marxhadresolvedthis debatebypointingtowardpracticalsolidaritywiththemodernproletariat.Identifyingcapitalistsocietywithdecadence,war,andlegalizedexploitation,Dunoisheld thatclassreconciliationwasimpossiblebetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisie.Bourgeoisideologyandsentimentalitywereparasiticalintellectualsshouldside withtheworkers,whosehistoricalmissionitwastomaketherevolutionandachievesocialism,despite"theconvulsionofdictatorshipandterror."89 RomainRollandstatedhispositionunequivocallyinaletterdated10March1922:"Iamwiththeproletariatwhentheyrespecttruthandhumanity.Iamagainstthe proletariateverytimetheyviolatetruthandhumanity.Therearenoclassprivileges,neitherhighnorlow,inthefaceofsupremehumanvalues."90 DunoisrepliedvigorouslyinthesameissueofL'Humanit,inan

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articleentitled"NeutralityIsImpossible."CommunistintellectualsalonewerecommittedinarealisticwayRomainRollandhadregressedbacktohisidealistic1914 stance"abovethebattle."Circumstancesforcedonetodecidebetweentheorganizedworkingclassandthemiddleclass.Againsttheabstractdevotiontofreedom andjustice,heposedthe"pitilessrealism"ofMachiavelliandMarxtoattainthesesublimegoals.Classstruggle,notindividualgreatness,layatthebaseofhistorical progress.Becauseanexploitedclasshadtoseizesituationsastheydeveloped,itcouldnotalwaysexercisecompletecontroloveritsactionsoritsmeans.91 MarcelMartinetclimaxedhisroleinthepolemicinanangrypieceentitled"TheIntellectualsandtheRevolution."Heannouncedhisfinalbreakwithhisformermentor, whosedisillusionwiththerealityoftheRussianRevolutionprovedthathehadnotchangedsincethewar.Defendersof"IndependenceoftheMind"hadbeen repetitiousandfartoogeneroustoward"imbecilicandcruelsocialregimes"intheWest,whilebrimmingoverwithcomplaintsaboutproletariandemagoguery.During thewar,RomainRollandhadraisedglobalissuesonwhichrevolutionarieshadmeditated,despitetheirdisagreementswithhimonmethodsandsolutions.Butthattime hadlongsincepassed,andhisviewshadtobesuperseded.The"vainretreat''oftheintelligentsiafromtheworkers'struggleshowedtheirlackofvisionandreluctance todirtytheirhandsinabloodyrevolution.92 AbyproductofthisdebatewasaferventexchangebetweenRomainRollandandthecelebratedMarxisthistorianoftheFrenchRevolution,AlbertMathiez,authorof Robespierreterroriste(1921).MathiezquestionedthenatureofintellectualdisengagementfromthegreatRevolutionof1789.ApparentlywrittentocorrectRomain Rolland'sDantonistmisinterpretation,thebook'shiddenpurposewastoestablishprecedentsforintellectualallegiancetorevolutionaryupheavals.Contemporary intellectualscouldlogicallyandingoodfaithrallytotheSovietRevolution.Hereferredtothe"fact"thatmostEuropeanwritershadcontinuedtosympathizewiththe FrenchRevolutiondespitetheTerror.
Therewerewithoutdoubtthen,astoday,someRomainRollandstotakerefugeabovethesocialbattleinasuperiorpuritanism,buttherewerealsotheHenriBarbussesto understandtheprofoundreasonsforanunprecedentedcrisisandtomaintaintheirsympathiesand

Page103 theircooperationwiththemenofactionwholedthestrugglewithintrepidhearts.
93

RomainRollandcontestedMathiez'sevidenceforWordsworth'sallegiancetotheFrenchRevolution.AthreelinepassagefromThePreludewashardlysufficient. MathiezglossedoverWordsworth'shorroroftherevolutionaryTerror,selfservinglymisrepresentingthepoet'shistoricaldisillusionmentwiththeseexcesses.The distortionsoftheTerrorpushedWordsworthforeverawayfrompoliticalcommitments,towardanexclusiveabsorptioninpoetryandtheimaginaryprocess. Thereaftertherevolutionbecameasymbolofyouthfulillusionsandselfdeceptions.RomainRolland,infact,linkedhisowncriticalviewonBolshevikviolencewiththe philosophyofWordsworth."Hefinallydiscoveredthattruefreedomisinnerfreedom,thatofthecreativemind."YetRomainRollandalsoadmiredRobespierreasa historicalpersonalityandaleaderwithvisionandpoliticalacumen.Mathiez'sfinescholarshipmerelydisguisedhisapologyforthe"dictatorshipofviolenceatthetime oftheConvention."RomainRolland'sappreciationofthe"incorruptible"changedneitherhisidentificationwiththemartyredpoetsoftheTerrornorhisoppositionto anyjustificationfordictatorships:"IftomorrowRobespierrebecamemasterinFranceagain,Iwouldgotodiewith[Andr]ChnierandnotwithRobespierre.''94 ConvincedthatthesubstantiveissueoftheBarbussedebatewas"agreatsubject,"RomainRollandencouragedL'Artlibretosolicitresponsesfromintellectualsall overEurope.Wideningtheforum,however,didnotmeantrivializingtheideasordealinginpersonalities:noinjuriousremarksaboutBarbusseorClartweretobe included.Thedebatemustmaintainaseriouslevelofdiscourseandaddressdivergentideastoresonatewithwriters.95Heappendedaprovocativeappealto intellectuals:
Doyouthinkthatitisthepresentdutyoftheartist,thescholar,themanofthoughttobeengagedin1922inthearmyoftheRevolution,astheywereengagedin1914intheArmy ofRight?OrratherdoesitseemtoyouthatthebestwayofservingthecauseofhumanityandeventheRevolutionistoprotecttheintegrityofyourfreethoughtevenifagainst theRevolution,ifthelatterdoesnotunderstandthevitalneedforliberty?Fornotunderstandingthisneed,theRevolutionwouldnolongerbeasourceofrenewal,butwould becomeanewformofmonsterwithahundredfaces:Reaction.96

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TheRomainRollandHenriBarbussedebateexpandedinMarch1922,whenanentirenumberofL'Artlibrewasdevotedtothediscussionof"Independenceofthe Mind:ResponsestoRomainRolland'sAppeal."TwentysevenintellectualsrepliedthedebatespilledovertotheAprilissue.97Onlythreeofthetwentyseven participantssupportedBarbusse.98TwointellectualstookmiddlepositionsbetweenRomainRollandandBarbusse.99Theremainingarticleswereallstrong statementsonbehalfofRomainRolland'spointofview,reflectingconsensusontheimportanceoftheWorldWarIexperience,analmostunanimousoppositionto violence,andimpatiencewithattemptstolegitimizecoercivemethodsandtemporarydictatorships.TheRollandistsappearedvehementlycommittedtoapluralistic society.Believinginpersonaltransformationsandasharedconceptofinternationalismthattranscendedclassandparty,theystressedtherightofindividualprivacy andautonomy.Manyinvokedtheideaofculturalrevolutionincontrasttothecommunistviewofsocialandpoliticalupheaval.100Thereweresignificantomissions: onlyonereferencewasmadetoMarx'swritings,whichsuggeststheancillaryroleofMarxisttheoryinthecontroversy.Gandhiantheoryandpracticedidnotfare muchbetter. EdouardDujardin'sParisjournalCahiersidalistesprovidedanadditionalforumfortheRollandBarbussedebatebypublishingthirteenreactionsfromFrench, Swiss,andItalianintellectuals.TwoofthethirteensidedwithBarbusse.101 Frenchanarchistsandlibertariancommuniststookalivelyinterestinthedebate,partlybecauseoftheinherentmagnitudeoftheissuesandpartlyinresponseto Barbusse'sdefamationofanarchism.ArticlesappearedinLeLibertaire,Revueanarchiste,andJournaldupeupleinthespringandsummerof1922.TheFrench extremeleftwasalarmedbythepersecutionsofRussiananarchistsandSocialRevolutionaries.TheyprotestedrepressiveSovietpoliciesandcriticizedtheBolshevik worldviewfromalibertarianperspective.102 RomainRollandespeciallyadmiredtheresponsesofDuhamel,Durtain,Vildrac,vandeVelde,andZweig.Writersonbothsidesoftheissuewerenotalwaystactful orgermane.HewassatisfiedwiththeprivateexpressionsofsolidarityhehadreceivedfromAlbertEinsteinandMaximGorky.ThepacifistintellectualsNorman Angell,FrederickvanEeden,E.D.Morel,andBertrandRussellagreed

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withRolland'sprinciplesofintellectualindependencebutdidnotintercedebecausetheyweretravelingorinillhealth.103 Feelingthatitwasnecessarytoestablishaforumforadvancedthoughtfreefrompartisanpolitics,RomainRollandurgedhiscolleaguestoinaugurateanewParis basedinternationalreview.Itshouldcontain"nopolitics"andshouldbe"asindividualistaspossible."BesidesendingtheculturalisolationofintellectualsinWestern EuropeandtheSovietUnion,hewantedittoofferanalternativetoClart'sMarxistparochialismandtotheNRF'saestheticismandformalism.Thereviewshould promoteaculturaltastefortheforeign,ataskbestaccomplishedbytranslatingnonFrenchclassicsandbyactivelyseekingthecollaborationofAsianintellectuals.104 ThefirstnumberofthejournalEuropeappearedon15January1923. RomainRollanddeeplydistrustedtheprevailingpoliticsonboththeleftandtheright.HedepartedforSwitzerlandon30April1922,neveragaintolivepermanentlyin theFrenchcapital.Heexplainedhisselfimposedexileinthesewords:

IamleavingParis,definitivelythistime,morallymoreisolatedthanIhaveeverbeen....PoliticalandintellectualreactionisrulinginFrance.IamleavingParisatthetimeofthe ConferenceofGenoa,atwhichtheFrenchdelegationistheonlyonetoobstructthepacificationofEurope.Thepeopleareindifferent.Thenationisreadyforanotherwar, wheneveritshouldpleasePoincar.IforeseeasecondWaterloo,soonerorlater.Anditissadtosaythatwhenitcomesitwillbebutjust.105

OnceinstalledinVilleneuve,Switzerland,atownexquisitelyperchedinthemountainsoverlookingLakeLeman,RomainRollandreturnedtocreativeactivities.The firstvolumeofhisnovelisticcycleL'Ameenchante,AnnetteetSylvie,appearedinAugust1922.106BelievingthattheBarbussedebatewasover,heexpressedhis feelingsofrespectforBarbusse"inspiteoftheerrorsofhisthoughts."ThepubliccontroversyhadreinforcedRomainRolland'sesteemfortheyoungerFrenchwriter. Privatelyfaultinghisselfdeceptionsandunnuancedthinking,RomainRollandpraisedBarbusse'ssincerity,noblecharacter,courteousness,faithinhumanity,and "chivalricgenerosity."107Heleftopenthepossibilityoffraternalcollaboration.

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Duringthesummerof1922thepagesofL'HumanitwereopentoRomainRolland'sattackonAmericancapitalismforits"execrablepersecutions"ofradicallabor groupssuchastheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld.108ButtheywereswiftlyshutwhenheintercededonbehalfofHenriFabre,directorofJournaldupeuple,who hadbeenpurgedfromthePCF,andprotestedthecurrenttrialsoftheSocialRevolutionariesintheSovietUnion.Trialsshouldnotbecoverups,hewroteinhis journalprogressivesintheWesthadtobekeptinformedinordertoassesssuchconfusinganddisturbingevents.109 RomainRollandwasenragedbyL'Humanit'srefusaltopublishhisarticles.

ThereisnolongerjusticeortruthintheFrenchCommunistpress,onlyCommunistjusticeandtruth.Thiswillleadtoshipwreck,notforfreedom,whichdoesnotconcernthe Communists,butfortheRevolution.IftheRevolutiondoesnotretainreligiousrespectfortruthandmoralvalues,itwillfatallybreakupintocombinazioniorotherwisebecome cunningandviolentlikeFouchorBonaparte.110

Hetriedtorestoremutualtoleranceamongthepeopleandmovementsontheleft.Communistintellectualsmisconstruedhisstanceas"antiBolshevik,"butthe"anti Bolshevismoftheleft"wasactuallyacommunistconstruction,revealingcommunistfanaticismandignoranceoftheculturalsphere."AsIhavesaidearlier:not'anti Bolshevik'but'aBolshevik.'Forinthedepthsofmysoul,noneofthisinterestsme."111 LeonTrotskycontributedafittingepiloguetotheRomainRollandHenriBarbussedebateinOctober1922.Combiningirreproachablerevolutionarycredentialsand penetratingliteraryinsights,TrotskyarticulatedtheofficialSovietviewandrelegatedRollandisthumanismtothedustheapofhistory.InareviewofMartinet'sdrama LaNuit,TrotskyunleashedanattackonRomainRolland'sphilosophy:hisnarrowhumanitarianegoismpertainedonlytoartistshelackedaprogramofmassaction forthepeople.Whentheissuesofwarandpeaceandintellectualcollaborationshiftedtosocialrevolution,RomainRollandfalteredandremainedstationed"abovethe battle."TheFrenchmoralist'sblanketcondemnationofviolenceanddictatorshipstemmedfromindividualistmoralandaestheticnotionsnotfromanunderstandingof history.Revolu

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tionaryviolencewasthesolemeansbywhichworkerscouldreversetheexploitativeregimesoftheiroppressors.
Aslongasthepeoplesufferthedictatorshipofcapital,RomainRollandpoeticallyandaestheticallycondemnsthebourgeoisiebutshouldtheworkingclassendeavortoburst theyokeoftheirexploitersbytheonlymeansintheirpower,bytheforceofrevolution,theyinturnencountertheethicalandaestheticcondemnationofRomainRolland.And thushumanhistoryisinsumonlymaterialforartisticinterpretationorformoraljudgment.RomainRolland,thepretentiousindividualist,belongstothepast.

ObliquelyreferringtoGandhianideas,Trotskyarguedthatpacifismwasnotarevolutionarystrategy.Itraisedexpectationswhilefulfillingthemwithpassivityand halfwaymeasures."Poisonedbyskepticism,hesoaredhighincontemplation,butinhisdecisivemomentswasalwayshostiletotheinsurgentproletariat."112 RomainRollandrecordedthisgoingoveratthehandsofthe"CzarofallRussians,morepowerfulthanNapoleon."113Thecommentsof"Generalissimo"Trotsky were"notwithoutjustice"fromtheperspectiveofaMarxistrevolutionaryactivist.ThoughTrotskyfailedtounderstandhischaracterorhisfaith,hewasafarmore interestingopponentthanthebourgeoisliterarycritics:"Trotsky'ssabredippedinredinkisbetterthantherazorofSoudayorThibaudet."Itwasfutiletoreplyto Trotsky'sscathingremarks.HewasconvincedthattheBolshevikshadarrivedataconspicuous''pointofaberration,"114namely,concentratingtheirenergieson pocketsofleftwingintellectuals,pacifists,anarchists,socialists,andantimilitaristsratherthanontheentrenchedadversaryfinancecapitalismandtheupper bourgeoisie. TheRollandBarbusseconfrontationraisedratherthanresolvedcomplicatedquestions.Itsrelativelywidescalereverberationinintellectualandpoliticalcircles testifiedtotherelevanceoftheissuesunderdiscussionandtothetragicseriousnessoftheintellectual'ssearchforameaningfulpathafterWorldWarI.Forabrief moment,EuropeanandFrenchmenofletterswereaskedtoformulatetheirviewspubliclyabouttheirroleinsociety.Posingsuchaquestionwasitselfapoliticalact, anditraisedtheenigmaticquestionoftheintellectual'spoliticalaffiliation.Theexpansionofthedebateintoapublicinvestigation,featuredinspecialnumbersofL'Art libreandCahiersidalistesandspillingoverintothecommunistand

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anarchistpress,testifiedtoitsresonancethroughouttheculturalsector.Itdocumentedhowintellectualssawthemselvesin1922andhowtheycontestedissuesatthe intersectionofpoliticsandculture. AsRomainRollandaptlyobserved,theantimoniesofthequarrelopposedlibertytoauthority,freedomtoequality,butalsotheideologyofintegralpacifism Clrambault's"oneagainstall"totheMarxistideologyofhistoricallydeterminedcollectiveforces.Therelationshipofmeanstoendswasposed,andthe propositionthatGandhiannoncooperationmightbeanalternativetorevolutionaryviolence.RomainRolland'sstressontheintellectual'scontinuoussearchfortruth collidedheadonwithBarbusse'scommunistviewofclassconsciousness,itselfaderivativeofclassconflict.115 TheconfrontationclimaxedBarbusse'sbreakwithRomainRolland'sinternationalism,pacifism,andintellectualindependence.BarbussewasnowalignedwithThird Internationalcommunism,andheheldthatallintellectualswithfaithinthefuturewouldaffiliatewithsuchmovements.PostwarEuropewasalmostcompletely politicized,andintellectualscouldnolongerdeceivethemselvesthattheirrelationshiptoexploitativesocietywasapolitical.Partialpoliticizationandaloofnesswere unacceptabletheonlyoptionwastotalcommitmenttobothMarxistideologyandcommunistorganizationalstructures.Followingthisdebate,Barbussemarkedouta successfulcareerasorator,journalist,organizer,andspokesmanforcommunistfrontoperations.Heneveragainwroteagreatliterarywork.Untilhisdeathin1935 hewasatirelessservantoftheCommunistInternational. Barbussecalledforthefusingofclassstruggleandpoliticalstruggle.HisperceptionofthemethodologicalvalueofMarxismasaninstrumentofsocialanalysiswas rudimentary.Ifanything,Barbusse'sMarxismliveduptothetitleofhisjournal,Clart:itwasdedicatedtoenlighteningitsreaders.Manyofhiskeypointswerecrude extrapolationsofLenin'swritings.Barbussebridgedthegapbetweencriticismandactionbyjoiningamasscommunistpartyatleastrhetoricallydevotedtoproletarian emancipationandtotherealizationofsocialism.ThecontoursofBarbusse'slateruncriticalattachmenttoStalinismareforeshadowedhere.RomainRollandwould neverreachsomeofhisopponent'sconclusionsorembrace

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communistorganizationalstructures.Hisjourneyasafellowtravelerwasfarmoreagonizing. Barbusse'sdoctrineoftheintellectual'sresponsibilitywasmechanisticandundialectical.ItsprimitivenessreflectedtheslowandfragmentarypenetrationofMarxism intoFrance,analmostcaricaturishgraftingoftheBolshevikideologyontoJacobinismandpostEnlightenmentthinking.Barbusse'sMarxismwasthevulgarMarxismof theuntutoredworkerandpartymilitantoftheperiod.Histhoughtprecludedevenapreliminarysketchofsocioeconomicorsocioculturalanalysis.Barbussehad assimilatedanoverlayofLeninistpropagandabeforetheconceptualapparatusofMarx.Hissectarianpresentationofthecommunistcaseclearlyrepresentedthe worldvisionofthePCFatthismoment. BarbussededicatedhimselftopoliticizingboththemassesandtheintellectualsandtowrestingpoliticalcontrolawayfromthedominantclassesinFrenchsociety. RomainRollandbackedofffromovertpowerconsiderations,workedtodepoliticizeatleasttheintellectualsectorofsociety,andrefusedtopolarizetheclassstruggle. InRomainRolland'soutlook,intellectualsdefendedtheculturallegacyofthepast,workedtoreinventcultureinthepresent,andhelpedtoexpandtheconsciousness oftheirpublic.Yethehadahealthyskepticismabouttheprecisegoalormeaningofintellectuallabor.Intellectualscouldnotchangetheworldbutcouldonlyinterpret it,perhapscontributeanelementoftranscendenceandconsolation.Hetookrefugeinnineteenthcenturyidealistabstractions:thinkersshouldaimfortruth,justice, humanity,theelucidationofethicalconcerns.Theyshouldbeheretics,rejectallfalsedichotomies,andstrivetowardreturningmodernhumanitytothesacred.Since BarbussebelievedinthehistoricmissionoftheEuropeanproletariat,heviewedRomainRolland'snotionoftheintellectualtobeanotherelitistobfuscation,covering overoldformsofclassprivilege,maintainingtheseparationofmentalworkersfrommanualworkers. RomainRollandstumbledinexplaininghowhisnoncommunistintellectualpoliticscouldinvolvedailystruggle,vigilance,exemplaryactivity,andsignificantsocial changeratherthanthetokenespousalofunrealizablepositions.TherealityoftheRussianRevo

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lutionexacerbatedhisdifficulties.ItmadehimseemutopianandromanticandBarbusserealisticandscientific. RomainRollandtriedtoclosethechasmbetweenengagementandallegiancetocriticalinquiryandimaginativeendeavors.Tobridgethegapbetweenfreedomand socialrevolution,hedefendedtraditionalcivilliberties.Hestressedpluralism,unityontheleft,andlibertarianvaluesasnecessaryantidotestoBolshevikpolitical expediency,centralization,purityofdoctrine,anddivisiveness.Hispleaforopencriticismbetweencommunistsandnoncommunists,andforselfcriticismwithin communistcircles,hadapropheticring.Anticipatingthedistortionsifresearchconformedtoideologicalboundaries,oraccesstoinformationwereprohibited,he acceptednorationalizationforpoliciesthatsuppressedelementaryhumanrights.Heopposedallpoliciesthatcircumscribedculturalfreedom. WhatultimatelyseparatedhimfromhiscommunistopponentswashisviewoftheSovietRevolution.BarbusseandhisalliesperceivedMarxismandtheRussian Revolutiononapoliticallevel.ForRomainRolland,therevolutionposedamoralproblem.Heaccentedpotentialsunachieved,idealsdebased,powerinternally abused,andideologyhardenedintoformula.PartofhisdisappointmentwiththeSovietRevolutionderivedfromhisgrandioseexpectationsofthisworldhistoricevent. Hewasconvincedthatrevolutionaryspokesmendismissedthepsychologicalandspiritualfeaturesofhumanexistence.InofferingcriticalsupportoftheRussian Revolution,hetriedtodeterminebothitsfaultsanditsmerits. DespitehisfirmdecisionnottojointhePCF,itwouldbeamistaketoseehisdivergenceswithcommunistintellectualsasanindicationofanticommunism.He remainedanoncommunistintellectualwhobelievedthatdialogueamongsincereandwellinformedmembersoftheleftwouldbeenlighteningtoallsides.The persistentadversarywasthepolitical,institutionalandculturalhegemonyofthereaction.ThedebatewithBarbussedidnotterminateintotalruptureofrelationsorin longtermacrimony.Iftheydifferedonlibertyandequality,theycouldstillremainfraternal.RomainRollandleftthedooropenfortheirsubsequentantifascisteffortsin 19271928andfortheirinitiationoftheAmsterdamPleyelmovementtenyearsaftertheircontroversy. Barbusse'sattackonthepoliticalimplicationsofRollandism

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forcedhimtocrystallizehiscritiqueoftheRussianRevolution,torestatehisphilosophicalorientation,andtoadvanceastrategythatextricatedhimfromhisambiguous positionbetweenrevolutionaryLeninismandtheprogressiveandpacifistbourgeoisie.Atthisjuncture,heingeniouslyintroducedGandhi'spoliticalphilosophyand tactics,foreshadowingthemajorlineofhispoliticalevolutionthroughouttheremainderofthe1920s.In1922,RomainRolland'sknowledgeofGandhi'slifeand writingswasfragmentary.Openingtheissueinadebatewithacommunistintellectualsetaprecedentforfuturediscussionsofnonviolentresistance.Gradually,he elaboratedtheparametersofGandhiannoncooperationforEurope.Havingpassedthroughthestagesofantiwardissent,integralpacifism,andpropagandaforan intellectual'sinternational,RomainRollandwasnowreadytostudytheMahatma'swritingsandthehistoryofhismovementsinSouthAfricaandIndia.By1923he emergedastheEuropeanpopularizerofGandhi.

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6 Gandhian
GandhiwasstillpresentthroughoutIndia,inhisachievements,hisexample,hisimage.ForEurope,hewassimplyaliberatorwithcleanhandsasymbolofsaintliness,withthe quaintnessthatgoeswithmanysaints:anobstinatenunwithabigtoothlesssmile,dressedinahumbleplebiangarmentwornliketheuniformoffreedom. AndrMalraux,AntiMemoirs

TocomprehendRomainRolland'sintellectualpoliticsintheperiod19231932,wemusttreattheambiguitiesofhisengagementasaGandhian.Sincethepublication ofhisbiographyofGandhiin1924,overfourhundredbooksaboutGandhihavebeenreleased.Today,Gandhi'snameandfacearesofamiliarthatitishardto envisionatimewhenhewasnotpartofourconsciousness.ButbeforetheFrenchwriterpopularizedhisimagefusingantiimperialism,thenonviolentpolitical philosophy,andtheholinessofhislifeGandhiwasanobscureIndianlawyer,unknownincontinentalEuropeorAmerica. RomainRolland'scritiqueofimperialismemphasizedthatEurope'sdestructivetendencies,sovisibleduringtheGreatWar,wereactiveinthecolonizedregionsofAsia andAfrica.1 Thecivilizingrhetoricofimperialismveilednationalisticandexpansionisticaims,thewilltoamasswealthandtosubjugateweakersocieties.''Underthe maskofcivilization,orofabrutalnationalidealism,thepoliticsofthegreatStatesmethodicallypracticefraudandviolence,theftanddegradation(rather, extermination)ofthesocalledinferiorpeoples."2 Throughouttheinterwarperiod,heprotestedEuropeanimperialismandpredictedthattheawakeningnationswould turnthisviolenceagainsttheEuropeansthemselves.Imperialisticaggressorswouldinevitablybeconfrontedwithantiimperialisticaggression,whichmightfinallyengulf Europe.Ifthishappened,Europeanswereultimatelyresponsible.3 RomainRollandsought

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someintermediarybetweentheimperialisticandantiimperialisticforces,betweenEastandWest.ProgressiveintellectualsofEuropeanddevelopingcountriesmight beableto"usetheirheartsandgeniuses"toworktowardnonviolentsolutionstoimperialisticinjustices.Becausestrugglesfornationalliberationmightunchain cataclysmicforces,heurgedintellectualstopreservean"IslandofCalm,"tonotbesweptawaybythedestructivepassions.4 Oppositiontowarwasmeaninglessunlessbuttressedbyoppositiontoimperialism.TheGreatWarandtheTreatyofVersaillesconvincedRomainRollandthat imperialistrivalrieswerecreatingtheconditionsforanotherworldwar.InoneissueofClarthesignedapublicindictmentoftheFrenchsuppressionoftheRiff rebellioninMoroccoandcondemnedallwarsunequivocally.5 Theoppressiverealityof"brutalandgreedyimperialism"wouldprovokeacounterattack,unleashing insurrectionarymovementsinAsiaandAfrica.TherevolutionarydynamicofdecolonizationwouldnotnecessarilyfollowaBolshevikmodel.Antiimperialist movementsmightturnagainsttheSovietcommunists,perhapstofollowanotherpathofhistoricaldevelopment.6 Allcriticalinquiryintoimperialismshouldrelyonaccurate,firsthandinformation.Mostcrucial,itshouldgraspthetotalityofthesituationbyconsideringthe perspectivesof"boththeconquerorsandtheconquered."Thehistoricaldestiniesofcolonizerandcolonizedplayeddecisiverolesinstrugglesforselfdetermination andintheconstructionofindependentsocieties.ForRomainRolland,imperialismderivedfromtheexpansionisticpoliciesofmilitaryelitesandvenalcapitalists:the "imperialismofarmiesandofmoney."7 HeunderstoodthatFrenchinvolvementinMoroccoandSyriawasstrategicallydesignedtoprotectFrenchinterestsinAlgeria. Thatwasnolongeralegitimateaim:
[Algeria's]conquestwasthefruitofanextortion,andtodefendthatconquest,itisnecessarytocommitinturnotherextortions,othercrimesagainsttheindependenceofnative peoples.Iftheconquerorstopsontheroadandwavers,allhisconqueststotterallIslamrisesininsurrection.Andwhocancalculatetheensuingruins,notonlyforFrancebut forEurope?8

Gandhi'spoliticalphilosophyofferedonehumanesolutiontothemultiplicationofimperialistandantiimperialistaggression.

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Gandhi'sdemocraticandconciliatorymethodswerepreferabletotheSovietmodelasawayoutofthe"ironnet"ofimperialistdominationandprivilege:"Itwouldbe necessaryascertaingreatheartedmenhavediscussedsuchasGandhiandsomemagnanimousEnglishmenthatbothantagonistsshouldconsenttomakemutual sacrificesandtotreattogetherinaspiritofkindnessandabnegationthisterriblequestiononwhichdependthelifeanddeathofboth."TheGandhianpathmoved towardinternationalcooperation,redressofthegrievancesofcolonizednations,andanegotiatingmechanismtosatisfythemutualneedsoftheimperialistpowersand thecountriesseekingindependence.RomainRollandadvocatedtheGandhianroutebuthadfewillusionsaboutthereceptionofthesenationsbyWesterngoverning elites.Heknew"theblindnessandobstinateprideofthegreatStates."9 Antiimperialismincludedadefenseofcivilliberties.His1926appealinfavorofajailedVietnamesewritersupportedtheabsoluterightofthecolonizedtofreedomof speech.HealsodenouncedtheFrenchpresenceinIndochina,andheadvocatednationalindependence.If"loyalcollaboration"betweentheFrenchandthe indochineseoccurred,intelligenceandmutualresourcesmightbeshared.Independenceshouldnotmeanatotalrift.VietnamesestudentsandworkersinParisought nottoimitateWesternviolenceandinsensitivity.Movementsofnationalliberationshouldrepudiateallformsofracialprideandnationalisticprejudice.Europeans couldstrugglewiththeIndochineseintheirfightforselfdetermination,ifbothsidesacceptedan"equalityofrightsandduties."10 RomainRolland'santiimperialismwasfundamentallyGandhian.Hisdenunciationofimperialismwasoftenharshandviolent,buthisremediesleftthedooropenfor dialoguebetweenEastandWest.Hisintentionwastocircumventthemassivedislocationsandrandomviolenceofstrugglesofnationalliberationandtheeffortsto repressthem.Therealworkofcreatingadurablesocietycouldbeginonlyafterthestrugglesended.RomainRolland'santiimperialismwasalsoaccompaniedbyan uncompromisingoppositiontopanEuropeanideas,suchasaUnitedStatesofEurope,11andbyrecurringpressureforrevisionoftheTreatyofVersailles.12 Intheinterwarperiod,theisolatedpocketsofFrenchandEuropeanpacifistsbestowedenormousprestigeonRomainRolland,callinghim"theconscienceofEurope" becauseofhisantiwar

PortraitofRomainRollandatabouttheageofforty.

RomainRollandonthebalconyofhisLeftBankapartment inParisduringthetimehewaswritingJeanChristophe.

RomainRollandwithRabindranathTagore inVilleneuve,Switzerland,1926.

RomainRollandwithStefanZweig,hisViennese biographerandfriend,Villeneuve,Switzerland,1933.

PhotographofRomainRollandwithMohandas Gandhi,Villeneuve,Switzerland,December1931.

RomainRollandwithMaximGorky,inthevicinityofMoscow,July1935.

RomainRollandwithNikolaiBukharinandOttoSchmidt duringhisvisittotheSovietUnion,summer1935.

RomainRollandandMadameMarieRomainRollandwith MaximGorkyattheMoscowrailroadstation,July1935.

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stanceduringtheFirstWorldWar.13HisintroductionofGandhiandhisdisseminationofthenonviolentpoliticalphilosophyfurtherreinforcedhisstature.Hewasa paternalfigureandpioneerwithunassailablepacifistcredentials,anauthoritywithintheantiwarmovement.Pacifistsregardedhimwithaffection,eveniftheywere unawareofhislatestposition.Theyrepeatedlyaskedhimtoclarifyinternaldisputesandexternaldilemmastowriteinterventions,petitions,declarations,manifestos, prefacesandnowandthentocontributemoneytorescueafailingantiwarperiodical.14RomainRollanddebatedcontinuouslyintheinterwarerawithpacifist intellectualsalongtheentirespectrumofpacifistsentimentandideologyeducators,mothers,scholars,Tolstoyans,anarchists,Christians,andadvocatesof disarmamentandconscientiousobjection.15 RomainRollandseldommissedanopportunityforasymbolicgesturetoopposewarortodeflatethearroganceofthemilitarists.WhentheChamberofDeputies passedaconscriptionlawinthespringof1927,andFrenchrightwingSocialistssuchasJosephPaulBoncourcollaboratedinsupportingthebill,hepublishedablunt oathofconscientiousobjection.Theworstoppressionofallwasthemilitarizationofintelligencebythestate:

Themonstrousprojectofmilitarylaw,audaciouslycamouflagedbythewarmongeringpacifistverbiageofseveralSocialists,andvotedbysleightofhandattheFrenchChamber, lastMarch7[1927],claimstorealizewhatnoimperialorFascistdictatorshiphasyetdaredtoaccomplishinEurope:theentireslaveryofapeoplefromthecradletothetomb. Iswearinadvancenevertoobeythistyrannicallaw.16

In''TheDutyofIntellectualsAgainstWar,''heagainadvocatedintellectualindependencefrominstitutionsandparties.Intellectualswereexhortedtobe"lookoutmen" fortheeventualityofwar.Thinkerswereenjoinedtogobeyondimpartiality,beyondthe"laboriousandscrupulousexerciseofintelligence."Protestwaslinkedto action.17 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRollandwasnotthefirstFrenchwritertolooktotheEastforinspirationorconsolationorthefirsttocomparetheOrient

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withamaterialistic,decliningOccident.18Hewas,however,oneofthefirstFrenchintellectualstoconceiveofmodernIndiaasachallengetoEuropeanpolitical realityandglobalhegemony.HewasdrawntotheEastbecauseitdifferedfromtheviolenceandculturalstalemateofthepostwarWest.HismeditationonIndia renewedthespiritualinquirythathadbeeninterruptedbytheworldwarandimmediatepostwarissues.RomainRolland'sGandhianphasewas,inpart,aflightfrom sociopoliticalpreoccupationsintooceanicmetaphysics. TheOrientofferedattractiveregenerativepossibilitiesforEuropeIndianthoughtmightgivereceptiveEuropeansontologicalaswellaspoliticaloptions,introduce themtoanalternativeethicalsystem,encouragethemtorethinktheirdiscreditedvalues.TheothernessofIndiacouldassistdemoralizedEuropeansinrediscovering andtoleratingtheirownotherness,thusinitiatinginnergrowthwithoutprecipitatinganxietyortheneedtodominateonthepartoftheWesterner.RomainRolland's discourseonIndiaemphasizedsimilaritiesbetweenEastandWestaswellasthetraditionalcontrasts.HediscoveredanexemplarypersonalitytorepresenttheEast:a manofpurityandselfsacrifice,a"greatsouled"individualwhowashimselfengagedinanepicpoliticalexperiment.RomainRollandmythologizedMohandasGandhi into"theMahatma."19 UnlikeearlierOrientalists,RomainRollandwasconvincedthatEuropeanimperialisticdominationofIndiamustend.Empirebuildingledtoexpansionism,imperialist rivalries,bloodysuppressionofnativepopulations,andultimatelytowar.Thecolonizersimposedtheirlanguage,educationalsystem,andculturalvaluesonother civilizations.ItisdifficulttodisentangleRomainRolland'smoralandpoliticalcritiquesofimperialism.20HerecognizedthatEuropeanempireswerecrumblingandthat movementsofnationalliberationwouldeventuallytriumph.Hehopedthatdecolonizationwouldnotreenacttheviolenceofthecolonizingimpulsebutwouldcontainan explicitlyinternationalistdimension,rejectingtheethnocentrismofimperialistdomination. GandhiprovidedRomainRollandwithatentativesolutiontohisdilemmaasacommittedintellectualinthe1920s,anideologicalalternativetoBolshevism,anda correctivetopostwarEuropeanpacifism.Nomatterthathispoliticalorientationwasnot

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pragmatic,orthathisculturalwritingscrossedtheboundariesoffiction.RomainRollandbecameaselfappointedcitizenoftheworld,mediatingbetweenEastand WestfromhisexileinneutralSwitzerland.IntheprocesshecontributedthefirstdocumentedstudyofGandhiandmodernIndia,usinglargelyIndianandBritish sources.21 RomainRolland'swritingsonIndiainthe1920swerenotreceivedinatotalvacuum.AspateofbooksbyOrientalistshadappearedinFrance.22BetweenFebruary andMarch1925theParisianperiodicalCahiersdumoissponsoredanexchangeentitled"TheAppealsoftheEast."Twentytwocelebratedwriterscommentedon theinterpenetrabilityofEasternandWesternideas,takingapositiononthe"graveperil"orvalueofEasterninfluencesontheWest.23 AlthoughwriterssuchasHenriBarbusseandAndrBretonarguedthatinterpenetrationwouldbebeneficial,24mostparticipantsadoptedthestanceofPaulValry,a lucidspokesmanfortheFrenchconservativeintellectualestablishment:

Fromtheculturalpointofview,IdonotthinkthatwehavemuchtofearnowfromtheOrientalinfluence.Itisnotunknowntous.WeowetotheOrientallthebeginningsofour artsandofagreatdealofourknowledge.WecanverywellwelcomewhatnowcomesoutoftheOrient,ifsomethingnewiscomingoutoftherewhichIverymuchdoubt.This doubtispreciselyourguaranteeandourEuropeanweapon. Besides,therealquestioninsuchmattersistodigest....TheMediterraneanbasinseemstometobelikeaclosedvesselwheretheessencesofthevastOrienthavealwayscome inordertobecondensed.25

ActionFranaisewriterHenriMassisremainedhostiletoEasterninfluencesandpreoccupiedwithdefendingtheWestagainstforeigncontaminants.Hisintegral nationalisticstandfavoredtherestorationofFrenchwillandgrandeur,thepreservationofitsmental,religious,andgeographicalpurity.HeallegedthatRomain Rolland'sinterestinGandhiandIndianculturewaspoliticallymotivated.AsianidealoguesonlyweakenedFrance,createddisorder,andconsequentlyplayedintothe handsofhostilepoliticalforcessuchasJapan,Germany,andtheSovietUnion.ReceptivitytoEasternculturewasnothinglessthanintellectualtreason.26Ina transparentdisplayofculturalnationalismandcontemptforthefor

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eign,mostofthewritersarguedthattheEasthadfarmoretogainfromexposuretotheWest,thatEastWestbarrierswereunmodifiable,andthatlimitedexchanges oughttobeguidedbyacademicsorOrientalspecialists,notamateursorpropagandists.27 RomainRollandreplied,limpidly,"WhereHenriMassisis,RomainRollandcannotbe."28 ToRomainRolland,theassertionsofmostparticipantsinthedebateweretingedwithsuperiorityandEurocentrism,provingthatFrenchthinkerswererigidlyclosedto dialogue.TheydesperatelyneededaninfusionofEasternsources,andhewaspreparedtostandalonetopromotesubstantiveEastWestexchange.29Heusedhis connectionstopublishworksbyTagoreandtokeepabreastofIndianaffairsheopenedhishometoprominentIndianvisitors.HewelcomedtheworksofHermann Hesse,whosenovels(particularlySiddhartha,thefirstpartofwhichwasdedicatedtoRolland)irrefutablyprovedthatEuropeanscouldfathomHinduthought.30 Inhumanitarianappealsduringthesameperiod,RomainRollandattackedFrenchnationalismandpromotedFrancoGermanreconciliation.Herespondedto developmentsinWeimarGermanybywritingfromtheperspectivesofthosesuffering,thevictimsofrunawayinflation,hunger,themilitaryoccupationoftheRuhr, politicalarrest,andindiscriminatehatredofGermans.IftheFrench,fromtheirpostwarpositionofstrength,failedtoredressGermangrievancesresultingfromthe unjustpeacetreatyandotherpunitivepoliciesfailedtobesensitivetothedesperateplightoftheGermanstheywouldsowtheseedsofGermanrevenge,preparing toreapthenextwar.31 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRollandwasintroducedtoIndianthoughtinFebruary1915inaseriesoflettersfromtheHinduwriterAnandaK.Coomaraswamy.InbecomingtheEuropean spokesmanforIndianculture,hehopedbothtoregeneratepostwarEuropeandtoavoidafatalEastWestclashresultingfrommutualignoranceandstereotypes.32 AsearlyasOctober1916,hesupportedtheworkoftheNobelPrizewinningpoetRabindranathTagore,whose1916"MessagefromIndiatoJapan,"a denunciationofEuropeanimperialismand

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theexclusivelypoliticalandmaterialfoundationsofEuropeancivilization,RomainRollandaddressedhyperbolicallyasaturningpointinworldhistory.33 ThethemeofAsianEuropeancrossfertilizationpermeatedhisthinkingonIndia.IncorrespondenceanddiscussionswithTagore,RomainRollandstressedcultural exchangeandadvisedagainsttheimpositionofeithercivilizationontheother.34Hewasmoreconcernedwithculturalrevitalizationthanwithconcreteproblemsof powerrelations.35 Gandhi'sheroismcontrastedwiththeabsenceofvisionaryleadersinEurope:

ThatGandhi'sactionoftwentyyearsinSouthAfricahasnothadmorereverberationinEuropeisaproofoftheincrediblenarrownessofviewofourpoliticalmen,historians,and menoffaith:forhiseffortsconstituteasoul'sepicunequaledinourtimes,notonlybythepowerandconstancyofsacrifice,butbythefinalvictory.36

AninfusionofEasternideasmightrekindletheoldhumanisttorch.RomainRollanddidnotproposetoadoptOrientalformsofthoughtindiscriminately,howeverthey shouldbeassessedimpartially.HeentertainedhighhopesthatEurope,thereviewostensiblyfoundedunderhispatronage,wouldpublishsuchassessmentsand propagatetheideas,buthishopesweredashedbytheeditors'refusaltopublishTagore'snovelAQuatreVoix.Thisincidentledtoatemporaryfallingoutwith Europe,thoughthe"charmingnovel"wassubsequentlypublishedbytheRevueeuropennein1925.37 RomainRollandfirstlearnedofGandhithroughconversationswithDilipKumarRoyinAugust1920.38Thetentativenatureofhisdefenseofnonviolent noncooperationinthesecondopenletteroftheRollandBarbussedebate,inFebruary1922,mirroredhistentativeknowledgeofGandhiandtheIndianstrugglefor liberation.WhenaskedinAugust1922towriteanintroductiontotheFrencheditionofGandhi'sYoungIndia,hewantedinitiallytodecline.Gandhi'sspiritualized nationalismlackedthebreadthofhisowninternationalism.Suchimportantsubjectmatterrequiredmorethanasuperficialtreatment.Hethereforepostponedany writingsonGandhiinordertoreadaboutandreflectonGandhi'smodeofthoughtandaction.39 Withtheassistanceofhissister,MadeleineRolland,Romain

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Rolland(whoneitherspokenorreadEnglish)spentthelatterhalfofDecemberandallofJanuary1923readingGandhi'stexts.TheseincludedIndianHomeRule, articlesinYoungIndia,andwritingsfromGandhi'sSouthAfricanstruggles.HewasaidedbytheIndianacademicKalidasNag,anintimateofbothGandhiand Tagore.Nag,Tagore,andothersencouragedhimtovisitIndia.40 GandhiandhisFrenchbiographerhadsignificantaffinities.TheywereofthesamegenerationGandhiwasbornin1869RomainRollandin1866.Bothwere influencedbyandhadcorrespondedwithTolstoy.BothemergedfromtheirexperiencesintheGreatWarwithanaversiontoviolenceandwarfare.41 IfRomainRollandwasenchantedwithGandhi'sblendofindividualism,activism,andmorality,hewasequallytroubledbyGandhi'sdistrustofscience,hisnationalism, andhisnostalgiaforpreindustrialtimes.42Fascinationfaroutweighedhesitation,however,andRomainRollandplannedabiographicalportraitoftheIndianleader modeledonhisimmenselysuccessfulBeethoven(1903).Hewroteashort,easilydigestiblenarrativeessaycenteringonGandhi'slifeandmessage,designedto acquaintasmanyreadersaspossiblewiththeGandhianmovement.ItwasfirstpublishedinthreeinstallmentsinthenewParisianmonthlyEurope,fromMarchtoMay 1923,beforeitwasreleasedinbookformin1924.43 Gandhi'sstaunchoppositiontooppression,particularlytheBritishcolonialvarietythatGandhihadencounteredbothinSouthAfricaandinIndia,becamethe connectingthreadintheessay.HisoftenindiscriminateattackonWesterncivilizationderivedfromthebrutalityofBritishcolonialrule,"writteninthebloodofthe oppressedraces,robbedandstainedinthenameoflyingprinciples."Gandhiassociatedmodernityandprogresswithdominationandsimplisticallypittedthespiritual Eastagainsttheacquisitive,technologicalWest.44 RomainRollandfoundthereligiousfoundationsofGandhismreassuring.HedrewontraditionalChristianvocabularytodescribeGandhiandhismovement,pointingto thesimilaritiesbetweenGandhiandChrist,St.Francis,andSt.PaultoreinforceanyreligiousassociationstheEuropeanreadermightmake.Sincethenonmolestation ofallformsoflifehadthestandingofacategoricalimperative,thosewhoengagedinGandhianresistancewereactingspiritually."Realnoncooperationisareligious actofpurification."45

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Gandhi'smethodsdemonstratedacapacityfortacticalflexibility.Hispoliticalphilosophycontainedagradualtheoryofstages.Inhiscampaignstherewasfirsta concertedefforttoworkthroughlegalmeans,employingnegotiationandcompromisetoredressgrievances.Onlyafterexhaustinglegalresources,petitions, newspaperpropaganda,andagitationbystudents,farmers,andtheworkingclassdidGandhipermitmoredisruptive,illegaltactics.Noncooperationmovedfromone levelofresistancetoanother,increasingthedegreeofmilitancyateachlevel.Itscampaignswerehighlyselectiveandcautious.Gandhiconsideredcivildisobediencea legitimatebutextremeformofnoncooperationthatshouldbefocusedonspecificlaws.Becausepersonalriskwasgreatandselfcontrolwasrequiredoftheresister, civildisobediencewasapplicableonlywhenallotheralternativeshadbeenexploredandwasfeasibleonlyforthereliableelite.46 Theconceptofnoncooperationwaspowerfulandtimely:Gandhiunderstoodthat"noncooperationcanandmustbeamassmovement."Hisrefusaltoyieldtothe forcesofthecriminalstatewasnotaninfantilenegationbutanassertionofIndia'sprideinherself.AsRomainRollandobserved:"Indiahadtoomuchlostthefacultyof saying'No.'Gandhireturnedittoher."47Gandhiappreciatedthenecessityforpoliticalorganizationandleadershiphisstrategywasasophisticatedstagedprogramof culturalactionemployingmeetings,demonstrations,fasts,andprayers,aswellasmusic,nationalsymbolism,andtraditionalHinduimagerytoguaranteemaximum politicalefficacy.48Moreover,Gandhidemonstratedashrewdsenseoftimingandpropagandaandwasadeptinwinningsympathyforhismovement,bothinIndia andamongprogressivesinEngland. AbsolutesincerityofcommitmentwasprovedbythepersecutionsGandhianssufferedinalltheircampaigns.Gandhihimselfhadbeenimprisonedthreetimesby1923. Gandhismcouldbedistinguishedfromotherpoliticalideologiesbythemoralrestraintbuiltintoitsdoctrine,bythetendencyofGandhianresisterstocircumventpower clasheswheneverpossible.Gandhiansviewedtheiropponentsaspotentialconverts,ifnotallies,andtriedtopersuadetheenemybydemonstratingthe"irresistible" moralrightnessoftheirpositions.49 ThemoststrikingexampleofGandhi'srejectionofpoliticalexpe

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diencycameinFebruary1922,aftertheriotsatChauriChaura.InthissmallvillageeighthundredmilesfromBardoliprovince,whereGandhipreparedtolaunchhis masscivildisobediencecampaign,aviolentconfrontationtookplaceon5Februarybetweenhisfollowersandthelocalpolice.Afterprovocationbytheconstables, thecrowdretaliatedbyburningthepoliceheadquartersandmurderingtwentytwopolicemen.Learningoftheepisodeon8February,Gandhiimmediatelysuspended theBardolicampaignofcivildisobedience.HemadethischoiceagainsttheadviceofotherIndianpoliticalleadersanddespitethewillingnessoftherankandfileto carryonwithitsmoreassertiveaction.TheEnglishgovernmentinitiallyconsideredGandhi'sjudgmentanactoffolly.Itarrestedhimon10March1922. RomainRollandcontrastedGandhi'stacticalchoicewithrepressivepoliciesinEurope,includingcurrentBolshevikpractices.Hestressedthepurity,selfmastery,and silentsufferingrequiredoftheGandhianresister:

TocreatethenewIndia,itisnecessarytocreatenewsouls,soulsstrongandpure,whicharetrulyIndianandwroughtoutofIndianelements.Andinordertocreatethemitis necessarytoformasacredlegionofapostleswholikethoseofChristarethesaltoftheearth.Gandhiisnot,likeourEuropeanrevolutionaries,amakeroflawsanddecrees.Heis themolderofanewhumanity.50

Gandhihadgeneratedapowerfulmomentumwithintheranksofhismovement.Itisunclearhowfarthismovementcouldhavegonein1922.Asacontemporary commentator,RomainRollandunderstoodthattheinitiationandabrupthaltoftheBardolicampaigncrystallizedtheambiguitiesatthecoreoftheGandhian movement.51Nevertheless,hecongratulatedtheMahatmaonhischoice,therebyunderliningtheprecedenceofthespiritualoverthepoliticalinhismission:"The historyofthehumanconsciencecanpointtofewpagesasnobleasthese.Themoralvalueofsuchanactisexceptional.Butasapoliticalmoveitwas disconcerting."52IfGandhi'sacceptanceofpersonalresponsibilityfortheChauriChauraepisodewasnaive,hispenitentialfastwasamagnanimousgestureof legendaryproportions. Thebalancesheetofthebiographywasmixed.Thoughconceivedinthegenreofhautevulgarisation,itwasnotsimplyhagiographyor

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propaganda.Gandhi'soppositiontoscienceandtechnologyandhisexaggeratedhopeincottageindustrieswerehistoricallyregressive,afeatureofGandhi'smessianic approachtoimmediateconflicts.Otherpoliciesrecalledthecloisterofmedievalmonks,mostparticularlyhisxenophobicattitudetowardothercultures.Romain RollandhadnotvisitedIndiaorlearneditslanguages.ButhiswritingonGandhiprovedthatcivilizationscouldinterpenetrate.53 HealsodisapprovedofGandhi'spuritanicaloutlook.ThesevererestrictionsonsensualgratificationandabstentionfromsexualintercoursewerereminiscentofSt. Paul'shostilitytowardthebody.54Gandhi'spersonalsaintlinessdidnotobliteratetheeroticandaggressiveurgesoflessdisciplinedmenandwomen.Becauseofhis ownfreedomfrom"theanimalpassionsthatliedormantinman,"orperhapsbecauseofhisovercompensationforthem,Gandhideniedthehumanpotentialfor violence,includingviolencetoself.55Hisanswertoperennialrelianceoncrueltywasanexceptionallyhighstandardofbehavior.Conspicuouslylackingtheredeeming featuresoftheirmaster,manyofGandhi'sdiscipleshadvulgarizedthedoctrine,substitutingdisciplineforidealism,dogmaforprinciples,andaboveallnarrownessfor Gandhi'semphasisontheattainmentoftruththroughexperimentation.56RomainRollandnotedtheaggressioninmuchofthediscourseofnonviolence:"Tagoreis alarmedandnotwithoutreasonattheviolenceoftheapostlesofnonviolence(andGandhihimselfisnotexemptfromit)."57 Notwithoutdisclaimers,hisportraitunderscoredthatGandhi'smessagetotheworldwasasurgentasitwasgreat.Whetherthatmessagewaspeace,noncooperation, nonviolence,orvoluntaryselfsacrifice,GandhirecapturedthefullpotentialofIndianliberation.Ifhissuccesseswerestudiedandhistechniquesemulatedinother battlesagainstoppression,India'sspecialmessagemightbeextendedtothepeoplesoftheworld.Hispoliticalinstrumentwasequallythemosthumanetechnique knowntohistory:nonviolence.Forthebiographer,GandhismsymbolizedauniversalhopeandapoliticalalternativetothepervasivenessofforceintheWest.Itcould givetothedemoralizedpacifistsavigorousfaithandanexperimentaltacticforchange.Takenbytheimmensepowerofthedoctrine,RomainRollandannouncedhis ownconversiontotheprinciplesofGandhiannonacceptance.Anticipatingscornfromtheleftandright,heassertedthatGandhi'smethodshadprovedtheirvaluefor

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thesocialbattlestocome.Therealenemyinthenonviolentstrugglewastheresister'spersonalweaknessandlackofconviction:
TheRealpolitikersofviolence(whetherrevolutionaryorreactionary)ridiculethisfaithandtheytherebyrevealtheirignoranceofdeeprealities.Letthemjeer!Ihavethisfaith.I seeitfloutedandpersecutedinEuropeand,inmyowncountry,areweahandful?...(Areweevenahandful?...)ButifIaloneweretobelieve,whatdifferencewoulditmake forme?Thetruecharacteristicoffaithisfarfromdenyingthehostilityoftheworldtoseeandbelieveinspiteofit!Forfaithisabattle.Andournonviolenceisthetoughest struggle.Thewaytopeaceisnotthroughweakness.Wearelessenemiesofviolencethanofweakness....Nothingisworthwhilewithoutstrength:neitherevilnorgood. Absoluteevilisbetterthanemasculatedgoodness.Whiningpacifismisfatalforpeace:itiscowardlyandalackoffaith.Letthosewhodonotbelieve,orwhofear,withdraw!The roadtopeaceisselfsacrifice.58

In"GandhiSinceHisliberation,"RomainRollandstressedthestrengthsofGandhiasanadversaryofBritishimperialismandofnonviolenceasapoliticalweapon.This pieceinformedEuropeanreadersofGandhi'stwoyearimprisonment,theruptureofhisdirectinfluenceonIndianpolitics,andhissubsequentreleaseon2February 1924.Gandhihadelaboratedafourpartprogramfornationalindependenceandsocialreform,theobjectivesofwhichwere(1)worktowardIndianhomerule throughtheunityofHinduandMoslemfactions(2)spinningasaremedytoIndianpauperismandasapragmaticwaytoextricateIndiafromeconomicdependence onBritain(3)thedisappearanceofUntouchabilityand(4)themethodicalapplicationofnonviolenceinbothpropagandaanddeed,includingcivildisobedienceasa lastresort.GandhiopposedtheBritishgovernmentandstruggledagainstimperialism,whiledistinguishingbetweentheEnglishpeopleandtheiradministrators.Healso realizedthatwhilecolonizationhadruinedIndia'seconomy,decolonizationwouldcausehardshipsonBritishindustrialworkersinManchester:"AGandhiisoneofthe veryraremencapableofrisingabovetheinterestsofindividualpartiesinstruggleandofwantingtoseekthewelfareofboth."59 RomainRolland's"IntroductiontoYoungIndia"revisedthepointofviewofthebiography.TheGandhipresentedhereisdecidedlymoreMazzinian,complex,tragic, andultimatelymorerevolutionarythanintheearlierportrait."Nonviolence...inotherwordsthe

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politicalnonviolenceoftheNoncooperator[is]areasonedmethodofpeacefulandprogressiverevolution,leadingtoSwaraj,IndianHomeRule.''Heunderlinedthe interlockingroleofexperimentationanddirectactioninGandhi'spolitics.However,thosewhooptedforclassstruggleandviolencewerealsoengagedinan experiment.WithoutjudgingwhichexperimentwasmoreviableforIndiaorapplicabletoEurope,theFrenchwriterurgedthepartisansofviolencetobe''honorable" and"unhypocritical"inelaboratingtheirstrategyandtactics.FeelinganaffinitybetweencommunistsandGandhians,herefusedtodismissthecourageandidealismof violentrevolutionaries:"BetweentheMahatma'snonviolenceandtheweaponsofrevolutionaryviolencetherewaslessseparationthanbetweenheroicnoncooperation andthesterileataraxiaoftheeternalacceptors."60Satyagraha,insistenceontruth,wasbasedonthelawsofactiveloveandvoluntaryrenunciation.Gandhiwas differentfrompassive,sentimental,"nerveless"Europeanpacifists.RomainRollandnowemphasizedtherationalandaccessiblenatureoftheMahatma'smessage,as wellasthemysticalside.Thedoctrinewasalsoexperimental:"Butwemustdare.Gandhidares.Hisaudacitygoesveryfar."61Gandhismwascharacterizedasan openendedstruggle,fullofdangersforthehalfbeliever,unsuitablefortheindividualwhocouldnotendureextendedperiodsofselfdiscipline."Nonviolence,then,is abattle,andasinallbattleshowevergreatthegeneraltheissueremainsindoubt.TheexperimentwhichGandhiisattemptingisterrible,terrifyinglydangerous,and heknowsit."62 RomainRolland'sessaysonGandhiillustratedthepositiveattributesoftheMahatma'scharacterandthewidepossibilitiesoforganizednonviolence.Thepointofview isbestunderstoodasnoncommunistBolshevikandGandhianmethodswerecomparedinjustthreebriefallusionsinthebiography.63 Aswithhisotherbiographies,hespentapproximatelysixtoeightmonthsresearchingGandhi'slifeandonlythreeweekscomposingthetext.Hissmallvolumeon MahatmaGandhisoldextremelywellinFrance(thirtyoneprintingsinthreemonths,atleast100,000copiesinthefirstyear)andwastranslatedintoRussian,German, English,Spanish,andthreeIndiandialectsby1924andintoPortuguese,Polish,andJapaneseby1925.Thecritical

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receptioninPariswasapathetic.64By1926,nevertheless,afiftiethprintingwaspublished.Thebiographywasclearlyabestseller. TheFrenchcommunistreactiontohisintroductionofGandhiwaspoliticallyinconsistent.InthemidstoftheRomainRollandBarbussedebate,thecommunistauthor RamPrasadDubefocusedonthesocialaspectsofGandhi'smovementinIndia,drawingaparallelbetweenGandhismandtheEuropeananarchosyndicalist movements.HepraisedGandhi'sexpertiseinpropagandaandagitationandhiswillingnesstoengagethemassmovementinillegaltacticsbutpredictedthatGandhi's politicsofconcessiontoauthorityandtheperfectionoftheindividualwouldultimatelyfail.Gandhiwouldberememberedchieflyastheinitiatorofthefirststagein India'ssocialrevolution.65Oneyearlater,L'HumanitpublishedafarmorecriticalarticlebytheIndianMarxistrevolutionaryandrepresentativetotheComintern, M.N.Roy.RoyheldthattheGandhianmovementwassociallysuspect,composedofmembersofthe"reactionarypetitebourgeoisie."Itwasneitherantiimperialist norcommittedtocompleteIndianindependence.Toharnesstheenergyofthe"revolutionaryspontaneityofthemasses,"anindigenousCommunistPartywas necessary.RoylookedtotheIndianleaderC.R.DastoprovidetheIndianleftwithleadershipandaradicaldirection.Thecountrysimplycouldnotaffordtobecome captivetoGandhi'smoralismandtheology.66Later,inMarch1923,L'HumanitpublishedaneditorialsignedbytheexecutivecommitteeoftheCommunist International.WhilecondemningBritishimperialismandtheirfiercereprisalsagainsttheIndiansfortheChauriChauraincident,thestatementcarefullyexcluded criticismofGandhiorhismovement.67 RomainRolland'sportraitofGandhitriggeredaclever,ifinaccurate,rejoinderbyHenriBarbussethatblurredthepoliticalandideologicalantagonismbetween GandhismandBolshevism.Followingthepatternoftheearlierpolemic,Barbusse'sarticle"EasternandWesternRevolutionaries:ConcerningGandhi"praisedthespirit inwhichRomainRollandwrotehisessay.AlthoughitopenedcommunicationsbetweenEuropeandAsia,his"magisterialandlyricalstudy"ofGandhinevertheless misrepresentedtheformaloppositionbetweenGandhi'sdoctrineandthatofWesternrevolutionaries.BarbusseassertedthatGandhibelongedonthesideoftheThird International.Hisintransigence,utilitarianism,andpracticalityindi

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catedthat"Gandhi[was]atruerevolutionary."68AsapragmaticidealistwitharealisticunderstandingofIndianpoliticalconstellations,Gandhi,withoutbeingaware ofit,was"veryclosetotheBolsheviks."69HisverbalvilificationofcommunismresultedfromhisunfamiliaritywithMarxistdoctrineandmisinformationabout communismintheSovietUnion. InGandhi'sactivitiesasapopularleaderandhisdefenseoftheworkingandagriculturalmassesofIndia,Barbussefoundaformofclassstruggle.70Noncooperation wasirrefutablerevolutionaryactivism,notpassivity.Gandhi'sabilitytosuspendhismovementatacrucialmomentaftertheviolenceofChauriChauraonlydramatized theimmenseauthorityoftheMahatmaover300millionIndians.71 Barbusseemphasizedthatnonviolencewasmerelyaprovisionaltactic.72IfLeninhadbeeninIndia,hetoowouldhavespokenandactedasGandhidid:thetwo"are menofthesamespecies,prodigiouscharacters,whoknowhowtomeasureforandagainst."73ThespectacleoftheIndianmassesagitatingfortheirsovereignty sharedmanysimilaritieswiththeRussianexperience.Gandhi'sgoalswereidenticaltothoseofLenin's,namely,asocietyinwhichprivilegeswouldbeeliminated, wherepeoplecouldliveapeaceful,egalitarianlife.Theirmethodswerealike:"LeninisforconstraintandGandhialso."74 GandhiwouldevolveclosertotheCommunistInternational'sconceptofaprofessional,socialistrevolutionary.Hisgraspofthevalueoforganization,leadership,and disciplineaddedtohisintimacywiththeIndianpopularmultitudesdidnotcontradictcontemporarycommunistteachings.Theonlysignificantcontrastbetween communismandGandhismwasGandhi'spatriarchalattitudetowardslabor,aresidueofhisrepudiationofindustrialization.75 Barbusse'sarticleendedwithacritiqueofRomainRollandandTagore.These"marvelousandadmirableartists"telescopedsocialissuesintoindividualcategories. Theyoveremphasized"moralvalues."TheidealisthandRomainRollandhadextendedtotheEasthadtobepoliticized,bybringingtheEasternandWestern revolutionarymovementsintoclosercontact.Gandhihimselfwasinvitedtoparticipateinthe"LeftInternational"toguaranteetheproliferationofhisthought.76 OnreadingthefirstcommunistarticlesonGandhi,RomainRollandwasmovedtolaughter.Theslogan"petitbourgeois"was

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abusiveenoughwithreferencetotheGandhianmovement,butthis"tartelacrmeofCommunistlanguage"tookonathoroughlyridiculoussavorwhenappliedto India.BecauseIndia'ssocialstructurewasfundamentallyagricultural,Marxistphraseologyobscuredmorethanitexplained.Therecouldbeno"possibleanalogy" betweenthepoliticsandclassstructuresofEuropeandAsia.Communistpolemicistsused"sleightofhand"todebunkGandhiwhileoverestimatingthesignificanceof theIndiancommunistmovement.77 ThesecondseriesofcommunistarticlesbyBarbusseandtheIndianBolsheviksdevaluedthe"trueandholygrandeurofGandhi."Unabletoarriveataconsistentline onGandhi,thecommunistspresentedcontradictorythesesthatwouldonlyconfusetheEuropeanaudience.Ontheonehand,thecommunistscharacterizedGandhias areligiousutopian,a"chimericalbeingwithoutpracticalintelligence."Ontheotherhand,theyportrayedhimas"aprudentBolshevikwhouse[d]nonviolenceasa provisionalexpediency."78 RomainRollandwasequallydisturbedbyinformationhereceivedfromRussianfriendsaboutSovietoverturestoGandhi,directedbyM.N.RoyandotherIndiansof Bolshevikpersuasion.IfGandhiweresufficientlyinformed,hewouldperceivetheunderlyingopportunismthatmotivatedthesegestures.Undernocircumstances shouldGandhibedeceivedandmanipulatedbytheBolsheviks.Therewasafundamentalantagonismbetweennonviolentandcommunisttacticsaswellasbetween thebasicphilosophiesofthetwodoctrines.HeallegedthattheBolsheviksdesiredapoliticalalliancewiththeGandhianstopropuptheirownpowerbaseinIndia.In theend,thecommunistshadcontemptfornonviolenceandwouldeitherattempttosubvertitorcrushitentirely. RomainRolland'sintentionwastointroduceandtransmitGandhiasanindependentthinker,withoutlinkinghimtoanexistingsocialmovementorpoliticalparty.
IadmiretheintelligenceandenergyoftheBolshevikgovernmentbutIfeelaprofoundantipathyforitsmeansofactiontheytotallylackfrankness.Itspoliticsistoutilize,inits struggletodestroythepresentEuropeansystem,allthegreatforcesopposedtoEuropeanimperialism,eveniftheseforcesarealsoopposedtothesystemofBolshevik oppressionandviolence....CertainlyIpreferMoscow

Page129 toWashington,andRussianMarxismtoAmericanEuropeanimperialism.ButIclaimtoremainindependentofoneasoftheother."AbovetheBattle!"TheCivitasDei,thecityof nonviolenceandofhumanFraternity,mustrefuseeveryalliance,everycompromisewiththeviolentpartisansofallclassesandallparties.79

RomainRollandwasalarmedbythedeliberatecommunistdistortionsofthespirit,internaldynamics,andgoalsoftheGandhianmovement.Theyinterferedwithhis owneffortstodisseminatetheMahatma'smessagefromaspiritualperspectiveconsistentwiththecentralfoundationsofthenonviolentmovement.HeurgedC.F. Andrews,aBritishmissionaryandfriendofGandhi,towarnGandhiaboutselfservingcommunisteffortstomakeprocommunistpropagandawithintheGandhian movement.Indiancommunistswouldinfiltratethenonviolentrankandfile.GandhimightalsobeinvitedtovisittheSovietUnionandGermany.Aboveallelse,he urgedGandhitodistinguishclearlyhismovement'smotivationsandaimsfromthoseoftheCommunistInternational.80 GandhiacteddirectlyonRomainRolland'swarning,deliveredthroughAndrews.Inhisarticleentitled"MyPath,"publishedinYoungIndiaon11December1924,he implicitlyendorsedRomainRolland's"Western"assessmentofhisdoctrineanddissociatedhimselffromcommunistinterpretations."Itismygoodfortuneand misfortunetoreceiveattentioninEuropeandAmericaatthepresentmoment."Thegoodfortunewasthathisdoctrinewasmademoreaccessible.But''akind Europeanfriendhassentmeawarning...thatIambeingwillfullyoraccidentallymisunderstoodinRussia."ThefrienddiscreetlyleftunnamedwasRomainRolland. Thebiographerwasnowplayingadvisor,urgingthesubjectofhisbiographynottobedupedbythecommunistMachiavellians.Gandhideniedthatheplannedtovisit the"greatcountries"ofGermanyorRussia.Indiawasthemainstageofhissocialexperimentand''anyforeignadventure"wouldbeprematureuntilhismovementhad succeededinhisnativecountry.TheMahatmaaddedthathewasunsureoftheprecisenatureofBolshevism."ButIdoknowthatinsofarasitisbasedonviolence anddenialofGod,itrepelsme....Thereis,therefore,reallynomeetinggroundbetweentheschoolofviolenceandmyself."81 RomainRollandbreathedasighofreliefwhenhelearnedofGandhi'scategoricalrepudiationofBolshevisminYoungIndia.

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ThatarticleendedtheequivocationabouttherealnatureofthenonviolentmovementandterminatedthehypocriticalgameoftheproSovietcommunists.YetRomain RollandregrettedoneaftereffectofGandhi'sstatementitsmanipulativeusebythereactionaryEuropeanpress.TheParisiandailyLeMatinexploitedGandhi's articleasyetanotherweaponintheiranticommunistcrusade.82 GandhihadmadeapowerfulimpactonRomainRollandbythesummerof1924.Stillstronglyattachedtohisintellectualindependence,theFrenchwriterfeltobliged tomakepublicstatementsnotonlyto"relievehisconscience"butalsotodefendnoncooperation,whichheidentifiedwithapoliticstranscendingparty,class,nation, andforce.Hewrote:"ItisclearthatGandhiannoncooperationasanexamplewillleaditsapostlesinEuropetosacrificewithoutanypracticalresultandperhapsfor aratherlongtime.Itisnotlesstrueandgoodinanabsolutefashionanditisthesolemeansofsalvationforhumancivilization."83 DuringtheperiodfromFebruary1924toSeptember1925,twosignificanteventsconsiderablyaffectedRomainRolland'srelationshiptoGandhi.Thefirstwasa postcardhesenttoGandhiexcusinghimselfforinadvertenterrorsinhisshortbiography.84Thisgestureinitiatedauniqueepistolaryfriendshipbetweenthetwothat lasteduntil30December1937.Second,hewrotealetterofintroductionforayoungEnglishwoman,MadeleineSlade,askingGandhitoacceptherintohisashram. AfterreadinghisbiographyofGandhi,shewasconvertedtotheMahatma'sphilosophy,therebydiscoveringherlife'smission.SladenotonlybecameGandhi'sclose disciple,butalsoremainedtheintermediarybetweenRomainRollandandGandhithroughouttheentireinterwarperiod.85 GandhipraisedRomainRolland'sessaybothforcontainingsofewfactualerrorsandforhaving"truthfullyinterpret[ed]mymessage."86Gandhiagainexpressedhis satisfactionwiththebiography:"TellM.RomainRollandthatIwilltrytoliveuptothehighinterpretationthathehasgivenmyhumblelife."87 RomainRolland'sidealizationofGandhiwasboundtoleadtodisillusion.FortenyearsthepersonalcontactsbetweenGandhiandhisFrenchbiographerweremarked bygeographicaldistance,cordiality,andmutualrespect,butalsobyconsistentlydifferentconceptionsoftheworldandtheirhistoricmissions.GandhiandRomain Rollandmetonlyonce.Intruth,theyhadlittleincommon.

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MadeleineSlademediatedbetweenRomainRollandandGandhi(theMahatmaneitherreadnorspokeFrench).GandhiwrotelettersofintroductiontoRomain RollandformanyofhiscolleaguesanddisciplestravelinginEurope.Theyexchangedlettersonbirthdays.RomainRollandoftenwrotebeforeandafterGandhi participatedinfasts,prayers,andmarchesorenteredlifethreateningperiodsofimprisonment. Throughoutthistime,therewereserioustensionsbetweenthetwo.RomainRollandvehementlyclungtohisvocationoffreespiritedintellectual.Gandhididnotsee himselfasatheoreticianbutratherasapopularIndianguru,devotedtohisownbrandofpoliticalandreligiousaction.Gandhi'scontributiontoafestschriftforRomain Rolland'ssixtiethbirthdayin1926stressedhisowndifferencefromhisbiographer.Hewrotethathewasnotamanoflettersanddidnotknowagreatdealaboutthe FrenchNobellaureate.HealsoreferredtoRomainRollandas"myselfchosenadvertiser"adistancingandslightlydenigratingterm.88 RomainRollandemphasizedhisseparationfromtheMahatma'smovement.HerefusedtobecomeanofficialspokesmanforGandhiinEurope:"IamnotaChristian,I amnotaGandhian,Iamnotabelieverinarevealedreligion.IamamanoftheWestwho,inallloveandinallsincerity,searchesforthetruth."89Hismotivesin writingaboutGandhiwerepersonalhefeltcalledonto"relievehisheart."Hewroteoutoflove,topresenttheGandhianmessagetoEuropeans,alertingthemtothe possibilityofafreeandjoyouschoice.WoundedbytheoffhandremarkGandhimadeabouthisbiography(hesupposedlysaidthatitwas"literature''),Romain Rollandcounteredthatitwas"notwrittenfor'literature'(Thelittrateursscarcelyconsidermeasoneofthem)."90 Inhisprivatediary,theconvertedRomainRollandentertaineddoubtsabouttherealisticpossibilityforGandhiannonacceptancebeingappliedinEuropeasearlyas November1926.Nonacceptancecouldonlybepracticedbyanelitecorpsof"apostlesandmartyrs."Thefaithrequiredawelltrained,tightlydisciplinedbandofself abnegators.Nonacceptancemightsubvertthemodernstateifpracticedoveralongperiodoftime,butinEuropeonlyaminorityofconscientiousobjectorspossessed thisfaith,withthecouragetosacrificetheirlives,families,professions,andpersonalwelfareforprinciples.Topracticewarresistanceinaneraoffascismandrearma

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mentwastoriskpersecution.Conscientiousobjectorswouldbeharassedandpunished.HeobservedthatevenGandhipracticedhisdoctrineinconsistently,lacking thespiritualhardinessattributedtotheearlyChristians.91 Europecouldnotsurvivewithoutpeace.ButEuropeanpacifistswereobligedtoconnecttheirantiwaractivitytoalargereffortto"revisethevaluesoflife."Gandhism representedaculturalrevolutionthatmightassistthemtoreevaluatepolitics,morality,andsocialattitudesbybeginningwiththeself.RomainRolland'spacifism, althoughitcontainedcriticalcomponents,wasessentiallypositiveandcharacterbuilding.ThatiswhyhesodeeplyappreciatedthesentimentsofSpinoza'sPolitical Treatise.92Bythemiddleandlate1920sherecognizedthatthereligiousandpoliticalclimateofEuropewas"unsuited"forGandhi'sheroicexperiment.93Non violencepromisedsalvation,butithadnorootsintheindustrial,secular,materialistWestespeciallyinLatinEurope. TheircorrespondenceoftendebatedGandhi'sviewsonwarresistance.TheyhadabriefcontroversyabouttwoFrenchpeasantswhoresistedWorldWarIand retreatedintothemountainsforthirteenyears.TheMahatmarefusedtodiscussthecaseinYoungIndia.RomainRolland,forhispart,judgedGandhi'sresponseto theiractionharshandpuristic.94This,inturn,gaverisetoamoreacrimoniousexchangeaboutGandhi'sroleduringtheGreatWar,bothhissupportoftheBritish Empireandhisactiveparticipationinthewar.TheFrenchwriterwasdissatisfiedwithGandhi'srejoinderinhisAutobiography.95Therewereinstancesof"doctrinal narrowness"inGandhi'smessageandagrowingnumberofpersonalinconsistencies.Gandhi'sjustificationofhisactivitiesduringtheGreatWarwasnotconvincingthe Mahatmashouldhaveadheredtothestrategyofindividualcivildisobedience.96 RomainRollandurgedGandhitovisitEuropeinthelate1920stotelltheantiimperialistversionofthestruggle(Europeansusuallyheardonlytheviewpointofthe BritishEmpire)andtoenterintodirectcontactwithotheroppressedpeoples.97OnGandhi'ssixtyfirstbirthdayin1930,hereferredtoGandhismasaunifying "revolutionofthespirit,...therefusalhurledbytheproudsoulagainstinjusticeandviolence....Thisrevolutiondoesnotbreedoppositionbetweenraces,classes, nations,andreligionsitbringsthemtogether."98

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By1931,RomainRollandwaswritingmorestingingindictmentsofEuropeanimperialism,largelyinresponsetothesocialcrisisengenderedbytheworlddepression. Thelanguageofpacifistengagementinthe1920sgavewaytotherevolutionarylanguageofthe1930s.Europe'sonlyhope,heexclaimed,wasfora"complete reversalofthesocialorder."Capitalistimperialismhadtobetoppledandreplaced.SinceGandhismcontainedarevolutionarypotential,heissuedcallsforanonviolent revolutionwithGandhiasleader.99 ThewarmthoftheirrelationshippeakedduringGandhi'sfivedayvisittotheFrenchwriter'svillainVilleneuvefrom6Decemberto11December1931. HistorianshavetrivializedtheirconversationsatthistimebydwellingonthecircusatmospherethatfollowedGandhi'sentourage(evenRomainRollandviewed ironicallytheincongruousassortmentofnudists,vegetarians,crazies,lotterycardholders,andpeasantsbringingmilktothe"KingofIndia,"whoconvergedonhis villa).100Mostaccountsmentionthemusicandthemetaphysics.101Infact,theydiscussedthepoliticalandeconomiccrisisofEuropeandtheurgentnecessityfor Gandhitoclarifyhisviewsonsocialquestions.RomainRollandviewedEurope'smalaiseasderivinghistoricallyfromtherivalriesandexpansionismofinternational capitalism.HeaskedGandhiwhatoptionsnonviolenceposedforEuropeansinthefaceofthiscrisis.102Rollandobservedthatnonviolencecouldworkonlyifthe resisterssharedacommonreligiousbeliefsystem.Nonviolencealsorequiredvisionaryleadershipandabroadbaseoffollowers.Fornonviolencetosucceedin Europe,theorganizedworkersinfactoriesandarsenalswouldhavetobemobilized.Workers,healertedGandhi,werealreadypoliticized,andmanywereinspiredby eventsandtheexampleoftheSovietUnion.MostorganizedFrenchworkerswereclassconsciousandpreparedforclassstruggle,whichmightincludeviolent confrontations.HepressedGandhiforclarificationofhisperspectivesonItalianfascism(GandhihadchosentovisitItalyafterleavingSwitzerland),butaboveallon theclashbetweencapitalismandthelabormovement.103 Gandhididnotconsidertheantagonismsoflaborandcapitalessential.Ifacollisionoccurred,hefavoredorganizedlabor.Themethodsofsatyagrahacouldbe employedagainstcapitalists,ashe

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haddemonstratedinIndia.GandhiappearedinsensitivetotheplightofunemployedworkersinEnglandandinindustrializedcountries:"InEngland'scasethe unemployedhavenotmanyreasonstocomplainofthecapitalist."HeseemedignorantaboutdevelopmentsinRussia.Withouthavingstudiedthefacts,hestatedthat hewasdistrustfuloftheUSSRthatheassociatedcommunismwithviolence,arbitrariness,intolerance,andterrorismandthathewasunequivocallyopposedtothe dictatorshipoftheproletariat.104 Insummary,Gandhi'svisithadamixedimpactonRomainRolland.HestillreveredGandhiasaman,admiredhissenseofhumor,stamina,leadershipqualities,and selfcontrol,buthefeltremovedfromhim.Attimesitseemedthattheyhadnothingtodiscuss,thattheformidabledifferencesintheirsensibilities,lifestyles,andcultural politicswereunbridgeable.HewasdissatisfiedwithGandhi'sfaultyknowledgeofpacifistandleftwingpoliticsinEuropeanddeeplydisturbedbytheMahatma's plannedtriptofascistItaly.Mostsignificant,hereluctantlyendorsedGandhi'spositionsonlaborandclassstruggle.105 Italianfascismwasacontroversy,anembarrassment,andfinallyanimpasseinRomainRolland'srelationswithGandhi.AfterbeingRomainRolland'sguestin Switzerland,GandhivisitedItalyforfourdaysfrom11Decemberto15December1931.Gandhi'striptofascistItalyrepeatedTagore'sItalianfiascoof1926,withits elementsoffarceandtragedy.TheFrenchwritertriedtopersuadetheMahatmanottorisktravelinginItaly.Ifhewerefoolishenoughtogo,heshouldtake precautionsagainstbeing"swindled"bytheunscrupulousregime.HewasentirelyunsuccessfulinexplainingtoGandhithesymbolicdangersofvisitingafascist dictatorshipinEurope,butitwascontrarytohisstyletovetoGandhi'strip.GandhimadeonlyoneconcessiontoRomainRolland:heresidedwiththeindependent GeneralMoris,decliningshelterfromtheofficialfascistestablishment.106 GandhihadbeeninvitedtoItalybytheItalianconsultoIndia.TheIndianleaderdeliveredashortaddressattheInstituteofCultureinRome.Ostensibly,Gandhiwas motivatedtovisitItalybyhisunabashedcuriosity,hisempiricaldesiretotestoutandobserveItaly'spoliticalandsocialcontextforhimself.Gandhialsoasserted, somewhatselfrighteously,thatasamessengerofpeacehispresenceinItalywouldultimatelyhaveaconstructiveeffecton

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theItalians.InGandhi'swords:"Thedistanteffectofagoodthingmustbegood."BeforeenteringItalianterritory,herequestedthatnosecretmeetingsbeheldand thathebepermittedtospeakhismindfreelyinpublic.Gandhi'scontactwithMussolini'sItalymayhavesignaledtotheBritishhisbitternessafterthecollapseofthe RoundTableConferencedesignedtodiscussIndianindependenceandthesafeguardingofminoritiesinIndia.TheprospectofIndiaestablishingfriendlyrelationswith ItalymayhavegivenpausetotherulingechelonsinEngland.Inreality,Gandhi'sfourdaytriptoItalyinvolvedanumberofincongruousactivities.Hetouredthe VaticanmuseumsbutwasdeniedanaudiencewiththePope.HemetwithMariaMontessoriandvisitedtwoofherexperimentalschools.Hehadanappointmentwith Tolstoy'sgranddaughter.HealsohadaninterviewwiththenewsecretaryoftheFascistPartyofItaly,AchilleStarace.Andlast,hewasreceivedbyMussolinifor twentyminutesintheduce'soffice.107 AlthoughGandhi'shistoricalreputationwasnotirreparablydamagedbythevisittoItaly,ithadimmediatelydisastrousrepercussionsforthetriplecausesofworld peace,antiimperialism,andresistancetosocialinjustice.RomainRollandaccuratelypredictedthatthefascistpresswouldmisrepresentorsuppressthecontentof Gandhi'spublicstatements.ThenewspaperGiornaled'ItaliaquotedGandhiassympathetictofascistopinions,allegingthathesanctionedtheuseofviolence.Fascist pressreportsofhisspeechessimplydeletedthe"non"fromtheword"nonviolence."Withthepeacefulandlovingcomponentsofhisstatementsremoved,Gandhi's critiqueoftheBritishEmpireseemedmoremenacingthanheintended.ThetriptofascistItalytarnishedhisprestigeamongpacifistsandleftistsinFranceandGreat Britain.FarmoreinsidiouswastheeffectofGandhi'spresenceonthousandsofoppressedantifascistItalians,bothinandoutofItaly:''AnythingofthisnatureinItaly wouldbeharmfultotheItalians.Peoplewouldsay:'Thegreatsaintiswiththeoppressorsagainsttheoppressed.'"TheantifascistemigrsclusteredaroundLaLibert inParisreportedthatGandhi'striptoItalywasmarkedby"ingenuousness."108Gandhi'smisinformationaboutthedegradingpoliciesoftheItaliangovernmentangered hisFrenchbiographer.HebegantoreappraisetheincisivenessandefficacyofGandhisminthefaceofinternationalfascism. UnabletoconvinceGandhithatthe"truefaceofFascism"was

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murderandrepression,RomainRollandpredictedthatnothingworthwhilewouldresultfromGandhi'strip."Ishouldhavesaidtohim:Well,then,youwillnotgo.At nopriceoughtyoutoshakehandswiththeassassinofMatteottiandAmendola."109 Gandhi,infact,hadbeenfavorablyifsomewhatambivalentlyimpressedbyMussolini.EuropeansshouldsuspendjudgmentonMussolini's"reforms,"hethought,until an"impartialstudy"couldbecarriedout.AlthoughItalywasrepressive,itscoercivenessparalleledotherEuropeansocietiesthatwerealso"basedonviolence.''There wasmerit,Gandhiheld,inMussolini'sprogramsagainstpoverty,hisoppositionto"superurbanization,"andhiscorporateeffortstoharmonizetheinterestsofcapital andlabor.Moreover,behindMussolini'simplacablefacadeandhisoratoricalflourishes,Gandhidetectedan"inflamedsincerityandloveforhispeople,"aswellasa disinteresteddesiretoservehiscountry.TheItalianpeoplewereinspiredbytheducethisaccountedforMussolini'svastpopularity.110Gandhisubsequentlytold severalIndiansleavingforaEuropeantripthatthereweretwoEuropeansworthknowing:MussoliniandRomainRollandadistinctionhisantifascistFrench biographerironicallyrecordedbuthardlyappreciated.111 RomainRollandwasincensedbyGandhi'simpressionsoffascistItalytheywere"hasty,""erroneous,"and"careless."HechallengedGandhi'scapacitytoassessthe popularityofthefascistregime,givenhisshortstayhisignoranceoftheItalianlanguage,history,andcultureandhisfailuretomeetopponentsofthegovernment. GandhiwasastuteatreadingprogressiveBritishopinionandpolitics,butheseemedoblivioustothedynamicsoffascismandtotheabusesoforganizedstateviolence. ThehiddenItalywasawoundedcountry,bestrepresentedbytheenemiesandvictimsoffascism,thatis,bythosemenandwomensilencedbylies,mystifiedby "breadandcircuses,"andbrutalizedbypoliceterror.GandhiknewnothingofdeportedItaliansdoingforcedlaboronvolcanicislandsoffthecoastofsouthernItaly. HehadnoideaofMatteotti'swidow,houndedbythefascistsecretpolice.Gandhi'sinsensitivitytothe"moralsufferings''ofthemajorityoftheItalianpeoplewas shocking.RomainRollandrefutedGandhi'srationalizationsforMussolini'spoliciesbydifferentiatingbetweenWesterncountries.TosaythatallWesterndemocracies werecoercivewassophisticandahistorical.112

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GandhimisunderstoodthatfascistviolencehadabureaucraticapparatusandideologicallegitimacynottobefoundintheWesterndemocracies.Thevarious"crimes" oftheduce'sregimeincludedstateorderedexecutions.Mussolinisuppressedcivilliberties.HesystematicallydestroyedtheItalianLaborConfederation,popular libraries,andthesocialistmunicipalcouncils.HedecimatedtheItalianSocialistParty,anactofvindictiverevenge,forMussolinihadservedasthesecondranking officialofthatparty.HebrutalizedtheItalianpeasantry,exacerbatingthedivisionsbetweennorthandsouth.GandhiwasmistakentoseeMussoliniasaprotectorof theItalianpeopleheshouldnothaveswallowedtheduce'sselfaggrandizingrhetoricatfacevalue.Therewasnoselfabnegation,noasceticideal,amongtheItalian FascistPartyleadership.Rather,theywerearrivistescommittedtoamassingpersonalwealth,imposterswhocraveddomination.Mussolini'sregimeconsistedofa "band"that"pillagedtheStatetreasuryandgorged[themselves]withmillions."RomainRollandpointedoutthatthesymbioticconnectionbetweenfascistleadership andbigbusinesswasexplicitlyexpansionistandimperialistic.ItwouldeventuallypushItalyintowarsandintoeffortstosuppressunderdevelopedcountries.113A responsiblepoliticalpersonalitywasobligedtosupporttheantifascistcause. RomainRolland'spreoccupationwithGandhibecamethepointofdepartureforanotherlineofinquiryHindumysticism.HisbiographyofGandhiwassubtitled"The ManWhoBecameOnewiththeBeingoftheUniverse."Bythelate1920s,heenteredaperiodofscholarlyresearchesonintuition,musicalgenius,andthenatureof oceanicreligiosity.TheproductsofRomainRolland's"journeywithin"werehisautobiographicalLeVoyageintrieur:LePriple(1946)hismultivolumebiography ofBeethoven,Beethoven:LesGrandesEpoquescratricesdel'Hroquel'Appassionata(1928)andGoetheetBeethoven(1930)andhisthreevolumestudy ofIndianspirituality,EssayonMysticismandActioninLivingIndia:TheLifeofRamakrishna(1929)andTheLifeofVivekanandaandtheUniversalGospel (twovolumes,1930).114 RomainRolland'simmersioninmysticismplungedhimoncemoreintotheoceaniccurrentunderlyinghisartisticsensibility.Hisperiodofintellectualdisengagement culminatedwiththebiographiesofRamakrishnaandVivekananda.Therecouldbenogreater

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flightfromsocialandpoliticalrealitythantheseintrospectiveautobiographicalworks,nothingmoremeditativethanthesevolumesonHindumysticism.Buteventhese worksweredesignedtoovercomethecontemporaryEuropeanignoranceofEasternreligiousthoughtbyparallelingcommonexperiencesofthedivine.Hecombated theunbridledrationalismandscientismtowhichthetwentiethcenturymindwasheir,claiming"thesovereignrightofthereligiousspiritinthetruesenseevenand especiallyoutsideofreligiousinstitutions,ineveryprofoundandimpassionedmovementofthemind."115WhileworkingonHindumysticism,RomainRolland engagedSigmundFreudinacontroversyovertheoriginsandmeaningoftheoceanicsensation.116 ForRomainRolland,theconnectionsbetweenIndianmysticismandthemusicofBachandBeethoven,Germanidealism,theprinciplesoftheFrenchRevolution,and themetaphysicsofSpinozairrefutablydemonstratedtheunityofhumannature.Theoceanicsensationallowedhimtothinkhimselfintothemindsofpeopleand culturesdifferentfromhisown.Theoceanicfeelingwastheimaginativesourceandthedeepstructureofaccesstoothersandtheworld.Itallowedhimtograsp intuitivelythelargerconnectionstheindividualexperiencedinrelationshiptoculture.117 AfterreturningtoIndia,Gandhiwasarrested,ledanunsuccessfulcampaignagainstUntouchability,andconductedfastsandmarches.RomainRollandkepttheFrench readingpublicinformedoftheseeventsbywritingatotalofninereports,aserialized"LetterfromIndia,"publishedinEurope.118TheBritishrepressionofthe noncooperationmovementmadeGandhiseemtohimarevolutionarymartyr,apartisanoflaboragainstcapital.119Hearguedthatasocialrevolutionwasimperative inEurope,andhepredictedthatsucharevolutionwouldfolloweithertheLeninistortheGandhianmodel.Heheldthatviolenceandnonviolence,communismand Gandhism,werenotnecessarilyincompatibleatleastamongsincerepractitionersandintermsofthedesiredgoal.Hesawhimselfasthemediatorbetweenthepro SovietandproIndiancampsintheperiod1931to1934:
Intheeyesofthousandsofmenwhoatthepresentmomentconsideritintolerabletomaintainthepresentcapitalistandimperialistsocietyandwhohaveresolvedtochangeit, thegreatandambitiousIndianexperimentwithSatyagrahaistheonlychanceopentothe

Page139 worldofachievingthistransformationofhumanitywithouthavingrecoursetoviolence.Ifitfails,therewillbenootheroutletforhumanhistorythanviolence.It'seitherGandhior Lenin!Inanycase,socialjusticemustbeachieved.120

InApril1934,RomainRollanddefinitivelybrokewithnonviolentnoncooperationasatacticforrevolutionorresistanceincontemporaryEurope.Thereasonforthe changewasthehistoricalascendancyoffascism.SatyagrahahavingnorealisticchanceforvictoryinaEuropesaturatedbyfascistmovements,heswitchedhis loyaltiestothestrugglesoforganizedlabor.Workers,atleast,wouldactivelyresistfascismandrightwingextremism.121 By1935,RomainRollandrevisedhisviewsonGandhi'sleadershipoftheIndianmovement.ForsocialreconstructioninIndia,theFrenchwriterpreferredtheyounger leadersNehruandSubhasChandraBose,whoweremorecoherentlysocialistandwhobelongedtotheleftwingoftheIndianCongressParty.Gandhi'ssentimental andreligiousapproachtopoliticsnolongercorrespondedtorealitiesinhisowncountry.Nonviolencewasnotthe"centralpivotofallsocialaction."Hewas particularlyupsetbytheMahatma'srefusaltoadapttheprinciplesofsocialismforhiscountry.Gandhi'sprejudices,hisobstinateclingingtoreceivedideas,meantthat hewasillequippedtoleadIndia,onceitgaineditsindependence,intothemodernworld.122AlthoughhenolongeradvocatedGandhi'spoliticalphilosophyand tactics,RomainRollandalwaysretainedenormousrespectforGandhithemantherewasnopersonalruptureinrelations,justdistance.Nordidhewaverinhis judgmentofGandhi'sprominenceinmodernIndianhistory.HislastpublicstatementonGandhicondensedtheambivalenceofhisadmirationforthemanandhis refusaltoclingtononviolence"inthefaceofthegrowingferocityofthenewregimesoftotalitariandictatorships....Wecannot,inthiscircumstance,advocateand practiceGandhi'sdoctrine,howevermuchwerespectit."123 ToassessRomainRolland'sengagementasaGandhian,weshouldnotethathisessaysaccomplishedtheirimmediategoals:theydisseminatedinformationabout Gandhi'sstruggleinIndiaandtheyfamiliarizedtheEuropeanpublicwiththeconceptsofnonviolenceandnoncooperation. From1923to1932,hehadharnessedhisinternationalprestige

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andhisgiftsasawritertoserveastheEuropeanpopularizerofGandhi.Hisarticles,introductions,anthologyofGandhi'sthought,andaboveallhisbiography transmittedtheMahatma'smessageinEurope.RomainRollandpresentednonviolentresistanceasaconcretethirdwaybetweenLeninismandWilsonism.By1923, hewasconvincedthattherevolutionaryconjuncturesofpostwarEuropehadpassed,thattheEuropeanreactionhadconsolidateditsgains.HepresentedGandhism asapotentiallypowerfulpoliticalphilosophy,avisionofpoliticsandmorality,thatallowedbothforindividualrefusalandforcollectivedisobedience.IntheEuropean setting,itmightprovidepostwarpacifistsaviablemodelfortheorganizationandstructureofamovement,aparadigmforleadershipandaction.Bythelate1920she consideredGandhismarevolutionarymovementofthespiritorsoul.Bytheearly1930shelinkedittotherevolutionarystrategyandtacticsofsyndicalism.Civil disobedienceandradicaltradeunionismcouldworktogether. HisWorldWarIexperience,coupledwithhisreactiontoeventsintheimmediatepostwarperiod,madeRomainRollandpsychologicallyandideologicallyreceptive toGandhi'sideas.MotivatedbyhisintellectualcuriosityaboutIndia,heseizedonGandhisminparttoextricatehimselffromhispoliticalbind:isolation,apostureof criticismwithouttheproposalofaconstructiveprogram,and,aboveall,relianceonvague,metaphysicalformulasinplaceofconcretenotionsofstrategyandtactics. HeassumedthetaskofexpandingtheconsciousnessoftheEuropeanintellectualcommunitybyintroducingGandhismasanewareaofstudy,acollateralbranchof Indianspiritualthought,withoutcompromisinghisintellectualintegrity,andwithouthavingtojoinanestablishedpoliticalparty.Acceptingthepreceptthatnoformof knowledgewasforeigntothemind,heinitiatedaprocessofEuropeanacquaintancewithIndianculture,personalities,andpoliticalconflictsandstrategies.His campaignconfrontedEuropeanandparticularlyFrenchxenophobia.RomainRollandmustbeseenasagreatchallengerofFrenchethnocentrism. IfRomainRolland'sessayspreparedtheEuropeanpublicforGandhi'smessageandmethods,theyfailedtoaskhowGandhismwouldgrounditselfinthematerialist West.InhisenthusiasticefforttodemythologizestandardEastWeststereotypesandtostressunity,heblurreddistinctions.Hemadealeapoffaithto

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Gandhism,buthedidnotconsiderthesourcesofGandhianresistanceinEuropeorthetraininggroundforitsleadership. Gandhi'smethodsmightindicatetoEuropeanpacifistintellectualsawayoutoftheirimpasse.HewaspainfullyawarethatmembersoftheFrenchandEuropeanpeace movementshadcapitulatedtothewarin1914andafter.Pacifistshadbeenweak,contradictory,andunabletotransformtheirtheoriesintoantiwarpracticeintheface ofthegravecrisisofWorldWarI.GandhismmightprovideEuropeanpacifists,especiallyreligiousones,withprinciplesrequiringselfsacrifice,imprisonment,and evendeath.NonacceptanceofthestatemightallowEuropeanwarresisterstomovefromisolatedactsofconscientiousobjectiontoamassivecivildisobediencethat mightultimatelysubvertthestate.WiththeIndianmodelinmind,onecouldnotseparateissuesofsocialinjusticefromtheforeignpoliciesofmajorEuropeanpowers. DespitethegenuineaffectionbetweenRomainRollandandGandhi,thetwowereworkingatcrosspurposes,evenatthemostcordialstagesoftheirrelationship. Gandhi'smainplatformwasIndia:hismovementwouldproveitsviabilitytherewithinthecontextoftheindependencestruggle.ThepropagandisticedgeofRomain Rolland'sessaysundoubtedlysuppliedtheGandhianstrugglewithanadditionalleverofprestigeandauthority.Forhispart,RomainRollandseizedontheuniversal aspectsoftheMahatma'stheoryandpractice.ThoughhesympathizedwiththeIndiannationalliberationmovement,hewascommittedtogeneratingaFrenchand EuropeanGandhianmovementhewantedtointernationalizethenonviolentcause.IfEuropeansdidnotacceptGandhiasanewspiritualandpoliticalguide,hisideas wouldatleaststimulatedialogueamongpartisansofprogressivesocialchange. Becauseheneverconsideredsystematicthinkingavirtue,RomainRollandwasnotperplexedbytheinternalcontradictionswithinGandhismitself.Therewasno critique,forinstance,ofGandhi'spolicieswhentheywerepatentlyunreasonable,puristic,oreveninconsistentwiththedictatesofconscience.RomainRolland subsequentlycalledintoquestionGandhi'ssupportoftheBritishEmpire,ashedidhisvoluntaryparticipationintheBoerWarandespeciallyWorldWarI.Thatthe MahatmahadacceptedbuttransformedforhisownpurposestheelementaryHinduallegiancetocaste(withtheexceptionofthebarbarictraditionof Untouchability),

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cowprotection,idolworship,andotheraspectsoftraditionalHindudoctrinedemonstratedthathispoliticalphilosophywasinextricablytiedtoancientIndiancustoms. RomainRollanddidnotrealizethatGandhi'sfailuretoreconsiderhisattachmenttoHinduismwouldleaveIndiahopelesslybackwardlookingorthatIndianreligiosity wouldobstructthemovement'sacceptancebyWesterners.Moreover,Gandhi'scapacitytotapIndia'sspiritualheritageillustratedatightergraspofpolitical expediencyinIndiathantheidealisticbiographerwantedtogrant. RomainRollandpursuedhisflightfromtimebymeditatingoneternity.Gandhismpushedhimtowarddepoliticization:histrilogyonIndianmysticsrepresentedhismost disengagedstanceintheinterwarperiod.Hetendedtooverlookthelimitationsofthesatyagrahadoctrine,whichwasantiindustrial,nationalistic,andentangledina mystifyingmetaphysicalweb.HisfailuretovisitIndiapreventedhimfromseeingthestarkandoverwhelmingrealityofIndia'spovertyandtheignoranceofits populace.Onlyinthemid1930sdidhesensethatGandhismwouldneverprovideIndiawithacompletetoolbywhichtoliberateitselffromthismisery.Heneversaw noncooperationinpractice,henceheneverascertaineditsfinitelimits.Inhisminditremainedabeautifulideal,somethingtobestrivenforandperfectedinthefuture. LikesomanystudentsandadvocatesofGandhiafterhim,RomainRollandsawinGandhismwhathewantedtosee.124 Hemadebroad,unsubstantiatedclaimsaboutnonviolence,especiallygiventheverylimitednatureofitsvictoryinSouthAfricaanditsprecariousstateinIndiafrom 1923to1932.Byrefusingtoextractthesecularcontentandpoliticalappealofthenonviolentmessage,hiswritingsmighthaveunwittinglyretardedamassEuropean acceptanceofGandhi'snovelpoliticalweapon.Hedidnotinitiallytrytopoliticizeeitherthedoctrineortheaudience.Atfirsthehadnotcarefullyexaminedwhether themovementwasinherentlyreformistorrevolutionary,whetheritcouldbestretchedtoencompasssocialistgoals.Moreimportant,hebluntedthedifferences betweennationalindependencestrugglesandthoseinvolvingwarresistanceandclassconflictsinmoreadvancedsocieties.Althoughsomeofthepropagandafor nonviolencecontainedunwarrantedrhetoricalviolence,heneverdevelopedapsychologicalcritiqueofabsolutenonviolencethatquestionedwhethernonvio

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lentresistersdidemotionalviolencetothemselvesthroughtheirradicalprohibitionoftheexpressionofanger. InRomainRolland'sbiography,theMahatmaisdeifiedasamessiahforIndiaandfortheworld.Gandhiannoncooperationwiththestatebecamethegospelupdated, alternativelydescribedasanewChristianityandareligionofhumanity.Gandhiansweredhisneednotonlyforasplendidspiritualleaderbutalsoforamartyr.The BritishpersecutionofGandhiandtheviolentrepressionofhismovementsuggestedthathemightdieviolentlyandsoon.Historyboreoutthatdreadfulpremonition. Gandhiwasassassinatedin1948,fouryearsafterRomainRolland'sdeath. TheGandhianstageculminatedRomainRolland'sevolutionfromantiwardissentertopopularizerofnonviolentresistance.GandhismwascompatiblewithRomain Rolland'sdialecticalformulaforintellectualcommitment:"Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismofthewill."Nonviolentresistancefusedaudaciousactionwithcritical analysis.TherewasnogreatgapbetweenGandhiannonviolentresistersandtheviolentsocialrevolutionaries.HewasmostproGandhiwhiledisenchantedwiththe RussianRevolution,andhebecamemostcriticalofGandhiwhenhemovedclosertothefellowtravelerposition.Forseveralyears,hetriedtobeaninternational intermediarybetweenthetwocamps. IfhisintroductionofGandhismresolvedapersonalandspiritualproblemforhim,itsimultaneouslycreatedmajorproblemsforpacifiststhroughoutthetwentiesand thirties.RomainRolland'sGandhismstressedcharacterbuilding,virtue,andintegrityitwasorientedtowardfortifyingtheindividual'sautonomy,healinginnerexistential splits.Hewantedpacifiststobeincorruptibleandvisionary,tostandaboveparties,classes,andcoteries.Theywerenottodirtytheirhands.Rollandistpacifismwas ambivalenttowardtheCommunistInternationalandtowardtheissueofsocialrevolution.Thatambivalencewouldplaguepacifistsduringtheperiodbetweenthewars. Gandhismdidnotprovideasocial,economic,orculturalanalysisoftherootsofwarorapersuasiveideologyforthemasses.Itwasnotreadilyabsorbedinthe postwarEuropeanatmosphereofspeed,machines,automobiles,airplanes,jazz,andadventure.Itdidnotappealtothelongingofyouthforrevoltortheyearningsof warveteransforcamaraderie.GandhisminEuropedidnotgive

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risetoasurrogateGandhi.RomainRollandwasnotenoughofanactivistorprofessionalpoliticiantostepintothatrole. GandhismservedasakeytransitioninthehistoryofcommitmentofFrenchintellectualsbetweenpreWorldWarIliberalhumanitarianismandthesocialisthumanism ofthe1930sfellowtravelingposition.GandhismallowedRomainRollandtopassfromthenineteenthcenturytothetwentieth.Itrepresentedanoblewagertofinda pragmaticpoliticalstancethatelevatedindividualismandethicalconcerns,ratherthantheprimacyofforceorthehistoricaldestinyofthecollective.RomainRolland's Gandhismpermittedhimtoabsorbtheimmediatepostwartraumawithoutdespair,cynicism,crackpotrealism,orironyandtosearchforanonviolentalternative.This questandthediscoursethatestablishedthemythofthegreatsouledGandhianddisseminatedthenonviolentpoliticalphilosophyremaincreativecontributions. RomainRolland'screativitywasthatofthemediator.Gandhianengagementsymbolizedtheintellectual'srefusaltosanctionviolentsolutionstopoliticalproblems.It epitomizedamoralvisionthatinsistedonstruggleforprogressive,evenrevolutionary,sociopoliticalchangethroughpeacefulmeans.

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PARTTHREE LEFTWINGCULTURALPOLITICSOFTHE1930S

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7 IntellectualAntifascismandtheAmsterdamPleyelMovement
WeproclaimedourselvestheenemiesofFascism,butactuallyFascismhaditseffectonus,asonalmostallItalians,alienatingusandmakingussuperficial,passive,andcynical. PrimoLevi,ThePeriodicTable

Inthe1930santifascismfusedapowerfulemotionalandintellectualapproachtocontemporaryhistory.RomainRollandoccupiedaprominentplaceinelaboratingand popularizingthisnegativepassion,situatedattheborderofpoliticsandculture.Perceivingfascismasapotentthreat,heattemptedtoorganizeandtocreate ideologicallegitimacyforabroadbasedinterclasscoalitiontoopposeit.Hedeployedhistalentsandriskedhisinternationalreputationasamoralforceandpacifist spokesman,whiletransformingintheprocessthestyleofthecommittedwriter.Antifascistpoliticsalsosuffusedhisliteraryworksintheera.HisepicnovelL'Ame enchante,thesuccessorofJeanChristophe,maderesistancetofascismcentralinitsnarrative,characters,andunifyingvision. BeforeMussolini'sMarchonRomeandtheFascistParty'sseizureofpoweron30October1922,RomainRollandconsideredfascisttheoryandpracticetobe repugnantpreciselybecauseitcontradictedtheculturallegacyofItaly.1 Fascismwasanewformofbarbarism,anotherdeformationoftheGreatWar,notsimplya reversiontodictatorialpolitics.Hequicklyrecognizedfascism'sdynamicstrength,itscapacitytotapthwartedItalianhistoricalandmilitarypride.Hepredictedthat ''Fascismwilleitherburstopenlikeanabcessorbereabsorbedintoitself.''2 HesawtheattractionfascismheldforintellectualssuchasPierreDrieulaRochelleand HenrydeMontherlant,andhealsorealizeditspotentialtotakerootinFranceasamassmovement.3

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MussoliniwastheincarnationofpostWorldWarICaesarism.RomainRollandcomparedthefascistregimewiththedecadentyearsoftheFrenchBonapartist tradition.Hewasappalledbytheleadershipcultaroundtheduce.MussolinilackedNapoleonBonaparte'sintelligence,strategicskills,andworldvision.Theducewas amockherowhostoodforconquestandadoreddestructionforitsownsake.RomainRollanddistancedhimselffromleftorrightwingsocialmovementsthatwere intoxicatedwithnotionsofviolenceanddomination."IhaveindeednosympathyforMussoliniandFascism....BetweenBolsheviksandFasciststhereare differencesofideas,butnotofmethods."4 HeanticipatedthatItalianantifascistintellectualsmightopposeGiovanniGentile'sedictrequiringallstatefunctionariestoswearoathsofloyaltytothefascistregime. Hishopeswerequicklydisappointed.ModernItalyneededaVictorHugo"tothrowagloveinthefaceofatyrant."BenedettoCrocewasunabletoplaysucha leadershiprole,despitehisoppositiontofascism.Crocelimitedhisprotestto"theabsurditiesofFascist'intellectualimperialism.'"Theoriginsoffascism,Romain Rollandsaw,werethenorthsouthdivisioninItaly,thedisappointmentsaftertheWorldWarIexperience,andaboveallthebacklashagainstthethreatofsocialist revolutionin1919and1920.Fascistmovementsemergedwhenindustrializingsocietiesenteredchaoticperiodsoftransition.5 ThekidnappingandassassinationofGiacomoMatteotti,thereformistdeputyofthePartitoSocialistaUnitario(SPU),inJune1924andthesquadristiassaulton GiovanniAmendolaon21July1925providedthereferencepointsforRomainRolland'ssubsequentthoughtsonItalianfascism.Hewasdespondentover"the egotisticalcowardice"ofthemajorityofItalianintellectualswhosupportedthegovernment.Hewasoffendedbyphilosopherswhoabusedthedialecticalmethodby "justifyingallcrimesandcomplacenciestorewardforce."HewasoutragedbytheJesuiticaltwistsofCatholicwriterswhorationalized''theatrocitiesandshamesof FascismbyquotingtheGospels.''FrenchintellectualsneededtobealertedthatItalianfascismrepresented"adangeroftheforemostkind."HeurgedClarttopublish articlesdocumentingandanalyzingtheItalianregime.All"healthy"forceswouldhavetobemobilizedtocombatthespreadingpestilence.6 RomainRolland'sfirstpublicantifasciststatementcameonthe

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occasionofMussolini'swarlikeprovocationsinTripoliin1926.Italianfascism'sexistenceobliteratedallhopefordisarmament.Mussolini'sregimedemonstrateda nihilisticcontemptfordiplomacyandworldpeace,asevidencedbyitsbelligerentrhetoricanditspreoccupationwithterritorialannexations.RomainRollandcounseled pacifistsandinternationaliststoopposefascism.HecalledforvigilanceagainstthethreatinFrance,whereinternalfascistagitationwasmounting.Fascistsbehavedlike agentsprovocateurs.Theyappearedtobeastabilizingforcewhiledeceptivelyincitingtheirfreneticfollowerstoviolenceandwar.Fascistswerecriminalswithouta senseofguilt.Fascismnegatedthecosmopolitanspirit,violatedcivilrights,andpervertedallcivilizedvalues.7 OntheoccasionofaParisianstreetbrawlbetweenrightistsandcommunistsinthespringof1926,hearguedthatfascismwasincompatiblewiththeFrenchtraditionof republicangovernmentanddemocraticprocess.ItcontradictedthelegacyoftheFrenchRevolutiontherightsofmanandthestruggleforhumandignity.Fascism underminedindividualcreativity,criticalthinking,freedomofconscience,andtherighttoresistoppression.

EveryregimefoundedontheprinciplesofItalianfascismisdegradingforthehumanconscience.Itrulesbycontemptforthemostsacredfreedoms,byimposedlies,andbyfear. EveryattempttointroduceitinFranceisacrime.AcrimeagainsttheFranceoffreereason.AcrimeagainstthefreepeoplewhomadetheRevolution.Acrimeagainstthefree Soul.8

RomainRollandendorsedantifascistactivitiesinalettertoFilippoTurati,salutingthefoundingofhisoppositionalnewspaperinParis,LaLibert.Heattacked MussoliniforenslavingtheItaliancountrysidethroughtheestablishmentofatyrannicaldictatorship.HevoicedhissolidaritywithItaly's"mostloyalandpersecuted representatives,"itsantifascistrefugees.HeidentifiedtheirstruggletoemancipateItalyfromMussolini'syokewiththeuniversalstruggleagainstsocialinjustice,cruelty, cynicism,andunreason:"Thefightyouwageisnotonlyfortheliberationofagreatoppressed,humiliated,outragedpeopleitisforthefreedomoftheentireworld."9 Amendola'sdeathon1April1926personallyaffectedhim,forthetwohadcollaboratedbeforetheGreatWarinthecontextofthe

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intellectualmovement,LaVoce.AmendolawasoneoftheItalianluminariestocontributetoRomainRolland'ssixtiethbirthdayfestschriftin1926,justafewmonths priortohisassassination.10Inaletterofbereavement,RomainRollandexpressedhisgrieftotheAmendolafamilyandindictedthefascistregimefororchestratingthe homicide.HeelevatedAmendola'sdeathintoamoralsymbolforallantifascists.Hebegantosacralizetheantifascistcause.Therecouldbenoantifascistresistance withouthistoricalmemory:

Ihavenoneedtotellyou,sir,ofourindignationatthishideousanddisgracefulcrimethatmadeyourfatherthesacredvictim.Nothingwillobliteratethestigmafromthebrowof theassassin.Hewillremainbrandedbyitforthefuture....Thelongsufferingofthisgreat,silent,andstoicalmartyrhasreverberatedintheheartsofthefreemenofFrance.Asin thecatacombsundertheCompagna,nearyourhome,wheretheeternallampofremembranceburnedbeforetheimageofthepersecuted,weconsecrateanaltar,inourmemory,to thenobleimageofthewiseandgentleAmendola.11

In1926,RabindranathTagorewasgivenabrilliantlyorchestratedgrandtourofthemodernsightsandcitiesofItaly,whichshowedhimonlythegloriesofthefascist regime.Tagore'svisitinJuneculminatedwithtwointerviewswithMussolini.TheducedisarmedthepoliticallynaiveTagorewithcourteousflattery.Throughouthis stay,Tagoremetonlytwoantifascists.Tagore'sspeechesweredistortedinthefascistpress,makinghimsoundlikeaferventadmirerofItalianfascismandinsinuating thatheattributedtherenewalofItaly'sgrandeurtoMussolini'sinspirationalqualities.12 TomakeTagoreawareofinternalrealitiesinItaly,RomainRollandplacedhimincontactwithspokesmenfortherefugeeantifascistopposition.Tagorehadbeen systematicallymisledbymeetingswithindividualswho"apologized"forfascismor"adulatedtheMaster."13Italianfascismwasbasedonthe''politicsofcrimeand hypocrisy.''14RomainRollandemphasizedthedestructivesideofItalianfascism,therepressionofpoliticalparties,thejailingandwoundingoffiveorsixhundred innocentvictims.Onlyfoolsmistookitsmilitarism,annexationism,andprimitivenationalismforgrandeur.ItwasappallingthatamanofTagore'ssensibilitycouldenter intodialoguewiththisdictator,the"assassinofAmendolaandMatteotti."Tagore'stripwoulddemoralizeprogressivepublicopinioninEurope,especiallyyoung people,studentsand

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"antifascistpersonalities."15Antifascistrefugeesrepresentedafreeandauthentic,butcurrentlymartyred,Italy.Torectifythesituation,heurgedTagoretoinvestigate the"moralmiseryandnamelesssuffering"16oftheantifascists. In1927,RomainRollandbeganthinkingaboutanantifasciststrategyforEurope.Becauseoftheirprimaryexperiencewithfascism,antifascistemigrsshouldleadthe campaignagainstMussolinibypublicizingthe"unheardofviolenceandpoliticaldeportations,"documentingthewidespreadatmosphereofdomesticrepression,and exposingthepresenceofMussolini'sspiesinFrance.HeexhortedtheexiledItalianantifasciststocontradictMussolini'sofficialliethathisregimewasunanimously supportedandtopresentevidencethat"Fascistpoliticsarethegravestperiltointernationalpeace."17 RomainRollandpreferredmakingpublicantifasciststatementsasanindependentvoice.JustasheremainedoutsidepacifistandGandhianorganizations,sotoowould herefusetomakeapermanentalliancewithestablishedcentersoftheantifasciststruggle.Hedeclinedtheinvitationbythedistinguishedhistorianandliberalantifascist GaetanoSalveminitojointhecentralcommitteeoftheInternationalDemocraticLeaguetoReconquerItalianFreedom,eventhoughhewastotallyopposedto fascism's"crimes,lies,andstiflingofallfreedoms."Heparticipatedincharitableprogramsdesignedtoaidthevictimsoffascisttyranny.Hereservedtherighttoissue protestsonlyinsituationsofrealcrisis.Ifheweretoreleaseoneateachrequest,itwoulddiffusehismoralefficacy.Currently,hisculturalwritinghadahigherpriority thanhisstrictlypoliticalengagements.HedislikedtheideologicaldispositionofSalvemini'smovement,specificallyitsliberaldemocraticparliamentarismandits "simplistic"anticlericalism,whichwoulddivideandlimitleftwinggroupsinFrance.Hedoubtedthattheantifasciststrugglecouldbeledbya"thirdforce"rather,it shouldreflectapoliticalcoalitionofleftistandprogressiveforces.Salvemini'sgroupplacedhostilitytocommunismatthecenterofitspoliticalphilosophy,butone couldbeantifascistwithoutbeingequallyanticommunist.Morecrucial,RomainRollandpredictedthatcommunism"couldbeoneofthemostvigorousbattalionsofthe attackagainstFascism.''CommunistintellectualssuchasHenriBarbussecouldheightenthepublicawarenessoffascism.18

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InNovember1926,RomainRollandjoinedforceswithBarbussetoinaugurateanInternationalCommitteeAgainstFascism.Barbusseandhewereawarethat movementsoutsideItalywouldnotnecessarilyreplicatetheItalianmodel.InFebruary1927,theyissuedanappeal"TotheFreeMinds,AgainstFascism,"which denouncedthepersecutionsandsavageterrorinbothMussolini'sItalyandCoudreanu'sRomania.RomainRollandbecameoneofthreehonorarypresidents(along withBarbusseandAlbertEinstein)ofthefirsthugeFrenchantifascistmeeting,heldinParisattheSalleBullieron23February1927.PaulLangevin,theeminent scientistandvicepresidentoftheLeagueoftheRightsofMan,presidedovertheassembly.19SuchsymbolicgesturesallowedRomainRollandtojustifyhis antifascistorientationwithoutjeopardizinghisdistancefrompoliticalpartiesorsocialmovements.20 InletterstoBarbusse,hecriticizedthecommunistperspectiveonantifascismforbeingnolessparochialthantheliberalapproach.AsafreethinkerandaGandhian, heurgedBarbussetoextricatetheantifascistcommitteesfromMoscow'stutelage.Hisantifascismwasthatofthemediator,bridgingtheideologiesandtacticsofleft wingopinioninEurope.BecausethereweresimilaritiesofmethodbetweenfascistsandBolsheviks,communistslackedthemoralauthoritytocontestfascistideasand politics.21CommunistantifascistpropagandawasdogmaticandexpedientlyservedtheforeignpolicyneedsoftheComintern,cynicallypublicizingthemiseryoffascist victimstomakeacaseforthesuperiorityofcommunismoverWesterncapitalism.ThefactsoffascistexcessesshouldbepresentedtoEuropeanpublicopinionsothat intelligentreaderscoulddrawtheirownconclusions.ByfocusingonlyontherepressionofItaliancommunistsandbyomittingMussolini'sreprisalsagainst"bourgeois, preachers,SocialistorRadicalrepublicans,"22thecommunistsdistortedthefullpictureofthefascisthorror.Fascismthreatenedallprogressivepoliticalparties,all culturalandleisurelife,notjustMarxists.BeforeassociatingwithhiminanalloutstruggleagainsttheextremerightinEuropeandFrance,Barbusseshoulddeclarehis owncommitmentto"democraticrights."IfheprotestedthecurtailmentofcivillibertiesandpoliticaloppositionintheSovietUnion,hisuniversalismwouldbeproved. ''ItispreciselybecauseIbelongtothearmyofproletarianprogressthatIdemandofitsleadersanexemplarymoraldisciplineandareligiousrespectforfreedom."23

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RomainRollandsimultaneouslyopposedtheredbaitingtendenciesofliberalantifascistsandthedoctrinalposturingsofcommunistantifascists.Itwasmorallycorrect forunaffiliatedintellectualssuchasH.G.Wells,Shaw,Russell,Nansen,Unamuno,andhimselftoparticipateinpublicforumswherefascistideologieswere dismantled.Itwasstillpossibletoworkagainst"fascistideas"inthelate1920swithoutengaginginpoliticalaction. Twomajorshiftsinthelate1920sandearly1930spromptedRomainRollandtoreassesshisintellectualpolitics:theincreasingexpansionismofJapanandtheriseof NationalSocialisminGermany.Asthesefascistpowersascended,hebegantojettisonsomeofhisGandhianandhumanitarianformulasforworldpeace.Anti imperialismprecededantifascismbothasanethicalpositionandasapoliticalcommitment.Hedidnotyetsharplydistinguishbetweenfascistandcommunistformsof violence. WhentherevolutionarycommunistsoftheParisianClartgroupprovokedhimtotakeapositiononWesternimperialism,hepointedoutthattheextremeleftwas partisaninitsdiatribesagainstrightwingviolencebutsilentaboutthecrueltiesoftheleft,includingcommunism:"ForaverylongtimeImaintainedapositionagainstall assassinsFascistorrevolutionary....Isparenoone.Imakeallianceswithnoone.Idonotwhimperovermysolitude,butfindthatsolitudeishealthyinanepoch ofherds."24 Fascismrepresentedanextreme,undisguisedformofimperialism.Fascistsofferedanideologicaljustificationforaggressionandconquest.Therealityofsecret treaties,capitalistcoalitions,thearmamentsindustry,thebuyingandsellingofpeoplesinunderdevelopedcountriescausedRomainRollandtorejectthesoftthinkingof pacifistswhoplacedtheirhopesininternationallegaltreaties,theLeagueofNations,orunilateraldeclarationsofpeace.IfFrancedisarmedinthelate1920s,itwould remainisolated,permittingbelligerentnationslikefascistItalytoinvade,occupyitsterritory,andplunderit.DespiteitsideologicalconnectiontotheSovietUnionand despitetheabsenceofmoderateelementsinit,hewelcomedtheeducationaleffortsoftheAntiImperialistLeague,particularlyitsinternationalism,antimilitarism,and defenseofthevictimsofcolonization.25 InatributetotheAmericanpacifistJohnHaynesHolmes,RomainRollandleveledseriouschargesagainstAmericanimperi

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alism.FollowingEurope'sdeclineaftertheGreatWar,America'sprominentbutabusiveplaceinworldaffairshadtoberecognized.Heunmaskedtheideological componentofAmericanforeignpolicy,especiallytheselfrighteouslegitimizationofUnitedStatesimperialism,theprivilegedpositionofthedollar,andtheshallow, conformistnatureoftheAmericanvaluesimposedonthelandstheydominated.Americancorporateimperialismfusedarroganceandinnocence:

TheAngloSaxontemperamentofAmericaisproudandstrong,wholeheartedinitslikesanditsideas,selfassuredandobstinate.Ithasasingularineptitudewhichstrikesallof us,Europeanstounderstandthementalityofotherpeoples,toenterintotheirpsychology(andtheirphysiology),to"sizeup"theirspirit,theirpassions,theirpeculiarneeds.It tendstobelievethatwhatistrueforitself,thatwhateveristheGoodforit,shouldbesoforallothernationsintheworld.Andifthelatterdonotjudgethematterthesameway,it istheywhoaremistaken,andAmericahastherighttoimposeitonthem,intheirowninterestandintheinterestsoftheworld.Suchaconceptionleadstothewilltoconquerthe world,underthecoverofanarrowmoralism,wedded(withoutitsknowledge)tonaturalinstinctsofgreedanddomination.26

IftherigidandinsensitivepoliciesoftheUnitedStateswerenotopposedbyresponsibleAmericancitizens,thenAmericawaspreparingitselffortheeventualrebellion ofoppressednations. Likemostopponentsoftwentiethcenturycolonialism,RomainRollandsawtheprogressiveedgeoftheimperialisticimpulse.Underdevelopedcountriesnow dominatedbyEuropehadbenefitedfromimprovementsinhealthandhygiene,administration,transportation,communication,technology,andtheutilizationofnatural resources.However,thesebenefitswerealmostalwaysforcedonnativepopulationswithoutadequateculturalorpsychologicalpreparation.27 Hewarnedantiimperialiststobedistrustfulofthe"panEuropean"andidealistpacifists,who,despitetheirinternationalistrhetoric,wereweddedtoincreasingtheir profitmarginsandacceleratingtheprocessof"theexploitationoftherestoftheglobe."NorwouldbigbusinesshesitatetocolludewithEuropeanfascistpowers.Anti imperialistshadtodecodetheselfservinglanguageofimperialism,unveilingthesinisterinterestsatplay.28 AsaGandhianinternationalist,RomainRollandcontestedthe

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BritishpresenceinIndia,buthealsointercededonbehalfofpeoplescolonizedbytheFrench,developingamordantcritiqueofFrenchempirebuilding.WhenFrench authoritiesforcefullydeportedayoungAnnamitestudentwhojoinedtheCommunistParty,RomainRollandcollaboratedwiththeAntiImperialistLeague.He articulatedthehumanrightsofaforeignerlivingandstudyinginFrance,angrilyprotestingthepoliticalsavageryofthecolonialbureaucracy:

IjoinmyselftotheprotestoftheAntiImperialistLeagueagainstthemassacresinIndochina.AndIspitmycontemptinthefaceoftheexecutioner'sservantswhohavejust deliveredTaototheassociatedFrenchIndochineseassassins.29

Foundedin1927,theAntiImperialistLeaguewasacommunistfrontorganization.RomainRollandwasaskedinMarch1931tobecomethe"honorarypresident"of theLeague.HedeclinedthepresidencybecausehedisagreedwiththeLeague'soppositiontotheGandhianmovementandbecauseoftheComintern'shostilityto pacifistideologyandpeacemovementactivism.30YethesympathizedwithmanyprinciplesoftheAntiImperialistLeague.AtananticolonialmeetingheldinParisat theSalleBullier,sponsoredbytheFrenchCommunistParty,hedenouncedFrenchimperialismforitspoliticaleconomyoflarcenyandforitsexterminationofnative populations."Colonialpolitics"containedthemetaphorsofhismoralcritiqueofimperialism,whichspilledoverintohiswritingsagainstfascism:

Dearcomrades, IassociatemyselfwithyourantiimperialistactionagainstthecrimesofFrenchpoliticsinIndochina.Moderndemocraciesareacompoundofhypocrisies.Amongallthe hypocrisiesoneisparticularlyinsolentandrepugnantatthepresenthour:thatofcivilizingcolonialism.IthasbeenexactlyahalfcenturysinceJulesFerry,representingthemost intelligentandcraftypartofthedominantbourgeoisie,triedtosubstituteconquest,afteragreementandsharingoftherestoftheearth,fortheoldtraditionalpoliticsofnationalist rivalriesonEurope'ssoil.TheyhaveclearlycoveredthemselveswiththeflagsofEuropeanPeace,orwiththatofcivilization,inwhichthesesharkscallthemselvesmissionaries. Undoubtedly,thispoliticshasledEuropetoanaffluxofrichesenablinganentireclasstogetfatoffofit.Butthispeaceandeasearepaidforliberallybythepriceofoppression, theft,whenitdidnotleadtotheexterminationoftheracesofAsiaandAfrica.AndthepetitbourgeoisegoismofEuropeaccommodatesitselftoitperfectly.Itungratefully acknowl

Page156 edgesthatitwallowsonthespoilsofthesepeoplesdeliveredovertothegreatEuropeanbandits. Uprightconsciencescannolongertoleratethisduplicity.Letustearawaythemask!LetusforcetheseTartuffesandcowardstoseetheirfaceinthemirror!Lettheirmirrorcryto them:"Liars!Thieves!"Andletusnottoleratewhatiscurrentlyproducedunderthecoverofidealism,acunningpanEuropeanism,whichisanassociationofthecapitalismsof France,Germany,andthegreatbusinessdemocracies,yesterdayatwar,todayreconciled,soastobetterransomtheworld!Wedefendtherightsofallmenoftheearth.Allthe oppressedareourbrothers.WedonotworkforanationorforEurope.Weworkfortheworkersoftheuniverse!31

Bylate1931,RomainRollandheldthatsocialrevolutionwastheonlyeffectiveinstrumenttosmashEuropeanandAmericanimperialism.Thesentimentalhomiliesand pueriletacticsofthepeacemovementwereinsufficientinthefaceofa"murderousandbrutal"coalitionofimperialistsbleedingthecountriesofChinaandJapan.To aidtheprocessofselfdetermination,heurgedthepeoplesofChinaandJapantoforma"fecundunity."Thisstepwouldnotonlyhelpgetthe"greatbandits"offtheir backsbutmightalsopointthewaytoageneralcoalitionoftheworkingclassesofEuropeandAmerica.Henowfullyjustifiedtheneedforsocialratherthan nationalrevolutioninordertoextricatecolonizedpeoplefromtheyokeofthecolonizerandtoensurethepossibilityofalastingpeace:"Hewhowantspeacewants theeliminationoftheeternalmakersofwar.Hewhowantsinternationalpeace,wantsrevolution.''32InattackingJapaneseincursionsintoChinaintheautumnof1931 for"beheadingtherevolution,"hecalledforaworldwideunionofEuropeanconsciencesandclassconsciousworkerstoresist''theFascistsystemsofplutocracyand militarism."33 RomainRolland'smoststingingdenunciationsofimperialismweretriggeredbypoliticalrepressioninIndiaandIndochina.Heprotestedeventsnotwidelypublicizedin WesternEurope,unmaskingbreachesofthelegalsystem,deportations,forcedlabor,andincarcerationofthenativepopulations.Hisinterventionscriticizedthe widespreadabusesofbothjusticeandthedemocraticprocessincolonialsituations.HepennedanimpassionedappealfortheMeerutprisonersofIndia,thirtyof whomhadbeenheldillegallyforfouryearsawaitingtrialforsedition.Theircrime:attemptingtoorganizeatradeunion.MostoftheMeerutprisonersweresympathetic withtheIndianCongressPartyaminority

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wereIndiancommunists.HedemandedanimmediateretrialanddenouncedsystematicBritishrepression.Imperialismwasasystem"basedontheatrocious, degrading,andmurderousexploitationofninetenthsoftheworld'speoples."ThecaptivityandeventualdeportationoftheMeerutprisonersstrippedtheBritish colonialruleofallpretenseoflegalityandprotectionofhumanrights.Herewasimperialism"thatestablishedandmaintaineditselfbyterror."Theoppressedcolonized wouldeventuallydevelopawarenessoftheiroppression,precipitatingrevolttoejecttheimperialistdominators.34 Aftercataloguingtheimpactofimperialist"terror"bytheDutchintheEastIndiesandtheFrenchinIndochina,aswellasthecolonialpenetrationintoChinaand Korea,headdedsomechoicewordsabouttheAmerican"diabolical"varietyofopendoorimperialism,

compoundedofhypocrisyandcruelty,whichmakesthechurchesthebagmenoftheStandardOilCompany,whichturnsitselfintotheallyoftherottenKuomintanggenerals,and thesupporterofthemassacresinCubawhichgrantsthePhilippinestheirindependenceinordertosubjugatethembetterbyeconomicmeansandwhichlightsupinSouth Americathefireofwarsandofbloodydictatorships.35

RomainRollandpredictedthattheorganizedinternationaloflaborwouldultimately"breaktheyokeofimperialism." InadeclarationinsupportofpoliticalprisonersinFrenchIndochina,hedeployedsarcasmtoblasttheDaladiergovernment.Itwascynicaltoinvoketherightsofman tolegitimizetheimprisonmentandforcedlaboroftenthousandAnnamites.Anyimperialistgovernmentthatforfeitedtherightsofitscolonizedpopulationsmustbe heldaccountable.Itwas"absurd"forDaladiertojustifythesepoliciesinthenameof"freedom.""Anditisthatsortofgovernmentthatdarestospeak,inthenameof humanconscience,againstthebutchersofliberty,againstfascism.Wedenymoralauthoritytoit.''AgainstDaladier'sdeceptionsandrepressiveactions,Romain Rollandlinkedantifascistpoliticsandsentimentstothestrugglesagainstcorporatecapitalistandcolonialexploitation:"LetFranceatleasthavethehonestytorecognize thesamerightanddutyforthecitizensofthecountriesthattheFranceofthegreatcompanieshasconqueredandthatsheisexploiting!"36 <><><><><><><><><><><><>

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TheAmsterdamPleyelmovementmarkedagradualbreakwithRomainRolland'santiwar,idealistic,andGandhianengagements.Fascismjeopardizedtheprecarious peaceandrevealedthelimitationsofGandhiantheoryandpractice.Hewassteppinglessobliquelyintothepoliticalarena.Hecouldnolongerjustifyremaining intransigentlyindependentormarginalinthefaceofobviouseconomic,political,andculturalcrises.AmsterdamPleyelpropelledRomainRollandintothe1930s, changedhiswayoflookingattheworldandattheroleandresponsibilityoftheintellectual,politicizedhislanguage,andorientedittowardaction.Hisengagementwith theAmsterdamPleyelmovementturnedhimawayfromabstract,universalisticformsofsocialandhistoricalanalysis.Becausethedangersofimperialism,war,and fascismweretransparent,hisstyleofintellectualpoliticschanged.AmsterdamPleyelprovidedonelastopportunitytoarticulatearevolutionaryversionofGandhism andintensifiedhispreexistingsympathiesforcommunism.AmsterdamPleyelwasbornwithtensionsandcontradictionsthatwereneverentirelyresolved.Manyofits politicalandideologicalambiguitiesspilledoverintotheFrenchPopularFrontgovernmentitself.Asasymbolofunityontheleft,RomainRollandpersonallyembodied theseambivalences. TheAmsterdamPleyelmovementwasborninthespringof1932asaneclecticinternationalcommitteeofintellectuals.TheAmsterdamCongresswasactually convenedinAmsterdamfrom27Augustto29August1932.WilliMnzenberg,thecatalyst,washimselfacolorful,renegademilitantoftheCommunistInternational. NotonlydidMoscowdistrustthepacifistideologyassociatedwiththeanticipatedAmsterdamCongress,butithadnotyethammeredoutaPopularFrontstrategy nordevelopedathoughtfulanalysisoffascism.Mnzenberg'svisioncoincidedwiththedesiresofRomainRollandandHenriBarbussetogenerateabroadbased movementunitingdisparateprogressiveandleftwinggroups,includingthecommunistsandsocialists.Historianshaverightlyemphasizedtheimportanceof Mnzenberg,behindthescenes,preparingandadministeringthisinternationalgathering.Anorganizationalgenius,abrillianttactician,andanexpertinmodern propagandatechnique,Mnzenbergorchestratedthevastassemblyof"intellectualandmanualworkers"withoutthefullconsentoftheComintern.37 ThecallfortheAmsterdamCongressandtheideaofestablish

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inganInternationalCommitteefortheWorldCongressAgainstImperialistWarweretriggeredbytheJapaneseincursionintoManchuriainthefallof1931.The AmsterdamCongressaccordedantiimperialismahigherprioritythanantifascism.By46June1933,whentheCongressmetattheSallePleyelinParis,the AmsterdamPleyelmovementhadevolvedideologicallyintoanexplicitlyantifascistmassmovement.ThePleyelCongresswasadirectresponsetoHitler'sassuming thechancellorshipinGermanyinMarch1933andtotheclamorofadistinctlyfascistmilitancybyFrenchrightwingmovements.TheAmsterdamPleyelmovement definitelyopenedtheFrenchlefttotheideaofanallianceofFrenchcommunistsandsocialists,whichmightincludeotherprogressives.In1933theexactnatureofthat coalitionneededtobeelaborated.AmsterdamPleyelsubsequentlybecameoneoftheelevenconstituentorganizationstomergewiththeFrenchPopularFront.The ideaofsuchunitywasenormouslypopularamongtheworkerrankandfile.ItalsobecametheagencybywhichmanypartisansoftheFrenchPopularFrontcameto communisminthemid1930s. RomainRollandparticipatedintheAmsterdamCongresswhileservingaspresidentoftheInternationalLeagueofFightersforPeacein1932.ThoughFrenchpacifism betweenthewarshasnotfounditshistorian,wemustrememberhowdeeplyrootedantiwarsentimentwasinFrance,particularlyinleftwing,moderate,and progressiveopinion.Tocallthevarietiesofantiwarfeelingasocialmovementistoexaggerate,buttherewereclearlymasssupportandarticulatespokesmenin socialist,Radical,andanarchistcircles.38 Frenchcommunism,however,didnotadequatelydifferentiatecommunistantiimperialismfrompacifistantiimperialismandunconditionaloppositiontowar. Communistsclaimedtobeantiwarbutwerenotnecessarilyadvocatesofpeaceornonviolence.MauriceThorez,generalsecretaryofthePCF,blastedtheintellectual sponsorsoftheAmsterdamCongressaslateas28June1932fortheir"pacifistpetitbourgeoismind,"awellworntermofLeninistreprobation.39Fromthe communiststandpoint,thepacifistideologymightweakenthemilitaryresolveoftheWesterndemocracies,stillreelingfromthewarandtheworldeconomiccrisis, drainingtheirwilltostandstronglyagainstGermanyorJapanifwarbrokeout.Communistswereuneasyaboutthepenetrationofpacifistideas,fearingtheymight contaminatethepurelyproletarianand

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revolutionarythrustofcommunistdoctrineandprogram.Furthermore,theCominternhadgravereservationsinthesummerof1932aboutUnitedorPopularFront strategies(hereMnzenbergwasanexception),specificallyaboutthebroadnessofsuchanallianceandtheprecisenatureofsocialistandpacifistparticipation.Above all,in1932and1933thecommunistshadnotyetdecidedtopostponethegoalofaproletarianrevolutioninordertoconstructaninterclass,antifascistmovementthat mightincludetheprogressivepartofthecapitalistworld.Onlyin1934,afterthedebacleinGermany,didMoscowdecidethatinternationalfascismhadtobedefeated firstandthatsocialistrevolutioncouldbedelayed.40 RomainRolland,althoughpubliclylinkedtoBarbusse,campaignedinprivateforapluralisticantiimperialist,antiwarcoalition.Hewantedpacifists,progressives, nonconformingindividuals,andclassconsciousintellectualsincluded.ThemovementshouldnotbedominatedbyworkingclassleadershipandCommunistParty priorities.BarbussetriedtomaintainthegoodwillofthosenoncommunistsrecruitedtotheAmsterdamPleyelmovement,whiledefendingtheterritorialintegrityofthe USSR,distinctlyjeopardizedbyamilitaristicJapanandbyaresurgent,expansionistGermany.41 InpublicizingfortheAmsterdamCongress,RomainRollandappealedtoprogressiveintellectualstoendtheirneutralitybytakingapublicstand.Internationalwriters ofgeniusgracedtheCommitteeofInitiative,includingGorky,Shaw,Russell,Wells,Einstein,HeinrichMann,UptonSinclair,TheodoreDreiser,andJohnDosPassos. FromFrance,Barbussewasnamed,alongwithPaulLangevin,andthepacifistintellectualsVictorMargueritteandFlicienChallaye.Chinawasrepresentedby MadameSunYatSen,JapanbySenKatayama.Thisdistinguishedgrouphadthecollectiveresponsibilitytoopposeworldwar.Theparliamentaryleadershipofthe Westerndemocracieswasparalyzed."Neverwasthethreatheavierandmorecrushing.EuropeisdeliveredtotheFascismsoftheswordandofbusiness.The stupefieddemocracies,betrayedbytheirparliamentaryleaders,nolongerhavetheforcetoreact.Amonstrouscriminaloutragepreparesitself."Becauseofthe catastrophicthreatofworldwar,tobetriggeredbycompetingimperialistsystems,RomainRollandurgedintellectualstoenterintoanalliance(frontunique)with advancedworkersfrommetallurgical,chemical,andtransportationindustries.An

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antiimperialistcoalitionwithoutthesolidarityofmentalandmanualworkerswouldbeabsurdandselfdefeating.42 TheAmsterdamPleyelmovementaimedtogroupallopponentsofwartogetherinanumbrellaorganization.Itembracedpeopleofallpartiesanddidnotexclude membersofanymassmovement.AllpartiesreferredtoleftwingassociationsinFrance,to"Socialists,Communists,syndicalists,anarchists,Radicals,republicansof everynuance,freethinkersandChristians,thenonpartymembers,allpacifistandwarresisters'associations,allindependentindividualities."43RomainRollandsought tounmaskthosewhoprofitedfromwar.TheAmsterdamCongresscounteredthewarmongersbygeneratingatidalwaveofopinionfromthoserevoltedbywar. InpromotingtheAmsterdamCongressamongpacifists,RomainRollandsoberlyassessedthecapacityofwarresisterstopreventwarintheWest.In1932neither individualsnorcollectiveantiwargroupshadenoughpowertopreventthenextwar.Positioninghimselfonthesideof"revolutionarypacifism,"hecalledfora collective,tightlydisciplinedorganizationofwarresisterswhowouldsystematicallysubvertthemainorgansofthestatetopreventtheunleashingofhostilities.He pushedrevolutionaryGandhismtoanonviolentsyndicalistconclusion,advocatingamassgeneralstriketoincapacitateproduction,hindermobilizationforwar,and ultimatelytopplethestateapparatus."IbelieveintheinvinciblepoweroftotalNonAcceptance,withoutviolence,ofapeoplesayingNototheStatethatabusesthem: totalstoppageofeverysocialactivity,ofallthewheelsofState."44 Therevolutionarynonviolentsolution,howeverattractiveasatacticalpreference,wasnotrealisticincontemporaryEurope.NoEuropeansatyagrahacampaigncould bemobilized.TheEuropeanGandhianslackedaleader,anorganization,finances,andasignificantnumberoffollowers.Inpractice,RomainRollandsuggestedthat therecouldbenowarresistanceunlesstheworkersofthearsenals,buildingtrades,andheavyindustrieswererecruited.Intheabsenceofaviablepeacemovement, heinvitedpacifiststocollaboratewithlabor,eachgroupmaintainingitsorganizationalandtacticalautonomy."Letusexcludenoone!"Againstthedominationofbig business,onehadtodrawontheorganizedworkers'capacityforstruggle.Moreover,pacifistshadtorecognizethatthe

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peaceissuetranscendedpartyanddoctrinalconcern.45Urgingpacifiststoclarifythespecificityoftheir"engagement,"hecriticizedtheamorphousqualityofpacifist discourse.Refusaltoparticipateinwarmustbelinkedtoanalysisofsocialinjustice,thesocioeconomicdeterminantsofwar,andtheorganizationalactivity,mentality, andpoliticalconsciousnessoftheEuropeanworkingclass.Awarethathisformofrevolutionarynonviolencemightunleashdomesticunrest,henolongersupported nonviolenttechniquestotheexclusionofalternativemethodsofaction.Itmightbeappropriatetoutilizemoreaggressivetacticsperhapseventoriskcivilwaror classwarfare."Wearenotleaders(wedidnotwanttobe)butguides.Wehavethedutytoknowexactlytheroad[tostruggle]inwhichweengageothers."46 ThisdefensiveconceptionanticipatedthealliancethatbecamethePopularFront.RomainRollandurgedthepartiesandtradeunionmovementofthelefttoabandon theirlongtermanimosities,tostopcompetingwithoneanother,andtomutetheirdivergentinterpretationsofthepresentsituation.TheAmsterdamCongressgrouped theThirdandSecondInternationals,voluntarilyalliedinoppositiontoEuropeanandJapaneseimperialism.Nointernationalcouldprevailoveranotheroroutvote another.Thecongressoughtnottobreakdownintomajorityandminorityfactions.Emergencycircumstancesrequiredstrategicunity,butwithoutcollapsingtactical andideologicaldifferencesandwithoutjeopardizingthepreexistingautonomyoftheconstituentgroups."Wewanttofindaterrainofagreementthatworker organizationsandrepresentativeindividualistsmayemployalltogetheragainstwarwhileleavingtoeachitsownindependence,itsfullandfreechoiceofmeansto employ."47 Despitetheresonanceoftheantiwarappealamongrankandfileworkers,despitethepopularityoftheanticapitalistandantiimperialistsentimentsexpressedinthe advancepublicityfortheAmsterdamCongress,RomainRolland'sobjectivescollideddirectlywiththedeepseatedhostilitybetweencommunistsandsocialists.This historicalrivalrywasnotovercome.Ratherthanjoinacommoncoalitionagainstpowerfulopponents,communistscontinuedtorefertotheirsocialistbrothersas "socialfascists."Socialists,inturn,continuedtodenouncedictatorialtendenciesintheSovietUnionandincentralizedEuropeancommunistparties.Aslateas

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thesummerof1932,thetwoworkerinternationalsintensified,ratherthandiffused,theirdivisiverelations.Vilificationremainedtherule,collaborationtheexception. TheconsequencesofsuchenmitywereparticularlydisastrousinGermany,whereadividedleftfailedtoformacoalitionagainsttheNationalSocialistparty. Withoutofficialsocialistparticipation,RomainRollandandBarbussecouldnotclaimthattheAmsterdamCongresstrulyrepresentedaunifiedproletarianfrontagainst war.FromthefirstpublicityaboutthecongressinJune1932,SecondInternationalsocialistsbalkedandultimatelywithheldtheirsupportfortheventure.Despite exchangesoflettersandevenapersonalmeetingbetweenFriedrichAdler,aleaderoftheAustrianSocialDemocratsandsecretaryoftheSecondInternational,and BarbusseinZurichtonegotiateterms,thesocialistsrepudiatedboththeAmsterdamCongressandthestrategyofthe"UnitedFront"againstwar.48 Adlerchallengedtheorganizationalstructureofthecongress,protestingthecompositionoftheexecutivecommittee.Workersshouldberepresentedtomaketheir presencecommensuratewiththeirimportance.AlthoughintellectualssuchasRomainRollandwere"sincere"and"courageous,"theywereessentiallyuncriticaland easilydeceived,forthecongresswascontrolledbyoutrightcommunistssuchasBarbusse,theinternationalchairman,andthesecretaryoftheWorldCongress,Louis Gibarti,alackeyofWilliMnzenberg.Aboveall,AdlerfearedthattheAmsterdamCongresswouldbetwistedintoanantisocialistforum,notarallyingpointforwar resistance.ThelatentpurposewastocreatepropagandafortheSovietUnionandtodisruptthesocialistpartiesalloverEurope,thusdeformingthecongressintoa "crimeagainsttheworkingclass."49 RomainRollandandBarbusseunderscoredthattheAmsterdamCongresswasdesignedtobeaboveparties,andthatworkers,notonlyintellectuals,werewidely represented.Torefutethechargeofcommunistdomination,theypointedoutthatthemajorityoftheexecutivecommitteewasnoncommunist.TheThirdInternational haddemonstrateditsnonsectarianismbyendorsingthecongresseventhough"idealisticpacifists"wereincluded.Adlerforgotthattheorganizationalautonomyand tacticalfreedomofeveryconstituentgrouphadbeenguaranteedfromthebeginning.BothRomainRollandandBarbusseperceivedAdler'ssocialistviewasoneof

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a"spiritofhostility"againsttheWorldCongress.Suchaviewrevealedsocialists'inertiaandinabilitytoinnovate.Ratherthanpromotedaringideas,theyretreated oncemoreintoapostureofsuspicionanddenigration.Adler'sobstructionismindicatedtheunwillingnessofsocialiststoparticipateinaunitedfrontthattriedtofuse theinternationalworkingclassorganizationswithpacifistandprogressiveintellectualsinamassantiwarcoalition.ForRomainRollandthesocialistreactiontothe AmsterdamCongressreplicatedthelossofnerveandtheinadequatesocialandpoliticalanalysisof1914.Itreflectedhowinternationalsocialismhadundergonea processof"embourgeoisement."Socialistleadershiptrustedonlyrespectableparliamentaryoppositionanddesiredtocomeintopowerbysucceedingmoreliberaland centristministries.50 TheWorldCongressAgainstWaropenedinAmsterdam,27August1932,inachargedatmosphere.Over2,200internationaldelegatesenteredtheimmensePalace ofIndustrysingingrevolutionarysongs,surroundedbyredbannerswiththeinscription:"StruggleWithUsAgainstImperialistWar."WhenBarbusseappearedat1:30 P.M.,hewasgreetedby"freneticovations,"andthecrowdroseandspontaneouslystruckupthe"International"invariouslanguages.Thetwowatchwordswere ''WaronWar"and''ASingleFront."Afterelectingapermanentinternationalcommittee,thecongressproceededwiththerealbusinessathand:hammeringouta strategyagainstimperialistwar.51 Becauseofaseriousrespiratoryillness,RomainRollandwasunderdoctor'sordersnottoattendtheAmsterdamCongress.FollowingBarbusse'sopeningremarks, RomainRolland'sDeclarationtotheWorldCongresswasreadinhisabsencebytheFrenchpacifistfeministGabrielleDuchne,presidentoftheFrenchsectionofthe InternationalLeagueofWomenforPeaceandFreedom.RomainRollandwasexplicitlyidentifiedwithapacifistpositionatthiscongress.Afterextendinghisfraternal greetingstothedelegates,hisDeclarationcommentedonhisevolutionsinceWorldWarI:"Andpermitthemanwhowasmarkedbythetitleduringthewar,asifit wereaninjury,ofbeingAbovetheBattle,todeploythegreatflagofthesinglefront:Aboveallparties!"52Heunderscoredtheeducationalvalueofthis demonstration.Tacticaldivergencewastolerableifthegoalsofactionconverged.Thesegoalsconstitutedananticapitalist,antiimperialist,anduncompromisinganti

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waractivism.Suchtacticaleclecticismpermittedagitationandpropagandaforpacifiststruggleaswellasforindividualandmassaction. Sincefascismwasanotherformofimperialism,RomainRollanddeclaredthatanoppositiontoimperialistwarmeantanalloutresistancetofascism:
AmongGermans,onthedayafteraHitleriancoupd'tat,oramongthosepeoplesdominatedbyfascism[fascistiss],itisclearthatthedangersaregreater,thereforeitismore meritorioustoriskoneself,totakeastand,againsttheobscureforcesofnationalistsuggestion,surgingfromthemiseryanddespairofthosewhocynicallyexploittheReaction.53

Worldwar,warsbetweencolonizerandcolonized,classwarfare,andevencivilwarsmightbreakout.Againstthisapocalypticbackdrop,thecountrymostinneedof peaceandmostjeopardizedbyworldwarwastheSovietUnion.HeassertedthattobeantifascistandantiimperialistmeantdefendingtheSovietUnionforitsown sakeandforitssymbolicpoweras"ahopeandanexampleforallexploitedpeoples."54 TheDeclarationendedbyaddressingintellectualsinsympathywiththeAmsterdamCongress,particularlydoctors,teachers,andliberalprofessionals.Theyhadthe responsibilitytoactinmilitantstruggleonthesideoftheclassconsciousandantimilitaristicworkingclass.Eachgroupneededtheothertoformapoliticizedsymbiotic alliance.55 ThefinalprogramoftheAmsterdamCongresswassummarizedinthe"ManifestooftheWorldCongressAgainstWar."Themanifestourgedasustainedallianceof mentalandmanualworkerstocoordinatedefensiveactionbyworkers,peasants,andalloppressedmasses.Itopposedimperialistwars,includingthoseperpetuated bycapitalistprofiteersinIndia,Morocco,andNicaraguaandtheJapaneseincursionintoChina.Itopposedwarpropaganda,militarypreparations,imperialist rivalries,the1919peacetreaties,andtheLeagueofNations.Itpositedthatcapitalismasaneconomicsystemhadreachedacrisisstage,asevidencedbythe Depressionandthesubsequentstarvation,unemployment,andunequaldistributionofwealthinWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Itdenouncedthebogeyof "RedImperialism"asadevicetodivideandweakenthe

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workingclass.ItadvocatedselfdeterminationfortheSovietUnion,especiallyinthefaceofcontemporarycapitalistthreatstoitsexistence.Formassactionagainst wartobeeffective,anorganized,disciplinedmovementwasneeded,withtheworkingclassplayingthepivotalrole.Themanifestocondemnedmembersofthe SecondInternationalfortheir"opportunistic"collaborationwiththepresentsocialorder,whichstrengthenedcapitalism.Thisviolatedtheprinciplesofsocialismand indicatedthatsocialistshadnotevolvedbeyondtheirdisastrous1914capitulationtowar.Last,themanifestoheldthatpacifistresistancetowarincludingfaithin referendumsandlegalchannels,plebiscites,andconscientiousobjectionwas"futile."56 Thepoliticalorientationofthemanifestowasmoreantiimperialistandantiwarthanantifascist.Fascismwasmentionedonlytwice,asanindictmentoftheVersailles PeaceTreaty,andasoneinstanceofextremenationalism.57 ThoughnotpresentattheAmsterdamCongress,RomainRollandinSeptember1932wroteasummaryofitsachievement.Hereliedontheofficialbulletinofthe WorldCongressAgainstWar,reportspublishedbypacifists,centrists,andcommunists,anddistortedaccountsinthereactionarybourgeois,socialist,Trotskyist,and Surrealistpress.HereceivedinformationfromMadeleineRolland,whoattendedthecongressinhisabsence.58Statistically,the2,200delegatesrepresented30,000 worldwideassociationswithover"thirtymillionmembers."59Althoughthethirtymillionfigurewassurelyexaggerated,itdramatizedthehistoricalsignificanceofthe event.Broadsupportexistedforaunitedfrontagainstwar,imperialism,andsocialinjustice.BreakingdisciplinewiththeSocialistInternational,291socialistsattended thecongress.ThedissidentsocialistsunderstoodtheneedforapublicstandagainstworldwarandanalliancewithprogressivesectorsofWesterncapitalistsocieties, includingthecommunistpartiesandcommunistdominatedtradeunionorganizations.TheyputasidetheirtraditionalanimositytowardtheRussianRevolutiontosigna statementindefenseofthe"SovietRevolution."60 RomainRollandwasheartenedbythereverberationsoftheAmsterdamCongressinintellectualcirclesandamong"liberalprofessionals."Thecongresswasendorsed "byaneliteofFrenchintellectuals,"includingGeorgesDuhamelandAndrGide.Inaddition,

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prominentFrenchacademics,pacifists,andcommunistintellectualssanctioneditenthusiastically.These"mastersofpenandthought,"linkedtoajustcause,could ignitepublicopinionandcreateamomentumtowardfuturefronts.Heemphasizedthedemocratic,nonpartisanstructureofthecongress:membersofmanynationsand politicaltendencieswereprovidedwithaforumandallowed"freedomofspeech."Thecongressdidnotexclusivelyreflectthecommunistpointofview.61 ThemanifestooftheAmsterdamCongresshada"composite"anddiffusequality.RomainRollandplayednopartinwritingit.Thedocumentwasdesignedtomaintain atenuousunityamongvariousdifferentpoliticaloutlooksandworldvisionsandcouldnotsatisfyeachconstituentgroup.Onecouldcriticizethemanifesto constructively:RomainRolland,infact,statedthathewouldhaverefusedtosignitbecauseofitsreductionisticcondemnationofconscientiousobjectors.Inreiterating hiscommitmenttoamilitantlyappliedformofGandhiansatyagraha,heassertedthatthe"collectiveRefusal"ofnonacceptancecoulddefinitelyparalyzethemodern stateandbeeffectiveinwarresistance.Hecompletelysupportedthecongressin"itsappealtotheunionofintellectualandmanual[workers]anditsappealto organizeddirectactionbytheproletarianmassesagainstwar."Thecongresssucceededincreating"aninternationalCommitteeofstruggleagainstimperialistwar."62 RomainRolland'scritiqueofthemanifestowasnotrhetorical.Hewaspreparedtoresignfromthecommittee,hetoldBarbusse,unlessmoreaccurateandless "disdainful"distinctionsweremadeaboutpacifistsandtheroleofthenonviolentresisterintheAmsterdammovement.ThemanifestoconfusedtheGandhians,who werepreparedformilitantformsofcollectiveactionagainstwar,withindividualantiwarresisters,manyofwhomwere"cowardlyandoftenhypocriticalexploitersofa verbalandcomfortablepacifism,apacifismwithoutrisk."TheAmsterdammovementattemptedtocoordinatebothviolentandnonviolentresistancetowarand capitalistimperialism.TheAmsterdamCongressechoedthroughoutWesternEuropebecauseitdidnotimposeonesetoftacticsororganizationalprioritiesover another,butratherallowedfortheircoexistence.IfBarbussesymbolicallyrepresentedtheassociatedenergiesofhumanlaborpreparingforthesocialrevolution,

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RomainRollandstoodforanonviolentnonacceptancethathaditslegitimateplacebothintheresistancetoglobalmilitarismandintheconstructionofadurable, nonexploitivesociety.Hewouldwithdrawifonepoliticalmeansorideologicaltendencyweregivenaprivilegedrole.IndemandingtheactivistrightsofbothGandhian nonacceptorsandindividualconscientiousobjectors,hearguedthatincertaincircumstancesrefusaltoserveinthemilitarycouldbearevolutionarytactic.Independent fromallparties,hisintentionwastomediatebetweenthescatteredpacifistfactionsandthemoreorganizedgroupsofproletarians:

IdonotconfuseatacticofstrugglewithStruggle.IcallforthefoundationofakindofGeneralHeadquartersofallpartiesofRevolution:violentandnonviolent,inorderto elaborateaplanofaction,notoneplan,butacommonplan,notservilelyidentical,butintelligentlylinkedandcoordinated.63

InordertoretaintheprestigeofhisnamefortheAmsterdamcommittee,theinternationalbureauoftheWorldCommitteeAgainstWarissuedastatementclarifyingits positiononpacifisminDecember1932.Thisdocument,authorizedbytheCommunistPartiesofFrance,GermanyandtheSovietUnion,andprobablywrittenbyWilli Mnzenberg,statedthat"conscientiousobjectorshavetheirplaceinourranks...andthatunconditionally."64RomainRolland,inprinciple,wontherectificationhe sought. FollowingtheAmsterdamCongress,inlateAugust1932,apublicmeetingtookplaceattheSalleBullierinParis,alongwithapublicdemonstrationby20,000 people.AntiwarmeetingsweresimultaneouslyheldinLeningradandTashkent140,000reportedlyattendedtheMoscowgathering.By15October1932,Willi Mnzenberg,alwaysheldinsuspicionbytheCominternhierarchy,wasreplacedbythemorereliableGeorgiDimitrov.Dimitrov,however,wasarrestedinBerlinon9 March1933andchargedwithcomplicityintheReichstagfire.HisarrestallowedMnzenbergtoresumecontrol.65 TheAmsterdammovementreconvenedattheSallePleyelinParis,46June1933.Atthismeeting,antifascismbecametheforcecementingthealliance.TheSalle Pleyelmeeting,however,representedademonstrableshiftawayfromRomainRolland'sideathattherewerenoenemiesontheleft,towardamorecoherentlycom

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munistperspective.ItwassponsoredandfinancedbyMoscow,andMnzenbergwasmorevisiblyinchargethanatthepreviousmeetinginAmsterdam.AfterJune 1933themovementwasknownastheAmsterdamPleyelmovement.RomainRollandandBarbusseremaineditsnominalpresidents.66 RomainRolland'slettertoBarbussewasnothisonlyattempttomaintainhisindependencewhilecollaboratingwithcommunistfrontorganizations.Hewasdetermined nottobeaneasilydeceivedfellowtravelingintellectual.Herefusedtosigna"mediocreandhollow"articlecalled"IAccuse,"writtenbyLouisGibarti,butcarrying RomainRolland'sname.ThepiecewasintendedforthecountertrialoftheReichstagfirebeingheldinLondon.Heneveragreedtosponsorsuchventuresunlesshe couldboth"examineandverifythedocuments."BehindGibarti,whomRomainRollandfoundsympathiqueanddisinterested,hesuspectedtheexpedientand contemptuoushandofMnzenberg."IneversignanythingexceptthatwhichIwritemyself,onlyaftermaturelystudyingit."Hewouldnotbeashowpieceor simplemindeddupeofthecommunists,eveninthenameofantifascistpropaganda:''Iamnotaman...tobeusedasablindandpassiveinstrument."Hereminded GibartiandMnzenbergthathehadneversubscribedtoapoliticalparty,nordidheintendtobecomeacommunistintellectualwhowas''militarilyregimented"or "weakincharacter."CommunisteffortstoparadeRomainRolland'snamenotonlydiscreditedthecausebeingserved("thatoftheproletarianrevolutionandthe USSR")butalsoriskedturningtheFrenchwriterintoanopponentsomeonewhomighthavetopubliclycontradicttheseflagrantabuses.RomainRollandand Mnzenbergexchangedletters,agreeingaboutthecommunistabuseofitsfellowtravelers.Communistsoftenbehavedaberrantlyandshortsightedly,forgettingthe importanceofcreatinga"largemovement."67 TheAmsterdamPleyelmovementhistoricallyendedyearsofisolationfortheFrenchCommunistParty,openingtheprocessofconstructingaPopularFrontcoalition. ThemovementcoalescedtoolatetobeeffectiveintheGermancontextitsappealwasinsufficienttohealthecleavagesbetweentheGermanSocialDemocraticand GermanCommunistParties.Itformulatedanantifascistalliance(firstconceivedofasanoppositiontocapitalistimperialismandtowar),whichwouldembrace progressiveelementsinthe

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bourgeoisworldwhilebeingconsistentwiththegoalsoftheinternationalcommunistmovement.AmsterdamPleyelrevealedadesiretopostponetheproletarian revolutioninordertoextinguishthethreatoffascism. TheAmsterdamPleyelmovementpropelledRomainRollandfurtherintothepoliticalarena.Ashebecamemoreengaged,hereassessedhisidealismandhis convictionthatfascismcouldberesistedbywords,byculturalproducts,orbynonviolentstrategiesalone.AmsterdamPleyelintroducedhimtopolitics1930sstyle, includingsomeofitsmoredistastefulsides,suchastheneedtomakeallianceswithpassiveoropportunisticmembersoforganizedsocialism,withruthless representativesofinternationalcommunism,andwithparalyzedandmystifiedelementsofthepacifistandcentristwingoftheprogressivebourgeoisie.Amsterdam Pleyelfurtherpoliticizedhim,eventhoughhewasstillattemptingtomediatebetweentheleftandtheprogressivecenter.Hisformofcommitmentbecamelesslinkedto unrealizablegoalsandmuchmoreconnectedtothepracticalmodalitiesoftheEuropeancontext.FromtheAmsterdamCongressuntilthesigningoftheNaziSoviet Pact,hewouldbecommittedtoantifascistagitationandpropagandaandtodirectmassaction.AmsterdamPleyelpushedhimfurtherawayfrom"abovethebattle" metaphors,therebymarkingaturntowardanallout,unflinchingresistancetofascismingeneralandtoNazisminparticular. <><><><><><><><><><><><> ExaminingRomainRolland'smuchneglectedromanfleuve,L'Ameenchante,writtenbetween1922and1933thedatesmarkingtheaccessionsofMussoliniand Hitler,respectivelywemustrememberthatRomainRolland'ssociopoliticalcommitmentsfusedwithhisart.IfJeanChristophewasthegreatEuropeannovelof internationalismandculturalharmonybeforetheGreatWar,L'Ameenchantewastheearly1930s'mostpotentantifascistnovel.Boththestorylineofthenoveland thetrajectoryoftheleadingcharacters,AnnetteRivireandherson,MarcRivire,mirrorRomainRolland'sintellectualpoliticsfrom1929to1933theyearsin whichthefinalvolumes,L'Annonciatrice(TheAnnunciation),werewritten.TheRivirespassfromtheworldvisionofliberal,nonconformingindividualismtoa positionofcriticalsupportforthecommunist

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revolution.Antifascismwasthecrucialmediatingfactorintheirevolution.RomainRollandendowedantifascistresistancewithaprivilegedroleinthebirthofanew society. ThefirsthypothesisofthenovelwastheneoMarxistonethat"theentirecapitalistregimeofthisdegeneratedbourgeoisie"wasindissolublyboundupwiththeorigins, popularity,andcontinuanceoffascism.Thoughhedidnotprovideasystematicpoliticalandeconomicanalysisoftherelationshipbetweeninternationalcapitalismand thedevelopmentoffascism,RomainRollandpointedoutthatthe"grandbourgeoishavebeenwiseenoughtoreturnthecudgeltotheirducesandtheirfhrers."The capitalistprofiteersandfascistleaderscementedtheirparasiticrelationshipbytheunquenchabledesiretoamassprofits,acquiremarkets,andtakerawmaterialsand territory.68 Inthenovelfascismwasaninternationalmovement,althoughRomainRollanddrewdistinctionsbetweenfascistandextremerightwingregimesinPoland,Yugoslavia, andtheBalkansandbetweenGermanandItalianforms.Fascistpracticewascharacterizedbyitsaggressive,dynamicnatureanditsappealtorevolt.Fascisminthe novelbecamesynonymouswithconquest,imperialisticdesigns,andwar.Fascistregimesweretypifiedbymindlessemotionalideologiesandbyprimitivewarethics, "fightingforthesakeoffighting."Moresignificant,fascismmeant"eternalimperialism,"perpetualviolencewithoutagoal,contradictinganyrationalviewofprogress. Generatedbydesperatemenwithouthopeorvision,fascismonceinpowercreatedaworldofpogroms,wars,andthecynicaldivisionoftheglobeintoconquerors andtheconquered.69 RomainRollandpaintedanunattractiveportraitofMussolini,unmaskingthecultofdictatorialleadershipanddeflatingtheuncriticalheroworshipattheheartofthe fascistsocialmovement.Theduceisportrayedasahistrionic,selfmanufactured,selfaggrandizingtyrant,devoidofhumansympathies,unabletolove,without compassionfortheweakordowntrodden.Hewasawillfulman,capableofstronghatreds,whocompensatedforhis"aridandburningsoul"byactsofrevengeand bydevotinghimselftothe"torchofsmokingaction."Beyondconventionalcategoriesofgoodandevil,theducewasdrivenbyhisquestforglory,money,andpower. Mussolini'sactivism,andhissubsequentsocialprograms,transformedonlythesurfaceofItaliansociety,notitssub

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stance.Hisfascistregimeaccommodateditselftothehierarchicalandauthoritarianinstitutionsofthepast,includingking,church,family,andprivateproperty.He subvertedmoredemocraticalternativesthetradeunions,professionalfederations,andtheItalianSocialistandCommunistParties.Thenovelconcludedthat"these ducis,thecondottiere,weregreatbutchers."70 Asanovelofpoliticalengagement,theworkmovesbeyondacritiqueandvilificationoffascismtoofferexamplesofresistancetotheregimebycrucialcharacters.71 PreservingfreedomandcreativityinEuropemeantnotonlyunderstandingfascismbutalsoworkingactivelytowipeitofftheglobe.TheyoungMarcRivireallowed hisbookstoreinParistobecomeacenteroftheItalianantifascistemigrationinFrance.Therefugeeantifascistswerearticulatinga"lostcause."Fascismwastoofirmly entrenchedinItalytobedefeatedbytheantifascistresistanceabroad.RomainRollandaccuratelydepictedthesplitswithintheantifascistmovementbetween democraticrepublicansandcommunists.Thesedivisionsweakenedtheantifascistforces,limitingthemovement'seffectiveness.ThoughMarc'smother,Annette,tried toconciliatebetweenthevariousfactions,thenarrator(inobviousselfcriticism)indicatedthattheprojectofleadingallthe"troopsoftheResistance"communists, socialists,liberals,andpacifistsinasinglefrontagainstthefascistreactionwasalsodoomedtofailure.Itwasa''Utopiandream."Despitepersonalriskstohimself, especiallyfromtheFrenchsecretpoliceandfromMussolini'sagentsprovocateursoperatinginFrance,MarcchampionedthecauseoftheItalianantifascistsby publishingantifascistbooks,newspapers,andbrochuresandbyparticipatinginantifascistagitationinParis.72 RomainRollandcreatedpoignantepisodesofantifascistresistancewithinItaly'sborders.Outofsensitivitytohumansuffering,thecharacterCountBrunoChiarenza wasincreasinglyinvolvedinpoliticalantifascism.73ThegratuitousBlackshirtattackonadefenselessoldcolleagueinRomebecamehisturningpoint.CountChiarenza intercededforhisfriendinthestreetbrawl,thentestifiedatthecourttribunal,wherehetransformedthevictim'sdefenseintoanindictmentagainstthefascistpolice, courts,andthegovernmentitself.HoundedbythesecretpoliceandBlackshirts,thecountwasfinallyforcedtofleeItaly.HetookrefugeinParisandjoinedMarc

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RivireandJulienDavy,anantifascistfromanoldergeneration(antifascismalsoservedtorepairgenerationalconflicts).Davyplayedtheroleofhonorarypresidentof theInternationalAntifascistLeague.74 MarcRivire'sevolutionwithinthenovelfromanamorphousintermediaryofvariousideologicalstrains(hedescribedhimselfasantiimperialist,proSoviet,pacifist, andantifascistsimultaneously)toonemorecloselyconnectedwiththeCommunistInternationalandtheorganizedFrenchproletariatparalleledRomainRolland's politicalitineraryinthisperiod.MarctriedunsuccessfullytolinktheGandhiansocialexperimentinIndiawiththeLeninistSovietUnion,asthenovelisttriedtodoin organizingtheAmsterdamPleyelmovement.Fascismchangedthehistoricalconsciousnessofthecharacters,modifiedthespecificpoliticalnatureoftheirengagement, anddrasticallyalteredtheirlanguage.IffascismposedathreattoallofEurope,thentheActionFranaiseandthefascistleaguesposedapotentdangerinFrance.Ina scenesituatedatapeaceful,legalmeetingoftheSecoursRougeInternational,heldtocommemorateananniversaryoftheParisCommune,hedepictedadirect confrontationinwhichCoty'sfascisttroopsdisruptedademonstration.MarcRivireandJulienDavywereslatedtobetheprincipalspeakers.Theeventendedwitha riotbetweenleftandright,duringwhichMarc,inanexplosionofrage,killedoneofhisadversaries.Againstthefascistbarbarians,counterviolencewasbothinevitable andjustifiable.Thesceneitselfpresagedafinalcollisionbetweenfascistsandantifascists.75 Thenovel'svariousperspectivesonfascistbrutalitywerepreludestotheclimacticepisode:theassassinationofMarcRivirebyagangofBlackshirthoodlumsonthe streetsofFlorence.Italianfascismhaddeformedaoncegreatcityoflearningandcultureintoacityofterrorandstreetviolence.VacationinginItalywithhisRussian bornwife,Assia,andhismother,Marcwitnessedasquadristiassaultonaharmlessoldmanandhisadolescentson.Thecrowdwitnessingtheincidentremained inert,paralyzedwithfear.NoonebutMarcdaredtointervene.Heleapedintothefrayandwasstabbedtodeath.Yetthemeaningofhislifedidnotperish.Annette, Marc'smother,successfullymournedhersonbyinternalizingboththespiritandthesubstanceofhisengagement.Shecontinuedthe

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antifascistresistance.Afterherdeath,therevolutionaryantifasciststrugglewaspassedontoMarc'sson,Vania,thusallowingthecycleofthe"EnchantedSoul"tobe completedbythenextgeneration.Marcdiedmorally,heroically,resistingtheforcesthatnegatedcommunity,culture,socialjustice,andvoluntarysacrifice. Fundamentally,Marc'ssacrificewasneitheremptynorsuicidal,becauseitmadeAnnetterealizethat"onecouldnolongerremainoutsidethefight."76 Tosharpenthestruggleagainstfascism,Annettecalledforanimmediate,unequivocalallianceagainstit.Shegrewintolerantofallthemen,parties,andmovements whotookrefugeintheuntenablegrayareasbetweenfascismandtheintegralantifascistresistance.Annette'swilltounifytheprogressiveforcesoftheleftcouldnotbe thwartedbytheoreticalortacticaldifferencesofopinion.JustassheconcentratedonreconcilingtheCommunistandSocialistInternationals,soshealsoattemptedto mergethestruggleagainstfascismwiththeinternationaloppositionagainstcolonialoppressionandasympatheticoutlookontheSovietUnionandtheclassinterestsof theorganizedforcesoflabor."Thetruelineofdemarcationbetweenpartiesisbetweenthosewhowillandthosewhowillnotact."77TheRivirescouldnolonger survivethe1930sasnonconformingindividualists.Antifascismjoltedthemintomakingmeaningfulcontactwithamassmovementstrugglingforpeaceandsocial dignityintheworld. Beforeherdeath,Annettewasstirred(asisthereader)byanextravagantgestureonthepartofacharacterwhowasmodeledonLaurodeBosis,theItalian antifascistpoetwhoflewoverRomeinOctober1931,droppingantifascistleaflets.DeBosiswaskilledonthatmission.ForRomainRolland,herepresentedakindof enchantedantifascism,andhisflightcontainedamythicalaswellasapoliticalmessageforcontemporaries.Inthenovel,SilvioMoroniaudaciouslyflewhisairplane overRome,droppingleafletstotheItalianpeople,incitingthemtorevolt.SilvioMoroniwasmotivatedbyhishatredofMussolini'sdictatorship.Theplanecrashedhis flightendedindeath,andthegesturetriggerednouprising.Yetthisemphatic"No"tothetyranthumiliatingtheItalianpeoplesymbolizedantifascismasbothanoble sacrificeandanactofaffirmation.ForAnnette,Silvio'sviolentdeath,likeMarc's,hadtragicmeaningindemonstratingthatactionagainstpowerfuladversaries

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waspossibleandnecessary.Itsetaprecedentforfutureopponentsofallfascisttyrannies.78 RomainRolland'sperceptionoftheinternationalfascistmenacein1933saturatedthefinalvolumesofL'Ameenchante.Herecognizedtheascendancyandthe offensivenatureoffascismandindicatedhowprogressiveandrevolutionaryforcesneededtoregrouptheirrankstoprepareadefensiveantifasciststrategy.He graspedthehistoricalimportanceoffascism'sappealasanantiMarxistideology,itsseductivenessasadefenderoforderandstability.Heacceptedtheschematic Marxistviewoftheclassstructureoffascism,namely,thattherich,influential,andeconomicallypowerfulthegrandbourgeoishadhandedovertheinstrumentsof stateviolenceandcontroltothefascists.Theseshrewdcapitalistsdidsobydefault,preferringthefascisthooliganswhowerewillingtoriskworldwartotheprospect ofsocialistrevolutionorradicalreformwithintheirownborders.FranceandEnglandlackedthewilltofighttoprotectpoliticalfreedomsandhumanrightsoutside theirownborders.TheFrenchandtheBritishmightbalkatincludingtheSovietsinawiderantifascistalliance.Statingthatonewaseitherfororagainstfascism, RomainRollandlegitimizedthenecessityofbattleagainstthefascistantagonists.Theformerpacifistnowemployedmilitarymetaphors.Theantifascistbattlewasa variantoftheHegeliandialecticofmasterandslave.Tosmashthefascists,henowheldthatallavailableinstrumentsoughttobeused,includingviolentones.79 Onepassageofthisnovel,summarizingthediscourseofantifascistengagement,representedthecoreofRomainRolland'spositionin1933:
Theroadwasblockedforthepresent.TheRevolutioninEuropeallowedtheReactiontheinitiativetotaketheoffensive.... Theenemymadethefirstmove.ItsleadersknewhowtoexploittheunnecessarypanictowhichthechatterersoftheRevolution,bytheirimprudentthreats,hadmovedthe troubledflocks.ThroughoutEurope,fascismposeditselfasthedefenderofthemoralandsocialorder,ofthewoolenstocking,ofthecoffersofthefamily,ofthecountry,ofthe "sickmother"andtheFatherGod.Thegrandbourgeois,havingwithgoodreasonlostconfidenceintheirownenergy,werewiseenoughtohandthebludgeontotheducesand thefhrers,risenfromthepeople,whoseenergywasintact,andwhotransformedthemselvesfromwolvestowatchdogs....Theblackorbrownplaguespreadfromonecountry toanotheritsvirulence

Page176 increasedwithsuccess.EvenFranceandEngland,thelastdepositbanksofdemocraticfreedoms,forgothowtomakeuseofthemandwithdrewthemfromcirculation. Itwasnolongerthetimetotergiversate.Eitherfororagainst!Academicdiscussionsforviolenceornonviolencewereoutofseason.Thecrucialquestionwasofunitingallthe forcesofviolenceandnonviolence,againsttheblockofalltheforcesofReaction.Allshouldfindaplaceinthearmy:thegreatorganizedRefusalofGandhiandtheattacking troopsofLenin.Conscientiousobjection,strikesinfactoriesandtransport,insurrection,everythingwasaweaponinthebattlethatAnnette'smindnowaccepted.Sherecognized thatcombatwasnecessary.80

TheintellectualpoliticsofL'Ameenchantepivotedontheunityofintellectualsandworkersinaninternationalantifascistalliance.Thenovelrecapitulatedthethemes ofRomainRolland'sintellectualantifascismandopenedvistastoamorepoliticizedantifascismfortheremainderofthe1930s,anticipatingthePopularFrontpoliticsof themiddle1930s,withitsemphasisonstruggleandresistance.

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8 AntifascistResistance
AntifascismisnotonlythevastfieldwhereliberalsmingledwithCommunistsasthewarinSpaindemonstrated....Itisafeeling,anattitude,andalsoapolitics. AndrMalraux,"Prface,"L'Indpendancedel'esprit

ForRomainRollandtheyear1933wasmarkedbyapreoccupationwiththeNazis.TheWeimarRepublicentereditsfinalstagewhenvonHindenburgnamedHitler chancelloron30January1933.RomainRollandfollowedeventsinGermanybylisteningtotheradioandattentivelyreadingtheGerman,Swiss,andFrenchpress. LivinginSwitzerlandallowedhimtothinkthroughtheNationalSocialistphenomenonfromavarietyofperspectives.AtfirstRomainRollandfoundHitler'sspeeches monotonousandunintelligible.Hitler'sspokenGermanwasbadhisorationsseemedimbecilic.TheFrenchwriterdidnotimmediatelygrasphowthesehysterical outburstsof"supernationalism"couldappealpsychologicallyandpoliticallytolargesectorsoftheGermanpopulation.ByMarch1933henolongerunderestimated Hitlerandhisentourage:"EachnightIlistentothefrenzyofthesehallucinatedGermansGoering,Goebbels,Seldte,Papen,Hitlertheirhuskybarkingsandtheir ragingshriekstothecrowdsthatapplaudthem."Thesestagedmassmeetings,somewherebetweenreligiousriteandmasstheater,revealedtheprimitivenessatthe heartoftheThirdReich:''TheuninterruptedclamorofHeil!Heil!,regularanddecisiveliketheblowsofasabreandtheparadeofmusicalbrassinstruments,fifes,and drumsthereligiousnationalhymnsHitler'svociferationcontinues,chokingontheendsofitssentences,almostlikeanapoplecticfitwhichinvokes:Thou,Master God!"1 Hitler'sseizureofpowertransformedRomainRollandintoanintegralantifascistintellectual.HavingriskedhisliteraryreputationinFranceforhisantiwarwritings duringtheGreatWar,he

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wasreadytoalienatehisGermanpublicin1933byadoptinganunrelentingantiNazistand.Thus,hewrotetohisGermanpublisher:"ItisinevitablethatIwill participatepubliclyagainstthestateofviolenceinGermany,asmuchasIhaveagainsttheReactioninallcountries.AndatthisveryhourIamprotestingagainst Hitlerianterrorism."2 UrgedbytheAssociationofRevolutionaryWritersandArtiststorespondtotheNationalSocialisttakeover,RomainRollandpennedasharpdenunciationofHitler's regime.Typically,hisfirstcommittedantiNazistancebeganasaproclamationtohumanisticintellectualstouniteagainstandunmaskNazibarbarism:

Atonestrokethebrownplaguehassurpassedtheblackinitshorror.Hitlerianfascisminseveralweekshastotaledmoreunworthyviolencethantenyearsofitsmasterand model,Italianfascism.TheburningoftheReichstag,whichithasusedasaclumsylegitimation,isanactofgrosspoliceprovocation,whichdeceivesnooneinEurope.Beforethe publicopinionoftheworld,wedenouncetheseoutragesandlies:theentirepublicauthorityputintothehandsofapartyofviolentreactionfullofficialauthorizationbestowedin advanceoncrimeallfreedomofspeechandthoughtstrangledtheinsolentintrusionofpoliticsevenintotheAcademieswherethefewsolitarywritersandartistswhohave preservedthecourageoftheiropinionsareexpelledthearrestofmenheldinthehighestesteem,notonlybytherevolutionaryparties,butamongtheSocialistandbourgeois liberalstheinstitutionofastateofsiegethroughthewholeofGermanythesuspensionofelementaryrightsandlibertiesonwhichallmoderncivilizationisbased.Weappealto alltojoinusinourprotest,allthosewriters,allspokesmenforopinion,allthoseinEuropeandAmericatowhateverpartytheybelong,whofeeltheunworthyoutrageperpetrated totheessentialdignityofmanandcitizen,andthesolidaritythatbindsustothosewhofightagainsttheunrestrainedterrorismofareactionthatiswithoutscruplesasitis withoutcurb.3

AskedtoendorsealargeantifascistmeetingorganizedbytheComitd'AideauxLuttesContreleFascismeHitlrien,RomainRollandcastigatedtheNational Socialistsfortheirunrestrainedcruelty,ignorance,ethnicintolerance,andrepressivepolicies.Ifhesympathizedwiththeantifascistemigrs,heimpliedthatreal resistancetothe"Germanexecutioners"wouldbepropelledbythedisciplinedactivityofrevolutionaryworkers.Naziatavismcausedhimtoheatuphisownrhetoric, comparingHitler'sexcesseswithactsofreligiousintolerance,includingtheatrocitiesofpasthistory:

Page179 ThoughIamillIdonotwishthatmyvoiceshouldbemissingatyourprotestmeetingagainstthebutchersofGermany.Maythesemurderers,thesetorturers,bethrustaside,by thegiantfistoftherevolutionarymassesoftheworld!Thesefrenziedimbeciles,withinseveralweeks,haveflungEuropeseveralcenturiesbackward,beyondeventheRevocation oftheEdictofNantestotheabjecttimeoftheSt.BartholomewMassacre!4

RomainRollandurgedhisyoungercolleagueJeanGuhennotoopenupthepagesofEuropetosuchpersecutedantifascistrefugeesasThomasandHeinrichMann,in orderto''protestagainsttheunheardofcriminalattacksofHitlerianfascism,particularlyinregardtofreethoughtandtheintellectuals."5 Asearlyas10January1933,RomainRollandlearnedthattheGermangovernmentintendedtopresenthimwiththeGoethePrize,Germany'smostdistinguished awardforwritersintheartsandsciences.ThepresidentoftheReich,vonHindenburg,personallyawardedhimtheprizeon19April1933,throughtheGerman consulinGeneva.6 Althoughtheawardwasdesignatedfortheyear1932,beforetheNationalSocialistscametopower,andinspiteofhisdeepappreciationof Germanculture,heunequivocallydeclinedit.HecitedhisoppositiontoHitler'spoliciesandthefhrer'sperversionofGermanhistory,heroes,andethicalspirit.In rejectingtheGoethePrize,RomainRollandinauguratedatraditionofwritersrefusingofficialliteraryawardsbecauseofpoliticalandculturalengagement.He suspectedthattheGermansweretryingtobuyoffhisopposition,tocoopthissympathiesfortheantifascistcause.

Ikeenlyfeelthishonor,butitispainfulformetowriteyouthatinthecurrentcircumstancesIcannotacceptit.... Butlookatwhatistakingplaceintoday'sGermany:thecrushingoffreedoms,thepersecutionofpartiesopposedtothegovernment,thebrutalandinfamousproscriptionofthe Jews,allofwhichrousetheworld'srevoltandmyown.YouareawarethatIhaveexpressedthisrevoltinpublicprotests.SuchapoliticswillruinGermanyintheopinionof millionsofmenfromallcountriesoftheearthitisacrimeagainsthumanity. Itisimpossibleformetoacceptanhonorbyagovernmentthathasmadethispoliticsitsprogramofideasandaction.7

AkeydeterminantoftheNazis'risetopowerwasthedestructivebickeringbetweenleftwingpartiesinGermany,aboveallthe

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CommunistandSocialDemocraticParties.AcceptingtheCommunistviewpoint,RomainRollandindictedtheSocialDemocratsfortheirinactionanddivisiveness, whichinturnstemmedfromaninaccuratehistoricalanalysisoffascismanddeeppersonalweaknessandpassivityonthepartoftheleadership.Antifascismwas historicallydoomedunlessantifascistsriskeddefeatinpractice:

Whataffectsmepoliticallyisnotsomuchthebrutaltraumaofthefascistmovementsasthealmosttotalabdicationofthepartiesopposedtothem....Onemustdaretobe defeated,butwithone'sweaponsinhand,fighting,withoutaskingformercy,orconsentingtoagreement....Iftheypretend,asthedegenerateSocialistsoftoday,tosavetheir skins,torisknothingexceptwhatisabsolutelysafe,thenletthemwithdrawfromthefieldofaction.Theyareonlygoodfortakingnotesinalibrary.Noneoftheleadersofthe SecondInternationalhastherighttousurpdirection.Theyhavebetrayedtheexpectationsofthemassesthatwereentrustedtothem.Gandhiwouldcondemnthemnolessthan Lenin.Fortheessentialpointisnot"violenceornonviolence,"itis"toact."Theworstdefeat,theonlyirremediabledefeat,isnotinflictedbytheenemybutbyoneself.8

HisanalysisoftheNationalSocialistseizureofpowerreflectedhisdisappointmentthattheGermanleftfailedtounifyorputasidetheirdifferencesashadbeen proposedintheAmsterdamCongressmanifestointhesummerof1932.9 MostnonJewishantifascistintellectualsfailedtosituateantiSemitismatthecenteroftheirperceptionofGermanfascisttheoryandpractice.Here,RomainRolland wasoncemoretheexception.HeunderstoodthatthecombinationofracialantiSemitismandnationalismwaslethal.HeinsistedthatallantiJewishpolicywas ignorantandbarbaric,disputingthescientificandphilosophicalgroundingforanydoctrinebasedonethnicsupremacy.HerealizedthatantiJewishopinionswere specificallyNationalSocialistinoriginandthatItalianfascismcontainednosuch"stupidanddisastrousracism."Hepredictedthatthepersecutionsandexpulsionsof theJews(hedidnotanticipateorganizedgenocide)wouldbeaheinouscrimeagainsttheGermanstateitself,notjustagainsttheinnocentJewishvictims.Rolland's antifascismwasinternationalist,thatis,fundamentallyantiracistandantinationalist:

IntheuncleanpersecutionofJewsinGermanytoday,onedoesnotknowwhethertocondemnmoreseverelythestupidityorsavageryoftherulers....Andtheabsurdity becomesgrotesque(ifitwere

Page181 notgrievouslytragic)whenitisthesupposednationalistswhothusactastheworstenemiesoftheirnation....Hitlerismrevealsitselftotheeyesoftheworldasausurpationof poweroverthegreatGermanpeoplebysavageilliteratesorspiteful,malignantcreatures,likeGoebbels,whoseweakandviolentbrainhasbeenspoiltbyGobineau'silldigested paradoxesaboutthe"InequalityofHumanRaces,"andbythefumesofadeliriousprideintentonbelievinginthesupremacyofhisrace.10

TodenigratetheJewswastodenigratethecosmopolitanspiritandallEuropeanthoughtandscience.ItwastotallyunjustifiabletochargetheJewishracewith"vices anditsownspecialinfamy,"giventheoutstanding"virtuesandgreatgifts"Jewshadhistoricallymanifested.HeconnectedHitler'santiJewishstatementswithpolice measuresandillegalviolenceagainstanunarmedcivilianpopulation.RomainRolland,the"enemyofeveryformofFascism,"heldthattheNazissurpassedthemallby thecrudenessandbestialityoftheirantiJewishdogma.11 RomainRollandreactedtotheproscriptionandburningofbooksbyattackingfascistantiintellectualism.Intellectualswereindispensableinanypeoples'struggle againstfascism.Ifbooksemancipatedthemind,onlythedisciplinedactionofmentalandmanualworkerscouldbedirectedagainst"thedespoticobscurantismof Hitler,whichimprisonsideasandburnsbooks,whichtorturesandkillshumanbeings."12 InlateMayof1933,RomainRollandwasnamedhonorarypresidentoftheInternationalAntifascistCommittee,thenplanningforthelargecongresstobeheldatthe SallePleyelinParis.HisearlierworkwithBarbusseontheAmsterdamCongresswassharpenedbytheantifascistperspective.Frontmondialbecameitsjournal, watchword,andprogram.AfterMay1933,theAmsterdamPleyelmovement,whileturningpoliticallytowardthePopularFront,madethestruggleagainstfascismits highestpriority.13 ItwaspuzzlingthatRomainRolland'swellpublicizedantiNaziwritingshadnotgeneratedacounterattackintheThirdReich.Hewonderedhowlongthefascistpress wouldsparehisbooksheexpectedhistextstranslatedinGermantobetakenoutofprintandburned.On14May1933,hewroteanopenlettertotheKoelnische Zeitungoutlininghisobjectionstothenew"NationalFascist"Germany.Hewroteasacitizenoftheworldwhohadbeennourished

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byGoethe,Beethoven,Nietzsche,andEinstein.Hitler'sideologyandactionbrutallydistortedtheGermanyoftheWeltburger:
ThatGermanyisbeingstampedout,stainedwithblood,andoutragedbythe"National"governorsoftoday,bytheGermanyoftheSwastika,theGermanythatdrivesawayfrom itsbosomthefreespirits,theEuropeans,thepacifists,theJews,theSocialists,theCommunists,allwhowishtofoundtheInternationalofLabor.14

HeremindedhisGermanaudiencethathehadopposedthe"iniquity"oftheTreatyofVersaillessince1919.Thefhrerhadhatchedaparanoidnotiontoprovokean emotionalsupportofGermany'srearmamentandexpansionistaims.AlthoughGermanyhadrealgrievances,theconspiracytheorywas"amurderouserror,"reflecting the"deliriumofdespair."TheemergenceofNationalSocialismdidnotnegateRomainRolland'sloyaltytotheotherGermany.15 HiscritiqueoftheNaziregimewaswelldocumentedbywitnesseswhowereharassed,surveyed,imprisoned,orpersecutedbytheBrownshirts.Hehadreadthe publishedaccountsofvictimsandlistenedtotheradiospeechesoftheleaders,andhiscomplaintsagainstGermanfascismwerenotexaggerated.16 RomainRolland'sopenlettertotheKoelnischeZeitungendedthebriefperiodofbenigntreatmentbytheGermanpress.17Sixfascistintellectualsrespondedtohis challengeduringthemonthsofMayandJune1933.TheirremarkswerefirstpublishedintheKoelnischeZeitungandtheninabrochureentitled"SixAvowalsofa NewGermany"(1933).RudolfBinding,themostillustriousofthesewriters,defendedthedeeperNationalSocialistintentionsincomingtopower.18 RomainRollandquicklydiscontinuedhisdebatewiththewritersclusteredaroundtheKoelnischeZeitung.Realdialoguewithfascistintellectualswasimpossible:the dissimilarityinhistorical,linguistic,andconceptualframesofreferencewastoogreat.TheheartoftheHitlerianrevolutionremained"areligionofrearmament,"thegoal ofwhichwouldbeworldwar.NationalSocialismwentbeyondoldstylenationalism,standingfora"newandmoreviolentparoxysm"ofchauvinism.Hecarefullyread MeinKampfinGermanandadvisedWesternnationsnottodisarminthefaceofHitler'sdesirestoconquer,soclearlyspelledoutinthistext.19 RomainRollandwassensitivetothedeceptivemethodsusedto

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annexcelebratedmajorthinkersofthepasttocontemporarypoliticalmovements.HewasdeeplydisturbedwhenNietzsche'ssister,thedisreputableideologue ElisabethFoersterNietzsche,sentMussoliniatelegramreferringtotheduceas"themostadmirablediscipleofZarathustra."Heimmediatelyresignedfromthe NietzscheGesellschaft,sayingthathisperceptionsoftheGermanphilosopherandpoetcontradictedthefascistoneperpetratedbyhisheirsandbytheleading archivists."IwasthefriendofAmendolaandMatteotti,whomMussoliniassassinated.IamthechampionofideasthatMussolinitramplesdown.Thus,Ihaveno placeinanassociationthatglorifiestheCondottiere."20 Fascismnotoriouslyappealedtorebelliousyouthandtowarveteransalienatedbythesocietiestheyreturnedtoafter1918.Ifantifascistresistanceweretobe effective,ittoohadtocatalyzeyoungpeople.ThusRomainRollandwrotea"CalltoYouth"torallythosewithantinationalist,anticapitalist,internationalistsentiments intoa"worldfront."Fascisminoneofits"twentymasks"remainedahistoricalpossibilityinFrance,inviewofthepopularityoftheextremenationalismespousedby theFrenchmilitary,theclergy,thereactionarysupportersofthechurch,andrightwingjingoist,royalist,andantiSemiticgroups.Fascismthreatenedtheworld'ssocial developmentbydeliberatelysubjugating''laborandthought."Europeanyouthshouldformacommonfrontagainstthefascists,the''newHolyAlliancesof Reaction."21 SixdaysbeforethelastfreeelectionoftheWeimarRepublicon27February1933,theReichstagwassetablaze,beginninganunprecedentedperiodofNational Socialistviolence.On28February1933,theReichstagFireDecreewaspassed.ThoughdirectlyaimedattheGermanCommunistParty,itslanguagewasloose enoughtobeappliedtoallopponentsofthegovernment.FormerDutchcommunistMarinusvanderLubbewasframedasthearsonistoftheReichstag.Apublictrial tookplaceinLeipziginwhichErnstTorgler,aleadingparliamentarymemberoftheGermanCommunistParty,andGeorgiDimitrov,aprominentBulgarian communist,wereplacedontrialforcomplicityinthefire.TheReichstagfiretrialcatalyzedworldopinion,resultinginmassiveralliesanddemonstrationsfrom RotterdamtoNewYorkCity.AnAntifascistCommissionofInquirywascreatedinLondontocollectthefactsofthecaseandtoindicttheleadershipoftheNational SocialistParty,

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whomitaccusedofbeingtrulyresponsibleforthefire.UndertheauspicesoftheWorldCommitteefortheReliefoftheVictimsofGermanFascism,thesecond BrownBookappeared,thoroughlydocumentingHitler'sterror.CalledTheReichstagFireTrial,bytheendof1933ithadbeenpublishedinGerman,French, English,andAmericaneditions.22 InarrestingDimitrov,thesecretarygeneraloftheCommunistInternational,theNaziswereputtingintopracticetheanticommunistbiasimplicitintheirideology. RomainRollandhadneverbeendeceivedbyNationalSocialistlegality.TheNazissetthetoneoftheThirdReichimmediatelyontakingoffice,bypersecutingand assassinatingindependentintellectualsanddissidents.TheylegitimizedtheircrimesbyinvokingantiMarxism.RomainRollandpointedtothemurderoftheSocial DemocratTheodorLessing,andtothearrestandtortureoftheGermananarchistErichMhsam,todepictthedegradingnatureofGermanfascism.23 WhetherhecampaignedfortheinnocenceandacquittalofDimitrov,Torgler,Thaelmann,orforthearrestedwriterssuchasleftwingintellectualKarlOssietzskyand pacifistKurtHiller,RomainRolland'sappealsunmaskedtheNazis'terroristicmethodsandlaidbaretheirabuseofthejudicialprocess.The"true"incendiariesofthe ReichstagweretheupperechelonsoftheNationalSocialistleadership,includingGoeringandHitlerhimself.24Hedepictedtheaccusedascommittedmartyrsand exemplarymenofdecencywhoembodiedthecivilizedcoreofGermanyitself.
Andeverybodyknows,eveninGermany,thatitisnotThaelmannthemanthattheHitlergovernmentispersecuting,butratheritispersecutingtheprincipleofCommunism.... TheentireworldisthereforeentitledtodeclarethatanysecretsentencepassedagainstThaelmannwouldbeamoralpenaltyagainsttheHitlergovernment.Theworldwould chargethemwiththemurder.25

RomainRolland'sinterventionintheReichstagfiretrialresultedinaletterofgratefulacknowledgmentbyGeorgiDimitrov.26Asecondrepercussionwastheformation inFrance,largelyundertheauspicesoftheFrenchCommunistParty,oftheAssociationofRevolutionaryWritersandArtists(AEAR),ablydirectedbyPaulVaillant Couturier.Afoundingmember,RomainRollandalsoemergedasavisibleleader,alongwithAndrGideandtheyoungAndrMal

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raux.Ifhewasashowpiece,hewasalsopoliticallyandideologicallyatonewiththeAEAR.Hesharedtheiranalysisofthecurrentworldeconomiccrisisandtheir desiretoreconcileworkersandclassconsciousintellectuals,whileavoidingannexationtoanypoliticalparty.Heagreedwiththeircriticismofneutralityasaformof submissiontothedominantclassandtheirattemptstodevelopproletarianliterature,toignitepeople'sart,andtoorganizearevolutionarycultureinFranceopposedto conformistandfascistconceptionsofart.Hefeltathomeinanorganizationthatmediatedbetweentheculturalsectorandtheworkingclass.TheAEARrepresented over550engagedintellectuals.Thistypical1930scommunistfrontorganizationpromiseditsmembers,simultaneously,independenceandunityundertheumbrellaof antifascism.RomainRollandofferedhis"Message"totheAEARintheformofanantifascistsalute.Hehad"chosen"sidesbecausehefoundNazipolitics reprehensible.''IjoininprotestagainsttheexecutionersofGermany,thosemurderers,torturers,thosefrenziedindividuals."27 RomainRollandaidedantifascistrefugeesfromGermany,Czechoslovakia,andAustria.HelenthisnametotheInternationalCommitteeofRelieftothePrisonersand DeportedofItalianFascism,andhesupportedtheGermanLibraryofBurnedBookssetupinParis.Duringthistime,heservedashonorarypresidentofthe AmsterdamPleyelmovement,presidingovertheWorldCommitteeAgainstFascism.HewasparticularlyalarmedbyeventsinCzechoslovakia,wherecrowdswere hypnotizedbyHitler'soratoryandelaboratelystagedrallies.TheminorityofthreemillionGermansinCzechoslovakialongedforamasterandwereincapableof realizingthedangersofHitler's"hallucinatedviolence."Thisaddeduptoacollectivepsychologicalpreparation,ayieldingtothe"mirageofAnschluss."28 InSeptember1933,RomainRollandlearnedfromhisGermaneditorandtranslatorthathisbookshadbeenbannedintheThirdReich.TheNaziministerofthe interiororderednotonlythatpublicationofhisantiwaressaysTheFreeSpirit(DerfreieGeist)beblockedbutalsothattheprinter'splatesbedestroyed.29Several ofRomainRolland'sfriends,writingfromtheGermanconcentrationcampsatOranienburg,reportedthatJeanChristophewasconspicuouslydisplayedunderaglass casewiththeworksofMarxandEngelsandtheclassicsofRussianandGermancommunism,inthe

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"museumofdamnedbooks,eitherburnedortobeburned."HewasgladdenedthattheNazicampaigntomutehisoppositionhadconcluded.JeanChristophe,in gestureandinspirit,wasnowalignedtotallywiththeantifascistcause:"Thisconcentrationcampleader,thisNazifanatic,isnotwrong:againstHitlerism,againstallthe tyrantswhotramplehumanityunderfootandwhooppressworkingpeople,JeanChristophewillalwaysdisplaytheraisedfist."30 RomainRollandsummeduphisintellectualpoliticsinalettertoFrenchpacifistintellectualVictorMargueritte.HeproddedhisFrenchcomradestodistinguishbetween executionersandvictims,torejectanycompromiseorcovenantwithafascistregime,andtoconceiveoftheongoingantifascistcombatinpoliticalterms.Hitler's presenceincentralEurope,coupledwiththeaggressiveforeignpolicyexplicitlyoutlinedinMeinKampf,madeneutralityimpossible.Aracist,vengeful,fascist Germanywaspreparingforworldwaritwastoolatefornuancedcriticalanalysis.Worldpeacecouldnotbepreservedwhilefascistmovementsstayedinpower.He nowposedtheantifasciststruggleinManicheanform:nottostruggleagainsttheoppressivecounterrevolutionarieswastoacquiesce.However,heremained ecumenicalaboutthetacticsbestsuitedtocombatfascism:

AsfarasIamconcernedIwillnevermakeanagreementwithfascism,andIamresolutelyagainstHitler'sGermany.Asforthemeansofcombatingit,thatisanotherquestion. Therearemeansotherthanwarbetweennations.ItisaquestionofsupportinganonHitlerianGermany.TheLeipzigtrialisalsoastruggle....Hitlermustfall.Hemust,forthe peaceoftheworlddependsonit....AnyonewhohasreadMeinKampfknowsthewordsofthesecretorders,theexcitativelessonstaughttothenationhealsoknowsthe feverishandcontinuouscurrentsbeingmadeinGermany...andcannotdoubtwhatawaitsFranceandEuropemomentarily,iftheydonotbuildabulwarkagainsttheriseofthis racismdrunkenwithrevengeandreadytobereleasedbythefascistregimes,whichtakeholdagainstallthefreedomsandhopesoftheworld.Wecannotconciliatebetween ReactionandRevolution.Wemustmakeachoice.Neverhastheissueofchoicebeenmoreclearlyposedthantoday.31

FrenchhistoriansviewtherightwingriotsinParison6February1934asthe"pivotaleventofthedecade,atleastininternalaffairs."32Onthatday,thetenuous Republicansynthesisbegan

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visiblytounravelinthefaceofachallengebyindigenousreactionaryandprotofascistorganizationssuchastheActionFranaise,CroixdeFeu,andSolidarit Franaise.ThisdayofdisorderemergedfromaframeworkofparliamentaryinactionanddisillusionmentprecipitatedbythefinancialscandalsoftheStaviskyAffair. NolongercouldFrenchmenluxuriatesmuglyintheirowndemocraticfreedomsandconstitutionalrights,feelingthatviolenceabroadcouldnotimpingeonFrance.It becameevidentthatauthoritarian,nationalistic,royalist,neoromantic,andantiSemiticenemiesoftheRepublicexistedandthattheywoulduseaggressive,illegal,even paramilitarytacticstogaintheirends. RomainRollandrespondedtotheeventsof6February1934bypenninganimpassionedappealto"thePeopleofParis."HeconsciouslyechoedtheParisCommune andthegreatdaysoftheFrenchRevolution.HesupportedthegeneralstrikeplannedbyFrenchcommunistsandsocialistson12February,whichtemporarilydiffused therightwingthreatandsetthestageforthePopularFrontcoalitiontobehammeredoutinthesummerof1934.BecauseoftheinherentdangeroftheFebruaryriots, hedeliberatelyglossedoverfinedistinctionsbetweenfascistmovementsandtraditional,conservativeassociations.Frenchfascismarosefromaninternationalcapitalist andimperialistsystemindeepcrisis,whichexplaineditsgrotesquedistortionsandonedimensionality.Fascism'sactivist,mockheroic,venturesome,militarist mentalitycoalescedintopoliticsofdesperationandcruelty.Theeventsof6Februaryprovedthatfascismhadtobetakenseriously,thatitwasurgenttobegin orchestratedresistance,especiallybythosewhohopedforarevolutionarysolutiontoFrance'sproblems.Heofferedtheideaofapeople'sfrontinwhichrevolutionary writersjoinedhandswithorganizedlaborinanunrelentingbattleagainstfascism.RomainRolland'scalltothepeopleofParisrecalledMicheletasmuchasMarx.The strategyoftheAmsterdamPleyelmovementbegantotakeonthestyleandcontentofthePopularFront:
FascismisthelastconvulsionwhichmaybefatalofthecapitalistReaction.Itisthevirusasanentiretyofarottenregime,theinfectionofwhichpenetratesintothepolitics andintotheState:imperialism,nationalism,racism,colonialbanditry,theexploitationoftheworldoflaborbyinternationalfinanceallthemonstrousformsofthe

Page188 corruptbusinessmentalityalltheideologicalbrutalizationofitsprideandservility,whichthebankruptbourgeoisintelligenceoffersuptotheserviceoftheducesandfhrers, havebeenputintoactionwiththeirstrengthmultipliedahundredfold. Beware,everybody!CallouttoalltheforcesofLabor,tothemillionhandsoftheproletarians,andtotheMindoftherevolutionarywritersandartists,whohaveremainedfaithful totheircause,whichisourown!Betweenfascismandus,struggletothedeath.Voltaire'swords:"Ecrasonsl'infme."33

Anotherappeal,writtenforMayDay1934,renderedRomainRolland'sideaofapopularfrontmoreconcrete.Asabrotherheaskedintellectualstoabandontheir priestlyfunctionsandaloofness,totakealifeaffirming,activistpositionbasedonthehistoricalpresenceoffascism"themonstrousparasitismofamurderously exploitingregime."Asthedangerincreased,hisrhetoricescalated.Inthefaceoftheinternalandexternalthreatoffascism,noonecouldremainisolatedordetached. Fascismchangedeverything.Antifascismbecamesynonymouswiththefusionofintellectualsandorganizedworkers:

Thedecisivebattlehasbegun[estengag].Itisnolongerpermissibletokeepoutside....Imakeanappealtoallmyfellowintellectualworkers. Iappealtolifeagainstdeath,againstthatwhichkills,againsttheravagesofhumanity:...thedictatorshipofthegreatcompaniesandtheFascismsdrunkenwithblood. Proletariat,hereareourhands!Weareyours.Letusunite!Letuscloseupourranks!Humanityisindanger.34

RomainRollandwaspersuadedthatfascismwasinextricablylinkedwiththeeconomicinterestsofinternationalcapitalism.HeadoptedtheMarxistanalysisthatbehind eachindigenousfascistmovementtherestoodaselfinterestedcapitalisticimperialisticrulingclass.Thetruthofthiswasfrequentlymanifestonlyafterthefascistscame topower,betrayedtheirantibourgeoisappeal,andbecameanotherPartyofOrder.Fascism,inshort,wasahistoricalmystification.Itadvertiseditselfasanticapitalist, yetitwasfundedandpoliticallybackedbycorporateandfinancecapitalism"Banks,HeavyIndustry,andBigBusiness."Antifascistshadtodecipherthehidden fromthesurfacestructureoffascismtostriptheideologyofitslies,exposeitspropagandamachinery,andlaybareitsnationalistic,hierarchical,andracistreality. Beneatheveryfascistregime

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weretheclassinterestsandiron"gripofhighcapitalism[grandcapitalisme]."Profascistyouthwerebeingdupedbyslogansandsymbolismmanipulatedbytheir fascistleaderstheywereforcedintomilitaryventuresatoddswiththeirromanticandrebelliousideas.Antifascistresistanceaimedtoenlightenyoungpeople, especiallythosewhocouldbereasonedwith.35 RomainRollandsawananalogyinthecrushingofAustrianSocialDemocracyinFebruary1934andthebarbarousrepressionoftheSpartacists.Hevilifiedtheroleof theCatholicchurchinlegitimizingAustrofascismDollfuss'sclericalfascismgraftedaspecifically"Catholicmoralandreligioushypocrisy"toitsfeudal,reactionary, militarist,andpetitbourgeoisconstituency.Allfascistmovementsemployedlies,trickery,andMachiavelliandevicesallwerecynical,selfserving,andmurderous.But clericalfascismlackedtheideologicalcandorofItalianorGermanfascism.EvenEuropeanliberalswereoffendedbyit,because,atitscore,itjeopardizedallfreedom ofthoughtandallsecularprogress.HepraisedtheViennesesocialistsandunderscoredthehistoricallessonsof12February,namely,theimportanceofamilitary resistancetofascismandtheimperativefortheEuropeanrevolutionarypartiestoprepareforsuchcombat.Defeatswereinspirational,ifstudiedandnotrepeated. Violentconflictwithfascisticmovementswasbecomingunavoidable:
TheheroicdefeatoftheViennesefightersforsocialismhasinfusednewbloodintotherevolutionarypartiesofEurope.Ithasproducedunionwithintheirranks.Ithasdispelled theirillusionofasocialconquestwithoutconflict,dispellingtheillusionofanevolutionary,persuasiveapproachtosocialstruggle.Ithastaughtthemthevirilevirtuesand necessarylawsofaction.ThelessonofViennawillnotonlyserveVienna.Thewholeworldhasgatheredstrengthfromit.Letussalutetheheroeswhopaidforthelessonwith theirblood!36

RomainRollandarticulatedhisownversionofantifascistcommitmenttoCarloRosselli,aleaderoftheItalianantifascistrefugeesinParisandeditorofthenewspaper Giustiziaelibert.Integralantifascismmeantabsolutelynocompromisewithanyfascistregime.FascisminItalycouldbestbedamagedbyinfiltratingthefascist syndicates.Themostpotentweaponagainst"exacerbatednationalism"wasinternationalismbuiltonaglobalallianceofworkersandintellectuals.Antifascismwaspart ofaclassstrugglethathadbeganaftertheGreatWaranditspeacetreaties.Antifascists

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hadnotonlytoembracethedistant"dream"ofaclasslesssocietybutalsotoacceptauthorityandcohesivenessinpreparingthemselvesforarmedstruggle.Fascist governmentswereorganizedmilitarily,highlycentralized,andtechnologicallysophisticated.Thoseunwillingtoaccepttheinevitabilityofarmedclasheswiththefascists oughttoresignfromtheranksoftheantifascistresistance:"Antifascismmustbeconstitutedinaninternationalarmyhavingitsleadersanditsrecruits,itsironwill,and itsdiscipline."37 MostantifascistintellectualsconcentratedtheiranalyticalskillsexclusivelyontheNazis.NotsoRomainRolland.Throughtheeffortsofthecommunistfront organization,theItaliansectionoftheSecoursRougeInternational,organizationsinParisofantifascistwomenrefugees,committeesindefenseofpoliticalprisoners, andCarloRosselli'santifascistnewspaper,hecouldreliablydocumentrepressioninMussolini'sItaly.HealsolearnedofthepatheticsituationofAntonioGramsci, who,despiteaseriousvasculardisease,wasservingtheseventhyearofathirtyyearprisonsentence.HeportrayedGramsciastheexemplarycommunistintellectual forthe1930s.JustastheyoungRaymondLefebvrerepresentedwhatwasbestinFrenchcommunismatitsgenesis,sothedyingGramscisymbolizedthepossibilities ofItalianandinternationalcommunisminthefascistera.ItisanironyofhistorythattheyoungGramscihadalongstandingadmirationforRomainRolland,referringto himasthe"MaximGorkyofLatinEurope."Gramscihad,infact,adoptedRomainRolland'sdialecticalformulafortheengagedintellectualasthemottoofhis newspaper,L'Ordinenuovo.ForGramsci,thisphrasecondensedtherevolutionarysocialistprocess:"Pessimismoftheintelligenceoptimismofthewill."Romain RollandhadnotmetGramsciandhadnotknownthatGramsciborrowedhisaphorism. DeeplystirredbyGramsci'shistory,hiscurrentagonyinprison,andhisintrinsicdignity,RomainRollandpennedoneofthemostforcefulantifascisttractseverwritten. ImmediatelytranslatedintoGerman,Italian,andEnglish,itpublicizedGramsci'sfateasamartyrofItaliancommunismandhelpedwinGramsci'sreleasefromprison on25October1934.38 ThebrochureopenedwithanodetothepersecutedvictimsofItalianfascism,withstatisticalevidenceaboutthosetried,sentenced,anddeportedbyMussolini's SpecialTribunalsince1926.

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Forthoseunconvincedbystatistics,RomainRollandcomposedthumbnailsketchesofschoolteachersandworkingclasswomenimprisonedforpoliticalreasons, oftenjudgedguiltybyassociation.Insteadofwritinga"wholemartyrologyoftheprisonersanddeportees,"heintroducedhispublictoGramsci"tothegreatestof thedyingones."Gramsci'sordealsymbolizedtheagonyoftheentireItalianantifascistresistance.HishopesstoodforthepossibilitiesofaliberatedItaly,anItalyof humandignity,authenticculture,andsocialjustice.39 GramscihadthequalitiesRomainRollandextolledinanintellectual:sensitivity,lucidintelligence,courage,thewillingnesstofight,andthevisceralneedtodefendmoral andpoliticalprinciples.Gramsci'staskinthe1920swaspreciselythesameasRomainRolland'sin1934:tofightfor"therealizationoftheunitedfrontoftheworking class,forthetheoreticalrevivaloftheParty,andfortheconquestofthemostadvancedsectionofthepetitebourgeoisieandintellectuals."Forthebroaderantifascist cause,Gramscirepresentedthemanofunbreakablespirit,impossibletohumiliate,preparedtodietoresistMussolini'soppressions:

Thefreedomthey[thefascists]offeredhim,onconditionthatheaskformercyonconditionthatherepudiatehisviewsthatheserenelyrefusedtododoingsowouldhave beenaformofsuicide.Nordoweaskforgivenessforhim.Hewhohasfaithfullyfoughtallhislifeforhisfaithhasnothingtoaskforgivenessfor. So,hewilldie.AndItalianCommunismwillhaveitsgreatmartyr,whoseshadowandheroicflamewillguideitinfuturestruggles.40

Bylate1934,RomainRollandhadmoveddecidedlyclosertoafellowtravelingposition.Hethoughtthattheinternationalcommunistmovementsharedhisantifascist outlookandthatthecoordinatedarmedeffortsoftheEuropeanandRussianworkingclasseswererequiredtovanquishfascism.His"GreetingtotheSpanish Revolution"signifiedhisconsciousnessthattheSpanishCivilWarhadbecomethecrucialworldarenaforthefightagainstfascism.TheformerGandhiannowglorified militaryactionagainsttheFalange.HepredictedthattherewouldbeglobalreverberationsfromthecampaigninSpain.Evenifdefeatsandbloodshedwere excruciating,allrevolutionaryvictoriessprangfrompastfailures.InofferinghisfraternalsolidaritytotheSpanishrevolution,heunder

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scoredtotheFrenchthenecessityofperseveringintheantifasciststruggle:"WemakecommoncausewiththeunconqueredRevolutionofSpain.Weoweitadebtof gratitudeforitsenormoussacrifices.Letustrytotenditswoundsandteartheirpreyfromtheexecutioners!"41 InanarticlewrittenforaSovietjournal,RomainRollanddiscussedfascism'spotentialtogerminateinFrance.DespiteAmsterdamPleyelandtherecentlylaunched Vigilance,theorganizationofFrenchantifascistintellectuals,theegotism,individualism,privilegedstatus,andpurelyspiritualconcernsofmostintellectualswere alarming.TheFrenchculturalcommunitycutitselfofffromconstructiveexperimentstakingplaceintheSovietUnion,divorceditselffrommeaningfulformsofcontact withworkers,misunderstoodclassstruggle,andisolateditselffromthecomplexwebofcontemporarypolitics.Frenchintellectualssmuglyenjoyedtheirhonorsand narcissisticallymaintainedtheirsuperiority.IffascismweretoemergeinFrance,itwouldtaptheaggressiveandcalculatedideologyofFrenchnationalism,especially asexpressedbyActionFranaiseintellectuals.Frenchfascismwouldcementthetraditionalantidemocraticforces:thearmy,thepetitebourgeoisie,statefunctionaries, theupperclergy,andasmallbutpowerfulsectorofbigbusinessandindustrialcombines.Moreover,Frenchfascismwouldusetherecentparliamentaryscandalsand disillusionmentwiththeThirdRepublicforitsownends.RomainRollandpinnedhishopesonacoalitionofyouth,intellectuals,andworkingclassparties.42 MussolinibegantoimplementhisgrandiosefantasiesofanewRomanEmpirewhenhistroopsinvadedEthiopiainMarch1935.Thiswasaflagrantviolationof Ethiopia'sselfdeterminationandaslapinthefacetotheLeagueofNations.43RomainRollandreactedbyabusingtheduceforhisunjustifiableimperialistic aggression.Fascistgovernmentswerewarmakingregimes:theEthiopianwarfinallydemystifiedItalianfascism."Theabominablecriminalactscommittedagainstthe EthiopianpeopledisplaytotheeyesoftheworldthemonstrousfaceofMussolinianFascism."SuchmassacreswouldultimatelybedevastatingtotheItalians themselves,fortheyleftbehindthe"inexpiablerancorofthecoloredpeoplesagainstwhitecivilization."Italy'spenetrationintoEthiopiarevealedtheunderlying "cynicism"offascistideology,the''piracy''

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ofitsimperialistdesignsandthe"greediness"ofitsmilitaryandeconomicappetite.Mussolini,thehistrionic"RomanCaesar,"hadtobeousted.Authorityhadtobe placedin"surerandcleanerhands,"inordertopreventsuch"enormousandimbecilicappetites''frombeingtransformedintopolicy.44 Inapiecefirstentitled"PeaceIsFatalforHitlerism,"RomainRollandmodifiedhispacifistviewsinthelightofnewcircumstancesandmadethemconsistentwith integralantifascism.Hesubsequentlyrevisedthearticle'stitleto"ThroughRevolution,Peace."Itbecametheepiloguetoamajorvolumeofessayspublishedunderthe samename.Contextually,therevisionreflectedthethreatinFranceofapowerfulallianceofbigbusinessandnationalistswhocontrolledtherightwingandbourgeois press.Itwas"thedutyofeverymanwhoseesclearlytospeakclearlyandtoassumehisresponsibilities."Hitler'sdictatorshipwasapermanentdangerbecauseit amalgamated"revenge,aggression,andconquestundertheMachiavellianismofhisdiplomaticprofessionofpeace,whichcontradictshischauvinisticpublicationsand rabidappealsintheinteriorofhiscountry."Warwasnotthesolution:togotowarwiththeNaziswastofallintoatrapsetbytheprofiteersandnationalistsofthe capitalistWest.Sincereantifascistsdemandedpeace,for''itisnotwar,itispeacethatisfatalforHitlerism."Fascistregimeslackedtheinternalmechanismstoresolve theirsocialandeconomicproblems.Instead,theyrearmedtheirpopulationsandreadiedthemselvesforwar.Withouttheprestigeofconquestandmilitaryglory,no fascistregimecouldsurvive.Consequently,heurgedthenationsofEurope,includingtheSovietUnion,toremainunitedandcompelHitlertoacceptpeace.Only desperateanddestabilizedcountriessoughtwar.Healthy,wellorganizedstatesrecognizedthatwarwasalwaysa"sinisteradventure,"thatitalwaysprofitedthefew whilesacrificingthemany.Withoutpeace,Hitlerwouldneverconfrontthe"justdemandsofhispeoplewhomhehasabused,deceived,oppressed,degradedandled toruin."IfworldwarlegitimizedHitler'styranny,thenantifascistssupportedsocialrevolutionbecausetheyknewthatanyotherformofpeacewasbasedonsocial injustice.Inthecontemporaryframework,revolutionaryclassstruggleandadefensivebattleagainstfascistdictatorshipstookprecedenceoverpacifistpolitics.Before peacecouldbeconstructed,fascismmustbeexterminated.45

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OntheoccasionofaplenarymeetingoftheWorldCommitteeAgainstWarandFascism,heldinParison2324November1935,RomainRollandenthusiastically endorsedtheFrenchPopularFront,spokeoftheconstructiveroleoftheSovietUnionintheworldconflictagainstfascistimperialism,andrestatedtheintegral antifascistideology.Mussolini'sexpeditionintoEthiopiahadunleashedaneraoffascistwars.TheLeagueofNations'reaction,althoughwelcome,wastardy,andits sanctionshadlittleeffect.TheleadingmembersoftheLeague,EnglandandFrance,soughttopreservetheirownempires."Apartyoftreason"existedinFrancethat wantedtounderminethePopularFrontandtheideaofapactofcollectivesecuritybetweenFranceandtheSovietUnionbynegotiatingasecretdiplomatictreatywith theNazis.FrancewouldsacrificeitsalliesinEasternEuropeandRussiainexchangeforaNaziguaranteenottoinvadeFrance'sbordersontheRhine.Suchaplan wasagiganticmiscalculation.ItwouldonlypostponeaGermanmilitaryviolationofFrance'sborders.Truepeacecouldnotconceal"imperialistandFascist aggressions."Antifascistforces,incontrast,hadtounifydemocraticandproletarianorganizationsandbuilda"GrandArmy''thatwouldbringtogether''Communists, Socialists,pacifistrevolutionaries,conscientiousobjectors,republicanswhohaveremainedloyaltotheideaoftheRightsofManof1789,socialChristianswhohave remainedloyaltotheidealoftheGospelagainsttheChurch."Progressiveintellectualshadanobligationtojoininactivestruggle.Fornow,intellectualslikehimselfhad toabandontheirfantasiesofthe"oneagainstall."Theirtalentswereneededonthesideofworkingclassrevolution.The"greatestdanger"wastomistakethe intentionsofHitler'sThirdReich.These"preachersofhateandextermination"wouldimplementtheirpoliciesunlesstheyweredecisivelystoppedbyantifascistswho personifiedaneworderof"peace,progress,andfreedom."46 InMarch1936,RomainRollandgrantedthecommunistpoetandwriterLouisAragonaninterview,publishedinCahiersdubolchevisme,whichdescribedhis situationontheeveoftheelectoralvictoryoftheFrenchPopularFront.TheGreatWarandeventsinthepostwarerahadforcedhimtorethinkhisindividualismand hisaffinityforcontemplationdivorcedfrompracticalaction."NowRomainRollandfindshimselfengagedinbattle,andheisforcedtoengageinacamp."Thatcamp wasinternationalsocialism,best

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exemplifiedbytheprinciplesoftheinternationalcommunistmovement.Heinsistedthathisownculturalevolutionprecededhispoliticization.Earlierculturalprojects, suchasthePeople'sTheater,wereunrealizableintheperiodfrom1897to1904.Becausethepresenterawassaturatedwithfascism,heenvisionednoendtoconflict inhislifetime.NationalSocialismhadforcedhimtojettisonanyhopeofaGandhianformofresistanceinthestruggleagainstfascism.Ifitwaschimericaltothinkthat fascismcouldbeopposednonviolentlythenitwasalsoabsurdtothinkthatthestrategyofFrenchintegralpacifism,of"internalResistance,"wouldproveeffective againstapowerfulandcompletelyamoralenemy.PopularFrontantifascismrepresentedanactiveandintelligentreactiontofascistproscriptionsoffreedom,nota capitulation.47 AddressinghisBulgariancomrades,RomainRollandadmittedthatantifasciststrugglesupersededhispacifistworldviewneverthelesshecalledtheantifasciststruggle astruggleforpeace:

If...Iamapacifist,Iamalsoanantifascist,andmypacifismisrevolutionary.Icallallfreemenfromallcountriestounitetogetheragainstthefascismswhichthreatenallthe freedomsofEuropeandwhichareviolentlyopposedtosocialprogress.Everyfascistmovementisbasedonamurderousideologyofracismordominatingimperialism,which leadstowarsofconquestandtheenslavementofothercountriesandotherpeoples.48

HepublishedtwoimportantarticlesinJanuary1936,coincidingwiththeformationofacoherentPopularFrontcoalitioninFrance.BothwerepublishedinVendredi, aweeklythatstakedoutanonpartyaffiliatedbutsympatheticpositiontowardtheFrenchPopularFront.Vendredi,foundedinNovember1935,wasdirectedby threeyoungercolleaguesofRomainRolland:AndrChamson,JeanGuhenno,andAndreViollis.49TheVendrediarticlesandsubsequentdebateswithFrench pacifistintellectualsrevealedthatthepoliticsandideologyofantifascismwerenolongercompatiblewithintegralpacifism.Theytriggeredanimpassionedpolemicin Vendrediandinthepacifist,liberal,andleftwingpress.Thesearticles,latercollectedinabrochureentitledCommentempcherlaguerre?(Howtoprevent war?),markedaturningpointinthehistoryofantifascismandrevealedamajordivergencebetweenantifascismandFrenchpacifism. "FortheIndivisiblePeace"completelyseveredRomainRol

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land'sconnectionswithFrenchintegralpacifism.ItsingledouttheperiodicalLeBarrageforcensurealongwithtwoformerfriends,theprofessorandjournalist FlicienChallayeandthedistinguishedhistorianGeorgesMichon.PresentcircumstancesdemandedthatRomainRollandrepudiatethecurrentstanceofFrench pacifists,evenoldcomradeswhosediscourseandpresentorientationhadbeeninspiredbyhisownwritingsandexample.Nowhefoundthatpacifistpositionwas "outsideofgoodsenseandthetruthoffacts."TheFrenchpacifistconceptionofthehistoricalsituationwasdeeplyflawed.Pacifistsdidnotrealizethatthecurrenthour wasoneofdeepandconvergingcrisestheirterminologywasequivocaltheyconstantlyunderestimatedHitler.Theysetupmisleadingandinaccurateanalogies betweenthepresentand1914.Theymanifestedanaivetrustinthetacticsofboycottandmoralreprobation,whichproveduntenableduringtheItalianinvasionof Ethiopia.Aboveall,ChallayeandMichonlackedacriticalanalysisoffascism,particularlyofHitler'sdictatorshipandofhisstatedgoals.Theabsenceofsuchan analysisrenderedthepacifistshopelesslyanachronisticandineffective.ForRomainRolland,NationalSocialismmeant"deliriouspride,despair,furyandmisery." Hitler'sforeignpolicysignaledexpansionbothintoFranceandintotheSovietUnionandEasternEurope.OnlytheignorantcoulddenythattheNationalSocialists werepreparingGermanyforwarwith"tenaciousandburningfrenzy.''ThatFrenchpacifistsglossedoverorapologizedforthefhrer'srearmamentandplansfor conquestwasseriousenough:thattheywerewillingtodeliverthemselvesandtheFrenchnationovertotheNaziswithoutarmedresistancewasfatal.Itbetrayedthe commitmenttotheantifascistcause.50 HisconceptionofantifascismstillservedthecauseofpeacebecauseiteliminatedanyprospectofareconciliationbetweenFranceandfascistGermany.Eventhe casualreaderofMeinKampfcoulddetectHitler'srealdestructivenessandtheblatanthypocrisyofhisassurancesthathedesiredpeace.MeinKampfwas"aBible ofracisthatredandofantiFrenchvengeance."RomainRollandreadthetextinGerman.Thefhrer'sattemptstopreventitstranslationintoFrenchwereaperfect exampleof"consciousbadfaith":HitlerclearlydidnotwishtheFrenchtoknowofhisantiFrenchandantidemocraticdesigns.BecauseNazismwasthe"eternal enemy,"thepartisansofworldpeaceshouldrealizethatnodetentecouldbe

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madewithHitler'sregime.TheNazileader'sconsistentrefusaltosignpactsofcommonassistanceandnonaggressionwiththeWesterndemocraciesprovedthathis intentionswere"criminal."Itwasimpossibletostrikepoliticaldealswithan"aggressor"suchasHitlerortodisplayweaknessbeforehim.51 FrenchintegralpacifistsdeludedthemselvesthatadiplomaticalliancecouldbereachedwithGermanythatwouldallowHitlerfreereintopillageEasternEuropeand "ruinourgreatestally,"theSovietUnion.Pacifistswerestillcapturedbytheillusionthatlegalmethods,passiveresistance,ororganizedGandhiantechniquescouldbe employedeffectivelytostopaNaziinvasion.NoorganizedmovementofnonviolenceexistedinWesternEuropeorFrance,andRomainRollandremindedChallaye andMichonthatGandhismhadnotyetsucceededinIndia,inthe"countrywheretherearemorepossibilitiesforsuccess."Byallegingthatantifascistrefugeeswere warmongers,Frenchpacifistsdidthemselvesandthesevictimsagreatinjustice.Infact,theantifascistemigrswere"livingvictimsofthedevastationscausedbythe savageFascistandNazidictatorship":theircriticalperspectiveshouldbeheeded,notberated.Thepeacehewantedwasrelativeandsituational,predicatedoncurrent realities,notonshadowsandabsoluteidealsoffaith.InthespiritoftheFrenchPopularFront,heexhortedEuropeanstorallyintoagiganticantifascistalliance: "Europe,letustakethisinhand.LetusconstitutetheRing!TheRingofPeace.Andbewareanyonewhotouchesit!''52 Europeanintegralpacifistsintheperiod19331936adoptedanabsolutistmoralpositionbestsummarizedinBertrandRussell'sstatement:"Noneoftheevilsachieved bywarisanevilasgreataswaritself."RomainRollandrejectedRussell'ssloganin1936asbeingtoounconditional.Hestatedthatslaverywastheworstofallevils, "anabyss,anothingness."53Theantifascistcausepresumedthatcertainwarswereworthwaging,especiallythoselinkedtotheliberationofoppressedpeoples.Yet suchpacifistintellectualsasChallayeandtheDutchmanBarthlemydeLigtpersistedincallingforunilateraldisarmament,preferringGermanoccupationtotheriskof worldwaragainstHitler. RomainRolland'sarticleunleashedawidedebate,includingawellpublicizedcounterattackfromFrenchpacifists,liberals,andanarchists.HenriBouch,anexperton Germany'smilitarypre

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paredness,respondedthatRomainRollandsufferedfrom"alarmism"concerningHitler'soffensivemilitarycapabilities.HepredictedthatGermanywouldreachthe militarylevelofotherEuropeanpowersonlyby1938.Bouchaffirmedthattherewas"stilltimelefttoorganizeandconstructpeace."54 FlicienChallayeopenedhisrefutationbyadmittingtheFrenchwriter's"preponderant"influenceonhisownpacifistdevelopment.Nevertheless,Challayeaccused RomainRollandofstirringupFrenchhatredforGermany.HisagitationforinternalFrenchunityreturnedtotheconceptoftheSacredUnionof1914.Hisadvocacyof aFrenchEnglishRussianantifascistalliance,acoalitionthatrevolvedaroundarmedresistance,meantbrinksmanshipwithGermany.AfterstudyingHitler'spublic appealsforpeace,ChallayewascertainthatthefhrerwantednotrevengeonFrancebut"generaldisarmament."AsforMeinKampf,ChallayechallengedRomain Rollandtoreadthetextinitshistoricalperspective.Hitler'santiFrenchutterancescouldbeunderstoodcontextually.Hitlerhadwrittentheworkwhileservingajail termduringtheFrenchoccupationoftheRuhr.ThebookreflectedGermany'santagonismtothepeacetreatiesof1919andFrenchpostwaraggression.Challaye interpretedMeinKampfasmerelya"maneuverfornationalcohesion."ThisalreadytwelveyearoldbookwouldnotguideHitler'spoliciesaschancellor:hewouldbe moreresponsibleandconciliatoryinoffice.55 Challayeconcludedwithtwostatementsoffaith.First,ifwarweretobreakout,integralpacifistswouldconcentrateon"localizingtheconflict,"thatis,diffusingthe hostilities,preventingthemfromescalatingintototalwar.EmotionalsloganssuchasRomainRolland's"IndivisiblePeace"and"ConstitutingtheRingofPeace"only extendedwarandincreaseditsravages.IntheeventualityofaGermanSovietmilitaryclash,Challayeproposeduncompromisingnonintervention,evenagainstthe aggressor.Pacifistscouldlegitimatelyusethetacticsof"nonmilitarysanctions(moral,diplomatic,economic,andfinancial).''Second,ifHitlerinvadedFrance,''an absurdhypothesis"accordingtoChallaye,pacifistsshouldrefuseparticipationinsuchadefensivewar,evenriskingforeignoccupationandtherenunciationofbasic civilliberties.Equatingwarwiththe"absoluteevil,"the"supremecalamity,"ChallayebelievedthataNazioccupationwould,onbalance,belessdisastrousthanthe

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"deaths,ruins,andsorrows"arisingfromarmedresistance.Challayecouldmoreeasilytolerateafascistdictatorshipthanarmedcombat.56 OtherintegralpacifistschidedRomainRollandforhisimplacablestandagainstHitler.ExCommunistGeorgesPiocharguedthatChallaye's"moralresistance"to fascismwasmorereasonablethanRomainRolland'sproposalsof"materialresistance,"becausethelatterpresupposedthatwarwasinevitableandthatonlyarmed battlecouldsuccessfullymeetHitler'schallenge.JustasPiocheschewedRomainRolland'sdesireformilitary"discipline,''sohediagnosedawar"psychosis" developinginhiswritings,anunfortunateproductofhis"despairofGermanyandofman.''L.CancouetlamentedoverRomainRolland'sdeparturefromthepacifist positionanddrewanalogiesbetweentheFrenchwriter'spresent"warmongering"rhetoricandthatofsuchActionFranaisehawksasMauriceBarrsandPaul Bourget.SylvainBrousaudierwasstupefiedbyRomainRolland'santiHitlerianstance.ExpressingthestrongantiSovietsentimentsofmanypacifists,heaccusedhim ofbeingtoo"worriedaboutthedefenseoftheUSSR."ForBrousaudier,theoldprophetandpacifistleaderhadbecomea"partisan."Hecouldnolongerbetrustedas a"guideandlight."LonEmerycontestedtheimageofthe"Hitlerianmonster"inGermany,suggestingthatcontemporaryGermanylaggedfarbehindothercountriesin armamentsandthatanegotiatedpeacewithHitlerremainedarealisticpossibility.CajolingFrenchpacifiststobeloyaltowhatRomainRollandoncewas,Emery denouncedhis"caricatures"ofChallaye'spacifistsolutions.57Finally,Alain,theleadingFrenchphilosopherofRadicalism,formerlyanepistolaryfriendofRomain Rolland,pennedaharshreferencetohisintellectualpoliticsinoneofhisPropos:"RomainRollandhasabandonedhisrole.Hehasspokenlikeamanofgovernment itisnothisbusiness."58 RomainRolland'ssecondVendrediarticle,entitled"FortheDefenseofPeace,"appearedon6March1936.Itreiteratedhisimpatiencewiththepacifists' equivocations,theirincapacitytoproduceacoherentdefinitionofpacifism,andtheirlackofaconcreteprogramofantiwaraction.Heplacedthetaskofrealizingthe socialrevolutionhigherthanallabstractloyaltiestopeace.ToappreciatethepresentdangerofGermanfascismwastograsptheurgencyofstrug

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glesofthe"exploitedandoppressed"onagloballevel.PacifistsdidnotunderstandthatHitlerwanted"toannihilateFrance"andthattheunarmedresistanceagainst fascismwastotallyfutile.59 Themetaphor"RingofPeace"illustratedhisideaofaninternationalantifasciststrategy,concretizedasanallianceofFrance,England,andtheSovietUnionforthe "collectivesecurity"ofallEurope.SuchacoalitionoftheWesterndemocracieswiththeUSSRdidnotprohibittheentranceofanonfascistGermany.Germans, however,hadtoprovetheirgoodfaithbyacceptingthe''obligationandguarantees"ofthispactbyimmediatelysigninganonaggressionpactwiththesenations. WhetherornotGermanyparticipated,nothingcouldbreakthepactofcollectivesecurity.Therecouldbenoworldpeacewhilefascistgovernmentsremainedin power:"IwillnevermakemypeacewithHitlerismbecauseoftherevoltofmyheartagainstitsinjusticesandcrimes,itsproscriptionsandassassinations,its debasementofhumanity."60 ThearticleendedwithastrongstatementonbehalfoftheSovietUnion.AdmittingtheUSSR's"errorsandweaknesses,"hearguedthatitofferedtheworldan exampleofstrongoppositiontofascistregimes,whileitsprogramofsocialreconstructiongeneratedhopesfor"socialprogress"and"humanhappiness."Antifascists hadtodefendthefortressoftheSovietUnionforthesakeoftheRussiansandfortherealinterestsofprogressiveWesternEuropeans.IfcommunistRussiafell,it wouldleavetheWesttotallydemoralized:the"WestwillhavenobloodtoresisttheironclawofthemassivereactionoritsowndespairDefenseoftheUSSRor death!''61TheSovietmodelreinforcedhisnotionthatstableworldpeacepresupposedsocialrevolution.Frenchpacifistswerelockedintoarigidwayofperceiving theworldandthemselves,waysoutmodednowbecausetheywerebasedonthehorrorsoftheWorldWarIexperience.Pacifistshadamortalfearofbloodshedand totalwarandtheyhadswallowedaonedimensionalpictureoftheSovietUnion. Evenashebidthemfarewell,RomainRollandurgedhispacifistinterlocutorstofaceuptofascism.Thetimewaspastnowforpiousphrases,moralindignation, prayers,orminutesofsilence.Eitherpacifistsassumedresponsibilityforactionagainstfascism,ortheyshouldretirefromthepoliticalarena.Whatestrangedhimfrom thepacifistswashisrevoltagainstGermanfascism,whichtheydidnot

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share:thatiswhyherepeated,untiringly,"Fascismistheenemythatmustbesmashed.Iamengagedinastruggletodeathagainstit."Hedepartedfromthe pacifistswith"regret,pity,butnoblame."Eventshadsurpassedtheirideologicalcomprehensionandtheircapacitytorespondcreativelywithpoliticizedaction.Since pacifistsspokeonlytothemselves,hebanishedthemfromtheFrenchPopularFront:''Theyimaginethattodefendpeacetheymusttakerefugeintheirboutiques, thosewhohaveneverunderstoodthetruesenseofthewordInternational,itsexigencies,itsdutiesthedutyofstruggle,dutiesofalliance,sothatwecanarriveat conqueringthepastforaclasslesssocietyfortheentireworld.''62 Frenchpacifistintellectualsreactedviolentlytotheir"excommunication"fromthePopularFront.VictorBasch,presidentoftheLeagueoftheRightsofMan,found RomainRolland'sanalysisofGermanfascism"pathetic."HeaccusedtheFrenchwriterof"despairing"ofGermanyandheldthatHitlertrulywantedanententewith France.HitlercouldbepersuadedtoadheretotheprinciplesofEuropeancollectivesecurity.AlthoughthecollapseoftheSovietUnionwouldbea"profound disaster"fortheWesterndemocracies,Baschwasunwillingtocountenanceanyformofmilitaryantifascistalliance.Hecompletelyopposedacoalitionbetween FranceandtheUSSR.Finally,Basch,echoingChallaye,consideredanyresorttoinjuriouscoercioninappropriate,evenifreactingtoaninvasionofHitler'sarmies.63 MichelAlexandreandLonEmeryexpressedfaithintheLeagueofNationsasaviabledeterrenttowar.RomainRolland,theysaid,criticizedthetacticofboycott unfairly:ithadneverbeenrigorouslyappliedduringMussolini'sinvasionofEthiopia.Moreover,hisviewthattheRussianswouldrealizea"newsuperiorhumanity"was unbefittingapacifist.PierreCuenatpositedasynthesisofrevolutionaryandintegralpacifism.Whiledenouncingwarandmilitarypreparationsforwar,hedemanded "total,universal,immediate,andcontrolleddisarmament."Ifwarweretobreakout,Cuenatproposedthetacticofaunitedfrontofconscientiousobjectorsand revolutionarypacifistsworkingtogethertowardthe"dissipationofcapitalism"asthedesiredgoal.64 AslateasJune1937,awriterwiththepseudonymMarcRivire,borrowedfromtheantifascistnovelL'Ameenchante,upbraidedRomainRollandfor"goingover toStalin"andforpromoting"interna

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tionalwar"inhispropagandaforarmedresistanceagainstHitler.Challaye,inanotherarticle,attemptedtodiscreditRomainRollandbyredbaitinghim.Ratherthan addressthepracticalissuesregardinghisperceptionoffascismandspecificallyofHitler'sintentions,hevituperatedagainstSovietcommunismanditsgulliblefellow travelers.65 RomainRollandrepliedtothesecondwaveofpacifistattacksonhisantifascistproclamationsbypublishingthreeappealsinPaixetlibert,theorganoftheNational CommitteeofStruggleAgainstWarandFascism,formerlytheAmsterdamPleyelcommittee.Hitler'sstrategywastolullneighborslikeFrancetosleep,while preparingforaninvasionorforattacksagainsttheirallies,inparticulartheSovietUnion.66Pacifistserredinthinkingtheycould"preventwar"byarguingthatHitler wasconciliatoryorstatesmanlikeorthathehadlegitimategrievances.Furthermore,Frenchpacifistssterilizedtheirdoctrinebydistancingthemselvesfrommass movementscommittedtoradicalsocialchange.The"indivisiblepeaceofEurope"referredtoonebuttressedbyinternationaltiesofgenuinesolidarityamongallthe peoplesfacingfascistaggression.HiscommitmenttoEuropeanpeaceexcludeditsimpositionbyaconqueringGermanyonafearfulorhesitantWesternEurope. Peacewasnotenough,especiallycoupledwiththeindignitiesandcontradictionsofthecapitalistsocialsystemorthedeformationsoffascism.
WedemandourplaceintheranksofagreatarmyofProgress,whichrenewsthesocialorder.OurworldPeaceisthatofthenewRevolutionaryorder,whichcanandwillrevisethe injusticesanderrorsoftheoldorder.PeaceandRevolutionarelinked.BynecessityandbytheirresistiblelanofRevolution,Peace!AndbyPeace,thelarge,powerful,and fecundcourseofRevolution!67

Antifascismandpacifismwerenolongercompatible.Theywouldremainantagonisticuntilaftertheinternationaldestructionoffascism.Oncethepoliticsoffascism werebrokenanditsideologydiscredited,thesocialrevolutioncouldberegenerated.Onlyaftertheinaugurationofaclasslessworldwouldthereignofworldpeace bemadepossible.RomainRollandwasawareofthefailureoftheLeagueofNationsduringtheItalianinvasionofEthiopia.Herhetoricallyassertedthat"thepeople" themselvescouldserveas

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agentsofantifascistresistanceiftheywereunited,classconscious,internationalist,disciplined,and,aboveall,armed. <><><><><><><><><><><><> Antifascismemergedasareactiontothesharppolarizationandcollectivefearsofthe1930s.Forprogressiveintellectualsthecrisiswasconceivedofas simultaneouslymoralandpolitical.Yethistorianshavedisregardedantifascism,thinkingittooamorphousasocialconstituency,tooindistinctapoliticalcreed,and"too vagueanddiffuse"anideologytolenditselftoananalyticperspective.68 AntifascismbecamethedoctrineofFrenchleftwingintellectualsinthe1930s,whethertheywereMarxists,communists,socialists,democrats,orheirstotheJacobin andpopulisttraditions.Italsoresonatedwithimportantsectorsoftheorganizedworkingclass.AntifascismyieldedspectaculareventsintheFrenchPopularFront governmentofLonBlumaswellasinthemassiveinternationalsolidaritygeneratedbytheSpanishCivilWar.AntifascismwasthebridgebetweenFrench communistsandsocialists,dominatingthepoliticaldiscourseoftheleftfrom1934to1937andtemporarilyrepairingthebitterrivalriesanddeepresentmentsbetween theleftpartiesandtradeunions.AntifascismhelpedfuseFrenchenthusiasmforthesuccessfulRussianRevolutionwithanolder,moredemocratictraditioninthe FrenchlabormovementandwithFrenchrepublicanism.Theculturalhistorianmustseeantifascismasamajorcomponentofthedecade'sclimateofopinion. Togetananalyticalgraspofantifascism,however,wemustgotowriters,nothistoriansorsociologists.Malrauxcondenseditssocialandpsychologicaldimensionina lapidaryformula:"AntifascismisnotonlythevastfieldwhereliberalsmingledwithCommunists...itisafeeling,anattitude,andalsoapolitics."69Itwasamoral imperative.ThepoliticswerepredominantlythoseoftheFrenchCommunistParty'ssupportoftheFrenchPopularFront,includinginterventioninSpain.Thelanguage waspoliticized,evenmilitarized:theintensionwastoignitetheaudienceintoaction.Therewaspessimismthatworldwarseemedinevitable,butalsooptimismthat fascismcouldbesmashed. From1933untilhisdeath,RomainRollandheldthatfascisminpowerwastheworld'smostpotentthreattothepreservationand

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reinventionofculture.Fascismcouldbefoughteffectivelyifitsnihilisticcorecouldbeunmasked.By1933,hestooddefiantlyasanintegralantifascist.Antifascism becamethekeyreferencepointofhisintellectualpolitics,themeanstotheliberationandselfdeterminationofpeoples.Itdefinedallofhissubsequentengaged activity.Headvocatedmaximumresistancetofascism,bybothintellectualsandtheorganizedworkingclass. RomainRolland'santifascistcommitmentsmotivatedhisbreakwithpacifisttheoryandpracticeintheearlymonthsoftheFrenchPopularFront.Itwasresponsiblefor hisfinalbreakwithGandhi,evenafterRomainRollandhadextendedhispacifistpoliticstoarevolutionary,syndicalistconclusion.Itmadehimfarmorereceptiveto theSovietUnionandtotheComintern'spolicies,especiallyaftertheCominternembracedantifascismin1935.HeanticipatedthattheRussianswouldbean indispensablelinkinanyprolongedmilitarystruggleagainstHitler.By1936,herealizedthattheGermanfascistscouldmobilizevastmilitaryandtechnological resourcesandthatHitler'sterritorialambitionsextendedtoEasternEuropeandRussiaaswellasFrance. TherealityofexpansionistfascismfinallyforcedhimtoabandontheFirstWorldWarashisreferencepoint.Theneedtodefeatfascismmeantpostponingthe Europeansocialrevolution.RomainRollandadvocatedtheMarxistthesisthatcapitalistswouldoptforfascismbeforeriskingsocialrevolutionorradicalreformsin theirowncountries.Hecollaboratedwithcommunistfrontorganizationsbecausehisanalysesandcommitmentscoincidedwiththeirs.Malrauxgenerouslyassignedto RomainRolland'santifascism"abundance,dignity,stature,andresonance."70IntermsofRomainRolland'sintellectualpolitics,theriseoftheFrenchPopularFront meantthattheengagedwriterwasexplicitlyantifascist.Ifantifascismwasthehighpointofhispoliticization,italsoencouragedsolidaritywithotherintellectuals, workers,massmovements,andnationsrepelledbyfascism,eventothepointofriskingworldwar.

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9 ThePoliticsofCriticalSupport
WhofightsforCommunismmustbeabletofightandnottofighttospeakthetruthandnottospeakthetruthtoperformservicesandnottoperformservicestokeeppromisesand nottokeeppromisestogointodangerandtokeepoutofdangertoberecognizableandnottoberecognizable.WhofightsforCommunismhasonlyoneofallthevirtues:thathe fightsforCommunism. BertoltBrecht,TheMeasuresTaken

TendaysafterLenin'sdeath,RomainRollandeulogizedtheBolshevikleaderwithamixtureofcriticismandaffection:"IdidnotsharetheideasofLeninandofRussian Bolshevism.ButpreciselybecauseIamtooindividualisticandidealistictoadaptmyselftotheMarxistcreedandtoitsmaterialistfatalism,Iattachextremevaluetothe greatindividuals,andforLenin,Ihavearealadmiration."Inthemiddle1920s,hedrewaparallelbetweenLeninismandBonapartism,suggestingawilltopowerin bothideologiesandahardeningoftherevolutionaryimpulseintotyranny.BothLeninandNapoleonweredisciplined,activist,innovative,andhighlyauthoritarian.Both practicedpoliticalexpediency,combiningamoralvisionandadictatorialstylethatradicallytransformedtheirepochs.Lenin'sselfabnegationand"willofsteel"had fusedwithcommunistdoctrinetoproduceapowerfulreligiousfaith."Neverbeforehadhumanactionproducedamasterofmen,amoreabsolutelydisinterested dominator.''1 RespondingtoP.Kogan'saddress"WesternRevolutionaryArt,"RomainRollandarguedthatLeninismdrasticallysimplifiedculturalandpoliticalactivity.Hisown alternativewasmorevitalisticandopposedtostatepolicyrestrictingscientificresearchorartisticproduction.The"classagainstclassmentality"wasamechanisticand dangerousformofdogma.Allattemptstolegitimizedictatorshipsweresophisticrationalizationsofoppression.RomainRolland'svi

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sionpointedtouniversalism,selfreflection,andvoluntarypoliticalassociationratherthantotheLeninistemphasisonproletariandomination.Nordidheacceptthe inevitabletriumphofthevictimizedslavethroughviolentsocialconfrontationsandpoliticalcollisions.HefearedtheLeninisthegemonybothinitspoliticalpracticeand initsideologicalline.Arevolutionaryintellectualexistedoutsideofapartyorsocialmovement.

AsIunderstandit,thetrulyrevolutionarymindneverpermitsthecongealingofformsoflife....Thetrulyrevolutionarymindtoleratesnosocialfalsehood.Itisincessantlyatwar witheveryprejudice....ItisasarmedagainstthenewprejudicesoftheProletarianRevolutionasitisagainsttheoldprejudicesofbourgeoisdemocracy,...forinitseyesevery socialandpoliticalformmarksonlyanhouronthedial.Theartissuedfromitmustfunctiontoupholdfreedomagainstall.[Touphold]thewholetruth....Ontheroadtotruthwe oftenfindourselvesthecompanionsoftherevolutionaryproletarians.Butfreecompanions.Notenrolled....Andworkingnotforthedominationofoneclassbutworkingforall men.Weshallnottolerateitthatoneclassofmenbeeitheroppressiveoroppressed.2

AftertheRollandistperiodicalEuroperefusedtopublishanovellabyMaximGorkythatwascriticalofBolshevikfunctionaries,RomainRollandupbraidedtheeditor, LonBazalgette,forallowingpoliticstobiasaestheticjudgment.IfEuropeweretoprovideacorrectivetothe"detestableinfluence"oftheNouvelleRevue franaise,theworthofliteraturehadtobedeterminedaccordingtoitsartisticandhumanvalue."InarttherearenopartiesofLeftorRight."Europecouldexpress theeditors'personalviewsand"prejudices"butshouldalsoofferessayswithcontrastingpointsofview.TheParisianliteratiwereblindtotheinternalrealitiesofthe SovietUnion,ignorantofitslanguage,andmisinformedaboutitssocialandculturalconditions.Theystressedonlythe"grandeur"oftherevolution.RomainRolland neverdenigrateditsstunningaccomplishments,butcommunisantFrenchintellectualsseemedoblivioustotheRussianRevolution's"ignominies,''thatis,''thesuffering, ruins,crueltiesandimbecilitiesthatweighonmillionsofinnocents."3 DuringRomainRolland'sGandhianperiod,inthe1920s,hemaintainedthattherewereessentialsimilaritiesbetweenfascistandcommunistmethods:theuseof violence,onedimensionalpoliticalphilosophies,thepartyspirit,andthesystematiccurtailment

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ofbothtraditionalcivillibertiesandintellectualfreedom.Hechosetoremainautonomous.4 InMay1927,RomainRollandrepliedtochargesbytheParisiananarchocommunistweeklyLeLibertaireconcerningtheSovietsecretpoliceandgovernment persecutionsofRussiananarchistsandSocialRevolutionaries.Althoughthesourcescouldnotbeverified,itappearedthattheSovietshadarrestedtheirpolitical opponents.Twentiethcenturypoliticsmadehimrealizethat"theworstisalwayscertain"andthatexpediencywasthemotorforceofallsystemsofgovernment.Yet theRussianshadnomonopolyonrepressionorhypocriticalrhetoric:"Everygovernment,whetheritisimperialist,bourgeois,fascist,orcommunistunfailinglydoes everythingthatitcondemnsinitsadversary,andeverythingthatcondemnsitanditsideastofailureandtoruin."Sovietabuseofpowerwasreprehensiblebecauseit wasdirectedagainstformerparticipantsintheOctoberRevolution,the"oldcomradesofitsordealsandsacrifices."TheFrenchwritercalledforageneralamnestyof RussiananarchistsandSocialRevolutionaries,anendtothemutualresentmentsbetweentheBolsheviksandtheirfraternalopponents.Heurgedaunifiedfrontagainst commonenemiesasanantidotetoBolshevikextollingofforce.TheEuropeanleftwouldperceivethisasanactofgoodfaith.Byamnestyhemeantemptyingthe prisonsin''goodsenseandmagnanimity."Theslogan''Russiaisindanger"suggestedthattheSoviets'existencewasthreatenedexternallybyEuropeanimperialistsand hostileneighbors,whileitremainedunpreparedforwarorinvasion.TheSovietsunderminedtheongoingsocialexperimentbycircumscribingindividualfreedomwithin theirborders.IftheSovietrevolutionwerecrushed,notonlytheRussianpeoplesbutalsotheentireworld"willbethrownbackseveralstages,"deprivedofapractical opportunitytoimplementprogressivesocialideals.HisjudgmentonBolshevikrepressionwasmixed:"Whateverhavebeentheinjustices,stupidities,andofteneven thecrimesoftheRussianRevolution,theRussianRevolutionrepresentsthegreatest,themostpowerful,andmostfecundsocialeffortofthemodernworld."5 TheFrenchcommunistspouncedonhisinterpretationofSovietrepressionwithasectarianarticlebyJeanBrecotinLaVieouvrire.BrecotregrettedRomain Rolland'sassociationwiththe"counterrevolutionary"anarchistweeklyLeLibertaire,whoseantiSovietcam

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paignwas"weddedtothegeneralbourgeoisattackagainsttheUSSR."BrecotchallengedtheevidenceofrepressioninRussia,suggestingthatthedocumentswere suspect,"providedbyemigrsandbymembersoftheoldczaristaristocracy."RomainRolland'santicommunistformulasderivedfromhis"passiveandpacifist attitude,"whichwasfundamentallymetaphysicaland"abovethebattle.''TheFrenchwritermisunderstoodclassstruggleandlackedthepoliticalacumentodistinguish betweenvariousformsofgovernment.Helumpedthemtogetherindiscriminatelyand"condemnedthemequally.''Ifheworked"ataCitronfactory,"hewouldgrasp the"greateconomiclaws"ofclassconflictandthepracticalmodalitiesofthepoliticalarena.BrecotdisagreedthattheSovietgovernmentshouldcollaboratewithits politicalrenegades.AmnestyfortheanarchistsandSocialistRevolutionarieswasstrategicallyunwise.ItmightunleashcivilwarinRussia,thusfulfillingthewish"ofall theantiBolshevikforcesintheworld."6 ReverberationsofhisLibertairepolemicreachedtheSovietUnion.On2September1927,AnatoleLunacharsky,thebroadmindedpeople'scommissarof education,requestedRomainRolland'scollaborationwiththenewreviewRevolutionandCulture,whichwastobealiterarysupplementtoPravda.Lunacharsky assuredhimthathiswritingswouldbepublisheduncensoredinaccuratetranslations,thoughtheeditorialboardreservedtherighttocommentonanyarticlesubmitted. Despitetheirdivergencesfromhim,Sovietwritersaccordedhim"greatrespect."Lunacharskypredictedthattheassociation"willbeimminentlyusefultoourpublic."
YourreplytothenewspaperLeLibertairehasshownus,atthefirstattempt,thatyourobjectivewisdomissuperiortothehesitationsofmanyintellectualswhosometimescall themselvesourfriends.ThatdoesnotmeanthatIagreewithallthatyouhavewritteninthisletterbutthemagisterialpoliticaltoneisjustandmorallyelevated.7

RomainRollandacceptedLunacharsky'sinvitationcautiously.Heagreedtocontributeanoccasionalarticle,writingasa"freeFrenchman."Ifheopposedthe EuropeanbourgeoispresscampaigntodebunktheRussianRevolution,heknewalsoofmajorinjusticesemanatingfromtheBolsheviksthemselves.Tocounterthe anticommunismofthe"hypocriticalreaction"andtounmasktheplotsofthe"internationalProfiteers,"heemphasizedthe"gran

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deur,""historicalnecessity,"andprogressiveaspectsoftheSovietRevolution.HewouldnotendorsetheunnecessaryexcessesofSovietcommunism:"Myaversion forcertainofitspoliticalmethods,tooconnectedtotheworsterrorsofthereactionarypoliticsthatitcombats,foritsnarrownessofdoctrineandforitsdictatorial spirit.Ihavecondemnedwithoutregarditsduplicityanditsviolence.''Herealizedthemonumentalinnovativenessofthisgreatsocialrevolution:internaldemocracyand selfcriticismwerethebestassurancesthatitwouldremain"thepowerfulvanguardofhumansociety."TopersuadeWesternintellectualstosympathizewiththeSoviet cause,CommunistPartyleadershiphadnotonlytoupgradeitssimplisticslogansbutalsotojettisonthemindlessposturingsoprevalentinSovietMarxism. IntellectualswouldresistsuchalliancesuntiltheSovietsdemonstratedaconsistentantifascistperspectivethatincorporatedathoroughgoingcommitmenttohuman dignity,enlightenedselfreflection,andbasicindividualfreedoms:"Youwillrallythephalanxofvigorousminds,whichrefusesitsobediencetodogmawhateveritmay be,andwhichleadsastruggleagainstallFascisms,whetheroftherightorleft."8 AskedbytheSocietyofCulturalRelationsbetweentheUSSRandForeigners(VOKS)tocommemoratethetenthanniversaryoftheSovietRevolution,Romain Rollandhyperbolicallycelebratedtheeventas"thegreatestanniversaryofsocialhistory."ProfessinghisrevolutionaryfraternityasanonMarxistFrenchintellectual,he glossedovertheethnic,geographical,historical,andculturaldifferencesbetweenhisRussiancomradesandhimself.Hestressedinsteadapowerfulunifyingbond labor.Laborcreatedabundance,vitality,gavemeaningtolifelaborwasmorethanjustthe"spiritoflife,"itwasthe"solekingoftheworld."TheRussianRevolution's supremeaccomplishmentwastoestablishthedignityoflaborasitsoperativesocialprinciple.TheUSSRwastheworld'sstrongestbarrierto"alltheimperialisms, fascisms,andobscurantisms"currentlyontheriseinEurope.InmodernRussiaexistedthepossibilityofacollaborationbetweenmentalandmanuallabor.Asa "RepublicofLabor,''theSovietUnionhadalreadysurpassedthemostadvancedsocioeconomicachievementsoftheFrenchRevolutionwhileavoidingsomeofits "errorsandcrimes."Afteronedecade,theSovietsappearedtohaveavoidedthebloodthirstinessoftheTerror,thechaosofinternaldisunityandcivilwars,andthe

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destabilizationoftherapidsuccessionofgovernment.Theenemiesoftheserevolutionsweresimilar:thecoalitionoftheEuropeanreaction,dictatedbytheinterestsof bigcapitalandthemilitary,withGreatBritainthemostflagrantofall.Todate,thecommunistrevolutionariessurpassedtheFrenchJacobinsinpoliticalwisdom.Rather thanexporttheirideasbywarorbyconquest,theywerededicatedtobuilding"theirownhouseinareliablemanner."Ratherthanreplacetheoldregimewithanew structureofprivilege,theyfosteredarelativelyegalitarianformofconstructionwithintheirownborders.TheRussianRevolutiononitstenthanniversarysymbolizeda hopefortheworld'sfuture.9 TheanarchocommunistsofLeLibertairestronglycontestedRomainRolland'ssalutetotheSovietUnion.RussianemigrN.LazarevitchallegedthattheFrenchman failedtodistinguishbetweentheSovietpeopleandtheSovietrulers.Anarchistsstillfacedtortureinprisons,andworkersovereigntydidnotexistintheUSSR.Infact, thedictatorshipoftheproletariatexploitedthemajorityofRussianworkers,manyofwhomwere"crushedinminesandfactories."10 RomainRollandcitedtheimpartialstudybytheliberalItalianCatholicGuidoMiglioli,TheSovietVillage(1927),todocumentthelanoftheSovietpeoplesandto underscorethe"immense"achievementsofonlytenyears.Lazarevitch'sanalysiswasonesided,omittingthatintheUSSR"thedevelopmentofgoodandevilare mingledingiganticproportions."ToobjecttoSovietcrimeswithoutpraisingitscreativeinitiativeswaspolemicalandcontrarytodisinterestedinquirysuchanalyses weremisguided.ComparedtothesocialstalemateandpoliticalregressioninpostwarEurope,theRussianmodelstoodasasignificant"island"ofprogress.Romain Rollandconsistentlyrefusedtoadopttheperspectivesofultraleftistoranarchistgroupsduringtheinterwarperiod.Insteadhecalledforacommonfront,aninterclass leftistallianceagainstthepoliticalandsocialinjusticesofthereaction:''Idonotdefendaparty....WhenIthinkoftheTenthAnniversaryoftheOctoberRevolution,I donotthinkofStalin,Bukharin,Trotsky,orZinovievorofLenin.IthinkofthebrokenchainsofthefallenBastille.Nowtheworkmustbefinished,forother Bastillesremain."11 ToLazarevitch,RomainRolland'sarticlesexemplifiedhowtheSovietscynicallyexploitedhisreputationandnaivety.Hewas"in

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voluntarily"situatedonthesideoftheintellectualidealist,whichaccountedforhisbiases"againsttheproletariat."12 RomainRollandrepliedthathewasunabletoseparatetherealitiesoftheSovietgovernmentandtheRussianpeople.IfRomainRolland'sallegianceswerewiththe intelligentsia,howcouldLazarevitchexplainhis"livelysympathies"fortheRussianRevolution,despitehisexplicitdisclaimers:"Iam...atleasttheonlynonBolshevik, noncommunist,nonpoliticalintellectualwhohasspokenfortheRussianRevolutionatthepresenttime."Lazarevitchdidnotunderstandthatmuchofhislifehadbeen spentdeflatingtheintellectualclassofitssuperiority.HerejectedLeLibertaire'souvriristviewasapresumptuousandreductionisticformofdogma:"Idonot believein[theclassdogma]oftheworkersunlessyouenlargethenametoallthosewholiveofandfortheirLabor,asIlivealso.''13 RomainRolland'stenthanniversarygreetingstotheSovietUniontriggeredanemotionalpolemicbytwoRussianemigrwriters,ConstantinBalmont,apoet,andIvan Bounine,adistinguishedwriterwhoin1933becamethefirstRussianwinneroftheNobelPrizeforLiterature.Intwoopenletterspublishedintheanticommunistdaily L'Avenir,theexiledRussiansaccusedtheFrenchmanof"shakinghandswithassassins."AccordingtoBalmont,theSovietregimewassynonymouswithmassive destruction.ThemajorityoftheRussianpopulationopposedtheBolshevikregime.Bolshevikabusesincludedcensoringallprintedmaterial,denyingreligiousliberties, plunderingthepeasantry,throwingmillionsoutofwork,andexecutingordestroyingthesanityofleadingRussianintellectuals. BounineexhortedRomainRollandtoreturntotheroleof"worldconscience"and"humanitarian."TheFrenchNobellaureateoughttorepudiatethe"brigandsand bandofilldoerswhohavedevastatedandexhaustedRussiaoverthelasttenyears."Bouninesuppliedhimwithghastlyinformationfromnoncommunistsourcesand appealedtohimasawellinformed,liberalmindedRussianwriter,notan"obtusereactionary."Hesummeduphisdisillusionmentinonesentence:
IfcertainofushatetheRussianRevolutionitissolelybecauseithasatrociouslyoffendedthehopesthatwehaveputintoitwehateinitwhatwehavealwayshatedandwill alwayshate:thetyranny,thearbitrariness,theviolence,thehatredofmanforman,ofoneclassforanother,thebaseness,theimbecilecruelty,thetramplingofall

Page212 divineprescriptionsandofallthenoblesentimentsinshort,thetriumphofthemuzzle,ofthevillainous.
14

RomainRollandacknowledgedthattheworldofthesetwo"representativesofhumannobility"wasirrevocablyshattered.Theemigrwritersweredestinedtoliveout theirexistenceinpsychologicalandculturalexileinaworldthatreceivedthemwith"indifferentegoismorintolerablepity."HedistrustedthecurrentalliesofBalmont andBounine.Theyhadbecome"instruments''oftheEuropeanreaction,the"moniedimperialistmoralorder"thatwantedtocrushtheSovietRevolution,nottorestore theRussiaforwhichtheseartistsyearned.TheimperialistswantedadependentRussiatheycouldmanipulatetotheirownadvantage.KnowingthattheantiSoviet Russianwritershaddevelopedamentalframeworkthatpreventedthemfrombeingreconciledtotherevolutionaryregime,RomainRollandwroteforselfclarification. Itwaspracticallyimpossibletohavedialoguewitha"martyredwriter."15 BalmontandBouninefailedtoappreciatethehistoricalcontextoftheRussianRevolutionandhowthatcontextdecisivelyaffecteditsfirstdecadeofexistence.The Bolshevikscontendedwiththeheritageofczarismaswellaswithsevere,convergingcrisesthecataclysmiceffectsoftheFirstWorldWar,foreigninvasion,anda civilwarfollowedbyaperiodoffamine,epidemics,andmassivepopulationdislocations.AfterthefinalsquelchingoftheEuropeanrevolutionintheearly1920s,the SovietUnionstoodcompletelyisolatedinternationallyandmenacedbyinternalopponents,itsborderssurroundedbyenemies.16 Althoughhewaspublicly"disgustedandhorrifiedbytheirferociouserrorsandcrimes,"RomainRollandwasconvincedthattheSovietswerecreatinganewworld. Animpartialobserverhadtobe"struckbytheoriginalreconstructionandvigorousrenewal"takingplacethere.Profoundlyuprootedemigrsclungtorigidideas fueledbyfreneticrageagainsttheSovietstate.TheyconspicuouslyomittedallmentionofSovietachievements.Asacorrective,hehighlightededucational,technical, scientific,andsocialadvancestakingplaceintheUSSR.Bolshevikcollectivizationandtheestablishmentofworkerandpeasantcouncilspromisedgloriousresults, reversingcenturiesofstagnationandmystification.Havingradi

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callybrokenwiththepast,theRussiancommunistswerebuildinganewworldthatwouldbenefittheirchildrenandgrandchildren.Underscoringthe"joy,"the"health," andthe''vitalsprightliness"ofRussianyouth,heexplainedSovietexuberanceintermsofacollectivesenseofpurpose.17 BalmontandBounine'sallegationsthathisinformationontheUSSRderivedfromCommunistPartysourcesweremisleading.RomainRollanddistrustedtheorthodox lineofeverypoliticalpartyandhadalwaysrefusedtocompromisehisintellectualindependencebyjoiningone.HisproSovietsentimentsstemmednotfrompolitics butfromhishistoricalimagination.HewaskeptinformedofSovietaffairsbytravelers,scholars,andwriters,manyofwhomvisitedhiminSwitzerlandaftertheir journeystotheUSSR.Thesewitnessesrepresentedthespectrumofclasses,countries,opinions,professions,andideologies.Overtwothirdshadbeguntheir investigationsunsympathetictocommunistideas.ThesincerityandaptitudeforobservationofsuchmenasGeorgesDuhamel,LucDurtain,MaxEastman,Scott Nearing,GuidoMiglioli,andMayadellaTorrewereirrefutable.18 Thefellowtraveler'staskwastosupporttherevolutioninabalancedandanalyticalmanner,whichwasimpossiblefortheexiledRussians.Hecriticizedthepoliciesof curtailinghumanfreedomswithinRussiajustasheadvocatedthattheSovietsopenlydiscusssubstantiveissues.RomainRollandwasparticularlyappalledbythe institutionofdomesticespionage,predictingthat"themonstrousorganofthesecretpolice"mightdenatureRussianlife.
Anotherdisgrace,worsestill,sodegradingthatweshallnotdreamofdissimulating,thatinspiresinus,asinyou,alimitlessdisgust,isinforming.Wecontemptuouslydenounce thisignoblepoisonthatwitheredthesoulofanation,andtowhichtoomanysoulsinRussiahavebecomeaccustomed.19

Whileacknowledgingabusesofpower,theRussianRevolutionhadtobepreservedinanopenendedmannertoenableittofulfillitsdestiny."Itisthehope,the miserablehope,ofthehumanfuture."ItwasBalmont'sandBounine's"hope,"inspiteofthemselves.TheSovietRevolutioninspiredRomainRollandwithatragic pessimism

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abouthistoricaladvance:"humanprogress,whichtheproscribedCondorcetaffirmedwithintrepidserenitybeforehecommittedsuicide,isbroughtaboutattheprice ofmillionsofsacrifices."20 RomainRolland'splayLesLonides(1928)addresseditselftotheperceptionofasocialrevolutionbyitshistoricallyconsciousemigrsandvictims.Itrenderedthe dialoguewithBalmontandBounineanartform.RomainRollandcreatedanimplausiblesituationinwhichthetwoleadingcharacters,bothexiledtoSwitzerlandinthe late1790s,resolvedtheirseeminglyinsurmountablepoliticalandattitudinaldifferences.ThefinalagreementbetweenemigraristocratPrincedeCourtenayandthe outlawedJacobinMathieuRegnaultwasasynthesisofoldandnewFrance,implyingthatapurposefulmutualitycouldbegeneratedaftertenyearsofrevolution.Using theLeonidmeteorshowersasasymbolofmovementandreconciliation,theplaydemonstratedthattheoldwasinevitablydestroyedandthatthenewemanatedfrom it.21Theproblematicwaswhethertherecouldbecooperationinsteadofbloodycollisionbetweentheextremesoftheideologicalspectrum.Thisquestioncrystallized RomainRolland'sdilemmaasanengagedwriterinthelate1920s,whenhefoundhimselfwritingasanidealisticGandhianattemptingtobluntviolentextremesandat thesametimemaintainacriticalbutsupportiveperspectiveontheUSSR. RomainRolland'srelationswiththeRomanianwriterPanatIstrati(18841935)disclosedhisambiguoussympathyfortheSovietUnioninthelate1920sandearly 1930s.Inaddition,itrevealedthewaysinwhichhereflectedoncriticismofRussiancommunismderivingfromanextremeleftorexcommunistperspective. Istratiwasacreativelydisturbed,selftaughtmanofletters,muchclosertothetraditionofpicaresquethantoproletarianliterature.Thistravelerwithatastefordanger andexcitementwasalsoarebelandapassionateindividualist.Hedevelopedoriginalnarrativeformsandspunenchanting,ingeniousautobiographicaltales.Aftera suicideattemptin1921,IstraticomposedadesperatelettertoRomainRollandinSwitzerland.22Thisletterbeganacomplicatedbutdeeplyfeltrelationshipbetween thetwowriters.RomainRollandwascaptivatedbyIstrati'sstorytellinggeniusandhisremarkablemasteryoftheFrenchlanguageafteronlysevenyears'practice. Istrati'sprosewasmarkedbyitstragiccheerfulness,itssparkleandlucidity.Ina1923prefacetoIstrati'sKyraKyralina,Ro

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mainRollandcelebratedhimasa"newGorkyfromtheBalkans"(unGorkibalkanique).23 RomainRollandhelpedlaunchIstrati'sliterarycareer.Royalties,publishingcontracts,andfamewerenotlongincoming.TwentyyearsolderthanIstrati,he empathizedwiththeRomanian'slongingsfor"friendship"butalsoplayedtheroleofdisciplinarian.HeexhortedIstratitocreate:"Idonotexpecthystericallettersfrom you.Iexpectbooks.Producethem:theyaremoreimportantandmorelastingthanyou,whoaremerelythevesselcontainingtheirseeds."24 HisdirectexperienceofpovertyamongthemarginalandabandonedpeoplesofEasternEuropeandAsiaMinorledIstratitojointheCommunistPartyinthemid 1920s.Communismrepresentedtohimthepossibilitiesoffellowshipextendedtoanentirecommunity.TohonorthetenthanniversaryoftheOctoberRevolution, IstratitouredtheSovietUnionforsixteenmonthsin19271928,crisscrossingfromtheSiberiannorthtothewesternCaucasus.HeknewRussianandvarious nationaldialects.BecauseofhistiestoRomainRolland,Gorkygrantedhimaninterview.WhatIstratisawwasdisillusioning:hisfaithinSovietcommunismsuddenly crumbled.In1929,hepublishedathreevolumeworkdescribingandinterpretinghisvoyage,calledVersl'autreflamme. IstratiexposedthebureaucraticanddoctrinaireaspectsoftheSovietcommunistorganization,theprivilegespartyfunctionariesenjoyedineverydaylife,andaspectsof injusticeandofgrossinsensitivitytowardthemasses.HeunmaskedthepervasiveroleofspyinganddenunciationthroughoutRussiansociety.Hisoutragesprangfrom theharassmentandimprisonmentofcomradesbytheSovietpolicesystem.Versl'autreflammearticulatedtherevolutionaryanarchistperspectiveofdissident Russianintellectuals,whichinthelate1920scloselyparalleledthatoftheTrotskyistopposition.Istratiwasoneoftheearliestdisillusionedcommuniststolaybare glaringabusesintheSovietUnion.Hisworksalsocontainedmuchexaggerated,evensophistic,criticism.Hisprosecouldbeselfdiscreditingandhis hyperemotionalityofteninterferedwiththelogicalargumentandthecoherentgroundingofhisperceptions.Yetpassagesdescribinghumandegradationandthestifling ofintellectuallifeintheUSSRwereprescient.25 RomainRollandrespondedtoIstrati'sexposasifitwerea

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betrayal.TheFrenchpress,alreadyantiSoviet,widelypublicizedIstrati'sreports.RomainRollandwasheartbrokenbythevolumesbutnotintheleastpersuadedby them.Istrati'sassessment,healleged,hadbeeninfluencedbyVictorSergeandotherdogmatic"antiMoscowrevolutionaryanarchists"Istrati'saccountwasnot balancedbycountervailingresearchfindingsorbyanacknowledgmentthatthedissidents'frameworkmightitselfbedistorted.Istrati'spicturewasmarredbythe "freneticexcessofhiscustomarypassion,ashestabsRussiaasawhole."Lackingobjectivityandrestraint,Istratitwistedthevirtueoffellowshipintoavice.He magnifiedthejailingandharshtreatmentofhisclosefriendsinordertotakerevengeontheSovietgovernment,buthetotallydiscountedtheselfsacrificebeing channeledintobuildingSovietsociety.Istratihadtoldhimprivatelythattwoofthevolumespublishedunderhisnamehadbeenwrittenbyfriends.RomainRollandfelt thatmanyofIstrati'scomradeswereneitherpersonallydecentnorpoliticallytrustworthy.Todeceivethepublicaboutauthorshipwastoactinbadfaithanddidnot inspireRomainRollandwithtrustintheaccuracyoftheaccount.26 HedidnothidehisdifferencesfromIstrati.Itwasunconvincingto"stigmatizeanentireregime"ontheevidenceofconcreteinjuriestoparticularindividuals.Hedidnot contradictthefactofSovietexcesses,buthequestionedIstrati'semphasisandchallengedhisinterpretativezeal.
Foryourfriends,theinnocents,heroes,voluntarymartyrs,everythingisconfusedlyconcealedinastreamofabuse.Yourjusticeisthesupremeinjustice.Itisiniquitousto generalizeaboutonehundredmillionbeingsfromthedirtiness[malproprets]ofadozen,orofahundred.TheonlyonetoprofitfromthisinfuriatedrevengeistheReaction.... YoucouldhavegottentotheessentialsofthisbusinesswithoutdenyingwhatishealthyinRussia,andwhatdeservestobesaved,defended,exalted.27

HedidnotdisputethesubstanceofIstrati'sreportonspecificcasesofpoliticalrepressionintheUSSR.HeneverregardedIstratiasacounterrevolutionaryagent,nor didheemployotherderogatoryepithetstodismisshischarges.Hequestionedthelogicalandhistoricalstrategyofdrawinguniversalconclusionsfromisolatedfactual examples.NordidRomainRollandendorsetherevolutionaryanarchistortheTrotskyistcritiqueoftheoriginsandinherent

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evilsofStalinism.Whiletheywereunmistakablygifted,theseultraleftistshadtheirownaxestogrind.Theiranalyseswereoftenselfservingandrhetorical,tactically divisiveandextremistinrelationtoEuropeanleftwingpolitics.HehadfeltestrangedfromtheantiStalinistultraleftsinceitsgenesis,notseeingahugedifference betweenitsdenunciationsoftheSovietUnionandthoseoftheEuropeanright.HeneverembracedacontemporaryreportontheSovietsituationthateliminated referencestotheaccomplishmentsandprogressivenatureoftheexperiment. Ifhedisavowedtheextremeleft'suseofIstrati,hefoundthecommunistreplyequallyreprehensible.HerefusedtotossbooksbyexcommunistssuchasIstratiinto theintellectualashcanofhistory.L'Humanit'slabelingIstratiacounterrevolutionaryagentorcapitalistspyleftRomainRollandwith"disgustandcontempt"for communistjournalism.The"blindnessandstubbornness"oftheFrenchcommunistpressreflectednothingbutvenomPCFanalogieswereappallingifnotridiculous. TheylambastedIstratifornottoeingthepartyline,whilepraisingBarbusseforbeinga"people'swriter"or"proletarian"artistsimplybecausehispublic pronouncementswereconsistentwiththeComintern.28TheIstratiepisoderevealedthattheageofideologicalposturinghadbegun.Theengagedwriterwas challengedtopreservehisfreemoralperspective,nottobesweptawaybythepolarizationofpoliticsandcultureintotheneatleft/rightcategoriessocharacteristicof thediscourseofthe1930s.Ittookcouragetoresistthesplittingandfragmentationoftheleft:manydisillusionedwriters,followingIstrati'sprecedent,mightdriftinto despairorcynicism.That,too,wasadeadend. By1929,RomainRollandviewedpoliticalrepressioninfascistregimesastypicalofboththeideologyandpoliticsoffascism.Violenceandnihilismwereitsessence. Yetasafellowtraveler,heseparatedSovietabusesfromSovietconstruction,acknowledgingactsofcrueltybutseeingthemasoversights,notrepresentativepolicy. Theydidnotnegatethevastindustrialization,theeconomicplanning,theculturaleffervescence,andtheregenerationofanentirecontinent.IntheSovietUnion,the wholewasconsiderablygreaterthantheparts,thesocialisthumanistcorecompensatingfortheinternalerrors,violences,anddeformations.29 InadebatewiththeRomanianpacifistintellectualEugneRel

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gis,authorofThePacifistInternational(1929),RomainRollandtookissuewithpanEuropeanideas.Theydisguisednationalismandrevivedanarchaicformof Eurocentrism.AsheevolvedfromarevolutionaryGandhianposition,hegrewclosertoapoliticizedversionoffellowtraveling.RomainRollandusedhisdebatewith RelgistoreplydirectlytoJulienBenda'sTreasonoftheIntellectuals(1927).Benda'sconceptofthemindwasabstract,Platonic,andevenfrozenhissuperordinate ideastranscendedhistory.Inupholdingtheprivilegesofa"clericatureofthemind,"Bendadeprecatedpoliticalactivity.Hewasblindtothecontemporarymeshof politicsandculture,andhismetaphysicscloudedtheintellectual'sresponsibilitytosocialjustice:"NevershallItireofdenouncingtheinjusticesofaction,andof workingfortheameliorationofsocialconditions."Thoughnotformallyaffiliatedwithapartyorassociation,RomainRollandnolongerconsideredhimselfanapolitical writer.Intellectualsoughtnottodenigratethefieldofpolitics,whichtouchedallaspectsoflife,including"sustenance,labor,[andthe]freedoms."30 Intellectualswereobligedtounderstandtherootsofpovertytoeliminate,oratleastreduce,itsstaggeringimpact."[Theintellectual]hasnoright,inthenameofthe mind,todisdainmaterialrealitiesthatarethebasisandthefirstconditionofthemind....Beforeeverythingelse,wemustthinkofreducingtheirmisery."The counterpoliticalattitudewasuntenableinacrisisriddenera.RomainRolland'smissionasawriterimpelledhimtomakehisliteraryskillavailabletoclassconscious workersstrugglingpoliticallytofreethemselvesfrommaterialpoverty:
Iamtheservantofthehungry,theexploited,theoppressed.Beforegivingthem,ifIcan,thetreasuresofthemind,Iowethembread,justice,andfreedom.Myveryparticipationin theprivilegedrealmofintelligenceprovidesmethemeans,imposesonmetheduty,ofeffectivelyaidingthecommunitybyilluminating,ifIcan,therightroadandthedangers thatbesetit.No,Iwillnotturnmybackonpolitics.31

By1930,RomainRolland'sfellowtravelingpivotedaroundthedefenseoftheSovietUnion.TodaytheUSSRisapolitical,industrial,andmilitarysuperpower.But fromhisvantagepoint,thecountry'sexistencewasthreatenedbythe"InternationalofBusiness,"atermdesignatingAmericanandEuropeancorporatecapi

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talists,imperialists,reactionaries,clericalhypocrites,andfascistswithmultiplemasks.ThetitaniceffortofSovietsocialreconstructionrequiredpeaceinordertoreach completion.HecalledforanendtothedoctrinalandtacticaldivisionsamongprogressiveEuropeanfriendsoftheUSSR.Heurgedacollectiveallianceagainst''the mostfilthyreaction:thatofmoney,ofthesabre,ofthecudgel,ofthetiara."ConvincedthattherewasaconspiracyagainsttheSoviets,heurgedEuropeanpublic opiniontolobbyagainstthemilitaristicsectors,topreventanunholy"crusadeagainsttherebelliousreds."Theleftcoulduniteagainstthecommonenemywithout accepting"Moscow'spoliticaldirection."Hewasparticularlydistressedbytheroleofthebourgeoisnationalistpressandthechurchinstirringupantagonismstothe Russiancommunists.Theyinvokedthecanonsofreligiousmorality,justice,andcivilizationtojustify"thefoulestkindofReaction."WesternantiSovietpropaganda wasmotivatedbythefearthattheFiveYearPlanmightsucceedandbecomeanexportablemodel.HepredictedthatwithinthreeyearstheSovietswouldbe industriallyandmilitarilycapableof"defyingyourassaults.''32 HisperceptionoftheSovietUnionfiguredinadebatewithGastonRiouovertheissueofpanEuropeanisminearly1931.RomainRollanddeclaredhimself"anti European."Hispublicoughttoliberatethemselvesfromoutdatednotionsofthenationstateanddemocraticideologiescamouflagingempirebeneaththesublime principlesoftheUnitedStatesofEuropelaytheinterestsofbigbusiness.HedefendedtheSovietUnionbecauseanorganized,internationalcampaignthreatenedto encircleandsubduethecommuniststate.33 TheantiSovietconspiracywasmastermindedbymultinationalcorporations,particularlytheironandsteelindustriesandthehugeoilandgasolinecompaniessuchas StandardOil.ThesecartelscolludedwithWhiteRussianemigrs,mercenaryarmiesintheBalkans,andthereactionarypoliticalpartiesofEuropeandAmerica.The Westerndemocracieshadpervertedtheirhistorical,legal,andphilosophicaloriginsbyfunctioningasempires.Thepublicrequiredinformationunavailablethrough mediacontrolledbynationalistorcapitalistinterests.EuropewasanantiquatedideaunlessRussiawereincluded.Healsocalledforanimmediaterevisionofthe1919 peacetreatiesandurgedEuropeanstoreadythem

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selvesforanextendedperiodofdecolonizationinAsia,Africa,andtheIslamicworld.HepointedtotheMoscowtrialsofNovemberDecember1930,which consistedofchargesagainstL.K.RamzinandRussiantechniciansaccusedof"wrecking,"toillustratethattheUSSRwastrulyindanger.Heneverquestionedthe validityofthechargesagainstRamzin,presumingthathewas"guiltyofsabotageandtreason."34Justashewouldnotprotestpubliclyagainstotherrevolutionary tribunalsandpurgetrialsincommunistRussiainthemidandlate1930s,RomainRolland'ssilencereflectedhisbeliefinaninternalconspiracyagainsttheSoviet experiment. ProvokedbySergeRadine'sarticlesinaSwissnewspaperexpressing"uneasinessoverthe'materialism'ofCommunistthought,"headdressedhimselftotheelusive questionof"idealismversusmaterialism."Theselabelsconcealedmorethantheyrevealed.RomainRollandwashistoricallyconsciousoffiftyyearsof"filth"shielded bythebannerof"idealism.''Neitherideologicalnorsemanticdifferencesmattered:whatmatteredweretheconcreteaccomplishmentsandthedegreeofsacrifice involvedbythoseparticipatinginSovietplanning.''TheentirequestionistoknowifthemovementofconstructionintheUSSRisgoingtowardamorejusthuman organizationtheonlyjustandfruitfulone.AndIbelieveitis."TheRussiancommunistsshouldbeevaluatedintermsofquantifiableachievements,notcomparedtoa "hypotheticalparadise."CriticsoftheRussianRevolutionshouldfocusontheprincipleofthesocialdivisionoflabor:"Theproblemistodivideanddistributelabor equally.Andbythesolefactofthisequitabledivision,torestoretomillionsofhumanbeingstherighttoleisureandthepossibilityofindividualdevelopment."Calling forarealisticassessmentofSovietdeeds,hewasunabletoresistmythicalallusions:theSovietexperimentwasa"Herculeanlabor."Sovietinternalviolencewasa distortion,resultingfromthedesireto"cleanuptheirAugeanstables."TheGandhianRomainRollandwasbecominglesseasilydisgustedbytheroleofexpediency andlessmoralisticabouttheroleofcompromiseandcoercionintheworkofsocialreconstruction:"Onehasnorighttobesqueamishbecausethebuildershavehad tosoiltheirhands."TheyoungSovietleadershipinspiredconfidenceinthattheywerepragmaticvisionarieswhoknewhowtoimplementpolicy.Sovietsympathizers shouldnotbeputoffbycommunist"dogmasanderrors"andshouldrememberRussia'sbackwardnessandthedisad

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vantageousframeworkinwhichtheBolshevikRevolutionwasmade.Europeans"hadmuchtolearn"fromtheSovietleadership.Forthemoment,onlyaprovisional evaluationcouldbemade.UltimatelyhistorywouldbethejudgeofRussianaccomplishmentsandmisdeeds.35 RomainRollandansweredaquerybytwoSovietliterati,theautodidactandgiftedproletarianwriterFedorGladkovandtheconstructivistIlyaSelvinsky,who upbraidedhimintheleadingSovietliteraryreview,Literaturnayagazeta,forbeingan"individualist"anda"humanist."His"comrades"shouldknowthathewasone oftheSovietUnion'smost"loyalfriendsanddefenders''inEurope.HecontestedtheselfrighteoustoneofcontemporaryRussianwritingandthedismissalofallother formsofstruggleasabsurd,outdated,oridealist.JustastherewerehypocriteswhomouthedhumanitarianrhetoricintheWest,sotherewereimpostors,scoundrels, andselfaggrandizingindividualswithincommunistcircles.Communistswhodemonstratedacapacityforfaithandselfsacrificewere''individualistswithoutknowing itand(withoutknowingit?)thetruechampionsofhumanity."HevoluntarilyenteredtheSovietcampcarryingwithhimaEuropeanheritageofcriticalandcreative freedom,amethodandtraditionnotalwayspresentamongSovietmilitantsandintellectuals.Sovietwritersoughttohavethelargenessofmindnottorejecthim,toset asidetheirparochialismandattempttointegratewhatwasvalidinhisaspirationsandcastasidewhatwasnot.
Ibringtoyou,Ibringintoyourcamp,thecampoftheworkerswhoaremastersoftheirdestiny,thesacredbannersoffreedomofthoughtandhumanity.Donotrejectthem!Be proudofthem!Rejoicethattheycometofightonyourside....Thegodsoftheoldworld,freedom,humanity,aredesertingthecampofyourenemies.Theyarecomingoverto you.Welcomethem!Andgraspthehandofhewholeadsthemtoyou.TheyshakeyourhandFraternally.36

RomainRollandnowexaltedtheSovietUnionasaworkers'havenforthosewhoopposedfascism,imperialism,andintegralnationalismandforthosewhowere authenticallycommittedtoarepublicofemancipatedlaborers.StillmediatingbetweentheGandhianandfellowtravelingideologies,hebegantoveermoretowardthe SovietUnionthantowardIndia.YethisideaoftheUSSRremainedmythical:asocietyfoundedonsocialisthumanistprinci

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ples,whichpromotedselfscrutinyandwhichtoleratednoformsofracial,ethnic,hierarchicalorsocialprivilege.Thismythicalnotionimplicitlycriticizedtherealityof dictatorshipintheSovietUnionanddebunkedthemonolithofpartyprivilegeandnarrowMarxistsectarianism.37 Gorky'swritingsandpoliticalitinerarybecamethethemestowhichRomainRollandappendedhisviewsontheUSSR.Hebegantoreviseandblurthedistinctions betweenthefellowtravelingandthecommunistwriter.Gorky'srallyingtotheBolshevikgovernmentandideologybecameafoilforcriticismofWesternintellectuals andquestionsaboutthecherishedvaluesof"liberalismandindividualism."Gorky'ssocialorigins,hisrootsintheRussianpeasantryandartisanat,hisexperiential knowledgeofthecommonpeople,andhisvoluntarydecisiontoembracetheRussianRevolutionsuggestedanendtothelongstandingisolationoftheintellectualfrom themasses.EventsinRussianowmadeamutuallybeneficialunionbetweenworkersandthinkerspossible,allowingthemtofocustheirenergiestowardcommon projects.

Theindependentmindis...condemnedtodieifwedonotsucceedintransformingitinfullhumanity,inthis"blackearth,"whichistheLaboringpeople.Gorkyhascomefrom there.Nowheisonewiththeveryconscienceoftheproletariat.Heisitsintellectualcrown.Theyareinseparablefromoneanother.38

Westernintellectualssubstitutedan"aristocracyofthemind"foranaristocracyofbirth,whichtheyhadhelpedtodestroybeforeandafterthegreatFrenchRevolution. Artandliteraturesupplantedreligionasthe"opium"oftheFrenchintellectuals.Takingrefugeinaestheticism,formalism,orinvolutedphilosophicaldiscourse,French thinkersofferedplausiblerationalizationsforcomplacencyaboutpressingsocialrealities.Apathyandcynicismweretherule,engagementtheexception. NotwithstandingtheextraordinarymomentoftheDreyfusAffair,intellectualsenteredthesocialarenareluctantlyandcautiouslymostsustainedtheirrevolt"foronlya briefmoment.''FromhisperspectiveofcriticalsupportfortheSovietUnion,RomainRollandjudgedintellectualsirresponsible:"Theyhavedeadenedthepublic conscience,suppliedmenwithalibistoescapefromsocialresponsibility,chapelsinwhichtoshutthemselvesupandtakerefugefromreality,pretextstoturn

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theirbacksonactionandtosay:'Iwashmyhandsofinjustices.'"39Eventhemostclearsighted,fromFlaubertandthebirthofmodernism,exemptedanalytic understandingfromaction.Thetimesnolongerpermittedwriterstobe"abovethebattle"ortoretreattotheislandofan"independentmind."Thewriter'sisolationand ethicalconsciencewereambiguouslegacies.40 WritingaprefacetoGorky'sEuxetnous(1931),RomainRollandopenlyidentifiedwithGorkythecommunistintellectual.Atthesametime,thedichotomymadehim uncomfortable:itwasparanoidandManichean,evenforaneraofcrisiswhenengagementwasmandatory.Heclungtotheoceanicideaofanallianceamongleftwing workersandprogressiveintellectuals.HisconceptofchoicewasnotnearlyassharporexclusiveasthatofGorky,whomhepreferredtothinkofasguideand preserverofculture.

ThisGorky...aprivilegedpersonofartandintelligence,amasterwriter,passingoverwithallofhisgeniusandglorytothecampoftheRevolution,andaddressingthe intellectualsofWesternEuropefromtheothersideofthebarricade.I,too,crossovertothatsideofthebarricade,andgraspGorky'sfraternalhand.41

TheSovietRevolutionprovidedandrestoredculturetotheRussianpeople.Gorky,the"shock"writer,tookexaggeratedpositionsbecauseofthegreatdeedsbeing accomplishedinSovietRussia,particularlythenarrowingoftheculturalgapbetweentheelitesandthemasses.42 JustasGorkyfoundWesternindividualism"limited,"RomainRollandupbraidedliberalisminthelightofits"deformities."TheSovietUnionfortifiedtheintellectual capacitiesandnourishedtheemotionalneedsofitscitizens,allowingtheindividualtoachieve"thefreedevelopmentofallhisstrengthsandaptitudes."Indecadent Europe,onefoundastupefiedandlanguidintellectualsector,theembodimentofsubjective''sterility''and"pessimism."Gorkywascorrectthat"class,race, nationalism,andreligion"thwartedcreativefreedom.Europeanintellectualswhoadvocatedanextremeindividualismonlyimprisonedthemselvesina"pridefulillusion." "Thewillofthemass,initsgreatestmomentsofcreativeaction,assignsitselfagoalinaccessibletoasingleindividual,howevermuchageniushemightbe."43 Gorky'spassageintothecommunistcamp,hisdedicationtothe

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taskofSovietconstruction,andhisrevolutionaryfervoralladdeduptoasignificanttributetotheRevolutionitself,suggestingthatthebestofsecularculturemightbe preservedandupdatedintheUSSR.Gorkyunderstoodboththe"grandeur"oftheirepochandtheneedfordisciplinedsacrificetoactualizethehistorictask.Romain RollandemphasizedtheinternationalanduniversaldimensionoftheSovietexperiment,itspotentialfusionoffreedomandnecessity.TheBolshevikRevolutiontestified nottotheinspiredleadershipoftheCommunistPartybuttothemassesseekingselfexpressionandselfdetermination:"Apeopleof160millionworksnotonlyfor itself,butforallofhumanity,byshowinghumanitythemiraclescreatedbytheintelligentlyorganizedwillofthemasses."44 HedidnotciteGorky'scongratulatorypassagesabouttheCommunistPartyandthedictatorshipoftheproletariat.NordidheendorsetheLeninistlineonimperialism. FromtheseomissionswecaninferthathedidnotwhollyapproveofSovietorganizationandpolicy.HeneverembracedthecrucialfeaturesofMarxismLeninismasa modelofthetransitionfromcapitalismtosocialism.HemadenomentionofStalinandsolentnocredibilitytotheemergingpersonalitycult. RomainRolland'sautobiographicalessay"GoodbyetothePast,"composedonEasterSunday1931,constitutedamajorreevaluationofhisantiwarwritingsfroma fellowtravelingvantagepoint.HisfarewelltotheGandhianpositionreflectedhisperceptionofinternationalfascismandreappraisaloftheRussianRevolutionafter fourteenyears.Hisantiwarutterancesfrom1914to1919hadmournedforthebutcheredmillionsandatthesametimeindictedthoseresponsiblefortheirmurder: "orators,thinkers,ChurchesandGovernments."45 Butthathistoricaljuncturewaspast.Theunresolvedtensionofhispacifistwritinghadbeenbetweenabsolutefreedomofthemindandactivecommitmenttosocialist revolution,partlyinspiredbytheRussianexample.In1917,RomainRollandhadrefusedLenin'soffertojoinhiminhisreturntoRussia,believingthatsuchan affiliationwithBolshevismwouldcompromisehisintegrityandautonomy.HewasneverpreparedtobeaprofessionalrevolutionaryonLeninisttermsortoadopt Bolsheviktactics,sincehewas"repelledbythesanguinaryviolenceoftheirmethods."46In1931,however,herepudiatedabstractionsandcosmicidealstouphold

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"truthinaction,"thatis,ideasthatweremodifiablebybeingputintopractice.HegraduallygaveuphisillusionsaboutaWesternintellectualelite,havinglearned, painfully,thathisideaswereonlypossibleforanexceptionalselfdisciplinedandasceticminority.Heextendedhiscritiqueofthewishful"democraticideology,"begun inLiluli,tothe"bourgeoisideology"asawhole.Thetwentieshadrevealedthatmodernnationalismwasinextricablylinkedtoexpansionistcorporatecapitalism.One couldnolongeropposetheidolsofthefatherlandwithouttakingstrongpositionsagainstimperialismandmilitarism.TheSovietUnionalonewasarestrainttoworld warandglobaldominationbythestrongovertheweak.HenowtraffickedintheHegelianMarxistdialecticofmasterandslaveandcitedMarxwithapproval. Formerly,matureclassconsciousworkerswerefewandisolated.Thecontemporaryworkingclassstrugglewasremarkableinitsdoctrinalcoherence,its organizationalstructures,itsdemonstratedleadership,anditsrankandfilesolidarity.Despitethe"wearinessandtorment''occasionedbySovietpolitics,Romain Rolland'snewframeofreferencewasnottheGreatWarbutthedangersofinternationalfascism,theglobalconflictbetweencapitalismandsocialism,andthecreative possibilitiesofsocialistrevolution:

Then,howtheverymarchofevents,Ananke,whichMarxreducedtotheironlawofeconomicmaterialism,andwhich,severingtheworldintotwocamps,dailywitnessedthegulf betweenthecolossusofInternationalCapitalismandthatoftheothergiant,theUnionofProletarianWorkers,hadineluctablyledmetocrosstheabyssandrangemyselfonthe sideoftheUSSR.47

RomainRollandplayedaperipheralroleintheAragonAffairof1932.HerehedifferentiatedhismoralisticfellowtravelingcommitmentfromtheSurrealistandthe CommunistPartypostures. LouisAragon'spoem"Frontrouge,"firstpublishedinRussiain1931,appearedinFrenchinLittraturedelarvolutionmondialeearlyin1932.Atthetime, AragonwasbothaSurrealistandaCommunist."Frontrouge"canhardlyberegardedasamasterpiece,butitsincantatorycelebrationoftheSovietUnion,itscallfor mutinyinthearmy,anditsviolentharanguesagainstrightwingleaderssuchasFrossardandDatscandalizedthepublic.ThepoemblastedSocialistparliamentary reformistsLonBlum

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andJosephPaulBoncour,unequivocallyurgingitsreaderstomurderthesepoliticians:
FireonLonBlum FireonBoncourFrossardDat Fireonthetrainedbearsofsocialdemocracy

FrenchauthoritiesindictedAragonandchargedhimwithincitementtoassassination.Ifconvicted,hefacedafiveyearprisonsentence.Todefendthecreativelicense ofhisSurrealistCommunistcolleague,AndrBretonpublishedapamphletironicallyentitledMisredelaposie(1932).48Atthesametime,Bretontried unsuccessfullytorallyleadingFrenchwriterstoAragon'scause,arguingthat"Frontrouge"mustbeunderstoodasanexampleof"poeticfreedom,"notaspoliticsor journalism.BothAndrGideandRomainRollanddeclinedtoendorseBreton'sdefenseofAragon.BretonpublishedRomainRolland'srefusalinthesamepamphlet, commentingonhisinabilitytocomprehendpoetry. RomainRolland'sletterfirmlydisavowedtheSurrealistsupportofAragon.Therewasnoradicaldistinctionbetweenwritingandaction,especiallywhenbothtextand contextweresaturatedbypolitics.Itwasanevasionofmoralresponsibilitytohidebehindformalaestheticprinciplesorabstractnotionsaboutpsychiclife.Surrealist modernismcontradictedhisconceptoftheengagedwriter'saccountabilityforhiswordsandimages.Thosewhofailedtorememberthepast,orwhoremembered selectively,participatedinacrime("theforgettingofacrimeisacrime").Toattacktheshamofthebourgeoisjudiciary,theSurrealistsshouldremainconsciousofthe linkbetweenideasandaction.Maurras'smurderouswritingsagainstJaursbeforetheGreatWarwereacaseinpoint.AfterJaurs'sassassination,neitherMaurras northeActionFranaiseassassinwaspunishedforthemurderthisformofwritingencouraged.InsteadofdefendingAragon'srighttopublishexaggeratedpoetry alongdubiousmodernistlinesapoemdivisivefortheFrenchleftinthatitexhortedSurrealistsandcommuniststodoviolencetosocialistsRomainRollandinsisted thatadolescentinvocationsofaggressionhaddisastroushistoricalrepercussions.Ifthereweretobenoenemiesontheleft,socialistsandcommunistswouldhaveto recognizetheircommonenemies(theextremeright),whileintellectualsclarifiedtheideologicalnatureofthestruggle.

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VituperationagainstBlumdeflectedenergyanddidnotraisepoliticalconsciousness.HisintellectualpoliticscontrastedfundamentallywiththeSurrealists,whomhe sawasinfantileandirresponsible:
Idonotsanctionthetermsoftheprotestthatyouhavecommunicatedtome.IdonotapproveofthemforthehonorofAragonhimselfortheSurrealists. Iaskyoutodohonortoyourselvesbydistinguishingyourselffromtheremainderofwriters,attributingtoyouthewillthatnothingthatyouwritebe"literature,"thateverything thatyouwritebeanact.Itillbecomesyoutotakerefugebehindthescreenofsymbolismorofpoetic"interiorism." Wearecombatants.Ourwritingsareourweapons.Weareresponsibleforourweaponsasareourworkerandsoldiercomrades.Insteadofdenyingthem,weshouldacceptour responsibilitiesforthem.Leteachofusbejudgedindividuallyforthearmsheemploys!49

ThoughbeguninNovember1929,L'Annonciatrice,thefinalvolumesofRomainRolland'sepicnovelL'Ameenchante,werenotcompleteduntilApril1933.50 ConsideringthatitswritingextendedfromthetimeoftheWallStreetcrashtoHitler'sseizureofpower,onewouldnotexpecttheimagesof"soul"or"enchantment"to figuresocentrally.RomainRollandfusedthemysticalandthepolitical,transposinghisfellowtravelingviewsintothethoughtandactionsofhisleadingcharacters.His intellectualpoliticsatthismomentwerecharacterizedbyaprePopularFronttypeofengagement,broadlyantifascistandpluralistic,butwithpacifistsnowexcluded fromtheprogressivecoalition.ThesocialawarenessoftheRivirefamilymirrowedtheproblematicofcommitmentintheearly1930s.InChapter7,IanalyzedL'Ame enchante'snegationsintermsofitsintegralantifascistideology.Thenovel'spositivevisionturnsofthecomingtocommunismoftheenchantedsoul,thatis,the Westernhumanistintellectual.Intracingtheambiguitiesofthisvoyage,RomainRollanddepictedthepsychologicaldimensionsoffellowtravelingforanentire generation.Hisengagementannouncedthebirthofadifferentkindofintellectual,onewhoparticipatedinthecreationofaninnovativesocialandculturalcommunity. TheRivirefamilyenduredanextended,oftenpainful,processofselfreflection.Decipheringdeceptiveformsofcommitmentbecameascrucialasparticipatingin validones.RomainRollandunmaskedofficial1930spacifismasahypocriticalattempttoderail

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rebelliousactionorcooptrevolutionaryengagement.Beneaththeplatitudesofpacifismweretheharshrealitiesofpreparationforwar,profitsfromthearmaments industry,andthecynicalattempttodestroytheworkersinbodyandspirit.Thosecurrentlymouthingtherhetoricofpeacewerealmostalltheunrepentantchauvinists oftheGreatWar.Theirhighmindedlanguagehidtheforcesthatblockedradicalchangeandencouragedpassiveacceptanceofthestatusquo.51 MarcRivirefunctionedasanintellectualwithcommunistsympathies.HeliberatedhimselffromtheparalyzingconstructionsofEuropeanthought:thelegacyof CartesianrationalismandFrenchskepticism,theundervaluationofemotions,andtheselfreferentialtendenciesofmodernFrenchart.Butinsteadofcelebratingthe intrinsichealthinessoffreethinking,thebewilderedMarcwonderedifconsciousnessitselfmightnotbeanillness.52 DepictingMarc'sevolutionfromdetachmenttoanengagstance,RomainRollandharshlycondemnedtheoriesthatcouldnotbemodifiedinthelightofnew circumstancesandrevisedinapplication.Hescornedthosewhoplayedpromiscuouslywiththinkingasiftherewerenoprioritiesintherealmofideas.Asheemployed themetaphorofengagementmoreoften,hecontrasteditwiththetacticsofpoliticalevasion:"Thus,theintellectualsescapedanypainfulcontactwiththereal,with roughhands,dirtyhandsandblood.Theymadeuseoftheirideas,theirprostitutes,toescapetheresponsibilitiesandrisksofsocialaction."53 RomainRollandshowedthatamajorityofFrenchintellectualsrefusedtoalignthemselveswiththeorganizedworkingclassoutoftheirownsenseofclasssuperiority. AlthoughmostFrenchintellectualsarosefromeithertheworkingclassorthepetitebourgeoisie,mosthadgainedmiddleclassstatusthrougheducationoracquiringa veneerofculture,theresultofsocialmobility.Oncethey"arrived,"theseindividualsappointedthemselves"watchdogs"overthenationalpatrimonyofartand knowledge.Theintellectuals'disdainforthepopularmassesmaskedadeepcurrentofselfhatred.Theirdenialoftheiroriginshadreactionaryimplicationsforall concerned.54 MarcassumedtheimpossibletaskofrepairingtheextremesplitsthatcharacterizedinterwarEuropeanculturallife,especiallybetweenthethinkerswhorefusedtoact andthemilitantswhoacted

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withoutreflection.Hebecameamanofthoughtwhoriskedtakingaction,therebyachievingapartialsynthesisofthinkingandwill.Engagementmediatedbetween cultureandpolitics.ItallowedMarctoadvocateaprincipleddefenseofhumandignitywhileparticipatinginspecificstrugglesagainsthumiliation,beginningwithtotal oppositiontoallformsoffascism.Theverbengagersignaledanewstyleofintellectuallife,whichneitherdevaluedtheselfnordilutedpoliticizedformsofstruggleto notengageinbattleswastobedefeatedinadvance.55 Marcdiscoveredthatthereweredegreesofengagement.Severalintellectualsinthenoveltookcommittedstandsthatstoppedshortofdirectpoliticalaction.Inthe early1930sMarcrealizedthatintellectualsactingalonewerepowerless.Theirprotestswereritualizedverbalperformances,lackingoriginality,influence,ortheability tooperateonanumberoflevelsatonce.Theprotestoftheleftwingwriterwasanotherbogusstrategyintheintellectual'sarsenalofselfdeception.Heexpressed RomainRolland'sownironiccritiqueoftheinterminablestatementsofpositionbycommittedParisianintellectuals,includinghimself.

Averysmallnumberofwritersalwaysthesameonesweresufficientlylackinginappetitetoprotest.Buttheirprotests,asthinasthemselvesandjustasmonotonous,to whichMarcaddedhis,evokednoechoestheywererepeatedeveryweek,withthecrimestheydescribed.Intheend,theypassedunnoticed.Orthegoodpublicgrewbored, saying:"Whatagain!"... Marchimselfbecameinfectedwiththeboredom,feltdisengagedfromtherainofprotestswithoutaction.Theyendedbybecominganevasionforone'sconscience,asidedoor oneslippedthrough,toflyfromthedangersofaction,orapainfulconfessionofimpotence.Whenhehadsignedadozen,hisheartfailedhimandhisangryhandbrokethepen ontheMofhissignature.Andinsteadofhisname,hewrotethewordoffiveletters[merde].56

FortheprotagonistsofL'Ameenchante,engagementwaselaboratedintoa1930sworldvisionofsocialisthumanism,balancingthenegativitiesofantifascism,and promisinganoceanicfellowshipwiththeclassconsciousmasses.Bothwereindispensabletoadurablesocialistalternativetofascismandliberaldemocracyin collapse.Engagementsuppliedthesefictionalcharacterswiththecouragetodiewhileresistingoppression."Wherethereisnoimpulsetoresist,thereisnothingto lose."57 Inthenovel,thehistoricalrealityoftheUSSRservedasacorrec

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tivetoRomainRolland'spronouncedidealismabouthistoricalchange.Atfirst,theSovietUnionwasonlyadisorienting"enigma"tothemaincharacters:"TheUSSR gavehimvertigo."58Soonitwasrecognizedasa"necessarycounterweight''toreactionaryWesternnations.Beneathfellowtravelingwasaconceptionoftheanti Sovietconspiracythattypified1930spoliticaldiscourseontheleft.SeveralcharactersutteredproSovietsentimentsnotbecausetheyadmiredtheSovietUnionor agreedwithcommunistmethodsofanalysisorpractice,butbecausetheyopposedtheenemiesofRussiancommunism.

ThushefoundhimselfdailymoredeeplyengagedinthebattleagainstthewholeclanoftheantiSovietcoalition.NotthathedidnotdetestCommunismbuthehatedand despisedtheiradversaries.Nowhenolongerhadachoice.Afighttodeathwasbeingengaged[s'engageait].Hefelthimselfbeingsurroundedbytheirspiesandpoliceagents, andheemployedthemagainsthisown,whoweresometimesthesame.59

TheanticommunistscombinedideologicalhatredforcommunismasaneconomicsystemwithdemonizingBolshevikleaders.MembersoftheantiSovietcampwere Machiavellian:theydidnothesitatetoemployspies,police,mercenaryarmies,diplomaticalliances,politicalleverage,andeconomicblockadestoencircleandstrangle theRussians. ThefellowtravelingcharactersinthisnovelviewedtheSovietUnionasayoung,isolated,undevelopednationequallyvulnerabletoitshostileEuropeanneighborson theWestandtoanaggressiveJapanonitsEast.TheyneverperceivedtheUSSRasasuperpowerwithexpansionistambitions,neverbelievedthatitpossessedthe industrialormilitarycapacitytodefenditselfagainstfascistmilitarism. FrenchMarxisminthe1930srespondedtoMarc'sneedtobecontemporaneousandlinkedtotheforcesofhistoricalchange.YetMarxismremainedclosedtoMarc, itsHegelianrootsforeigntohisallegiancetotheKantiancategoricalimperative.HewasunabletointegrateMarxismwithhisidealist,individualistsenseofself,nor washedrawntoMarxisthistoriography,theorizing,orpoliticaleconomy.HereadselectedpassagesofMarx'sworks,notentiretreatises,soherarelyglimpsedthe powerofMarxistepistemology.Heattendedthetediousmeetingsofcommunistmilitantsmoreout

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ofguiltthanenthusiasm.ThoughheresistedMarxismonaviscerallevelandacquiredaninsufficientMarxistculture,hefoundsomethingcompellingaboutrevolutionary socialism.Itwaslucidanditwasdesignedtomeetpoliticalandeconomicnecessity:
[Theself]wouldonlytouchtheMarxistfieldwiththetipofadisdainfulnose.Thishumiliatingpreeminenceofthe"economic"overthe"psychic"revoltedhim.Yetheandhis motherhadpainfully"paid''tolearnwhatitcoststocomeupagainstthe"economic"andthatithastobetakenintoaccount.Butheandhismotherwereromanticsshallwecall themoutdated?oreternal?whoserealpurposeinlifeistovindicatetheirindependentsoulsagainstallthefatalitiesthatoppressthem.60

InvoicinghissolidarityforpoliticizedgroupsofFrenchworkersandstudents,Marcattackedthecapitalistcolossusatitssources.Hewasquicklydesignateda"public danger"inFrance.Nationalists,protofascists,andcentristcoalitionsassaultedhiminprint.TheSovietUnion'sprogramofplanningwasapositivealternativetocrisis riddenEuropeafterthecollapseoftheworldeconomyandtheascendancyoffascism.ForMarc,theSovietUnionhadtobepreservedsothatitsanticapitalist,anti imperialist,andantifascistmodelcouldcometofruition.Fifteenyearsofrevolutionarypracticemeantthattheideaofsocialrevolutionwasnolongerautopian abstraction. Thoughdistancedfromhisuncommittedintellectualpeers,Marc,likehiscreator,remaineduneasyaboutaffiliatingwiththerebelliousmasses.61Heagonizedoverand ultimatelyrefusedtoendorsetheinequitiesandideologicalrigiditiesthatwereinevitableincommunistassociations.Thefellowtravelingwriterwasdestinedtoremain outsidetheCommunistParty,suspecttomembersandequallysuspecttothebourgeoisculturalestablishment.RomainRollandprovidedhiscastoffellowtraveling characterswithavarietyofopinionsabouttheSovietUnion,thusoutliningoptionsforEuropeanprogressivesinthe1930s.Theoldergenerationofnineteenthcentury intellectuals,describedasgentleNietzscheans,offeredanempathicbutworldwearyjudgmentofRussiancommunism,shrewdlyseeingtheSovietexperimentasa mixtureofatrociousfolliesandremarkablyvitalprojects:
TheywerecuriousastotheLaborsoftheRussianRevolution,andtheyfollowedthemwithasympathywhichdidnotexcludecriti

Page232 cismbutitwasthatofagedfriends,whoregrettedthattheycouldnottaketheirpartinthesufferingandevenintheyouthfulerrorsengenderedbyaTruth,anewLife.
62

MarcwantedtomediateamongRussianBolshevism,theFrenchintellectualleft,andtheworkingclass.BypublishinginexpensivetranslationsofMarxistand revolutionaryclassics,henotonlyeducatedtheFrench(andpreparedthefoundationsformorerigorousresearchintoMarx'sthoughtforfuturegenerations)butalso alertedhispublictotheurgencyofthoughtfulaction.Marxismimpliedarationalunderstandingofsocialandpoliticalstruggle.Itshowedtheintellectualandeducated workerthenecessityofdisciplinedaction.ThequitedifferentattitudeofMarc'smother,Annette,towardthesetexts,whichshehelpedtranslate,reflectedherdeeper understandingofhistoricalprocess.63 TheimpulsiveAssia,Marc'swife,articulatedawholehearted,unsubtledefenseoftheUSSR.Assiarepresentedtheemotionalcommitmentofthetruebeliever,the ardentprocommunistwho,disillusionedbythebrutalitiesofRussiancommunism,wouldbecomeanequallyardentanticommunist.Toher,theSovietUnionstoodfor somethinguniversal,hopeful,andpure.Itwasantifascisttoitscore.AcultofpersonalityorseveresocialdistortionsoccurringinRussiawereunimaginabletoAssia.64 MarcexpressedRomainRolland'sdeepambivalenceaboutfellowtraveling.HedistrustedCommunistPartydiscipline,secrecy,doctrine,determinism,homogenization ofculture,andbureaucraticorganization.Hehatedtheoveremphasisonviolenceandproletarianclassconflict.Hewasappalledbythedespoticimpositionof "correct"modesofinquiryandculturalformsontoothers.Heirreverentlyprotestedagainstallthe"imposedGods."Marcfoundtheauthoritariantendenciesamongthe FrenchCommunistPartyleadershipequallyforeigntohisownneedfordemocratictolerance,reflectiveinsight,andempathicunderstanding.Heneverlegitimizedthe "ironhandofideological,social,economic,andpolicedictatorship."65Sovietbrutalityandthenetworkofterrorwerenolessdestructivethantheharshrepressionof theczaristregimetheyhadsupplanted. UnconvincedbythedialecticalacrobaticsofMarxistintellectuals

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inthe1930sanddistressedbytheirsophisticblurringoffacts,Marcrefusedtoacceptthepriorityofendsovermeans.Sucharefusalwasessentiallymoral.The communistintellectualviewedtheSovietUnionasamodelofsocialrevolutionandindustrialdevelopment.ThefellowtravelerrecognizedthatFrenchworkerswould beinspiredbytheSovietRevolutionbuturgedthemnottofollowitlikeablueprint.Socialrevolutionhadtobecommensuratewitheachcountry'shistoryandlevelof civilization:

TheFrenchworkershadnoexperienceasyetofthesocialcombatinwhichtheywereabouttoengage.Nodoubttheywouldacquireitatthepriceofmorethanonedisaster,as hadrevolutionaryRussiabefore1905.Withthisessentialdifference:thattheUSSRnowexistedasanexampleandsupport.TheymustlearnfromthestrategicschoolofMoscow, butwiththeknowledgeoftheresourcespropertoFrance,tothecountry'smentalneeds,andthetenaciousattemptsoftheoldPartiesofRevolutionfreefromthewoundsof pastcampaignsandfromitsyoungunions.Marc,henceforth,appliedhimselftothetask.Hewasstillonlyapupil.66

SeveralfactorsexplaintheproSovietsentimentsofthefellowtravelingcharacters.SovietplanningcontrastedvividlywithchaoticEuropeandthe''imbecilityofthe oldworld"intheworlddepression.SovieteducationalcampaignscomparedfavorablytoWesternantiintellectualismandconsumerism.Thenovelstressedthe measurableachievementsoftheRussianpeople,thefaithoftheyouth,andtheprideoftheworkersacombinationofselfabnegationandconstructionthatledMarc tobelievethat"nosacrificeisdisproportionatetosuchagoal."IfagodwasbeingbornintheSovietUnion,thatgodwaspurposeful,intelligentaction.Modern capitalismincrisiswasthedegradedreligion,representingthetrinityof"War,Commerce,andPiracy...threeinone,consubstantial."67Inthehandsof"Marxist, materialist,atheistyouth,"communistprojectswouldrealize"socialwelfareandhappiness."TheenergyofRussiancommunismwasirresistible.Itsmonumentality appealedtoRomainRolland'ssenseofheroismanditsideologyappealedtohisneedforsomethingtobelievein.Hecelebratedthe''supremacyofLabor,free,equal, andsovereign." ThecosmopolitanandinternationalistMarcknewthattheclassstrugglesofFrenchworkerswererelatedtothoseofthecolonized

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inIndochina,China,Africa,andCentralandSouthAmerica.MirroringRomainRolland'sworkwiththeAmsterdamPleyelmovement,Marctriedtoconstructa broad,pluralisticPopularFront.
SoMarccontinuedtosellandpublishbooksandpamphletsofantifascist,antiimperialist,proSoviet,proGandhian,etc.,propaganda...withoutdecidingtotakeupaclearly definedpositionamongthesevariouslinesofbattle.Hewastryingtomakehimselfthelinkbetweenthearmiesandtoleadthem(utopiandream)tomakeacommonfrontagainst themassiveforcesoftheReaction.Ofcoursehedidnotsucceed.68

HismythicalversionoftheSovietUniondidnotblurMarc'sawarenessoftensionsandblunders.Thenovel'scommittedcharacterswageredontheSovietexperiment. ItwasItalianfascismthatsoberedthemandfinallyshowedthemcapitalism'sadaptivetendenciesanditsabilitytoabsorbitsradicalopposition. Paradoxically,Marc'sassassinationatthehandsofBlackshirtsconsolidatedAnnette'ssubsequentengagement.ThecharacterofAnnettetheenchantedsoul symbolizedthetransitionbetweentwoepochsandtwoconceptionsofrevolution,thebourgeoisFrenchRevolutionandfailedFrenchrevolutionsofthenineteenth centuryandthevictoriousmaterialistOctoberRevolution.ShebridgedtheideasofMicheletandMarx,PguyandLenin,thesupportersoftheAmsterdamPleyel movementandGramsci.Mourninghersondidnotpushhertodisavowcommunistfrontactivities.Thesefictionalfellowtravelerstragicallyrealizedthatonlythrough "thevoluntarysacrificeofageneration"couldarevitalizedandjustworldbeborn.Thatmeantriskingtransientinjusticestorealizethedesiredend:"Certainlyhe [Marc]couldnotoverthrowtheenslavingorderwithoutbindinghimselftoanew,butconsentedto,temporary,contractofservitude,whichwasforanendthatmade sacrificeslegitimate."69 ThespecteroffascismalertedAnnettetothepressingnecessityforpoliticizationandselfrenunciation.Antifascismmeanttranscendingherlifelongindividualisticrevolt, herownbrandofnonconformist,freewheelingfeminism.Shealliedwiththosereadytofighttocrushthefascists,todefendafragileandencircledUSSR.Aboveall, AnnettemadethetransitionbecauseofherdesiretoprepareEurope'sterrainforasocialrevolution.Annettejoinedthe"grandarmyoftheRevolution"bystamping engagementwitha1930sneoMarxistlegitimacy.Thenovelclimaxedwithapassage

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advocatingtheprimacyoflabor,avisionoftheharmoniousrelationshipbetweentwoprototypicalgroupsfactoryworkersandwriters.Thefinalvictoryoflabor signaledanendtostalemiddleclassmoralityandthenecessityfor"illuminatinganewmorality."Thattaskwasrelegatedtothefuture,beyondtheachievementofa classlesssociety. Annettestruggledwithoutseeinghereffortscometofruition.Hergrandson,Vania,wouldimplementtheworkbegunbyhisfatherandgrandmother.He,likehis teachers,wouldengageinbattlecheerfully,maintaininganinnerstateofcalmandimpartiality,withouttakingtheslogansorabstractionsofhisengagementterribly seriously.70 RomainRolland'snovelelevatedfellowtravelingtoapotentstrategyagainstinternationalfascism.Atthesametime,fellowtravelers,inalliancewiththeworkingclass andoftenwithcommunistorganizations,initiatedtheextendedprocessofconstructingahumane,peaceful,classlesssocietywithoutadisastrousgapbetweenmental andmanualworkers.FellowtravelingengagementprovidedthecharactersofL'Ameenchantewiththecouragetoresistandlinkedthemtothosewhoacted consciouslytotransformtheirsociety.Itmarriedcontemporaryradicalpoliticstoselfreflectiveformsofintrospection:
Inshort,bothwerefollowingthetrackthatledtotheirtruegoal,tothefirstactionthatisthematurityofeveryfulllife.Itwastheirproperlineofdevelopment.Itwasadaptedto thatoftheepoch,marchingtowardthenecessaryRevolution.Inthegreatupheavalsoftheearth,littlestreamsfollowthesameslopeastherivers,andallmingletheirwaters.71

L'Ameenchanteisengagedliteratureinthatitadvancesacriticalandnuancedfellowtravelingperspective.Itsattitudetowardcommunismsetthestageforand resonatedwithleftwingintellectualsduringthePopularFrontera.

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10 TheCulturalPoliticsofthePopularFront
IthinkthatCommunismwillmakedignitypossibleforthosewithwhomIamfighting. AndrMalraux,LaConditionhumaine

ThePopularFrontera,1934to1937,unfoldedagainstabackdropofsharppoliticalpolarizationandcollectivefear.Writersgaveexpressiontoprofoundsocial cleavages,makingmanifestwhathadbeenhiddeninearlierepochs.TheimpactoftheGreatDepression,theascendancyofinternationalfascism,particularlyafter Hitler'sseizureofpowerin1933,andstrategicshiftsonthepartofStalinandtheCommunistInternationalinfavorofPopularFrontalliancesconvergedtoproducea reevaluationoftheintellectual'sroleinthestruggleforpoliticalandsocialjustice. AntifascistintellectualsprovidedtheFrenchcoalitionwithmoralauthority,prestige,ideologicallegitimacy,arhetoricofhope,andaculturaleffervescenceinthe theaters,cinema,universities,andartisticassociations.LeftwingartistssuchasRomainRollandparticipatedinorsupportedexperimentsinpopulareducation:worker universities,agitproptheater,socialcinema,andtheproliferationofHousesofCulture.Generationgapsclosed:MalrauxandthealmostseventyyearoldRomain RollandsharedthepresidencyoftheWorldCommitteeAgainstWarandFascism.ThePopularFront'sculturalpoliticsweremarkedbyamoderate,fraternalspirit andawillingnesstoworkwithinthelegalandinstitutionalframeworkoftheThirdRepublic.Iftheelectedleaderscouldnotbepersuadedtotakeaction,thendirect appealstothepopulationwerelaunched. AntifascismwasthecementofthePopularFrontcoalition.Itstemporaryunitydependedonthecollaborationofindividualsandgroupsinabroadinterclassalliance.It couldnothaveexistedwithouttheconsentofnonproletariansocialclasses.Theheteroge

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neouspeople'sfrontupdatedthedemocraticandJacobinheritageoftheFrenchRevolution,attemptingtoreconcilediversesectorsoftheFrenchpopulationwiththe organizedworkingclass.Malrauxcharacterizeditas"Michelet'srevengeonMarx."Therewasauniversal,patrioticqualitytoitsappeal,apopulistandvaguely socialistunderpinningratherthanasectarianemphasisonclassagainstclass. RomainRolland'sPopularFrontsympathieschangedhisreceptionwithincommunistcircles.HiselectiontotheRussianAcademyofSciencesin1932,the AmsterdamPleyelmovement'sshiftintoamoreaggressiveantifascist,proSovietlineinthesummerof1933,andhisevolutionfromarevolutionaryGandhianposition towardamorepoliticizedfellowtravelingenhancedhisstanding.1 FrenchandSovietcommunistwriterseffusivelywelcomedhisvoluntaryofferoffellowship.They bluntedthecriticaledgeofhiswritingsontheSovietUnion,playingdownhisdeliberatedistancefromtheCommunistPartyapparatusandhisambivalencetoward Leninistactionanddoctrine.Theyconspicuouslypraisedthepoliticalcontentofhisjournalism,criticism,andfiction,particularlytheconcludingvolumesofL'Ame enchante. Atsixtyseven,themanoflettersandformerpacifistspokesmanbecameashowpieceoftheinternationalcommunistmovement,aprototypeofthenewintellectual. Communistwritershyperbolicallyassertedthathispoliticalandphilosophicalevolutionwascomplete.Hisentryintotherevolutionarycampmeantmorethanthe arrivalofanexceptionaltalentwithanimpeccablereputationitbridgedEurope'slastingculturalachievementsandtheSovietattempttopreserveandrevolutionize culture.RomainRollandbroughtwithhis"energeticandintransigent"communistsympathiesaculturallegacythatincludedShakespeare,Goethe,Beethoven,and Tolstoy."TheworksofRomainRollandand,aboveall,L'Ameenchantearetheprototypesofanewliterature,oftheonlyliteraturethatinourdayhasareasonfor existing."2 TocommemoratethetenthanniversaryofLenin'sdeath,RomainRollandreflectedonthegreatBolshevik'slifeandwork.TheBonapartistLeninofthe1920s,the manofdictatorialwillandpoliticalexpediency,gavewaytoaPopularFrontLeninacceptabletothefellowtraveler.Leninfusedartandaction.Hewassoprofoundly stirredbyBeethoven'ssonatasthatheprotectedhimself

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againsttheirbeautybynotlisteningtothemusichewouldnotletartdeflecthimfromhisrevolutionarymtier.TheLeninof1934wasnotsimplyamasterofthe Kremlin,butadevoteeofTurgenevandTolstoy.RomainRollandreadaboutLenin'shumanisminFrenchtranslationsofRussianstudiesbyGuirinis,Krupskaya, Gorky,andStalin.RomainRollandendorsedaMarxistunderstandingofpeopleandculturehenolongertrusted"universalism."Hevilified"apolitical"or"neutral'' bourgeoiswriters.Lenin'sinsightintoTolstoy'sworksdemonstratedthattoweringmasterpiecesofliteraturewereboundbyhistoricalnecessity.Theartistwasnever "disengagedfromtheatmosphereofhistime."ThecontradictionswithinTolstoy'sworksreflectedthesocialandintellectualtensionsofRussiabeforethe1905 Revolution.3 HeportrayedLeninasanartistofrevolution,notaruthlessprofessionalrevolutionary,onewhotransformedpoliticalstruggle.Hisphilosophicalworldviewmerged withtheoftenpitilesstaskofsocialupheaval.Lenin"realizedinhimself,asnoother,thehistoricalhourofhumanactionthatistheproletarianRevolution."Heachieved a"perpetualcommunionwiththeelementaryforcesmanifestedinthemasses." Becauseheunderstoodthatrevolutionwasnotchaosbutpartofthenormalorderofthings,Leninshiftedthepracticeandtheoryofrevolutionintoa"metaphysic."He complementedhisincisivesenseoftherealwithapowerfulbutdisciplinedabilitytodream.Identificationwiththemassesgavehimanenergyandselfconfidence.He masteredthelawsofsociallifeandbenttheminarevolutionarydirection.Hegaveexpressiontodreamsintheframeworkofwhatwashistoricallypossible:"Thus,his dreamwasaction."Heexhortedhispartycomradestodream,buttocombinedreamswith"serious"attentiontotheexternalworldinorderto"realizeourfantasy scrupulously.''4 TheSovietsechoedhisspiriteddefenseoftheUSSRattheFirstSovietWriter'sCongress,heldinAugust1934,butnotattendedbyRomainRolland.Inhisdidactic address,"ContemporaryWorldLiteratureandtheTasksofProletarianArt,"KarlRadek,animportantcommunistjournalistwhooftenservedasaspokesmanfor Stalin,lavishedpraiseonRomainRollandandglorifiedhissolidaritywiththeinternationalproletariat.Asanexampleof"greatrevolutionaryliterature,"L'Ame enchantedocumentedthehistoryofa

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bourgeoisintellectualwhomovedintotherevolutionarycampafterreconcilinghisoldhumanist"vacillations."Hisfellowtravelingrefutedthetendentiouschargethatno literarytalentcouldsupporttheworkingclassandstillproduceamajorworkofart.5 RomainRolland'scriticalessay"Panorama"wascompletedon1November1934itformedtheintroductiontoananthologyofhisengagedwritings,QuinzeAnsde combat(1935),surveyingthecontinuitiesanddiscontinuitiesofhisintellectualpoliticsfrom1919.Bytheword"combat"heunderscoredtheimpassioned controversieshehadwagedwithcompetingintellectualcoteries,politicalmovements,andideologies.Hetriedtoneutralizehisreputationofbeingaboveallbattles,to demonstratethattherehadbeennorestorretreat.Thecentralthemeof"Panorama''wastherelationshipofpoliticalcommitmenttohumanism,howtheEuropean intellectual'sperceptionoftheSovietUnionalteredthetasksandresponsibilityofthewriter.6 InnoothersustainedpieceofprosedidheexplorehisrelationshiptoMarxistthoughtandreflectontheproblematicofsocialisthumanism.LikemostofhisFrench contemporariesinthelate1930s,RomainRollandhadreadMarxunsystematicallyandmostlyintranslation.Hedidnotgraspthetechnical,philosophical,oreconomic componentofMarx'sthoughtrather,heextrapolatedthekernelofhumanism,especiallyfromtheearlier,anthropologicalMarx,justbecomingavailabletomost Europeans.HewascaptivatedbyMarx'swritingsonalienationandhiscritiqueofidealism.InthecorpusofhiswritingsonlyheredidRomainRollandquotefrom Marx'searlytexts,includingTheHolyFamily(1845),OntheJewishQuestion(1843),andPreparatoryNotestotheHolyFamily.HethenappliedMarx's analyticaltoolstohisowndevelopmentasanintellectualidealist.Socialisthumanismsuggestedawayoutofidealistmystification.7 InhisanalysisofFeuerbachandtheleftHegelians,theyoungMarxdemonstratedthatnotionsofabstractlibertiesalwaysmaskedestrangementfromoneself,one's community,andtheproductsofone'slabor.MarxunderstoodthatthefreedomscodifiedintheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenwereinherentlybourgeois inthattheycrystallizedthementalityofthe"smallpropertyowner."Theystoodasbarrierstohigher,moresocialaspectsoffreedom.RomainRollandredefined humanismasasynthesisoftherationaland

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theoceanic,as"thesenseofthetrulyhuman,complete,conscious,thecommunionoftheonewithall."Meaningfulintellectualactivityreducedthediscrepancies between"realandabstractbeing"andpointedthewaytoward"thenaturalandlogicalcoexistenceofCommunismwithhumanism."8 AssistedbyMarx's"lucidity,"RomainRollandunmaskedtheidealsinwhichhehadtrafficked.Upholdingtheintegrityoftheindividualandfreedomofconscience mighthavebeentenableinprevioushistoricalperiods(asbeforeandduringtheGreatWar).Acontemporaryarticulationofthese"wordfetishes"seemed"naive,"an indirectapologyforabusesofpowerthathadbeenjustifiedbytheseformer"nobleandpurehumanideals.''9 Topositunrealizableidealsasthemotorforceofhistorywasselfdefeating.Whenintellectualstransformedfreedomandequalityintononreferentialandnonhistorical essences,theywerecontributingtoanotheralienatingformofknowledge.HisimmersioninMarx'stextsmadeRomainRollandawarethathecouldnotbesincerely committed"tobuildinganeworder"unlesshewasvitallyconnectedtoamasspoliticalmovementcapableofbothunderstandingandimplementingthisgoal.10 TheRussianRevolution'scommitmenttosocialisthumanismobligedhimtoclarifyhisrelationshiptothe"powerfulCommunistmovement."TheSovietsweremaking positivestridestowardtheconstructionofanewsocialorder.YetasafellowtravelerandnotaCommunistPartymember,hemaintainedhiscriticalposturetoward Sovietdistortions,theunnecessaryviolenceandstupiditiesperpetratedbytherevolutionaryregime.Hestilldetestedthe"dictatorialspirit"oftheCommunist International,thedoctrinalinflexibilities,andthe"abuses"ofcommunistpropaganda.HeindirectlycriticizedStalinismbydiscussingtheinadequacyofSovietleadership afterLenin'sdeath. TherewasagreatgapbetweenMarx'scogenttheoryandcontemporarycommunistpractice.InRomainRolland'sperspective,however,theSovietUnionwasan openendedexperimentcapableofrectifyingitself.TheSovietRevolutionderivedfrom"historicalnecessity."Europeanwriterswereobligedtoeducatethepublic aboutthisnewexperiment,indirectlyenablingittosurvive.Promotingworldpeaceremained"thebaseofallmysocialthought,"buthewasincreasinglyawarethat internationalcapitalismgaveriseto

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fascismofeveryvariety.TheUSSRpromisedadeterrenttotheinherentevilsofcapitalisteconomiesincrisis.Aviablestrategyagainstfascismandworldwarwasa crucialgoalofhisinternationalPopularFrontactivities.Likeotherfellowtravelersfromthepeacemovement,heequatedcommunismwithantimilitarismand antifascism.AlthoughworldwarwoulddisrupttheUSSR's"fecundsocialdevelopment,"peacecouldbeonlyarespitehepredictedthataclashbetweenfascismand communismwasinevitable.11 Incontrasttofascistantiintellectualismanddisdainforculture,RomainRollandappreciatedthemultidimensionalqualityofculturalworkunderwayintheSovietUnion in1934.TheMarxistviewof"thetotality"wasnotfarremovedfromtheRollandistnotionoftheoceanicfeeling:bothsuggestedthataharmoniousrelationshipwas possiblebetweenfreebeingsvoluntarilyparticipatinginarationallyorganizedandproductivecommunity.HewasseducedbythediscernibleadvancesoftheRussians intheareasofscience,technology,literature,andcinemahewaspersuadedthattheSovietswantedtoproliferateandhonorimportantformsofculture,notsimplyto launchengineeringprojects.12 Heremainedcautiouslyoptimisticthattheconceptoflabormightbesufficientlybroadtoimplementa"just,free,betterorderedhumanity."HequotedStalin'sclever metaphorforwriters,"engineersofhumansouls,"andheacceptedtheequalitarianpropositionthatnoformoflaborwassuperiortoanother.Butherealizedthatthe achievementofamutuallyliberatingrelationshipbetweenintellectualsandtheproletarianmasseswouldrequireyearsofstruggle.Heurgedthecommuniststoremain consciousoftheirownprejudices.OneservedtheUSSRbestbyretainingahealthyconceptof"independenceintheRevolution,''namely,atolerationofdemocracy, criticism,cosmopolitanism,internationalism,andirreverencewithinpartyranks.SocialisthumanismwasashamunlesstheSovietpeopleweregrantedfreedomof speechaswellasfreedomtowork.13Hefoughtforaformofsocialismthatpreservedbasicindividualliberties. "Panorama"didnotpayhomagetoStalin'ssimplificationsandvulgarizationsofMarxism.ItdidnotendorseStalin'sprogramofsocialisminonecountry,hisRussian nationalism,ortheemergingcultofpersonalityaroundtheSovietleader.RomainRollandmentionedthe"dictatorshipoftheproletariat"merelyasa"fatal

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andseverestage"oftherevolution.The"transitoryviolence"oftherevolutionaryupheavalwasunfortunate,nottobemagnifiedintoamajortheoreticalconstruct.14It waslesssignificantthantheeverydayworkofbuildingasocietyalongsocialisthumanistlines.Notaccidentally,hismosttransparentlyproSovietessayconcludednot incelebrationofStalinorthepartydictatorship,butwithaquotationfromthebrilliantfellowtravelingFrenchwriterAndrMalraux.Malraux,addressingtheFirst CongressofSovietWritersinNovember1932,stressedthehumanisticpotentialstilltoberealizedintheUSSR,whichwouldprotectindividualismandcreativity.15 AskedbyhiscomradesatCommuneabouthisrelationshiptohisaudience,RomainRollandcouldnotseparate"why"hewroteand"forwhom."Writingwasa necessity:itwashisformof''thinkingandacting."Rejectingthestaticnotionsofoptimismandpessimism,hewrotetocatalyzeothersintoaction:"Ihavealwayswritten forthosewhomarch."Currently,hefeltmostconnectedtotheorganizedmassesofproletarianworkerswhosevisioncoincidedwiththeir"UnionofSovietSocialist Republics,"andwhowagedaprolongedbattleforthe''establishmentofahumancommunitywithoutfrontiersandclass."Hisversionofcommunismincludedtheidea ofconquest.Communistswerenotcontaminatedbyselfinterestorexcessivecompromise.Theengagedintellectualwrotefor"theavantgardeofthearmyonthe march,"andthemasses,inreturn,replenishedthewriter'senergies.Hewasnotdiscouragedbytheintellectualswhowereterrifiedbymassivesocialchange:"We writerslaunchtherallyingcrytothesluggish."Apparentlydelightedbytheseremarks,AragonreferredtotheoldFrenchmasteras"oneofthefirstSovietwritersin France."16 HedifferentiatedhisfellowtravelingfromtheagitpropmethodsadoptedbyHenriBarbusse,France'sleadingcommunistintellectualoftheera.Afterhiscelebrated controversywithRomainRollandintheearly1920s,BarbussejoinedtheFrenchCommunistPartyandbecamealeadingspokesmanforRussiancommunismin WesternEurope.Hiscollaborationwithinternationalcommunismwasaccompaniedbyanarrowconceptionofintellectualcommitmentpredicatedontotalloyaltyto theparty.From1923to1934,BarbussefunctionedasoneofFrenchcommunism'smostvisible

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organizersandjournalists,abridgetoarmyveteransandprogressiveintellectuals.AsBarbusse'senergybecamefocusedoncommunistcauses,hiscreativework deteriorated.ContemporariessuchasRomainRollandwereawareoftheinferiorqualityofhisart,theabsenceofcomplexityinhisscholarship,theconspicuouslack ofimaginationinhisbiographies.Barbusse'sdeclineasanintellectualleftahugegapbetweenthestirringpagesofLeFeuandtheobsequiousproseandmaudlinhero worshipofStaline(1935).ThecreativewriterinBarbussewaseclipsedbytheorganizerofconferencesandtheoratorathugedemonstrations.17 RomainRollandremainedfondofBarbussetheyagreedoncertaincausesandonsubstantivesocialissuesbutdisagreedonfundamentalwaysofmobilizingpolitical supportandachievingculturalgoals.RomainRollandhadglimpsedthedangersofoutrightCommunistPartymembershipduringtheiropendebateBarbusse'sten yearsofmilitancyconfirmedthathehadbetrayedthewriter'smtier. InthelastpersonalletterwrittenbeforeBarbusse'sdeath,RomainRollandsketchedhiscritiqueoftheCommunistPartyintellectual,differentiatinghisown independenceandallegiancetoprogressivestruggles.Barbusseforgotthatthewriter'schiefobligationwastobe"truthfulandlogicalandespeciallycourageous." Honestyandcoherencedidnotmeanavoidingpoliticalengagement,buttheyrequiredthat"thewritermustbeloyaltohimself."NowherewasBarbusse's abandonmentofgoodfaithmoremanifestthaninhispublicappealstootherintellectuals.RomainRollandwasirritatedbythe''certainty''ofBarbusse'srhetoricandhis useof"militarycommands."Barbussehadmasteredacrudeformofcommunistthinking:hisdiscoursespecializedinformsofintolerance,andhepersuadedthrough "imperatives,"employedthe"languageoftheoreticiansofeconomy"ininappropriatecontexts,andintimidatedbymouthingpseudoscientific,"correct"modesof analysis.HealienatedhumanistFrenchintellectualsbythe"haranguingtoneofmeetings."18 Bythemiddleofthe1930s,fellowtravelerstendedtodistinguishSovietcommunismandGermanfascismsharplybytheirrespectiveattitudestowardculturalfreedom. Thefirstappearedtopromoteculturalactivity,whereasthesecondseemedtotallyhostiletoit,subordinatingittoideologicalprioritiesortheexigenciesofamass

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movement.InhispublicwritingsRomainRollandappearedtoacceptthiscontrast.ButastheVictorSergeaffairwouldillustrate,hehadmanyprivatereservations concerningit. VictorSergewasawriterofexceptionalabilityandproductivitywhoheldeditorialandadministrativepositionsintheCommunistInternationalinthe1920s.Hewas halfRussianandhalfBelgian.HispoliticalleaningsbeforetheBolshevikRevolutionwereanarchosyndicalist.WhilelivinginRussiainthetwenties,Sergeemergedas anarticulatecriticofSovietprogramsandforeignpolicy.HewasoneoftheearliestopponentsofStalinismandmayhavecoinedtheterm"totalitarian"todescribe bureaucratizationandorganizedrepressionintheSovietstate.TheSovietsregardedSergeasathornintheirside.TheydesignatedhimamemberoftheTrotskyist counterrevolutionarydeviation.SergewasarrestedbytheSovietpolicein1933andexiledtotheUralMountains.ItwasallegedthathewasanaccompliceinKirov's murder.Serge'sdetentionandpersecutionbecameacauseinleftwingcirclesinFrance,Switzerland,andBelgium.SocialistMagdeleinePazcampaignedforSergeas avictimizedpoliticalprisoner,defendinghisrighttopublishonhumanitariangrounds.Bythesummerof1935,agitationwasmountinginFranceforsomeactiononthe case.TheSurrealistsjoinedintheclamor,embracingSerge'srightsaccordingtotheprinciplesoffreespeech.19 TheVictorSergeaffairclimaxedatthemomentoftheInternationalWriters'CongressfortheDefenseofCulture,convenedinParisattheMutualitinJune1935. SeveralspeakersagitatedforSerge'srelease.Censorshipanddetainmentofadissidentwriterresembledthemethodsoffascism.AndrGideintercededforSerge, eventhoughhemadeproSovietpronouncementsatthecongress.RomainRollandwastravelingintheSovietUnionatthetimeandcarriedonpersonaldiplomacyfor SergewithleadingSovietauthoritiesandwithStalinhimself.Stalinpromisedathoroughinquiry.Yagoda,headoftheSovietPolice,wasunableeithertoturnup incriminatingevidenceortogetaconfessionofwrongdoing.AsaresultofRomainRolland'sintervention,Sergewasfinallyreleasedfromcaptivityandgranted permissiontoleavetheSovietUnionwithhisfamily.20 SergeandRomainRollandwereonfriendlytermsalthoughtheydisagreedonmattersofpoliticalideology.SergehadattackedhimduringthedebatewithBarbusse, offeringsarcasticremarksabout

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hisadvocacyofintellectualindependence.DuringRomainRolland'sGandhianphase,Sergehadvilifiedhimforhispetitbourgeoismystifications.Heopposedthe strategyoftheAmsterdamPleyelmovementasunrealisticandcontrarytotheneedsoftheEuropeanworkingclass.Despitetheirformidabledifferences,however,the twocorresponded,knewoneanother'swork,andweremutuallyconcernedaboutrepressionintheSovietUnion.RomainRollandvolunteeredtobeSerge's intermediaryduringhisyearsofimprisonment,forwardinghismanuscriptsfromSwitzerlandtohisParispublisher.Sergeandhesuspectedthatthesemanuscriptswere beingintercepted.He"oftenintervened...withSovietauthoritiesin[Serge's]favor."InhiseyesSergewas"awriterofgreattalent."Moreover,hefeltattachedto Serge'smostactivesupportersinEurope,especiallyJacquesMesnil.21 WhattroubledhimwasSerge's"politicalpersonality."Hisalliesusedhisarrestto"insulttheSovietgovernment."Thoughhelackedcorroborativeevidence,heguessed thatSergehadjoinedasmallsectofdisgruntledultrarevolutionaries.SergehadanextremistpasthehadreprimandedLeninfornotapplying"revolutionaryviolence" inthefirstyearoftheOctoberRevolution.TheSergeaffairplacedRomainRollandinanawkwardsituation.HeintervenedasadiplomattoSovietauthoritiesto secureSerge'sfreedomwithoutendorsingSerge'spoliticalanalysisorpromotingSerge'santiSovietsentimentstohisEuropeanadmirers.Thespecificinjusticeagainst SergecouldnotbegeneralizedintoafullcritiqueofStalin'styranny.HisgoalwastomediatebetweenSergeandSovietauthoritieswithoutfuelingantiSoviet propagandainEuropeandAmerica.Alapidarysentencesummedupthedilemmasofcriticalsupportforthefellowtravelingintellectual:"LetushelpSerge,butletus notpermitservinghimtobeusedagainsttheUnionofS[ocialist]R[epublics]!"22 RomainRollandmadeafourweeksummervisittotheUSSRin1935.PubliclyheextolledthevirtuesoftheSovietsystem,toningdownhisearlierreservations. Privately,heremainedcriticalofinternalRussianpolicies.Muchofhispoliticaljournalismnowappearedincommunistorgansorinthefellowtravelingpress.Foran articleinthePCF'sregards,herepliedbothtothe"hatefulexcitations"ofFrenchpacifism,specificallythepacifistsclusteredaroundLeSemeur,andtotheuseofthe Kirovassassinationtocreateanti

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Sovietpropaganda.ThosewhoapproachedtheUSSRwithoutahistoricalperspectivewouldneverachievea"justappreciation"ofitsaccomplishments.Byusingtheir ownpoliticaltraditionandvaluesystemtoevaluatetheSovietexperiment,Americancentristsmissedthecrucialpointthat"theproletarianRevolutionhadnever braggedofliberalismandwasnevermadebyliberalpromises."TheRussianRevolutionprovidedadynamicalternativetothe"pseudoliberalism"oftheWest,in particularits"laissezfaire"system,whichwassimplyan''instrumentinthehandsofthemostpowerful,richest,andmostcrafty.''23 RomainRollandofferedametapoliticalargumenttosupportthedictatorshipoftheproletariat.Toachievethepeaceandsocialfreedomsimplicitinawellorganized classlesssociety,itwasnecessaryfortheRussianstoestablisha"provisional,butabsolute"classdictatorship.Hedidnotexaminethecontradictionsofa"provisional absolute,"ashehaddoneasafreewheelingcriticandGandhianinthe1920s.TheSovietgovernmentwasdeterminedtovanquishtheoldorder.Theyreactedwith "rigorandenergy"againstexternalorinternalenemies.ItwasquiteprobablethatconspiratorsorchestratedKirov'sassassinationof1December1934.Ifinfacta "conspiracybyyoung,violent,andirreflectivemen"existed,itwasproperforSovietauthoritiestotakestrongmeasuresagainstit.Worldopinionwouldreadilyexploit Soviet"abuses."Hestillopposed"exceptionaltribunalsandsummaryarrests."SortingouttherealityofplotsfromthebrutalityoftheSovietapparatusofrepression wasnoteasy.Afterstudyingtheavailabledocumentsandreadingthe"actsofaccusationandavowals"inthecommunistpress,hewasconvincedthattheonehundred menchargedwiththecrimeswerenot"innocent."Nevertheless,hehopedthattheywouldreceiveafairhearing,conductedwithnormaljudicialprocedure,sothat theirverdictswouldbe"judgedinbroaddaylight."24 HisdetractorsobscuredthefactthathewasnolongerthesamemanwhohadwrittenAbovetheBattleheidentifiedhimselfastheauthorofL'Ameenchante,an antifascistfellowtraveler.HenotedthattheUSSRemployedcomparativelylessstateterrorintheserviceofsocialistcausesthanhadtheJacobinsandRobespierrein theserviceofrepublicancauses,eventhoughtheRussiansfaced"greaterdanger."RomainRollandwasunabletopredictwhether

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theSovietleadershipwouldretaintheirmoderation,preventingdangerous"exceptionalprocedures"frombeingunleashed.AntiSovietcriticsdeclaimedagainstStalin whileremainingimpervioustotherepressionsofreactionarygovernmentsinSpainandelsewhere:theywereindifferenttothe"stateofalmostpermanentcrimethat reignsinfasciststatesinEurope.""Wemustjudgesocialactionnotfromtheempyreanofabstractandcomfortableideasbutfromtheheartofaction."25 RomainRolland'striptotheSovietUnionlastedfrom23Juneto21July1935andwasspentmostlyinMoscowanditsimmediatevicinity.Itwashisonlyvisit.Inthe summerof1935,MoscowwasexperiencinggreatenthusiasmfortheSovietConstitution,whichwasnearingcompletion.Theperiodwascharacterizedbyageneral looseningofcontrols.HecouldnotknowthattheSovietConstitution,soegalitariananddemocraticonpaper,wouldneverbeimplemented,orthattheclimateof liberalizationwouldbefollowedbyoneofterrorinwhichanentiregenerationofrevolutionariesandinnocentvictimswouldbeexterminated.TheSovietsocietyhe glimpsedwasnottrulyrepresentativeofRussiaasawhole.AshedidnotreadorspeakRussian,hereliedonhishalfRussianwife,MarieKoudachef,totranslate. ThisseverelyhamperedhiscapacitytoestablishrapportwithRussiansheencountered.InrecognitionofhissympathiesfortheRussianRevolutionandhisreputation asaworldconscienceandmajorliteraryfigure,hewasaccordedafraternalwelcome.WhilepartofthiswarmthmayhavebeenagenuineexpressionofRussian exuberance,Sovietauthoritiesclearlyorchestratedhistravelsandcommandedtheopendemonstrationsofaffectionforhim.Afourweekstayconductedunderthese circumstancescouldonlyfurnishimpressions,notdefinitiveconclusions.26 HisSovietvisitwashighlightedbyhisstayatGorky'sresidenceandbyaseriesofmeetingswithtopgovernmentandculturalofficials,includingmembersofthe CentralCommitteeoftheRussianCommunistParty.HewasgrantedtwointerviewswithStalin,ararehonorforaEuropeanmanofletters.RomainRolland's impressionswereprintedinaposthumousaccountin1960,fouryearsafterKhrushchev'sTwentiethPartySpeech,duringaperiodofpartialdeStalinizationwithin communistcirclesinFrance.Thisextract,takenfromhisJournalofJuneJuly1935,andcalled"A

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SojournatGorky's,"containedsomecriticalremarksonSovietpolicies,ideology,andleadersthatremainedunpublishedinthe1930s.Heclearlysuppressedthemat thetime.27 AlthoughheenjoyedGorky'scandorandearthiness,RomainRollandwasshockedbyhis"brutality,"evidencedinhisManicheandivisionoftheworldintoalliesand enemiesofSovietcommunism.Adversaries,inGorky'sview,hadtobe"crushedasenemiesandbastards."ObservingStalinduringaceremonialmeal,Romain RollandcommentedontheSovietleader's"maliciousness."(LeninhadspokenofStalin's''rudeness.")Stalin'ssenseofhumorwassadistic.Heteasedothersforbeing "tooserious,"andhe''intimidatedbymakingpleasantries."Stalinpunctuatedhis"toughformofjoking,bantering,andmakingfun"with"goodheartedlaughter."The vignettesofStalinweredecidedlynegative:"Hehasthehumorofabuffoonorpracticaljoker,[andhe]isalittleroughandpeasantinhiswitticisms."28 AfterviewingtwoSovietfilms,Eisenstein'sPotemkine'sRevoltandTheMother,RomainRollandwasstruckbytheir"bloodyandsinistervision."Sovietcinema exudedakindofprimitivehatredthatwasabundantinthisnewsociety.HedeploredtheRussians'tendencytocopyAmericantechniquesandtastesratherthan developtheirown.HeexpecteddivergencebetweenSovietandWesternformsofcultureandwasdisappointedbytheinabilityoftheRussianleadershiptoconverse inanylanguageotherthantheirown.This"regrettable"factmadehimwonderaboutthedepthofSovietinternationalism.Hewasdisturbedbyflagrantintolerance withintheSovieteducationalandpoliticalsystems. RomainRolland'spublicstatementsdidnotreflecthisuneasiness.BeforeleavingtheSovietUnion,heproclaimedinanopenlettertoStalinthathewas"fraternally linkedtotheSovietPeople."Heuniversalizedtheappeal:morethan"theardentcenteroftheinternationalproletariat,"Russiawasasymbolof"worldprogress"andof "humanityasatotality."Hecampaignedtoprotectthecommunistsfromtheirenemies,notoutofallegiancetoMarxismortheprinciplesofclassconflict,buttoserve theRussianpopulationandtheworldbycreatingapositivealternativetodecliningcapitalismandexpansionistfascism.InarareexpressionofpublicpraiseforSoviet CommunistPartyofficials,theFrenchwriterap

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plaudedtheir"tirelessstruggle"and"heroiclan,"perseveringagainst"athousandobstacles."29 InOctober1935,hepublishedasummaryofhisimpressionsoftheSovietUnioninCommune,aleadingfellowtravelingjournal.Heunderscoredthe"vitality"of Sovietsociety.hehadpersonallywitnessedthe"unanimoussentimentsofthepeople"inlivedemonstrationsandinlettersreceivedfromeveryRussianregion.The Sovietmasseswereexpressingdeeplyfeltemotions,notacting"fromdictatedorders."YethecrystallizedhisimageofSovietlaninthepejorativephrase''collective psychosis."TheRussianmassesexternalizedtheirenthusiasmwhileparticipatingina"psychosisoffaith,joy,andassuranceinthetruthandvictoryofacausewhich thesemillionsofmenincarnateintheworld.''30Hedidnotexplainorexploreitsdangerous,volatile,unrealisticanddisorderedaspect. TheleadershipoftheCentralCommitteeimpressedhimwiththeirpracticalintelligenceandtheirconfidenceintheefficacyofplannedcommunitarianactivityandinthe scientificrigorofMarxistconceptualizations.Sovietleadersblendedwillfulnessandsubtleintelligenceinaphilosophicaldoctrine"embracingthetotalityofhuman problems."ThedialecticalnatureofMarxismwastemperedtomeettheneedsofsocialactionandadapttonewsituations.TheSovietleadership'stacticalflexibility easilyaccommodatedthe"relativeandchangingnecessitiesofaction."Hisportraitwasnotofruthlesstechniciansofpower:hedetecteda"faithatthemoralbaseofall theimportantleaders."Therewasa"passionatedisinterestedness"amongthepoliticalvanguardsandanabsenceof"poisonedegotism."Individualpersonalities graspedthat"withthemorwithoutthem"theirprojectwouldsucceed.31 Forthosewhodrewafallaciouscomparisonbetweencommunismandfascism,henowdifferentiatedthetwosystems.Havingacceptedthetotalitariananalogyinthe 1920s,heattemptedtodismantleitinthemid1930s.UnlikeStalin,Mussoliniwaspreoccupiedonlywithpersonalpowerandglory.Issuingfroma"violent pessimism"andapseudophilosophical"baseofnothingness,"thefascistgovernmentscenteredonthe"monstrouspride"oftheleader,the"sinistergrandeur"of territorialconquests,theneglectofqualitativesocialchanges,andthefailuretoresolvetheproblemofpoliticalsuccession.Stalinandhis"greatBolshevikcompan

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ions"were,incontrast,fearlessoptimists,withoutillusions.Orientingthemselvestothefuture,theyanchoredtheirsocialconstructiontothe"MarxistGospel,"which providedthemwithbotha"materialistdynamic"andahistoricalschemaof"ineluctablelawsofhumandevelopment.''Iftheywere"realists,''Sovietleaderswerealso motivatedbya"socialideaofjusticeandpanhumanismthatismoreidealistthanhumandreams."32 Afterseventeenyearsofplannedconstruction,theSovietpeople'sconfidenceintherevolutionwas"enlarged,enlightened,andennobled."Heglimpsedalatent communitarianheroismonthepartoftheRussianmassestherewasawillingnessamongthemto"sacrificevoluntarily"forthefuture.Theobservableachievementsof Sovietlaborwerehistoricallyunprecedented,settinganexampletotheworld.ThesecondgenerationofSovietleaderswouldprobablysurpassthecurrentonein "amplitude"andinefficient,lessdisruptivetechniquesofindustrialization.HisbrieftriptotheUSSRreinforcedhisnotionthatSovietsuccesswasboundupwiththe "besthopesoftheworld."33 InanopenlettertoaSwisspastorinanswertothe"slanderers"oftheUSSR,herefutedthechargesthatSovietRussiawasanauthoritariandictatorshipwithan expansionistforeignpolicyopposedtopeace,whoseinternalpolicieswereantiSemiticandantireligious.RomainRollandwasawareofcommunist"errorsand injustices,"distortionsderivedfromthehistoricalgenesisoftheRevolution.Farmoresignificantwasthe"heroic"dailyconstructionofanindustrialsocietyoutofthe debrisofbackwardness,war,civilwar,andfamine.TocountertheinsinuationthattheSovietcommunistscoercedthemassesintohappiness,heinvokedthemillions ofilliterateandexploitedpeoplewhohadsufferedundertheczaristregime.Theprerevolutionaryrulingclass,withthecomplicityofthechurch,hadsaturatedthe masseswith"religiousandlayignorance,"enablingthe"exploiters"toperpetuatetheircontrolovertheRussianeconomyandsociety.Thecommunistswerebeginning toreversethisprerevolutionarypattern.Oneoftheirtoughestbattleswasto"disintoxicate"theRussianpopulationfrom"theirmoralprejudicesaswellastheir dogmaticpractices."34 TheSovietsdesiredworldpeaceinordertocompletetheirdomesticprojects.Theybuilta"powerfularmy"todeployagainst

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theirenemiesthemostdangerousbeingGermanfascismineventofaninvasion.TheRussianssoughtdiplomaticandmilitaryallianceswiththeEuropean democraciesandjoinedtheLeagueofNationsinSeptember1934.Suchtacticsdidnotdemonstrate"badfaithorpoliticalMachiavellianism."TheAntifascistFront wasa"conditionalalliance,"callingforasettlingofaccountswithHitlerbeforereturningto"thestateofpermanentcombatthatstillexistsagainstthecapitalistStates." TheSovietleadershipdemonstrated"goodsense''inmaintaininganinternationalstandagainstfascism.Norhadthecommunistscapitulatedintheirreactiontothe ItalianinvasionofEthiopia.AlthoughdiplomatssuchasMaximLitvinov,SovietforeignministerduringthePopularFrontera,weretrulyantiimperialistandantifascist, theywere"realistic''enoughtounderstandthelimitsofthecurrenthistoricalsituation.Theywerenotdeceivedby"idealisticrhetoric"ortemptedbyunilateralformsof brinkmanship.IftheSovietUnionalonewenttowaragainstMussolini,theywouldhaveweakenedtheirlogisticalpositioninEuropeoncegeneralwarfarewas declared.35 AlthoughtheSovietswereopposedtothedevelopmentofZionismontheirown"terrain,"thisdidnotprovetheywereantiSemitic.Theregimeconsideredracism fundamentally"repugnant"toitsbasiclegalandideologicalprinciples.Ethnicminoritiesandvariousnationalitiesweretreatedwith"perfectequality."Jewswere conspicuouslyvisibleinimportantoccupations"uptothehighestpositionsingovernment."AsadirectantidotetotheNazis'aggressiveantiJewishpolicies,the RussiansestablishedtheexperimentalcommunityofBirobidjanasarefugeforthe"JewspersecutedintheBalkansandinGermany."RomainRollandrefusedto acceptunnuanceddenunciationsoftheSovietUnion'spoliciesonreligiouspersecutions.Todiscussthisissue,eachallegationhadtobeexaminedspecifically.Asfar asheknew,"religionsareprotectedintheUSSRuptothepresent."36 TheSovietgovernmentfacedviolentconspiratorsattemptingtosabotageortoppletheregime.FascistGermanynowfinancedandstimulatedtheantiSoviet "conspiraciesandassassinations."RomainRollandpointedtotheKirovmurdertoillustratethedepthofthe"freneticopposition"tothemostableofSoviet administrators.Stalinbehavedless"radically"thanhadhiscounterpartsinthe

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FrenchRevolution'speriodofTerror.Sofarno"evilhadbeeninflicted"onZinovievandKamenev,suggestingperhapsthatStalin"resistedthewaveofangerafter Kirov'sdeath." HeusedtheforumofadebatewithJulienBendatoadvancethefellowtravelingposition.Benda'snotionofnonappliedintelligencewassophistic.Heinterpreted Benda'spreoccupationwiththe"frozenworldofabstractideas"asencouragementforthe"combinazioniofthepresentmasters."Benda'sstyleofintellectuallifekept thinkersselfdeceivedandremovedfromthedangerstobeencounteredinthe"domainofthereal."Intellectualshadtotesttheirformulationswithscrupulousregardto politicalandsocialrealities.Notactingonone'sperceptionsoftheworldwasthegreatestexampleofhumantreason.Intellectualsrefinedthe"specialweapon''of intelligence,buttherewasnoinherent"superiority''inthisweapon:"Itwouldbenothingwithoutthearmsofourproletariancompanions."Byforgingacommunityof mentalandmanuallabor,theSovietsshowedtheirunderstandingoftheseminalroleofthepoliticallyactivewriter,those"engineersofsouls,"whohelpedto "inaugurateamorejust,freer,betterorderedhumanity."37 Bendaerredbyopposing"realismofaction"to"idealismofthought"andbyresurrectingthediscreditedPlatonicseparationofmindandbody.TheUSSR'ssocial experimentwasdesignedtoresolvethesedualisms.The"newman"emergingunderthesenovelconditionswasapotentiality,someonewhomightachieveliberationin asocietywithoutthealienatingdistortionsofclass,racism,nationalism,orreligiousprejudice.Individualscouldattaina"universalharmony"ofthoughtandaction becausetheyconcentratedontheunfoldingofemotionalandintellectualcapacitiesinasocietyuncontaminatedby"nationalismandmilitarism."Onedidnothavetobe aRussianoracommunisttograsptheUSSR'ssignificance:itwas"ourSovietcountry."38 ThepublicationoftwovolumesofRomainRolland'sselectedessays,QuinzeAnsdecombat(1935)andParlarvolution,lapaix(1935),extensivelydocumented hisitineraryasanengagedwriter.QuinzeAnsdecombat,publishedbyEditionsRiederintheir"CollectionEurope,"reflectedhisstatusasaPopularFrontfellow traveler.Parlarvolution,lapaixappearedintheCommunistPartyfinancedEditionsSocialesInternationalesinthe"CollectionCommune"seriessponsoredbythe AEAR.

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Thesetwovolumes,coupledwiththetriptoMoscow,werewarmlyreceivedbyFrenchandSovietcommunists.VladimirPoznerunderscoredRomainRolland's evolutionfromantifascisttofellowtraveler.TheFrenchman,withhisselfimposedexile,hadalwayssoughta"humancountry."Hisfellowtravelingrefutedthe rationalizationsofintellectualswhorefusedtoparticipateactivelyinpolitics:"Lethisexamplebemeditateduponandfollowed."Poznerapplaudedhisabilitytostrikea balancebetweenaproSovietstanceandintegrityasanindependentvoice.39 NicolaiBukharin's"GreetingstoRomainRolland"celebratedthewriter'shighmoralcharacter.Bukharin'sstyleillustratedthewaythetopSovietpartyapparatus lavishedpraiseonitsillustriousfellowtravelers.TheleadingSovietcommunisttheoreticianportrayedRomainRollandas"artist,musician,thinker,personificationof humannobility,amanwithacourageousandintrepidsoul."TheSovietUnionwastouchedbyhisunderstandingofthe"struggleandvictoryoftheproletariat."The Sovietpeopleregardedhimasa"gloriousfriend,"welcominghimtotheUSSRwitha''warmembrace."40 TheextremeleftinFrancereprimandedRomainRollandinhiscurrentincarnationasantifascistandPopularFrontfellowtraveler.Theyarticulatedacritiqueofhis intellectualpoliticsstillcurrentamongthenonStalinistleftinFrance.MarcelMartinetlashedoutathimforbecoming"Stalinized."InsteadofsupportingtheBolshevik Revolutioninitsyoungandexuberantperiod,hepostponedhisdevotionuntil1935,whenithadossifiedinto"reasonofState."Incessantlysearchingforheroesand examplesofcourage,heobscuredthetruththat"inthebusinessoftheworkingclassandrevolution,highpersonalitieslikeRomainRollanddonotcount,no personalitiescount."SovietinfluenceovertheFrenchproletariatwaslamentable,dragging"ourworkingclassfromstupiditytoswinishness."Theconversionof intellectualsintoeasilymanipulatedinstrumentsoftheSovietregime,orRussianforeignpolicy,waspathetic.Thosewritersdesignated"engineersofsouls''wereinfact puppetsStalin'sconceptof"socialisminonecountry"meantinpracticethesubstitutionofnationalismforinternationalism.Martinetdenouncedtheallpervasive repressionintheUSSR.TheSovietsexiledTrotsky,deportedRiazanov,starvedSerge,committedsummaryexecutions,andsubmittedworkerstoconstant

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policesurveillance.Soviet"violence"notonlypervertedtheprinciplesofsocialismbutalsorenderedboththecommunistandfellowtravelingprotestsagainstfascism palpably"ridiculous."41 RomainRolland'svisibilityasafellowtravelertriggeredanangrydenunciationbyLeonTrotsky,whonowsawhimasanapologistfortheStalinistbureaucracy.The formerhumanitarianemergedas"theadvocateofThermidoreanterror."Hedemonstratedanalyticalstrengthintherealmof"psychologicalperception"butnever displayed"politicalclarityorrevolutionaryflair.''TrotskywasalarmedbytheFrenchwriter'sfactualignoranceabouttheKirovassassinationandfeltthathispublic statementslacked''prudence."DrawingfromhisownpreviousassociationwithZinovievandKamenevandhisknowledgeoftheinternalmechanismsoftheKremlin, Trotskystatedthatitmadeno"politicalsense"foreithertohaveparticipatedinaconspiracyantitheticaltothe"conceptions,goals,andpoliticalpastofbothmen." RomainRollandlegitimizedStalin'scampaignofreprisalagainstformerrevolutionarieswithoutusing"Marxistanalysis"andwithoutbeingarevolutionaryhimself. DismissingRomainRolland'spoliticalwritingsas"categoricalandunreliable,"theexiledRussianrevolutionarycomparedthe"psychologicalsystem"oftheFrench academicswiththefunctionariesoftheStalinistbureaucracy.ManyFrenchacademics,headded,were"professionalfriendsofMussolini."RomainRolland,too,had becomeanauthoritarianpersonalitycutofffromthemasses.42Trotsky'spolemicwaswrittenwithapersonalandideologicalaxtogrindanddisregardedRomain Rolland'srecordasanantifascistintellectual.TrotskydidnotacknowledgeRomainRolland'sprotest,despitelongstandingpoliticaldisagreement,whengovernmental authoritieshadexpelledTrotskyfromFrancein1934.43 InOctober1935,RomainRollandpennedanintroductiontoavolumeofcollectedessaysentitled,significantly,Compagnonsderoute(theFrenchtermforfellow travelers),inwhichhepaidhomagetohislifelongliterarycompanions.ThevolumeincludedwritingsonEmpedocles,Shakespeare,Goethe,Renan,Hugo,and Tolstoy,withaconcludingpieceonLenin.HenowglimpsedthepossibilityofsynthesizingEurope'sculturallegacywiththerevolutionarytraditionofRussia:"The assimilationofGoethe'sspiritwiththeforcesandlawsofeternalBecomingisapermanentRevolution,whichwill

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completeitself...inthepresentPeople'sRevolution."TheyoungMarx'swritingoptimisticallypointedtoward"thesynthesisofthoughtandaction."Europe'scurrent impassecouldnotberesolvedwithout"practicalactivity''and"socialaction."Hisfellowtravelingpositionfuseddreamandaction."Twomaxims,paradoxically,which completeeachother:'Wemustdream,'saysthemanofaction[Lenin].Andthemanofthedream[Goethe]:'Wemustact!'''44 LouisAragon's"InterviewwithRomainRolland,EngineerofSouls,"broughttogethertwoartistsofdifferentgenerations,sensibilities,andculturalbackgrounds. RomainRollandembodiedthepotentialinStalin'sterm"engineerofsouls"byfacingthesocialresponsibilitiesofthewriter,alwaysremaining"opentothefuture." Aragondescribedhimasanimportantideological"precursor"ofthePopularFront.RomainRollandnowbelievedthatthesocialismbeingconstructedintheUSSR was"theonlyfullandintegralcompletionofindividuality."Inhisownwords:"Sincethewarmysocialsensehasasserteditselfandwithitthenecessityofanarmy,a campaignplan,andaparty."AragonunderlinedRomainRolland'shostilitytofascismintracinghisevolutiontoaprocommunistperspective.Resistancetofascism wouldbeineffectiveiforganizedonGandhianorpacifistlines.NationalparalysisofwillcouldbepreventediftheInternationalofLabor"imposedpeaceontheworld." ThefellowtravelingintellectualworkedforpeacebyexpandingthestrugglesofthePopularFrontonan"internationalscale."Aragonsummeduphispresenceas "guide,master,andneighborclosetotheheartofourcountry'sproletariat."45 DuringthePopularFrontera,FrenchCommunistsplacedRomainRollandinadistinguishedlineofwriterswhoselivesandworkswereunalterablyopposedto culturalelitism,socialhypocrisy,andpoliticaloppression.46ForMalraux,RomainRollandandAndrGidewereantidotestoActionFranaisewritersandrightwing universityprofessors.Theirstyleofintellectuallifeopposedclassinequalities,racialexclusivism,andimperialistpolicies:"FranceisnotRacine,itisMolirenotde Maistre,itisStendahlitisnottheFascistpoetsunderNapoleonIII,butHugonottheacademicsignatories[endorsingMussolini'sinvasionofEthiopia]butGideand RomainRolland."47 Foraninquiryonthe"declineofideasoffreedomandprogress"

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inEurope,RomainRollandcontrastedWesternparalysiswiththeSovietUnion'seffortstoconstructajustsociety.CurrentSovietplanningmadeEuropeandecadence appearevenmoreregressivethanthemilitarismunleashedduringtheGreatWar.IntellectualswerepartoftheEuropeanmalaise.Culturehadbecomean"opiumof thepeople,"aretreatfromtherealworld.Iffreedomandprogressweretobemeaningfulvalues,theyhadtobestruggledforonadaily,practicallevel.Hesanctioned anassaultonthoseoppressiveinstitutionalstructuresofthe"bourgeoisdemocracies"thatdeniedworkersanopportunitytorealizetheirintellectualandproductive potential.48 Ifformerlyhewasa"citizenoftheworld,"henowregardedhimselfasa"workeroftheworld."Theprojectofrestoringtolaboritsdignityandproductivepower madehimabandonhisvisionsofworldunitythroughmusic,FrancoGermanreconciliation,EastWestdialogue,orthestrategiesofrevolutionaryGandhianideology. From1927to1935therehadbeena''slow,continuous,andreflectiveevolutionofthemind"towardcommunism.Hissocialphilosophysprangfromtwocentral assumptions:"thecommunionofallthelivingandtheunityofthehumanspeciesandtheindivisibilityofthoughtandaction.''IntheeraofthePopularFront,therewas nodiscrepancybetweensupportingtheSovietUnionandadheringtothesevalues.TheUSSR'sexistenceprovedthatideasandpracticecouldbelinked.Thought divorcedfromactionwasan"abortionoratreason."49 RomainRolland'sseventiethbirthdaywascelebratedinlateJanuary1936inanatmospherepervadedbytheoptimismoftheFrenchPopularFront.Forabrief moment,thereclusive,mysticalwriter,inSwissexile,becamealivingpresence,signifyingculturalandpoliticalunityfortheFrenchleft.Theideaof"noenemiesonthe Left"resonatedwiththereadinessofFrenchCommunists,Socialists,andRadicalstoputasidetheirdifferencestoformaprogressiveinterclasscoalition.French pacifistswerenolongerapartoftheunity.RomainRollandwascomposingtheCommentempcherlaguerre?essayswhichexcommunicatedFrenchintegral pacifistsfromthePopularFrontalliance.Itwasaunique(andshortlived)momentinFrenchculturalhistory:themanwhoseantiwarwritingshadbeen"treasonous" and"antiFrench"twentyyearsearlierwasnowbeingshoweredwitheffusivepraise,asanexemplaroftheFrenchmanoflet

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ters,extendingthetraditionoftheEnlightenmentphilosopherandthesociallyconsciouswriterofthenineteenthcentury.Apartywasheldtohonorhisseventieth birthdayinthemainhallofthePalaisdelaMutualitinParis,wheredignitariesoftheFrenchleft,includingLonBlum,Gide,Malraux,andmanyFrenchcommunists, fetedhim.AndrGidepresidedoverthissoired'hommage.RomainRollandwaspraisedforhisinternationalism,hisperspicaciousreadingofcontemporarypolitical trends,andhiswillingnesstorevisehispositioninviewofchangingcircumstances.Tributestohimwereprintedinthecommunistandfellowtravelingpress,most particularlyinL'Humanit,Regards,Commune,Europe,andVendredi.50 RomainRollandbecamethesymbolicgrandfatherofthePopularFront:areassuringpresence,standingforfellowshipontheleft,theauthenticdefenseofculture, uncompromisingresistancetofascism,andstrengtheningtheSovietUniongeopoliticallybylobbyingforanallianceofcollectivesecurity.Hewasspokesmanfora progressivecoalitionofnations,classes,worldviews,sexes,andgenerations.Evenhislongstandingenemiestemporarilystoppeddenigratinghimasawriterand deridinghimasasentimentalconscience.GideretractedharshcommentsaboutRomainRollandbeing"abovethebattle"duringtheGreatWar.Thetwofellow travelersshookhandsandendorsedthesamePopularFrontcauses.Praisinghimforincarnating"thehonorandgloryofFranceandofallhumanity,"Gideembraced theveryspiritofthePopularFront.51(Thisappearanceoffraternalunitywasdeceptive,however,andwouldbequicklyshattered.Conflictingperceptionsofthe SovietUnionwouldtransformGideandRomainRollandintoirreconcilableopponentswithintheyear.)Inthreesuccessivearticles,MarcelCachindefinedtheFrench CommunistParty'sposition,reportinghyperbolicallythatthe"entirePopularFronthadcelebratedRomainRollandattheMutualit."Hewaselevatedinto''themost gloriousintellectualofourepoch.''52 Inthespringof1936,ontheeveoftheFrenchPopularFront'selectoralvictory,RomainRollandcalledforanew"people'stheater."Whathehadcampaignedfor duringtheDreyfusAffairhadbeenprematurehistorically.DuringthePopularFrontera,itsintellectualalliesnotonlytookenergyfromtheworkingclassesbutalso producedlastingliterarymasterpieces.Revolutionarytheateroutstrippedotherartformsinitspotentialforheighteningpolitical

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awarenessandmobilizingthemasses:"Theaterisaplaceofimmediatecommunionplaysserveasthedaughtersandmothersofaction."Theconservativeand centralizedFrenchstatefearedthe"irruptionofmassemotionandrevolutionaryenergies"fromapoliticizedpeople'stheaterandwouldneversponsorsuchaproject. ThebourgeoisstatewoulddeflecttheconceptofdecentralizedHousesofCultureorblunttheradicaledgeoftheexperiment.Ifpeacepresupposedasocial revolution,thenapeople'stheaterwouldthriveonly''throughRevolution."Topreparethe''peopleofParis"forthefutureculturalrevolution,RomainRollandadvised usingthehugetheaterofTrocadero,whichwasdesignedtohouseamassiveaudienceandpermitcrowdsonstage.Classconsciousantifascistintellectualshadto preparefora"renewalofthepresentworld."Heurgedprogressivewriterstoenterintoallianceswithorganizedlaborwithoutlosingsightofconflict:"Itisnecessary forthemindstopreparethevictory.Wearethearm,voice,andfaithofhistory'shumancombat."53 AfterthePopularFrontgovernmentcametopowerinMay1936underthedirectionofLonBlum,thefirstSocialistandJewishpremierofFrance,RomainRolland attemptedtoconciliatebetweendisparateelementsontheleftandcenterleft.InClart,themonthlyreviewoftheWorldCommitteeAgainstWarandFascismand theAmsterdamPleyelmovement,heurgedthemassesofFrancetopushtheirdemocraticsovereigntytoitslimits.Hewasinspiredbythespontaneouswaveofsitins initiatedbyFrenchworkersinMayJune1936.Frenchproletariansprovedtheirmaturitybyinauguratinga"movementofunprecedentedstrikes,andthey demonstratedmagnificentdisciplineandshowedtoanamazedworldaPeopleKing,masterofitsdestinies."Oppositiontothe"audaciousinfamy"offascist dictatorshipscementedthePopularFrontalliance.Thecommondenominatorwaspoliticalresistance.TheintegralpacifistsoughttobeexcludedfromthePopular Front:theywereblindto"theamasseddangersoffascism"theyadvocatedanaiveandshortsightedpolicyofFrenchisolationism,givingthefascists"carteblancheto extendanddestroyourfriendsandallies"theywereunwitting"auxiliariesoffascism."RomainRollandcalledhimselfanintegralantifascist,whichpresupposeda readiness"tocomeimmediatelytotheaidofthoseineverycountrystrugglingdesperatelyagainstfascism"andtoorchestrateasustainedpolicyof"vigilance

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anduniversaldefense"allowingthe"LaboringPeoples"totakedirectionofgovernmentsandinstitutions.54 HisinitialimpressionofBlum'sPopularFrontwasambivalent.RomainRollandnowcautiouslyapproachedBlumafteravoidinghimforoverthreedecades.Brushing asidealongstandingpersonalanimosityanddifferenceswithSecondInternationalsocialismovertheGreatWarandtheAmsterdamPleyelmovement,hewrotea letterofreconciliationinearlyFebruary1936.Hethankedthesocialistleaderforhis"generouswords"spokenattheMutualitsoirehonoringRomainRolland's seventiethbirthday.Theircurrentcomradeshipwasbasedoncommonstrugglesandcommondangers:"Themorethreatenedyouare,themoreIhavewishedfora longtimetoshakeyourhand."55 Onlyoneweeklater,BlumwasassaultedbyagangofActionFranaisethugsinParisandnearlykilled.RomainRollandconveyedhissympathiesthroughsocialist journalistAmdeDunois,wishingBlumaspeedyrecovery.HeurgedBlumtousetheoccasionto"extinguish"thedangeroffutureActionFranaiseprovocations. YethispleasureoverthePopularFrontvictorywasqualified.Blum'selectoralsuccesswasonlya"conditional"firststage,markedbyinternal"compromises''and "risks."Thenewcoalitionshouldinstitutesocialandeconomicreforms,developingpoliciesthatmightserveasmodelsforotherdemocraticgovernments.TheBlum governmentwastenuous.TherecouldbenoblossomingoftheFrenchPopularFront,RomainRollandwrotetoLucienRoth,unlessthethreatofFrenchfascismwas checked:''AlthoughIdon'tlikeBlum(whomIhaveneverthelesslearnedtoappreciate),Iamhappythatheisnow,forthemoment,theleaderofanantifascistPopular Front."56 AftertheSpanishPopularFrontgovernmentwasestablishedinFebruary1936,andespeciallyafterSpanishRepublicanstriedtomobilizeBlum'sgovernmenttotheir aid,RomainRolland'sattentionshiftedtoforeignpolicy.TheissuebecameurgentwhentheSpanishPopularFronturgedBlumtointerveneinSpainafter20July 1936.RomainRollandendorsedVendredi'ssolidaritywiththeRepublicans,hopingthatBlum'sgovernmentwouldinterveneimmediately:"Whateverbethedangersof thepresenthour,theworstdangerisabstentionthroughtheprudenceoftheFrenchgovernment."57

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InhisdeclarationsinfavoroftheSpanishPopularFront,hedepictedthecauseoftheSpanishpeopleasidenticaltothatofthefreedomlovingFrench.TheSpanish CivilWarunmaskedthehegemonicdesignsofHitlerandMussolini.ThecrushingoftheSpanishRepublicanswouldleadfirsttoafascistSpain,thentoageneral worldwar,ultimatelypittingfascistsagainstantifascists.Fascistmilitarystrategymadethe"encirclement"ofFranceatoppriority.Frenchnoninterventionwasnota benignformofneutralityitwasablindandilladvisedsacrificeoftheSpanishpeopleandtheirlegallyelectedgovernment.Noninterventionwas"iniquitousand monstrous"itallowedFranco,withHitler'sandMussolini'sfinancialandmilitaryassistance,todestroytheSpanishrevolution.Helegitimizedtheuseofallnecessary meanstoassistRepublicanSpain:"TodefendthepeoplesofSpainistodefendpeace,thepeaceofFrance,oftheWest,oftheworld....Theyareourbrothersand ouravantgarde."58 HispropagandafortheSpanishRepublicansclearlyaimedtocatalyzetheprogressiveJacobinsentimentsoftheFrenchPopularFront.Hewasconvincedthatonlya genuinepeople'smovementcouldbecountedonintheantifasciststruggleinSpain.HecampaignedtoexplodeFrenchneutralityandisolationism,endorsedbyBlum's government.TheSpanishcausewasconsistentwiththeinterestsofPopularFrontFrance.Therewasnowaytoavoidadirectconfrontationwiththefascistenemy. TheWesterndemocraciesshouldnotyieldtofascistchallengesorbluffs.HisappealsmirroredthejustificationofferedbymembersoftheInternationalBrigades,who riskedtheirlivesandreputationstofightinSpain.TheSpanishCivilWarwasthedecade'sgreatshowdown.ThecauseoftheSpanishRepublicanswasidenticalto thestruggletodefendculture,tosecuresocialjustice,tosmashbarbarism,andultimatelytoestablishadurableandreasonablepeace.TheInternationalBrigades struggled"againstthemurderouspowerofthepast."
Humanity!Humanity!Icalluponyou,thepeopleofEuropeandAmerica!HelpSpain!Helpourselves!Helpyourselves!It'syou,it'sallofus,whoarethreatened!59

RomainRollandsidedwiththeSpanishRepublicanswiththefullknowledgethatHitlerandMussolinicontributedarmaments

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andeconomicaidtoFranco'sforces.IfFrancocametopower,thefascistswouldacquiremilitaryleverageinEuropeandpossiblyinNorthAfrica.Afterthebombing ofMadridandBarcelona,thefascistswouldshellLondonandParis.HedeploredtheviolenceunleashedagainstinnocentSpanishwomenandchildren,thegratuitous destructionofhospitals,nurseries,andcivilianquarters.InSpain,thedisarmedandthedisabledwereperishingalongwiththeworld'sgreatestarttreasures.Authentic antifascismwasfraternalhiscontemporarieshadnooptionbut"tospeakout,cryout,andact."AidingSpainwoulddemonstratethesolidarityofpeopleofgoodwill everywhere:"CometotheaidofSpain!Cometoouraid,toyouraid!Remainsilentandtomorrowitwillbeyoursonswhoperish!"60 DeeplymovedbythetragedyoftheSpanishRepublicansandthecourageoftheInternationalBrigades,incensedbyflagrantfascistviolationsoftheNonIntervention Pact,hecomposedastronglettertoPremierBlum.HeempathizedwithBlum'sdesiretohelpSpainwithouttriggeringacivilwarinFrance,plungingintoageneral Europeanwar,orsplittinghisowndividedSocialistParty.ThepoliticalresolutionofthisdilemmashouldnotviolatetheprinciplesoftheantifascistPopularFront,both inSpainandinFrance.TheFrenchPopularFrontshoulddivorceitselffromEngland'sdesiretocrushtheSpanishRepublicans.Holdingthat"thedefeatofSpainisthe defeatofFrance,"headvisedBlumtotakedecisiveaction.IftheFrenchPopularFrontgovernmentfailedtoresistthis"ambushofthefascismsagainstSpain'slegal governmentandpeople,"thenBlumwouldberesponsibleforbetrayingtheprinciplesofdemocraticsocialism,jeopardizingFrance'shonorandsecurity,andincreasing the"insolenceandgreedinessoffascism."SpainwasFrance'sneighbor.ThetwoPopularFrontcoalitionswerebrothers.BecauseFrancepossessedsufficientmilitary mightandcouldlegitimizeitsentryintotheSpanishCivilWar,RomainRollandpredictedthatFrenchinterventionwouldnotprecipitategeneralwar.TheRepublicof Spainshouldnotbeallowedto''suffocate."61 Blum'srefusaltointerveneactivelyintheSpanishCivilWarwasabitterdisappointmenttoRomainRolland.Suchadisplayof"weaknessofwill"wouldhaveterrible repercussionsforthatpartofFrancethatwasantifascistandfortheSpanishpeople.Worldpeacewasdamagedbycowardlycapitulationtofascistviolence.Hegrew

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increasinglyintolerantofallpoliciesof"concessionandcompromise"tofascistmovements.62Simultaneously,hemovedevenclosertothecommunistcamp.He perceivedthatSovietaidtotheSpanishRepublicanswasconstructive,andhewasconvincedthatthepoliticsofcollectivesecuritywouldhavesafeguarded RepublicanSpain.Inaflurryofopendeclarationsandappeals,hetrieddesperatelytoignitepublicopiniontopressureBlumforFrenchaidtoSpain.Asthefighting continued,heemployedmoreemphaticslogans,associatingtheSpanishpeople'sstruggleagainstfascismwith"thefightforculture,freedom,andtheindependenceof allmenandpeoples."Spainwasnowthechiefarenaoftheantifasciststruggle.Ifthe"RingofPeace"weretobebrokenthere,thenfascistexpansionismwould escalate.63 Franco'sideologuestookaperversepleasureinproliferatingsadisticantiintellectualslogans.Thetwomostinfamousones,"Downwiththeintelligentsia!"and"Long LiveDeath!"reinforcedRomainRolland'sperceptionthatantifascistresistancewascommensuratewiththedefenseofculturallife.TotheInternationalCongressof AntifascistWriters,meetinginValencia,Spain,inJuly1937duringtheCivilWarhepennedthefollowinggreeting:

Inthesemomentsthecivilizationoftheentireworldisunitedinthesecapitalsaworldmenacedbytheairplanesandbombsofthefascistbarbarians,asitwasinantiquitybythe barbarianinvasions.... Glorytothisnationofheroes,totheseknightsofthespirit,tothisallianceoftwofacesthepowerofthepopularmassesandtheirelectedleaders!Maythisallianceserveasan exampletothegreatdemocraciesofEuropeandAmerica!Maythisalliance,strengthenedincombat,safeguardtheprogressandlibertyoftheworld!64

OntheanniversaryofthedefenseofMadrid,heindictedtheFrenchandEnglishpoliciesofnoninterventioninSpain.ThefightinginSpainhadan"epicgrandeur" becausethestakesweresohighandbecausethechoicesweresoclear.TheSpanishRepublicansrepresentednotonlytherightoftheSpanishpeopletoself determinationbuttheverystruggleforhumandignity.HewroteaboutSpainfromthemoralandpoliticalperspectiveoftheInternationalBrigades,thosewho "gloriouslylentwitnesstothepresentfraternityofpeoples."

Page263 TheyfeelwithsorrowandrevolttheunworthytreasonoftheirgovernmentswhorefusetosupporttheSpanishRepublic,whosacrificethedefendersofWesternfreedom,and whohavemadethecowardlyandperfidiousComedyofNonInterventionamachineofsuffocation.65

Duringthisperiod,on18June1936,MaximGorkydied.Inamovingtribute,RomainRollandmarkedtheeventas"humanity'sgreatestbereavementsincethedeath ofLenin."Nootherimportantwriterhadplayedsoprominentaroleintheculturalhistoryofapostrevolutionarysociety.GorkyfunctionedasoverseerofSoviet cultureandadvisertoCommunistPartyleaders.Hedied,tragically,beforetheimplementationoftheSovietConstitution.66RomainRolland'sleavetakingmingled venerationandsorrow.IfBarbusse'sdeathhaddistancedRomainRollandfromtheleadershipoftheFrenchCommunistParty,Gorky'sdeathdiminishedhisabilityto influencetheSovietCommunistleadershipandsignaledthebeginningoftheendoftheengagedintellectual'simpactinthe1930s. AttheheightofenthusiasmforthePopularFrontgovernment,RomainRolland'splayLe14juillet(1902)wasperformedinParisattheAlhambraTheateron14July 1936.ThesetheatricalperformancesclimaxedtheculturallifeoftheFrenchPopularFront.Theyreflectedtheeuphoriaandaspirationsofthecoalitionandthevisibility ofitsintellectualfollowers.67TheplayglorifiedthepeopleofParisforforciblytakingastandagainsttyrannyandconqueringtheBastille.Theproductionbrought togethersomeofthemostgiftedartistsontheFrenchleft.Oldandyoung,communistandnoncommunist,theyvoluntarilyjoinedtheirexpertiseindifferentgenresand mediums.ThemusicwascomposedbyMilhaudandHonegger.PabloPicassodesignedastagecurtain,whichevocativelycombinedmythologicalandpolitical symbolism.InthecontextofthevictoriousPopularFront,RomainRolland'sdreamofapeople'stheaterappearedtomovetowardfruition.Thecenterandleftpress respondedtoLe14juilletwithgreatacclaim.68TheplaywrightsuspendedhisexilefromParisandmadeararepublicappearanceattheplay'sopeningnight.Hewas greetedwiththunderousapplausebythepoliticizedaudience.TotheimageofintellectualsmarchinghandinhandwithleadersoftheFrenchcommunistandsocialist partiesshouldbeaddedthesightoftheseptuagenarianRomainRolland,celebratedbythePopularFrontspectatorsattheAlhambra

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Theater,stillstandingforanindivisibleleftwingallianceagainstfascism.Forthatbriefmoment,hewasrecognizedastheculturalsymbolofPopularFrontunityagainst thefascistthreat. TocommemoratetherevivalofhisplayandtodrawthehistoricalparallelsbetweenthePopularFrontandtheFrenchRevolution,RomainRollandpennedhis "FourteenthofJuly:1789and1936,"integratingtheSovietRevolutionintothepopulistandJacobinspiritofthePopularFront.Thecruciallessonof1789wasthatthe peoplemust"seizeactionbythename."Thesloganofthatday"AlaBastille!"helpedto''uniteanddirecttheforcesofrevolutionaryaction."Other"factualand symbolic''Bastillesremainedtobetaken.Therespectiveconstituenciesofthe1789Revolutionandthe1936Rassemblementpopulaireweresimilar:eachwas composedof"middleandlowerclasselements,lawyers,artisans,andproletarians."Bothwereinterclassalliancescementedbysharedsentimentsandvalues, commonenemies,andacommonpoliticalorientation.HeremindedhiscontemporariesthattheoriginalBastillehadbeentakenbyforce,notsimplybyanactoffaith. NewarmiesmightbenecessarytoassaultotherBastillesaclearifindirectreferencetotheSpanishRepublicancause.69 The"badconscience"oftheOldRegimestillexistedahundredandfiftyyearslater,howeverupdatedanddisguisedinthe"newfeudalismoffinanceandindustrywith theirvassalsoftheintelligentsiaandthepress."His"comrades"of1936oughtnottoflinchinthefaceofnewoppression.Jaurs'scautionarywords,writtenabout reprisalsaftertheBastillewastaken,werestillpertinent:"Proletarians,rememberthatcrueltyisareminderofservitude,foritcertifiesthatthebarbarismofthe oppressorregimeisstillpresentinus!"ThePopularFrontwasdesignedtoresistfascism,nottoimitatefascistmethodsofintimidationorrepression.Inthespiritof moderation,andcontrarytothemodelofSovietcommunism,RomainRollandcounseledthePopularFronttominimizetheviolenceinsocialstruggles:"Thisviolence wastheransomoftheOldRegime'stotalityofcruelty."70 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRolland'sintellectualpoliticsduringtheFrenchPopularFrontprovideacrucialpointofentryintotheera.Hewasintegrally

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connectedtotheorigins,contradictions,victories,anddefeatsofthePopularFront.Hecontributedtotheopeningcreatedbythisbriefpoliticalandcultural experiment,whichtookplaceunderadversecircumstances.Dialoguebetweentheclassesinspiredhopeforsocialchangeandheightenedmilitancyamongtheworking class.ThiswasreflectedinthefamoussitinstrikesofMayJune1936,whichproducedtheMatignonAgreements.Inadecadesaturatedwithslogans,thecallfor unitybetweenmentalandmanualworkersdidnotseemtobeemptyposturing.Itresonatedwithitspartisansasaharbingerofthefuturecommunalsociety. MostaccountsoftheculturalpoliticsofthePopularFrontarehighlybiasedforandagainst.71Muchartandcultureofthisperiodhasbeendismissedasagitprop, "low"or"dishonest."Criticsofcommittedliteraturehavelabeleditdidactic,selfrighteous,unabletowithstandclosescrutinyinshort,abetrayalofart,orworsestill, anewreligion.72Clearlynotallsocialistandantifascistsentimentswereeasilyexpressedinrevolutionaryform. TheculturalpoliticsofthePopularFronteramarkedtheturningpointbetweenRomainRolland'scriticalanduncriticalfellowtraveling. Onceagain,hisperceptionoffascismaccountedfortheshift.Beginningin1933andculminatingin1936,theEuropeandemocraciesappearedtobeinanemergency situation.Searchingforanantifascismofintegrityandaction,hejoinedthecallforagrandunitybetweentheprogressivewingofthebourgeoisieandtheworking class.Heopposedtherhetorical,conciliatoryantifascismofBlum'sgovernmentandpointedtotheexampleoftheSovietUnion'sconcreteaidandsponsorshipofthe InternationalBrigadesfightinginSpain. ThePopularFronttransformedRomainRolland'sintellectualengagement.Hisfellowtravelingbecamelessnuanced,morepronetogrossdichotomiesinitsbasic oppositionoffascismandantifascism.Hestillconsideredhimselfaspokesmanfortheoppressedbutnowfocusedonthevictimsoffascism.Fascismmustbesmashed beforethestrugglesoftheworkingclass,theunemployed,thecolonized,andtheculturallydeprivedcouldberesumed.Hewelcomedthethrusttowarda democratizationofcultureandpoliticsinFrance,whichmeantincreasedparticipationbysocialclasseswhohadhistoricallybeenexcluded.Hevastlypreferred PopularFrontstyle

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governmentstothecentralization,secrecy,andauthoritarianismofStalin'sregime.Atthesametime,herealizedhecouldnolongerinfluenceinternalpoliciesinthe USSRortheCommunistInternational. Hisownideologysyncretized,somewhatamorphously,antifascism,antiimperialism,andsocialisthumanism.Inhismind,thisideologywasmostcoherently exemplifiedintheComintern'ssupportoftheSpanishRepublicans.Heglossedover,ordismissedasdivisivepropaganda,chargesthattheSovietUniontookits revengeonnoncommunistcomponentsoftheSpanishleft.73ThePopularFrontpermittedhimtoraisethequestionofculturalaswellassocialrevolutionwhoought toplayavanguardorrearguardrole,whatoughttoperishorberetainedinthenewsociety.TheculturalpoliticsofthePopularFronttemporarilymadehimfeelless isolatedandpromisedtheintellectualamoreactiveroleinthemakingofarevolutionarysociety.Eventhegenerousideaofnoenemiesonthelefthadabuiltin disclaimer,namely,thattheleftrequiredaninflexibleoppositiontoallformsoffascism. Theinspirationalcollectiveconsciousnessontheleftappearedtointegrateanawarenessofhistory,community,andinternationalsolidarity.Theauthenticityofthis solidaritywastestedinextremesituations,asinSpain,orinthestruggleagainstrightwingleaguesinFrance.RomainRolland'sadvocacyofacollectiveconsciousness ontheleftwasneitherutopiannoraesthetic.Circumstancesdeniedhimtheluxuryofplayingtheroleofconscienceoftheleft.Hecompromisedtheabsolutenatureof hismoralism,primarilybecauseitwasnecessarytochooseinacrisis.Thecentralunifyingelementsofhisvisionremainedfraternityandtheoceanicbondsgenerated byresistancetothefascistenemyandthefascistthreattohumandignity. Fortherestofthe1930s,hewassilentaboutthedistortionsofSovietcommunism.TohavepubliclycondemnedtheinternalorforeignpoliciesoftheUSSRwould inevitablyhaveweakenedtheantifascistcause. Henowenteredaperiodofuncriticalfellowtraveling.

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11 ThePoliticsofUncriticalSupport
Perhapslater,muchlater,thenewmovementwouldarisewithnewflags,anewspiritknowingofboth:ofeconomicfatalityandthe"oceanicsense."Perhapsthemembersofthe newpartywillwearmonks'cowlsandpreachthatonlypurityofmeanscanjustifytheends.Perhapstheywillteachthatthetenetiswrongwhichsaysthatamanisthequotientof onemilliondividedbyonemillion,andwillintroduceanewkindofarithmeticbasedonmultiplication:onthejoiningofamillionindividualstoformanewentitywhich,no longeranamorphousmass,willdevelopaconsciousnessandanindividualityofitsown,withan"oceanicfeeling"increasedamillionfold,inunlimitedyetselfcontainedspace. ArthurKoestler,DarknessatNoon

SeveralfactorsconvergedtosolidifyRomainRolland'ssympathiesforSovietcommunismandthePCFinthedecliningyearsoftheFrenchPopularFront.Duringthe PopularFrontera,theFrenchCommunistPartyevolvedfromaminorityrevolutionarypartyintoamasspoliticalmovementwithapermanentbaseamongorganized workers.From1932to1936thePCFchangeditspoliticalorientation,temporarilypatchedupitshistoricquarrelwithFrenchsocialists,andleftitsseclusion.The nationalpresenceofthePCFwasevidentnotonlyinthehugeincreasesinmembershipandelectoralstrength,butalsoinitsattractionforintellectuals,students,and membersoftheliberalprofessions.Reversingitschronicsuspicionofintellectualsandliftingitsrigidcontrolsofartisticlife,thepartyopenlycourtedwritersand sponsoredavantgardeculturalprojects.ManyofthemostsignificantartisticexperimentsoftheeratookplaceundertheaegisofthePCForthePCFdominated tradeunionorganization.1 AstheFrenchcommunistsrepudiatedtheirparochialpoliticsofthe1920s,theirsimplisticclassrhetoric,andtheirdismissalofintellectualsandinterclassalliances,they begantotakemorere

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sponsiblestancesoninternalFrenchpoliciesandonforeignaffairs.2 InviewofRomainRolland'spriorpoliticalitinerary,hewasveryreceptivetoPCFpositionsin 1936.HeagreedwiththePCF'sdesiretopressBlum'sgovernmentforarmedinterventioninSpain,andheendorsedtheparty'scurrentstanceonfascism.He understoodthehistoricalreasonsforitsclosetiestotheSovietUnion.HedevelopedesteemfortheleadershipofthePCF.GeneralsecretaryMauriceThorez,the selfstyledfilsdupeuple,echoedseveralofRomainRolland'sphrasesinhisownPopularFrontjournalism,mostnotablythedefenseofcollectivesecurityformulated inthephrase"theRingofPeace."RomainRollandreciprocatedinJuly1936byindicatingto"ComradeThorez"thathe''entirelyapprovedoftheParty'sfirmandwise politics."HeidentifiedhimselfwithpreciselythesamestrugglesthatthePCFwascommittedto,"thegreatcauseoftheinternationalProletariatandforthedefenseof worldPeace."3 RomainRollandwassimultaneouslyarguinginCommentempcherlaguerre?thattheWesterndemocracieshadtocontainandchallengefascistexpansionismby formingasolidmilitaryalliancewiththeUSSR.TheclarityandstrengthofthePCFstanceonSpainillustratedthebankruptcyanddefensivenessofBlum'sneutrality. ThePopularFrontgovernmenttookthecourseofleastresistance.BlumremainedparalyzedbyfearofinternaltensionswithintheSocialistCommunistRadical alliance,therebyviolatingthepeople'strustinit.Blum'srhetoricalcommitmentto"PeaceandFreedom"wasunderminedbyhiscautiousisolationistpolicyandhis vague,nonfightingantifascism.Meanwhile,theSovietUnionandWesterncommunistpartieswereprovidingarms,men,andmoney,nottomentionpropagandistic support,totheSpanishRepublicans.Blum'sfailuretointerveneinSpainandtosignapoliticalmilitaryalliancewiththeSovietUnionwasunrealistic,inthelightofthe globalthrusttowardamilitaryshowdownbetweenfascistsandantifascists.4 Onamoresubjectivelevel,astheyhadbeenduringandimmediatelyafterWorldWarI,RomainRolland'swritingswereeitheromittedorvitriolicallydismissedinthe variousculturalorgansoftheFrenchextremeright,thepacifistrightandcenter,theRadicalcenter,theSocialistcenterandright,andtheextremeleft.Hehadstood forPopularFrontculturalunityandhadbecomeasymbolofthePopularFrontintellectualhehadbeencelebratedandglorified

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butbythefallof1936RomainRollandwasappreciatedonlybythecommunistandfellowtravelingpress.5 AndrGide'striptotheSovietUnionandthepublicationofhisbookReturnfromtheU.S.S.R.inNovember1936triggeredascathingdenunciationbyRomain RollandonthefrontpageofL'Humanit.TheviolentreactionprovokedbyGide'sbookeffectivelydestroyedthetenuousculturalunityoftheFrenchPopularFront andoftheAssociationofRevolutionaryWritersandArtists.IntellectualstooksidesfororagainstGide'sperceptionsofSovietcommunismandStalinism.Inalarge, inexpensiveGallimardeditionGide'sRetoursold100,000copiesintwomonths.ThePopularFrontweeklyVendredipublishedanextractthatreachedaquarterofa millioninfluentialreaders.ThetextwasdiscussedandreviewedthroughoutFrance.6 RomainRolland'sresponseshowedacompletelackofsympathy,exceptinthesalutationandclosingregardstohiscommunist"comrades.""TheU.S.S.R.HasSeen OthersLikeHim"doesnotbearscrutinyasareviewatall.ItneveraddressedthesubstanceofGide'scritiqueofSovietcommunism.7 Thetonewassarcasticand vindictive.Comingafterthewritingsofistrati,VictorSerge,andahostofdisillusionedcommunists,Gide'sbookstruckRomainRollandacrushingblow.Heportrayed Gideassomeonewhoactedinbadfaithbyconsciouslyviolatingtheengagedintellectual'stask.Thisreviewwastheculminationofhislongstandingpersonal animositytowardGide.TheNouvelleRevuefranaisehadignoredordenigratedhisworkfortwentyeightyears.Inthisrejoinder,hisspitefulnessspilledoverinto slander,reasonedanalysisgavewaytoadhominemargument.HeresentedGide'sstatureasFrance'sleadingmanofletters,andheenviedthehugepopularsuccess ofthisessay.Gide'sproSovietspeechesdeliveredintheSovietUnioncontradictedtheviciousantiSovietremarkspublishedinFrance.HeaccusedGideofallowing "hiscelebritytobeexploitedbytheenemiesoftheUSSR.''Hewasincensedbythetimingofthebook:notonlywoulditbemisusedbytheantiSovietpress,butit alsocoincidedwithaclimacticmomentintheSpanishCivilWarwhentheRepublicanswerefightingagainstoverwhelmingoddsforMadrid.Itsappearanceweakened theantifascistFrenchPopularFrontandthosewhowishedforanallianceoftheWesterndemocracieswiththeSovietUnion.Gidefailedtoovercomehispersonal narcissismandfailedtoperceivethatthegreatsocialcausesofthemoment,specifi

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callyantifascismandsupportforthe"universalworkers'fatherland,foundedbytheOctoberRevolution,"transcendedthewriter'spreoccupationwithhimself.Romain Rollandwastemporarilybesidehimselfwithrage."Thisbadbookis,besides,amediocrebook,astonishinglypoor,superficial,childish,andcontradictory."8 EventsintheSovietUnionfarsurpassedindividualjudgment,inRomainRolland'sview.TheUSSRstoodforarevolutionaryformofsocialadvancementand economicdevelopment.Oneneededahistoricalconsciousnesstocomprehenditssignificance.Theworkoftherevolutionrequiredoftheintellectualpersonal responsibilityandatenaciousloyaltytotherevolutionaryprocess,bothofwhichGidetotallylacked.UnlikeGide,whohadnevermetStalin,RomainRollandhad interviewedhimtwiceandfoundtheleadertobeaccessibleandunpretentious,addressinghimas"you"oras"comrade."Itwaswrongheadedtolabelhim"themaster ofpeoples.''HequotedStalin'sphrase"ModestyistheornamentofthetrueBolshevik"torefuteGide'sargumentofanemergingcultofpersonalityintheUSSR.He cajoledhisaudiencetoremain"unshakableinourbattles."9 InhisdeclamationagainstGideandinhisidentificationwiththeSovietexperiment,aswellasinhis increasinglydesperateportrayaloftheantifasciststruggle,RomainRollandcrossedthelinefromcriticaltouncriticalfellowtraveling.Hissubsequentreputationasan engagedwriterwouldsufferfromthatdecisionandfromthisilltemperedreview. GidereplieddirectlyinhisAfterthoughtsonMyReturntotheU.S.S.R.,publishedinJune1937.HereturnedtohisearlierviewofRomainRolland'sinadequacyasa writer.Moreinjurious,heraisedseriousquestionsaboutRomainRolland'sintegrity,implyingthattheelderlywriter'sengagementwithcommunismseverely compromisedhimasamanofprinciple.
RomainRolland'sresponsegavemepain.Inevercaredverymuchforhiswritings,butatanyrateIholdhismoralcharacterinhighesteem.Thecauseofmygriefwasthethought thatsofewmenreachtheendoftheirlifebeforeshowingtheextremelimitsoftheirgreatness.IthinkthattheauthorofAudessusdelamlewouldpassaseverejudgmenton theRomainRollandofhisoldage.

GidedislikedtheasymmetriesinRomainRolland'sviewofjustice.Asafellowtraveler,RomainRollandvilifiedfascismbutnotthe

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deepseatedandwellknownSovietabominations:"Thosewhohavetheidealsofjusticeandlibertyatheart,thosewhocombatforThaelmanntheBarbusses,the RomainRollandsandtheirlikehavekeptsilent,stillkeepsilent."10 IntwoarticlespublishedinL'HumanitinJanuary1937,RomainRollandfocusedontheSpanishCivilWar.ThefirstwascoauthoredwithLargoCaballeroandLa Pasionaria:hereaSpanishsocialist,aSpanishcommunist,andaFrenchengagedwriterjoinedhandsinsolidarity.TheSovietUnionwasaidingtheSpanish RepublicansandtheInternationalBrigades.ThePCFconsistentlyurgedtheBlumgovernmenttointerveneinSpain.RomainRollandlavishedpraiseontheSoviet Unionas"thegreatcountryofSocialism"andtheFrenchCommunistParty"asthetruerepresentativeofthepeopleofFranceanditsinternationalmission."11He admiredthePCF'shistoricalevolutiontoitscurrentPopularFrontstance,especiallyagainstthe''mortalthreatofGermanandItalianfascistimperialisms."He contrastedBlum'sweaknessanduncertaintytothePCF'sleadership,towhichhehyperbolicallyattributed"wisdom,patience,andafirmpoliticalsense."TheFrench communistsunderstoodthatnoninterventioninSpainjeopardizedFrench"politicalsecurity"alongwiththe''necessarysuccess"ofthedemocraticcause.Heexpressed fraternityonlywiththosewillingtofighttothedeathforantifascistideals:"Evenifmyvoiceisweak,itisforpeaceandfreedom,itisforourbrothersofSpainwho defendthemagainstthereactionarycondottieri'saggression."12 Inletterswrittenin1936,RomainRolland'soldcolleaguefromDemain,HenriGuilbeaux,triedunsuccessfullytopresshimtospeakoutagainsttheMoscowpurge trials.13GuilbeauxhadevolvedfromimpassionedBolsheviktoviolentantiStalinist.InTheEndoftheSoviets(1937),Guilbeauxdisavowedhiscommunistloyalties. HeborrowedinformationfromGide,VictorSerge,andKlberLegaytoattackthefellowtravelers.Heaccusedthemofbecoming"puppetsinthehandsofStalinist functionaries"andacquiescinginthefaceofSovietbureaucratization,Stalin'scultofpersonality,thewidespreadexecutionofOctobrists,andtheperversionofthe revolution'sideals.AsGide's"principalmaligner,"RomainRollandignoredtheinternalrealityofSovietconditionsandrefusedtoaddresstheserioussocialdistortions derivingfrom"Stalin'somnipotence."Gideactedwith"realcourage,"whereasRomainRollandattacked

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Gidethroughcowardlycharacterassassination:"Heisdenouncedasahomosexualforpropagandisticpurposes."InGuilbeaux'stext,thegeopoliticalpolaritiesofthe 1930swerecompressedintothepoliticsofpersonalslander.GuilbeauxcataloguedhisgrievancesagainsttheFrenchfellowtravelerinachaptercalled"Romain Rolland'sMarriageofState,PrisoneroftheKremlin."RomainRolland'sfellowtravelingstemmedfromhis1934marriagetothehalfFrench,halfRussianMarie Koudachef,acommunistsympathizer."Higherups"inStalin'sbureaucracyhadsentherona''specialmission"towootheFrenchwriterawayfromtheinfluenceofhis pacifistandliberalsister,MadeleineRolland.RomainRolland,inshort,wasmarriedtoaStalinistagent,whichexplainedhisuncriticalsupportfortheUSSRdespite hisknowledgeoftheUSSR'smisrepresentationofhistory,Stalin'sexecutionof"Lenin'scomrades,"andtherestrictionsonworkersand''persecutionsofpeasantsin Russia."Aftershebecamehissecretaryin1929,andespeciallyaftertheconsummationofthisSoviet"marriageofState,"itwasimpossibletoseetheFrenchwriter withoutMadameMarieRomainRollandbeingpresent.Sheallegedlyfilteredallcriticalperspectivesthathemighthavehadoninternationalcommunism.Itwas regrettable,Guilbeauxconcluded,thathewasbeingso"shamefullyexploited"bythecommunistleadership.HenowservedasasubstituteforBarbusse,aliterary showpiecewhoallowedhimselftobemanipulatedbythe"craftinessoftheKremlinmasters."14 RomainRollandreadGuilbeaux'sbookandwasfuriousaboutitsinsinuations.Heprivatelybrokerelationswithhim,accusinghisoldcomradeoflibelandreplyingthat suchchargesweredefamations.ToattackRomainRolland'sideologicalleaningswasonethingtosmearhismarriagewasbetrayal.Healsobrokewithafriendwho favorablyreviewedGuilbeaux'sbook,explainingthatthe"violationofmypersonallifewassomethingnottobecountenanced."15 AstheFrenchPopularFrontcoalitionunraveled,RomainRolland'sfellowtravelingbecameincreasinglycontroversialoutsidecommunistcircles.He,inturn,published almostexclusivelyinthePCForcommunisantpress.InthespiritoftheFrenchPopularFront,heendorsedtheconceptofdecentralizedHousesofCulturethat wouldbedemocratic,firmlyantifascist,andlinkedtoatraditionofFrenchskepticism,includingMolire,Voltaire,andAnatoleFrance.

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Thattraditionestablishedthewriterasa"combatantofthemind,"usingcriticalreasonandsatireagainstsuperstitionandtyranny.Hesubsequentlywroteappealsfor politicalprisonersinNaziGermany,denouncingthefascistregimeforsuspendingcivillibertiesandusingviolentcoercion:"Hitler'sregimeisaregimeofterror,a dictatorship,thatmaintainsitselfbyforce."Speakingforthesilent,arrestedvictimsofGermanfascism,hebroughtNaziconcentrationcampstoWesternattentionand attemptedtocajoletheEuropeandemocraciesoutoftheirinertia:"HitlercountsonsilenceandontheforgettingoftheWesterndemocracieswhoarebetrayedbythe cowardlyweaknessesoftheirgovernments.Butheisdeceived.Wedonotforgettheforfeitureoftheoppressorsnortheheroismoftheoppressed."16 InabriefsalutetotheFrenchCommunistPartyatitsNinthPartyCongress,heldfrom25Decemberto29December1937,hepraisedthepartyforitsrapidgrowth overtheprecedingfewyears,itshumanistic"enlargement"ofthought,anditsabilitytoincarnatethe"mostprofoundforcesofFrance."Atthesametime,thePCF championedtheinternationalcausesofthemasses,rallyingitsrankandfiletotheidealofthe"UniversalUnionofWorkers."ThePCFwasthe"indestructiblepivotof thePopularFront."''IviewthegreatPartythatderivesfromMarxandLeninasthemostlogicalandmostfirmrepresentativeofsocialjustice.Ifeelmentallyand emotionallylinkedtoit.''17 EarlierinthemonthofDecember1937,communistcriticGeorgesSadoulcomparedRomainRolland'splaceintwentiethcenturyliteraturetothatofVoltaireinthe eighteenthcenturyandHugointhenineteenth.Sadoulstuddedhisreviewofthematre'slatestbook,Compagnonsderoute(1936),withsuperlatives:"Romain RollandjoinsthegeniusofStalintothegeniusthatinspiredtheworksofLeonardodaVinci.RomainRollandisthemostcompleteandclearsightedmindofour time."18 TurningtoRomainRolland'spositionsonStalin'spurgetrials,wemustrememberthathenevercondemnedorcriticizedtheseproceduresinapublicstatement.19Nor didheendorse,justify,orapplaudthem.TheFrenchwriterwhosecareerasanengagedintellectualwasbuiltonspeakingoutagainstinjusticereacted,paradoxically, withsilence. Thedifficultyinexplaininghissilenceiscompoundedbyhis

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expresseddesiretoremainanuntaintedconscience,orientedtowardanoceaniccontactwiththemasses.Thepoliticsofthelate1930snolongerallowedsuchpurity. HeheldthateventsinSpain,theFrenchPopularFront,andthealloutcampaignagainstfascismtookprecedenceovercriticismofinternalSovietaffairs.Hecouldnot relyonaccuratefactsorunprejudicedinformationaboutSovietpoliticsinthecrisisridden1930s:reportswerecoloredbythebiasesofwritersoreditorialboards.It becamevirtuallyimpossibletoreadabalancedorunemotionalviewoftheSovietUnionafter1936.ForyearsRomainRollandassertedthatthebourgeoisand nationalistpressdiscrediteditselfinreportingonRussiancommunism,asdidthesocialist,pacifist,andcentristmedia.TheextremeleftinFrance,whetherTrotskyist, revolutionarysyndicalist,oranarchist,reliedtooextensivelyonVictorSergeandMagdeleinePazoronLeonTrotsky's"vindictivediatribes."Hedismissedtheir accountsas"exaggerated"orcompletelyparanoid.HedistrustedcriticsoftheSovietUnionwhomaintaineddeepseatedpersonalgrudgesagainstthegovernment. Moreover,hesuspectedthattheremightbecollusionbetweentheTrotskyistextremeleft,Hitler'sGestapo,andotherEuropeanfascistmovements,including Mussolini'sgovernment.Heconsideredtheir"independenceofopposition"untenableinthecurrentcontextandhypocriticalgiventheirformerrolesinpolemicizing againstandpurgingrevolutionaryopponents.20 InfluencedbythePCFpressandbyhisowninterpretationofcontemporarycircumstances,heacceptedthetheorythatarealconspiracyexistedagainsttheSoviet system.BothKamenevandZinovievhaddubiouspasts.Theywereaccusedofbeing"renegadesandtraitors"andwereexpelledfromtheCommunistPartyin1927 and1932.Bothproclaimedtheirguiltinthiscrime.Therewasnoreasontoassumethattheirconfessionswereforcedorinvented.TherealissueoftheMoscowtrials was"corruption."AfterstudyingFrenchtranslationsofthecourtproceedingsinthe604pageProcsducentreantisovitiquetrotskiste(1936),hewasconvinced thattheaccusedhadcommittedvillainousacts.Itwaslogicalandinevitablethatplottersmightdesiretotoppletheregime.TheFrenchwritersuspectedthatTrotsky mayhavemastermindedtheseintrigues,asRadekcharged.HerejectedGeorgesDuhamel'scoverageofthetrialasbeinguncritical,unhistorical,andoverlyindebted toVictorSerge.Duhamelportrayedtheaccusedas"emptyandflattenedoutpuppets,"notspir

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itedrevolutionariesfightingfortheirlives.Duhamelinjectedhisown"academicconsciousness"intohisjournalism,distortingitevenfurther.21 Toclarifytheissues,RomainRollanddrewparallelsbetweentheMoscowpurgetrialsandtheperiodoftheFrenchRevolutionaryTerror.Heneverdoubtedthe "historicaljustification"ofDanton's"condemnation."HecitedAlbertMathiez'sEtudesrobespierristesforhistoricalprecedentsofrevolutionarytreasoncounteredby severepunishment:"DantonhadalsobetrayedtheRevolution."Ifcounterrevolutionariesemergedinrevolutionarysituations,revolutionaryregimesoughttobe expectedtopunishthesetraitorsharshly.22 YettherewasanothersidetoRomainRolland'sperceptionoftheMoscowtrials,aprivateandmoralone.Althoughheofferedahistoricaljustification,heagonized overthepurges:"IfeelpainandafflictionattheRevolutiontornbetweenthefuriousduelsofideology,exacerbatedbypersonalrancorandhate."Thesecondwaveof trialsconfirmedhis"apprehensionsandrepulsions"overthefirst.HeknewthatinnocentmenandwomenwerebeingvictimizedbyStalin'spurges,thoughhewas unabletograspthescopeofthesystematicterror."InolongerrejoiceoverwhathappensintheUSSR.Themaladyofarrestsandexecutionshasgoneontoo long."23HewasdisturbedaboutthewayStalin'sregimenotonlydevoureditsloyaloppositionbutalsojustifieditsrepressioninthenameofhighsoundingideological principles. Despitehispublicsilenceregardingthepurges,RomainRollandstilloperatedwithincommunistcirclesasaspokesmanforhumanrights.Whenhelearnedofthe persecution,arrest,anddisappearanceofSovietcitizensforpoliticalreasons,heintercededfortheirrelease.Inthesummerof1937,hewroteapersonalletterto Stalin,urgingtheSovietleadertocommutethesentencesofAlexanderAroseff,theMoscowbasedpresidentofVOKS,andAroseff'swife.RomainRollandno longerexaggeratedhisinfluenceorthewillingnessoftheSovietauthoritiestorespondtosuchrequestswithcompassion:"IamwritingStalin(withoutverymuch hope!)."24Theseintercessionswereonbehalfofinnocent,highlyreputableindividualscaughtinthemomentumofSovietrepression.BecauseBarbusseandGorky weredead,RomainRollandusedhisnotorietyandhisconnectionswithFrenchCommunistPartyofficialssuchasMauriceThorez,internationalcommunistssuchas GeorgiDimi

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trov,andSovietleaders,includingStalinhimself,toguaranteethathisappealsforhumanrightswentthroughproperchannelsandweretakenseriously.Henever threatenedtoattackcommunisminpublicortorepudiatehisfellowtravelingviewsifhisappealswentunheeded.Healertedcommunistofficialstoparticularerrors andmiscalculationsontheirpartwithoutbreakinghisfaithintheoverallcauseofinternationalcommunism. HearingofthearrestanddetentionofOscarHartoch,aneminentprofessorofmedicineattheUniversityofLeningrad,RomainRollandrealizedthatthepurgewasout ofcontrol.Allhislettersofinquirywentunacknowledged.Hehadreceived"noofficialanswersinceGorky'sdeath."25ThroughThorez,hepressuredDimitrovto investigatethefactsintheHartochcase.HeremindedtheBulgarianCommunistPartyleaderthatafterDimitrov'sownarrestinNaziGermany,hehadbeen instrumentalinsecuringhisrelease.Inthespiritofmutuality,Dimitrovoughttoreciprocate.RomainRollandwasflabbergastedthatamanwithHartoch's"inoffensive politics"couldbechargedwitha"seriousinculpationofanyactiondirectedagainsttheregime."Hartochwasprobablybeingpersecutedbythepoliceorthenetwork ofSovietinformants,"compromisedbysuspectrelationsorbythoughtlessnessandignorance.''RomainRollandarguedonhumanitariangrounds,askingfordetailed informationaboutDr.Hartoch,underscoringthatHartoch'ssisterwasapersonalfriend.Moreover,therequestwasurgentbecauseofthedoctor'sfailinghealth. WithoutchallengingthefairnessorhealthoftheSovietjudicialsystem,headvisedtheSovietleadershiptobehavemoreempathicallytowardthecloserelativesofits victims,to"conciliateitsrigorwithalittlepityforinnocents(friendsandparents)whosufferfromthedetentionoftheaccused.''26Heneverconcludedthatthepolitical repressionunderStalinrepresentedaformoffascismontheleft. HewassaddenedbytheSovietpolicyofsecrecy.RegardlessofMoscow'streatmentofindividuals,RomainRollandremainedconvincedthatthegeneralcause transcendedspecificinjustices:"Moscowknowswellthatwhateverisdonewithregardtomyrequest,IwillholdtomyunbreakableaffectionfortheUSSR."Six weekslater,hewroteanotherlettertoThorez,expressinghisirritationatDimitrov'sfailuretoanswer.Heinterpretedcommunistsilenceasapersonalslight,notan indirectadmissionofgeneralizedguilt.

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Theabsenceofdialoguereflected"alackofregardandalackofhumanitywhichhurtsmecruelly."Sovietindifferencetohishumanrightsappealsdidnotalterhis "deeployaltytothegreatcausethatweserve.Itisinfinitelyaboveallindividualities."27 InearlyMarch1938,theGermanwriterHermannHesseaskedhimtointercedefortwo"absolutelyinnocent"personsbeingpersecutedintheSovietUnion.Hesse urgedhimtowritedirectlytoStalinonbehalfofthewriterKarlSchumuckleandtheeconomistValyAdler,daughterofAlfredAdler.28RomainRolland,inturn, lamentedtoHessethathewasunabletosecurethereleaseofhisownpersonalfriendsinRussia.AlludingtoOscarHartoch,hementionedhavingwrittentoStalin twiceandtootherprominentSovietleaders.Theresult:not"onesinglewordinanswer."Sincethebeginningofthepurgestwoyearsearlier,RomainRolland's petitionsfor''anumberofotherarrestedordisappearedmen''weregreetedwith"silence."Consequently,hisinfluencewasprobablynegligible,especiallyonbehalfof peoplehedidnotknow.Withuncharacteristicresignation,headmittedthathiseffectivenesshaddiminishedtozerosinceGorky'sdeath:"The'philosophes'(asthey saidinthetimeofJeanJacques)nolongermattertothemastersofpower."29TheCommunistInternationalnolongercaredwhetheritalienateditsprogressive noncommunistintellectuals.Asfarascommunistrelationswithintellectualswent,thePopularFrontperiodwasover. TheannouncementofthethirdshowtrialinMoscowwithBukharin,Rykov,andYagodaascentralfigurescausedRomainRollandfurtheranguish.Yethedidnot breakhispublicsilence.InalettertotheFrenchcommunistintellectualJeanRichardBlochhewrotethatthe"trialinMoscowisatorment."Hepredictedthatthe "effectsinAmericaandFrancewouldbedamagingtotheinternalunityoftheNewDealandtosalvagingunityoutofadeeplysplitPopularFront."Writingtothe MarxistsociologistGeorgesFriedmann,heindicatedhisfullawarenessofStalin'sdictatorialpolicies.ThepurgetrialsextendedStalin'sauthoritarianstyle.Before speculatingonthe"reasonsforStalin'sleadershipcult,"heacknowledgedthatthecult"hasoftenangeredmeasithasangeredyou."Stalin'spolicieswerean exaggerated,perhapsparanoid,reactiontotheexistenceofarealconspiracyagainsthisgovernment.Hewascreatinga"newicon"ofhimself,deliberatelyforcingit

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ontothemindsoftheRussianmassestoprotecthimself"againstthewillofcriminalattacks."30 TheselettersdocumentthatRomainRollandknewmuchmoreaboutdeformationsoftheRussianRevolutionunderStalinthanhestatedinpublic.Hisappealsfor compassionandpityfromhighrankingRussianCommunistleadershiptowardtheirinnocentvictimsindicatehisrecognitionofsignificantabuseswithintheSoviet system.HeknewthatStalin,havingconsolidatedpower,wasimplementingapolicyofterror.YetasaEuropeanantifascist,hewasnotpreparedtoreturntoa positionofcriticalsupportfortheSovietUnion.ThegeneralemergencymadeitimpossibletocriticizeStalin'sterrorwhileremainingpositiveaboutotheraspectsof SovietconstructionandagreeingwiththeCommunistInternational'spublicrecordofantifascistactivityandpropaganda. SensingthathisliteraryreputationandintellectualinfluencewereeclipsedinFrance,especiallyastheFrenchPopularFrontmovedtowardcollapse,RomainRolland wasexceptionallyproudofthereceptionhisworksreceivedintheSovietUnion.ByNovember1937,theRussianshadpublished1,300,000copiesofhisliterary worksintranslation,makinghimoneofthemostaccessibleFrenchauthorsintheSovietUnionhebraggedthatthe"FrenchlanguageisreadlessinFrancethanin foreigncountries."31 LateinDecember1937heendedhistwentyfouryearsofselfimposedexileinVilleneuve,Switzerland.HereturnedtotheFrenchprovinces,nottoParis, reestablishinghisrootsinhisownnativesoil,thecountrysideofhisearlychildhoodandboyhood.Hepurchaseda"smallbutcomfortable"houseinVzelay,a picturesquetownperchedinthesweethillycountrysideofBurgundyandknownforitssplendidRomanesquecathedral.Hejustifiedhismovepoliticallyand symbolically,sayingthathecouldnolongerabideSwissopportunismthecountryseemedtobeveeringtowardfascismandthathewantedtodemonstratehis solidaritywiththedecliningFrenchPopularFront.Sufferingfromintestinalandpulmonaryillnesses,heleftSwitzerlandbecausehecouldnolonger"breathefreeair" there,forthe''contagionofthe'brownplague'orthe'black'hasspread."Francewouldbehisfinalrestingplace.Itrepresentedthefragilelegacyoffreedomandthe democraticpossibilitiesofthePopularFront:

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"MyplaceisintheFranceofthePopularFrontandmuchmoresonowthatitisthreatened."32 InanopendeclarationonthefrontpageofL'Humanit,entitled"TheMissionofFranceintheWorld,"hedesperatelycalledforaunionofFrenchwriters,artists,and scientistsagainstthefascistmenace.Thetimefor"prolongeddissensionandinternalcombats"wasover.BecauseFrance's"commonwelfare"wasjeopardized,he urgedprogressiveFrenchmento''besilentondifferences,"thatis,onconflictinginterpretationsofSovietrepressionwithintheUSSR,theFrenchPopularFront,and theSpanishCivilWar.HeexhortedPopularFrontFrancetoremainthe"lastcontinentalbastionoffreedom.''TheSpanishCivilWarprovedthatweaknessintheface offascismonlymade"theadversaryarrogantandpowerful."Antifascistintellectualsoughttoemphasizeconsensusinthismomentofdirecrisis:"Let'scallatruceto ourdisagreements."33 Bythespringof1938,RomainRollandwasdisguisingmixedfeelingsaboutFrenchcommunism.HefeltanaffinityforthePCF'spoliciesonforeignaffairsand esteemedcertaincommunistintellectualsandartistsenormously.HighonhislistwereAragon,PaulNizan,JeanRichardBloch,PaulVaillantCouturier,Georges Friedmann,RogerGaraudy,andLonMoussinac.Atruesocialistsocietyrequiredthevoluntaryconsentofintellectualswiththeorganizedworkingclassitneeded the"cooperationandharmonyofitsfreeindividualforces."SignificanttasksfortheMarxistintellectualsremainedforthefuture:"Itisourtruetaskaswriters,following Marx,todisengagevirilelytherealmanfromtheabstractman,andtoleadhimtothethresholdofareignoftruefreedom,byshowingasMarxdid,thecoexistence, orthecoincidence,ofCommunismwithhumanism."34 AfterthefalloftheSpanishRepublic,hewascertainthatCzechoslovakiawouldbethenexttargetoffascistaggression.Westernpoliticiansappearedwillingto sacrificetheterritorialintegrityoftheCzechoslovakiannationinreturnforsomediplomaticorpoliticaldealwiththeunscrupulousNazis.InearlySeptember1938,the FrenchwritersentatelegramtoBritishprimeministerNevilleChamberlainandtoFrenchpresidentEdouardDaladier,strenuouslywarningthemagainstallowingthe GermanfasciststooccupyCzechoslovakia:

Page280 Weareconvinced...thattheFrenchandEnglishgovernmentsmustobtainimmediatelyanaccordamongdemocraticpowers,inordertopreventbyrigorousconcordandby energeticmeasuresthosecriminalviolationsperpetratedbyHitleragainstCzechoslovakianindependenceandintegrity,andconsequentlyagainstEuropeanpeace.35

Frenchintellectualpacifists,ledbythelyricalnovelistJeanGiono,blastedRomainRollandforhistelegram.Theycounteredwithatelegramoftheirowntothe democraticheadsofstate,layingbarehis"lies."Giono,Alain,andVictorMargueritteexhortedChamberlainandDaladiertonegotiatewith,notthreaten,Hitler.The words"prevent...byenergeticmeasures"signifiedwar.36ThisopenexchangewastheepiloguetotheCommentempcherlaguerre?debateofearly1936.Once again,FrenchintegralpacifistsopposedintegralantifascismandcounseledappeasementwithGermany.ThisdebatewouldreverberateinVichyFrance,when intellectualsandmilitantsagonizedoverthechoicebetweencollaborationorresistance.Manyoftheintegralpacifistswouldcollaborate,atleastpassively.Many antifascistsbecamebothactiveandpassiveresisters. On29September1938,DaladierandChamberlainsignedtheMunichAccordswithHitler.TodeflateChamberlain'sdeclarationthattheagreementmeant"peacein ourtime"andtoreverseMunich'snumbingeffectoninternalFrenchpolitics,RomainRollandcomposedarejoinder.PublishedonthefrontpageofL'Humanit,its titlesummarizeditscontents:"TheMunich'Peace'IsaDegradingCapitulation."AppeasingHitleronlyacceleratedthemomentumoffascistpride,greedand expansionism.HavinggainedleverageincentralEurope,theNaziswouldsoonmakeFranceatarget.Thereallosersinthisfalsepeace,besidestheCzechs,were thosecommittedtotheideaofanantifascistFrance:"Butifweallloveandwantpeace,wemustconsiderthattheoneofMunichisadegradingcapitulationthat furnishesnewarmsagainstFrance.''37 AftertheMunichAccordsandHitler'sprovocativeoverturestowardCzechoslovakia,RomainRollandremindedhimselfthattheGermanfascistsusedanticommunism asapretexttolegitimizetheirplansforworldconquest.HitlerblendedantiSemitismandanticommunismtojustifyhisassaultontheremnantsofPopularFront coalitionsandWesterndemocracies.TheMunichAccordsdemonstratedthatthefhrerusedmanipulationand"heinous

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lies"toservehisowninterests:"Hitlerrepresentsthedemocraciesas'JudeoCommunist'hewantstokillthem."AsastudentofGermanhistoryandculture,Romain Rollandwasseldomastonishedbypoliticaldevelopmentsthere.YetHitler'sexcesseshorrifiedhim.Hecouldnotfathomthe"facilitywithwhichGermansoulsare takenby[Hitler's]combinationofmysticismandviolence.Hitlerandthepeoplesfollowinghimareaformidablemonster.''Thisfrenzywasparticularlyevidentatthe NationalSocialistmassrallies,wheremillionswerehypnotizedbythefhrer's"hallucinatedpersonality,"crueloratory,andWagneriantheatrics.38 Afterreviewingthevariouspoliticaldisastersoftheyear,hedubbed1938a"yearofmourning."Westerndemocracies,particularlyFrance,hadtoassumetheburden of"shameandremorse"forboththe"delivery"ofCzechoslovakiatotheGermanfascistsandthe"abandonment''ofSpaintoFranco.Heconsideredworthyofpraise theinterventioninSpainbya"few,heroicvolunteers,"thefightersintheInternationalBrigades,whoriskedlifeandlimbfortheSpanishRepublic.ThePopularFront wasdeadhenowpromotedantifascismbyemphasizingitsnationalisticdimensions."WeknowthatontheearthofSpain,itisFrancetheydefended."39 RomainRollandprivatelyexpressedhisdispleasurewiththePCF'sdomesticpolicyinletterstogeneralsecretaryMauriceThorez.Thorezshouldpreventa"collision" betweenorganizedworkersandthearmedforcesinademonstrationcalledforon30November1938.SuchaclashwouldweakentheunityofFranceandthereby benefitHitler.UrgingThoreztoendtheCommunistcampaignof"furiousexaggerations"and"verbalviolence"againstDaladier'sgovernment,hepointedoutthatthis rhetoriconlyservedthereaction.Itsmackedofselfdefeat.TheCommunistswouldbelabeled"antinational"intheFrenchcontext.AlthoughDaladiercapitulatedto GermanfascisminsigningtheMunichAccords,hewasneither"atraitornoraswindler,"astheCommunistpressportrayedhim.Historywouldsufficientlyadmonish himforhismiscalculation.TheCommunists,eveniftheywereabletomaintainanalliancewiththeSocialists,notaprobabilityafterBlum'ssecondgovernment collapsed,possessedneithertheresourcesnorthepowertosustainnationalunity.Tosafeguardthecountry'smilitaryandpsychologicalreadinessforwarandto preservethePCFasanautonomousparty,hepressedThoreztogive

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the"exampleofdisciplineandsacrifices."PreservingdemocraticFrancewasnowidenticalwiththe"causeofinternationalsocialism."Anyotheractivitywouldresultin "anarchyandconfusioninwhichtheenemywouldprofit.''Heclosedhisletterbysendinghis"respectandfaithinthefuturetoLaPasionaria."40Clearly,Romain Rolland'scommitmenttoantifascismandtotheRepublicanstrugglesinSpainandFrancefaroutstrippedhisendorsementofThorez'sparochialmaneuverings. <><><><><><><><><><><><> JustasL'Ameenchanteexploredthedimensionsofcriticalsupportforcommunismintheearly1930s,theepicdramaRobespierreaddressedtheambiguitiesof uncriticalsupportintheframeworkoftheMoscowpurgetrials.ThiswasRomainRolland'slastplayandartisticsummary,composedforhisTheateroftheRevolution cycle.Hedesignedtheplaytoberead,pondered,andinterpretedratherthanperformed.Itexpressedhisrevisedperceptionsaboutarevolutionaryupheavalthat failedtoliveuptohismythicalandhumanistichopesforit.Robespierrewasaselfreflexiveplaywithoutbeingapologeticorselfcongratulatory.Itdidnotofferan easywayoutofthedilemmasoffellowtraveling.Inthepreface,headmittedthathepostponedwritingituntilheturnedseventytwo.Hewasunable"totake possessionofthesubject"untiltheyear1938,whentheparallelsbetweenFranceduringthelastmonthsoftheTerrorandRussiaduringStalin'spurgeswerequite unmistakable.41 Theplayaddressedthreeconvergingproblems:thefatalityofrevolutionaryactionatamomentofcrisis,thedilemmasofacomplexrevolutionarypersonality confrontedwithdifficultoptions,andtheassessmentofasocialrevolutionfromadividedperspectiveofsympathyfortherevolution'sgoalsandrevulsionatits systematicterror.Inrecreatingthe"moraltruth"ofthe"hallucinateddramaofthelastmonthsoftheFrenchRevolution,"RomainRollandwascomingtotermswith eventsinStalin'sRussia,whichwereequally"hallucinated"intheeyesofamoralist.42Althoughhisuncriticalfellowtravelingtooktheformofpublicsilenceintheface ofStalin'saberrations,heexploredhisconscienceabouttheseeventsinthisplay.Inaclimateofsuspicionandirrationalfrenzy,everythingseemedpossible,including theperversionofthespe

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cificidealsandaccomplishmentsofasocialrevolutionasubtextoftheplaywasthedestructionoftheideaofsocialrevolutionitself. RomainRolland'shistoricaldescriptionofthesummerof1794easilyfitthatofRussia145yearslater,intheperiodofthetrialsandtheglobalascendancyoffascism: "Andthethousandandonedailysuspendeddangersofdeathforeignwars,internalwars,invasions,conspiracies,assassination,mutualdistrusttheillnessof suspicionandthedeliriumofpersecution."43 Napoleononcesaidthat"politicsisthemodernfatality."RomainRollandtragicallyinterpretedthatremarktoembracethedynamicsoftwentiethcenturymasspolitics. Revolutionaryleaderswerecompelledtomakechoicesthathonoredorunderminedarevolution.InRobespierre,thecriticalissuewashowtosavetheRepublicina situationofunprecedentedcrisis.Theplayexploredtheproblemofconstructingtheedificeofmilitarydictatorship,dominatedbyapowerfulbutflawedleader,in ordertopreservetherevolution.RomainRolland'scharactersrefusedthischoice.Stalinacceptedit.Insteadofinstitutingadictatorship,Robespierrepersuadedhis followersandadversarieswithwords.Hewasputtodeath.Therevolutionended,itsresultsremainingopentoerosionandtointerpretation.Revolutionscreated Manicheanchoices.RobespierreeliminatedthecentristDantonandtheextremeleftistHbertinordertoprotecttheRepublicagainstitsenemies,justasStalinhad purgedBukharinandTrotsky.RobespierreanchoredhissocialandpoliticalphilosophyinEnlightenmentthoughtStalininMarxismLeninism.AsaJacobin, Robespierrewasopposedtothedominationofprivilege.Inordertorealizehisrationalandprogressiveideals,Robespierreadoptedviolentmeasuresleadingto unpredictableresults.Lies,betrayals,accusations,andtheguillotineweresubstitutedforthedecentaspirationsoftheEnlightenment.44 RomainRollandhadnointentionofglorifyingRobespierre.HepresentedabalancedportraitofRobespierreasthemanwhodominatedtheFrenchRevolution. Thinkingthatheincarnatedvirtue,Robespierrepushedselfrighteousnesstoextremes.Hewastragically"isolatedfromtheworld."Robespierrerefusedtorisk dictatorshiptosavetheRepublic,adecisionpivotingonthenotionofpopularsovereignty.Robespierre'sdedicationtopopularrightsparalleledthecontemporary struggleagainstfascism.Dictatorshipequaledfascistformsofgovernment(lesfaisceauxdeladictature).45

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Stalin'spurgesillustratedthe"deliriumofpersecution"aspertinentlyastheworstbloodbathsoftheTerror.Stalin'sEuropeancontemporarieswonderedhowtojustify Sovietcrimeshistoricallyinthenameoftheloftygoalsandnobleprinciplesofsocialisthumanism.HereRomainRollandfaltered:thepurgeswereneithersocialistnor humanist.Ifhistoriansweretojudgetheseevents,theywouldhavetobeimpartialandimaginative,notsimplythe"servantsofsuccess."46 Inspiteofhisgoodintentions,Robespierreperformedrealevil.RomainRolland,too,insympathizingwiththemonumentalRussianRevolution,refusedtoprotest majoractsofevil.TheTerror,counterposedagainsttherealityofStalin'spurges,illustratedtheimpossibilityofmaintainingthelanofsocialrevolutions,ofpreventing therevolutionfromdegeneratingintocrimeortotalitariandictatorship.Thepoliticsofuncriticalsupportforsocialistrevolutionsbytheartisticorintellectualcommunity wouldbetarnished,perhapsdiscredited,foranothergeneration.Therealityofarepublicthatprotectedpopularsovereigntyandpreservedhumanfreedomswaslost: "TheRepublic,thecountry[patrie],allislost.Allourhopesinreason,injustice,invirtue.Humanityiscondemned."TheEuropeanfellowtravelerobservingtheevents inSovietRussiaexpresseddeepanguishaboutthehistoricalsignificanceofeventsthus:"Theforcesofcircumstanceshaveledus,perhaps,toresultswehadnot foreseen."47 RomainRollandconfessedtohavingbeensweptawaybywishfulimpulses.Asafellowtraveler,hewasoverwhelmedbythelogicofrevolutionaryupheaval, transformedintoanunwillingaccomplicetothecrimes:"Ihavenotsoughttoidealizethem.Ihavesparedneithertheonestheirerrorsnortheotherstheirfaults.I, myself,havebeentakenbythegreatwavethatcarriedthem.Ihaveseenthesincerityofallthemenwhoexterminatethemselves,andtheterriblefatalityof Revolutions.Itisnotofatime.Itisofalltimes."48Themostdamagingfatalityofrevolutionwastheinevitableslidefromidealismtoextermination.Theengaged intellectualwasnotimmunefromthisprocessofdebasement.InRobespierrehequestionedwhetherhisownhumanisticformofengagementmightbenullifiedbythe heinousresultsofStalin'sexcesses.InStalin'spurgetrials,theEuropeanfellowtravelerobservedthedestructionofanoceanicfeelingofcommunitybetween intellectualsandmanualworkers

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thiscontactwastwistedintothecynicalexpediencyofdictatorialpowerpolitics,whereindividualsbecamenumbersandwheresensibility,consciousness,andmorality wereextinguished. Theliteratureonfellowtravelinghasbeenmonographicorthematic.Thecasehistoriesexaminetheparticularitiesofawriter'sfascinationwithcommunismtheydraw nogeneralorcomparativeconclusion.49Thethematicscholarsproposeoverarchingtheses:thatfellowtravelingwriterscametocommunismasanewformof religionthattheirsympathieswithcommunismdemonstratedthepotencyoftheliberal,enlightenmenttraditionthatcommunismlegitimizedtheirdeepalienationfrom theirownsocietyandsocialclassorthatcommunistcommitmentreflectedprofoundselfdeception(thelastconcludesthattheywere"guiltyoffecklessness, dilettantism,arrogance").50Althoughthereissomemeritineachofthesepointsofview,theytendtobedecontextualized.Theyrobtheintellectualinquestionof complexityandselfdoubt.Theyreducetheproblematicoffellowtravelingbymixingcriticalanalysiswithcondescension,selfrighteousness,anddownrighthostility. ThisaccounthaselucidatedRomainRolland'sfellowtravelingbytracingitsemergencefromhisitineraryofengagedstands.Fellowtravelingcannotbecomprehended outsideofthespecificitiesofthePopularFrontera:itwashistoricallyrelative,areactiontocataclysmiceventsinthe1930s,abovealltheproliferationoffascist movementsandtheperceivedinevitabilityofworldwar.Inanerasaturatedwithexpansionistfascism,fellowtravelingderivedfromasober,defensivereassessmentof Europeanrealities.Italsorecognizedtheimprobabilitiesofapacifistoppositiontofascism,andtheweaknessofaconciliatorydiplomaticapproachtofascismbythe Europeandemocraciesandsocialdemocrats.FascismcouldnotberesistedwithoutthefirmresolveoftheorganizedworkingclassinEuropeandwithoutthemilitary mightoftheSovietUnion.ThecollapseoftheRepublicancauseinSpainpowerfullyillustratedwhatoccurrediftheantifascistlancouldnotbemaintainedinpractice aswellasinprinciple. ThemostinexplicableaspectsofRomainRolland'sfellowtravelingwerenothispublicstatementsinsupportofSovietpolicies,theexistingSovietleadership,and ongoingprojectsofsocialplanning.WhatwasconstructiveintheUSSRmadethecontrastwithEuropeanparalysismorevivid.Hisstatementsontheemergenceofa

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"newman,"thepracticalwisdomofcommunistleadership,andthedepthsofthecommunistdesiretodefendcultureseemhopelesslynaiveandwishfulfroma historicalretrospectoffiftyyears.YetthisstudyhasalsodocumentedhisprivatedoubtsanddisclaimersregardingSovietMarxismandcommunistrepresentativesin France,eveninthemostuncriticalphaseofhisfellowtraveling. Aftermakingacareerofconscientiousprotests,RomainRollandneitherendorsednorcriticizedthemostglaringcommunistexcessoftheera,theMoscowpurge trials.Itisnoteasytoreconcilecommittedwritingandsilence.Wasthissilenceabetrayalofhisownversionofengagement?Thefellowtravelerrefusedtoequate communismandfascism.Hedifferentiatedsharplybetweentheirgovernments,ideologies,leaders,andgoals.TokeepalivethehopeofaEuropefreefromfascism, thefellowtravelingwriterhadtoknowwhentokeepsilent,whenpublicpronouncementsnolongerclarifiedissues,whenprotestmightdemoralizeordividethe pocketsofactiveresistancetofascism.Circumstancenolongerpermittedacritical,freewheelingdialoguewithinsocialistandcommunistcirclesnolongerpermitted theleftwingintellectualtoremaintolerant,compassionate,irreverent,andfreetoinfuseutopianideasandartisticimaginationintoexistingleftmovements.Romain Rolland'ssilencerevealedhissenseofdesperationandmirroredtheManicheanchoicesinaneraofcollapsingoptions.Topurists,thissilencemayseemreactionary, evenreprehensibleacollusionwithatrocity,especiallyinsomeonewhoknewtheconcreteabusesandinjusticesperpetratedbythecommunists.Yetinthelate 1930s,coincidingwiththedeclineofthePopularFront,silencewasacompromiseconsistentwithanunyieldingantifascism.Thepoliticsofuncriticalfellowtraveling correspondedtoahistoricaljuncturewheredebateandanalysiscouldnolongerilluminateindividualandcollectivechoice.Silencebecamealastresort,anattemptto maintainbalanceandlucidity,evenifitimpliedanacquiescencetowardcommunistdogmaandtyranny. RomainRollandcelebratedtheonehundredfiftiethanniversaryoftheFrenchRevolutionin1939withanarticlecalled"TheNecessityofRevolution."Thiswashislast essaypublishedinEuropeduringhislifetime.HecontrastedtheFrenchrevolutionaryexperiencewiththecontemporarystateoftheEuropeandemocracies,obliquely commentingonthecurrentdeformationsoftheRussianRevolution.

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HesetupthephilosophicalwritingsofTurgotandCondorcetandtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizentoarguetheessentialidentitybetween revolutionaryactivityandthematurationofreason.Revolutionarymilitancysince1789provedauniversalpoint:thatpeoplecouldmakehistoryrationallyregardlessof theobstaclesintheirway.Revolutionaryupheavalsmarkedhumanity'sconsciousnessofitsownpowertochangetheenvironment,underscoringthepossibilitiesof coherentactioninwhich"mantakespossessionofhimselfandtheworld."Revolutions,then,werepointsofdeparturethatcould"andmustbesurpassed."Thehealth oftherevolutionaryprocessdependedonasovereignpeoplewhowereallowedto"judgeandrevisefreely''theprinciplesofanygovernment.Twentiethcentury socialrevolutioncreatedadisparitybetweenfreereasonandrevolutionaryconstructiondirectedfromabove.EllipticallyreferringtotheSovietUnion,heallegedthata "fearfuldistrust"ofreasonproducedakindof"bodyguard''thatenclosedtherevolutionwithinnarrowparameters.Therevolution,ratherthanbeingthe"protector," becameaprisonerwithinitsownconfines,masochisticallyturningonitself,fearingdialogue,crushingdissent.51Byinference,theStalinistphaseofthepurgehad pushedtheRussianRevolutioninanirrationaldirection. Toprevent"criminalusurpation"byarevolutionaryregime,thepeopleneededfullfreedomofinquiryandcompleteaccesstoinformation.Aneducatedpopulace servedasacorrectivetorevolutionarycentralization.Thegovernmentmustbeaccountable,"theprinciplesandrulesofgovernmentsubmittedtothefreeexamination ofeverycitizen."52CivillibertiesandpoliticalrightswereabsentinStalin'sRussia.RomainRollandpreferredPopularFrontstylegovernmentstoStalin'sdictatorship oftheproletariatandhisdomesticnetworkofterrorbutthePopularFronthadfailed,leavingamajorpoliticalandculturalvoid. AwarethatEuropewascaughtinthe"snaresoflyingdictatorshipsthatsupportignoranceanddelirium,"heproclaimedthenecessityforarevolutionthatwouldbring tofruitiontheinitiativesstartedin1789.HenolongerhadtheSovietmodelinmind.Allrevolutionaryachievementswereregressionsunlessthethreegoalsof Condorcet'sCredowerefulfilled:"Destructionofinequalitybetweennationsprogressofequalityinapeopleitselfandfinally,theperfectabilityofman."53Romain Rolland'senlightened,populist

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internationalismhardlytalliedwithStalin's"socialisminonecountry"in1939. On23August1939,theSovietUnionandfascistGermanysignedapactofnonaggression.TheunexpectednewsoftheNaziSovietPactstrucklikealightningboltin thecommunityofFrenchcommunistintellectualsandfellowtravelers.ThoughnotallthetermswereclarifieduntiltheRussianinvasionofFinlandinthewinterof 19391940,thepactwreakedhavocamongthemembersoftheFrenchintellectualleft.ForRomainRolland,theallianceofHitlerandStalincreatedmoredifficulties thanthepurges:itcalledintoquestionhistwelveyearsoffriendshipwiththeSovietUnion.Hisownanalysisoffascism,coupledwithpoliticizedantifascistactivities, hadcementedhistieswiththeFrenchcommunistsandtheComintern.TheNaziSovietPactforcedhimtorethinkhisdecisiontochoosebetweenuncriticalfellow travelingandantifascism.Nowthatthetwoirreconcilableenemiesanddivergentideologicalsystemsmadeadiplomaticalliance,hecouldeitherdenouncethepact publicly,voicinghisconsiderablereservationsaboutdomesticSovietpoliciesandforeignaffairs,orhecouldremainsilent.Silenceseemedtobethelesserofevils, eventhoughhefeltthattheSovietshadbrokenfaithwithantifascismandbetrayedtheinterestsofinternationalcommunism.ThecommunistsabandonedtheWestern democraciesatthecriticalmomentwhenamilitaryconfrontationwithfascismwasinevitable. TheNaziSovietPactsnuffedoutRomainRolland'slasthopesforaFrenchinterclassunityandforanequalitarianinternationalism.The"RingofPeace"hadbeen smashedbytheRussiancommuniststhemselves.HewroteJeanCassou,editorofEurope,toindicatehisawarenessofthe"sorrowfuldisarray"amongtheeditorial boardofthereview.FellowtravelingwriterssuchasRenLalouandLucDurtainreactedtothepactbypublishingviolentprotestsandresigningfromEurope. CommunistwriterssuchasBlochandAragonpublished"absurdlyobstinate"piecesthatcynicallydefendedtherealismoftheGermanRussianalliance.Inviewofthis confusion,RomainRollandagreedwithCassouthatEuropeshouldtemporarilysuspendpublication.54ThemajorRollandistjournaloftheinterwaryearsceasedto existuntilaftertheSecondWorldWar. HepraisedCassouforhis"justmoderation"andcontrasteditwiththe"violentpanic"ofLalouandDurtainandthe"desperate

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acceptance"ofBlochandAragon.Ratherthanprecipitatefurtherschismsintheeditorialboard,RomainRollandurgeda"momentaryretreat."Massivedisillusionment withtheUSSRortoeingthepartylinewerenowbesidethepoint.Everystatementandaccusationwouldbeemotionally"exploitedbydifferentpointsofview." Silencewasjustifiedwhenpolemicsnolongerclarifiedtheissues:"Wemustwaitandbesilentuntileventsslackenalittleinthecrisis."55 However,after"readingandmeditatingonthetextofthePact,"andespeciallyafterlearningthattheSovietUnionforcedtheruptureoftheBritishFrenchSoviet diplomaticconference,he"addressedhisresignationtotheAssociationoftheFriendsoftheSovietUnion."Thissymbolicactwasdoneprivatelybecausehedidnot wanthisresignationtobe"brutallyexploitedbytheadversariesoftheSovietUnion."Theassociationoughttobedissolvedbecauseithad"nocausetoexistnow underitspresentform."56ThisquietgestureendedRomainRolland'sengagementasafellowtravelingintellectual. TheRussians,heconjectured,acceptedthepactfor"politicalreasons"orbecauseofaNazi"imperative"or"ultimatum."TheSovietUnionhad"gravelyfailedinits dutiesinthisconflict."TheSovietdiplomaticalliancewiththefascistssimultaneouslybetrayedtheWesterndemocraciesanddishonoredtheCommunistInternational. Theformerwereleftisolatedandweakenedagainstthefascistthreat.TheSovietCommunistParty"sacrificed''theloyalpartiesofFrance,GreatBritain,andother countries.Europeancommunistswouldbetaintedwith''suspicion"andsubjectedtothe"vengeanceofthereaction."TheNaziSovietPactmightultimatelybe assessedasa"horriblepoliticalblunder,"oran"error,"despiteitsMachiavelliandesigns.Whateverthepragmaticexplanationforthisalliance,hejudgedthatitwould "remainunpardonable."57 HisdisillusionmentwiththeNaziSovietPactwasnotatemporarysentimentorabriefexplosionofrage.HesharedGeorgesFriedmann's"reaction"toitasa"double blow":it"hadbrokentheconfidenceandfaith"ofnonfascistEuropeancountriesandshockednonSovietcommunistsandfellowtravelersaroundtheworld. CounselingFriedmannagainst"unnecessarypassionandweakness"withregardtothepact,hejustifiedhisownsilenceabout

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SovietcomplicitywithGermanfascism.Iftheywereamongthe"firstandmosttenacious"opponentsoffascism,theyknewthatoneoverwhelmingresponsibility remained:"UnionincombatagainstHitlerism."Althoughthepactshiftedtheinternationalbalanceofpower,heassertedbitterly,"itisnotwewhohavechanged." Despitethecommunists'reversaloftheirpolicies,antifascistFrenchintellectualsoughttounitetheirshrunkenranksinordertopreparethealloutfightagainstfascism. Inwagingthisbattle,heexclaimed,''combatantsofthemindhaveoneotherduty:lucidity."58 RomainRollandwroteapubliclettertoPresidentDaladieraffirminghisabsoluteantifascism,evenafterthewithdrawaloftheSovietUnionfromanalliancewith Europeancountries.Hisunalterableoppositiontofascismtranscendedhisfellowtravelingactivities,remainingattherootofhisintellectualpoliticsinthe1930s.His desiretoliquidatefascismwaslinkedtohiscommitmenttodemocracyandcivilliberties:

InthesedecisivedayswhentheFrenchRepublicrisestobartheroadtoHitler'styranny,whichisfloodingEurope,permitanoldfighterforpeacewhoalwaysdenounced barbarism,perfidiousness,andtheunbridledambitionoftheThirdReichtoexpresstoyoumycompletedevotiontothecauseofthedemocracies,ofFranceandtheworld,in suchdangertoday.59

HerespondedtoHitler'sinvasionofPolandon1September1939andtothesubsequentdeclarationofwarwithcharacteristicequanimity.Europewasbeing "deliveredovertomonsters."Hereappraisedhisthirteenyearantifascistcampaignasafailure.Inthesecircumstances,despairanddefeatismwereinappropriate reactions.Itwascrucial"tomaintainafirmandclearmind."60WithabsolutepowerinvestedinHitlerandnowunleashedinwar,heexpectedthemostterrible devastation:"Hitlerisahalfmadsomnambulistwhothinkshimselfinspiredandwhoseimaginationhasbeendeformedbypoorlydigestedfalse(racist)scienceandby Wagner'sextravagances."NationalSocialismmeant"war,destruction,and...degradation":onlymilitarycombatcouldwipeoutGermanfascism.61 OvercomingtheNazisremainedthefocusofhisintellectualpoliticsfrom1939untilhisdeathon30December1944.UntiltheGermanfascistsweredefeated,their ideologydiscredited,andpo

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liticalmethodsdismantled,noworktowarddemocraticsocialistreconstructioncouldbecompleted:
IbelievethatalleffortsofeveryFrenchmanshouldconvergefromthismomentontowardthischiefifnotexclusivegoal:thetotaleliminationofGermanfascism.Delendaest. After,onecandiscuss[otherthings].Butfirst,crushthemonster.Thisisaquestionoflifeanddeath.Ihavenevervariedonthat.62

Itwasinthispessimisticmood,butwiththespiritoflucidantifascism,thatRomainRollandpreparedhimselffortheordealoftotalwarinthewinterof1939.

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CONCLUSION: PESSIMISMOFTHEINTELLIGENCE,OPTIMISMOFTHEWILL
WhatIespeciallylove...isthisintimatealliancewhichformemakesthetruemanofpessimismoftheintelligence,whichpenetrateseveryillusion,andoptimismofthewill.Itis thisnaturalbraverythatistheflowerofagoodpeople,which"doesnotneedtohopetoundertakeandtosucceedtopersevere,"butwhichlivesinstruggleoverandabove suffering,doubt,andtheblastsofnothingnessbecausehisfierylifeisthenegationofdeath.Andbecausehisdoubtitself,theFrench"WhatdoIknow?"becomestheweaponof hope,barringtheroadtodiscouragementandsayingtohisdreamsofactionandrevolution:"Whynot?'' RomainRolland,reviewofR.Lefebvre'sTheSacrificeofAbraham

WhenBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyon3September1939,RomainRollandwasseventythreeyearsold.HelivedinVzelayandoccasionally traveledtohisLeftBankapartmenton89,boulevardduMontparnassetoconductliterarybusinessortoconsultwithaphysicianabouthisfailinghealth.The"phony war"inFrancelastedsixweeks,from10Mayuntil25June1940.France'sdefeatandthefalloftheThirdRepublicwerefollowedbyNazioccupationandthe"phony regime"ofVichyFrance,inwhichPtainandhisentouragecollaboratedwiththeGermanfascistsandtooktheirrevengeontheFrenchPopularFront.Consistentwith hismatureintellectualpoliticsofthe1930s,RomainRollandremainedunalterablyantifascist.Heregardedtheeraasreflecting"thetidalwavethreatofthebarbarous tyrannyofHitler'sThirdReich."1 Hisfinalyearsweremarkedbychronicillnessesoftheheart,lungs,intestines,andeyes.Problemsofeverydaylifewereexacerbatedbydifficultiesinwalkingand breathing,lackoffood,anxietiesaboutthesalesofhisbooks,intellectualisolation,andseparationfromfriendsandacquaintances.Manyofhisclosestcolleagues

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didnotsurvivetheSecondWorldWar.In1942,helearnedofthesuicideofhisViennesetranslatorandbiographer,StefanZweig,whowasunabletotoleratethe horrorsofexile,totalwar,andtheshatteringoftheEuropeofhisyouth.RomainRollandandhiswifeweredeeplyconcernedaboutthesafetyofhisRussianstepson, SergeKoudachef,whowasfightingintheRussianArmy,andwhowaslaterkilledinaction.2 LivinginsolitudeinOccupiedFranceseverelytaxedtheelderlywriter's innerresources.Itappearedthathisidealismhadbeenuseless,thattheensembleofhiscampaignsforhumanitarian,political,andculturalcauseshadfailedmiserably. Yetheremainedcautiouslyoptimisticabouthisidealsandaboutthefuture. WellmeaningfriendsurgedhimtoleaveFranceandseekshelterintheUnitedStates.Hefelttoooldanddisabled,andtooculturallydistantfromAmerica,touproot himself.Ashiseconomicsituationworsened,heanticipatedroyaltiesfromAmericantranslationsofhisMemoirsandhismultivolumeBeethoven.Undoubtedly,hislife wasextendedbythetirelessaidandtendernessofhiswife,MarieRomainRolland,whonursedhim,keptvisitorsandinformersaway,andprovidedinvaluable administrativeandsecretarialservicestohim.Blurringthelinebetweenpersonalandpoliticalandsocialhistory,hecharacterizedtheeraofVichyFranceasthe "weary,dark,somberyearsofmoraloppressionandillness."3 Unabletoparticipateinmeaningfulresistance,herestrictedhisactivitiestoliterarycreation.Asinothertormentedperiodsofhislife,writingbecameasourceof consolationandrevitalization.Ratherthanbeoverwhelmedbythebigotry,conservatism,andmindlessclericalnationalismofVichyFrance,heworked,retaininga "serenesoulandclearmind."4 Becausethepresentwassodreadful,helookedbacktothepast,includingtheperiodofhisownintellectualapprenticeship,taking couragefromthemoralstatureofhisearliestculturalheroes.Duringthisperiod,hecompletedthefinalvolumesofhismassiveBeethoven.In1943,hefinishedboth TheNinthSymphonyandTheLastQuartets.5 NobettercontrastcouldbemadebetweenthetwoGermanys:Hitler'scruelvisionofAryanpurityandglobal conquestagainstBeethoven'svisionoffraternityandcreativejoy.ReflectingonBeethoven'slastyearsandhearinghisgloriousmusicwereanescapefromthebleak conditionsofOccupiedFrance.Thebiographywasanextendedmeditationonmusical

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geniusandonthehistoricalandpsychologicalcomponentsofthecomposer'simagination.ItexploredthestrengthofwillthatenabledBeethoventoovercomepersonal obstaclestoproducesublime,lifeaffirmingworksofart.RomainRollandmanagedtoconcludehisoeuvrewithaliterarymasterpiece,atwovolumebiographyof CharlesPguy,inwhoseindependentjournalhehadpublishedhisearliestengagedwritingatthebeginningofthecentury.Pguycontainedmuchautobiographical data,butitwas,aboveall,a"moralportrait"underscoringthesubject's"independentfaithandpassionforfreedom."6 RomainRolland'sageandinfirmitieskepthimfromactiveoppositiontotheNazisandtheVichygovernment,buthewasinsolidaritywiththeFrenchResistance movement.Givenhispublicpoliticalcommitmentsinthe1930s,VichyFranceauthoritiesconsideredhimdangerous.Theylabeledhim,pejoratively,an"antifascist." TheVichypolicemonitoredhishouse,openedhiscorrespondence,spreadrumors,andassembleddatainaclassifieddossier.TheharmlessoldmanofFrenchletters wasareadytargetforpoliceintrusion,evenforpersecution.Thegendarmeriewaslocatedacrossthestreetfromhisresidence,andsurveillancewasrelativelyeasy. MarieRomainRollandfearedthathisarrestorassassinationwasadistinctpossibility.NotuntilinfluentialParisianfriendsintercededdidthezealousVichyite subprefectbackofffrompettybutpotentiallyinjuriousharassment.JeanChristophewasplacedontheindexofbooksbannedbyVichy'sstatesecretaryofpublic instructioninFebruary1941.7 ItwasallegedtocorruptFrenchadolescents.AnabridgedversionwasremovedfromtheeducationalsyllabusintheFrenchnational schoolsystem.Attentivetotheculturalpoliticsofrepressivestates,RomainRollandheldVichyauthoritiesaccountableforthisactofcensorshipandintellectual terrorism:"Itisitsfashionofpracticingthepoliticsofcollaboration."8 HewroteletterstoayoungmemberoftheFrenchResistance,ElieWalach,aJewborninPolandin1921,whohademigratedtoFrancein1929andbeenrecruited intothecommunistResistance.Walach'searlymembershipwasexceptional.ThemajorityofFrenchcommunistsbecameactiveintheResistanceonlyafterJune1941, followingtheNaziinvasionoftheSovietUnion.FortheFrenchwriter,Walachrepresentedthe"ardorandspontaneity"oftheantifascistResistancemovement. WalachjoinedtheResistanceon1March1940and

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wascapturedbyVichyauthoritieson27February1941.Hewasimprisoned,interrogated,andtorturedformonthswithoutdisclosinginformationhewasfinally murderedon27July1941.9 RomainRolland'sfirstlettertoWalacharticulatedtheirshared,uncompromisingantifascistsentiments.Hedidnot,however,exaggeratetheimpactofintellectual oppositionintheseextremecircumstances.Suchclaimswouldhavebeengrandioseanddisrespectfuloftheconcretedangersofthoseactivelyresisting,whoselives wereontheline.Herecognizedtheneedforacollective,militaryassaultonfascism:

Thoseofus[alive]todaywhenthewordcannotbeofsignificance...canonlybebraveandpatientandleadincommonthecombatagainstHitlerism,untilitisvanquished.Forif itisnot,allthatweloveandrespectwillperish:ourFrance,ourfreedoms,andourgreathopes.Hitlermustbevanquished.10

RomainRollandpredictedthatworldwarandVichyFrance'sCatholicandnationalisticbigotry,includingitshorrificpoliciestowardJews,workers,andintellectuals, wouldbetransientphenomena.Policestatesrunbynarrowminded,reactionaryoligarchiesweredestinedforshorthistoricalduration.Hepersistedinbelievingthat hatredamongpeopleandnationscouldbeovercomeandthattheeventualreconciliationofhumanitymightstilloccur.Fascismhadtobeobliteratedforthathopeto germinate.HewouldneitherlivetoseetheseidealsrealizednorwitnessaregeneratedFranceforgethe"victoryofthehumanspirit"outoftheruinsofthe Occupation.11 Hewasinspiredbytheyoung,activistintellectualsoftheFrenchResistance,particularlythosesteeledintheunderground.Theirwordsanddeedseloquentlytestified toaminority'swilltofightdegradation.ThisnewbreedofFrenchintellectualmightcontinuethetraditionofintellectualengagementhehadparticipatedin,legitimized, indeedpartlyinvented.Heclearlyfeltthathisstyleofcommitment,fusingmoralityandpolitics,wasbeingpassedontothegenerationoftheResistance,which graduallytookontheformandcontentofpoliticizedengagementandwasapowerfulimpetustowardsocialandculturalrenewal:"Andintheclandestineliteratureand intheliberatedpress,onehasalreadyheardgreatvoicesyoungandmoving,forthemostpart.Ihavetrust."12

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InAugust1944,PariswasliberatedandtheendofEuropeanhostilitiesseemednear.CharlesdeGaullereceivedakindofpopularcoronationinParison26August 1944.Asanepiloguetoacareerofintellectualpolitics,RomainRolland'slastarticlewarmlyendorsedtheengagedwritersemerginghistoricallyfromtheResistance. HiscommemorationofintellectualskilledbytheGermanOccupationorbyFrenchcollaborationwasreadinhisabsenceattheSorbonneon9December1944.He establishedacontinuitybetweentheleftwingandantifascistpoliticsofthe1930sandtheResistancepoliticsoftheearly1940s.Themoralandpoliticalawakening amongtheintellectualyouthofFranceintheperiodbetweenthetwowarsreacheditsclimaxduringtheOccupation.Resistanceintellectualscamefromdiverse classes,regions,andpolitical,religious,andideologicalbackgrounds.Theircommondenominatorswerepurity,generosity,acapacityforsacrifice,andaboveallan antifascistpassion.ThisnewgenerationofinsurgentsandtheirheirsrepresentedFrance'sprofoundmissionintheworld,namely,toovercomepassivityinfightingto defendhumanfreedom:"EachoftheyoungdeathshasaffirmedthelifeandvictoryofFranceandFreedom."13 RomainRollandlastappearedinpublicattheRussianEmbassyinParison7November1944.Heexpressedskepticismabouthavingaccomplishedhisroleasan engagedwriter.TheseselfdoubtswereperhapsconnectedtotheRussiansetting,wherehewasobligatedtomaintainhistact,ortohisbadconsciencefornothaving spokenoutaboutdeformationsinSovietcommunismduringthelate1930s.Histhemeonthatoccasionin1944wasthewriter,selfdisclosure,andtheconnectionto thereader:acharacteristicRollandistpreoccupationandoneofthecentralproblemsintheconceptionofengagedliterature.Respectinghisaudience'sneedforhope, headmittedthathehadremainedsilentatvarious"moments,"despitereflectiononandknowledgeoftheissues:"EveninhisDiary,eveninhisMemoirs,thereare thingshemustbesilenton....Awritercannotexposehimselfcompletely....AndyetIamoneofthosewhowillhaveconfidedthemost."14 RomainRollanddiedinVzelayon30December1944.Hewasseventynineyearsold.Onelastepisodeofimpassioneddebatesurroundedhim.Hewasthefirst celebratedmanofFrenchletterstodieafterFrance'sliberation.Thechoiceofafinalrestingplace

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becameabattleamongleadingParisianwritersintellectualpoliticsextendedtoburial.Severaldistinguishedwriterslaunchedajournalisticcampaigntohavehisashes transferredtothePanthon.Aragon,amongothers,vociferouslyralliedcommunistandleftwingopinion.Thecrywas"RomainRollandauPanthon!"Hedeserved thishonor,Aragonasserted,becausehewas"thesymboloftheSacredUnionagainstFascismandforFrance."Astheleftlobbiedforthisofficialrecognitionby theFrenchstate,theywereansweredbythecenterandthepost1945newright.JrmeTharaud,writinginLeFigaro,demandedthatPguy'sashesbetransferred tothePanthonalongsideRomainRolland's.(NomentionwasmadeofthefactthatPguydiedin1914.)Tharaud'sdesire,readbetweenthelines,wastobalance RomainRolland'sinternationalism,pacifism,cosmopolitanism,antifascism,andfellowtravelingwithPguy'sCatholicism,hisreassuringmysticism,andhisamorous feelingsforFrance.Tocomplicatemattersfurther,andperhapstoensureastalemate,theCatholicphilosopherGabrielMarcelandtheGaullistMauriceSchumann insistedthatHenriBergson,whohaddiedin1941,alsobelongedinthePanthon.TheymaintainedthattheashesoftwosuchfindesiclevitalistsasRomainRolland andPguyshouldnotbeplacedtherewithoutthoseoftheauthorofCreativeEvolution.15 ThepublicstruggleoverRomainRolland'scorpsewasasignalofthebeginningofthepostWorldWarIIrealignmentinFranceandtheemergenceofColdWar politics.TheepisodemarkedtheendofatemporaryperiodofResistanceunity,whichstemmedfromoppositiontothecommonenemy.Oncethatenemy disappeared,thedeathofaneminentbutcontroversialwriterunleashednewideologicalbattlesinthecontextofFrenchintellectualpolitics. Appropriately,RomainRolland'sposthumoustestamenteffectivelyendedthedebate:hiswishwastobeburiedquietly,nonreligiously,andprivatelyinBurgundy,next tothegravesofhisparentsinClamecy.16 <><><><><><><><><><><><> RomainRollandcanbeviewedasthekeytransitionalfigureinthehistoryofengagedFrenchintellectuals.Hismaturelifeasawriterpracticallyspannedthetime betweenZola'sDreyfusard"J'accuse"

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(1898)andSartre'sexistentialformulationsaboutengagementinWhatIsLiterature?(1947).HelivedthroughandreflectedoneverymajorcrisisoftheThird Republic.HewitnessedFrance'sdeclinefromaglobaltoaperipheralpower.Inthatfiftyyearperiod,henotonlynamedhisformofactivism"engagement"butalso enteredintoperiodicdialoguewithotherintellectualsaboutit.Hepersonallylaidthefoundationforintellectualengagement,itspossibilities,anditscontradictions.Both hisadventureswithcommitmentandhisselfcriticismlegitimizedthecommittedstyle.Hislifeandworkdemonstratedthattwentiethcenturywritersneednotretreat frompoliticalrealityorideologicalinvolvements. Methodologically,IhavesituatedRomainRolland'sintellectualpoliticsbyplacinghiswritingsintotheirproperhistoricalframework.Hebelongedtoaneraquiteunlike ourown,althoughhisculturalandpoliticalinterrogationsarepertinent.Allofhisworkquestionedwhatitmeanttobeanintellectual.Hetraffickedinideas,spokeout oncontroversialissues,andallowedhimselftobetransformedbycontemporaryhistory.RomainRollandbelongedtothenineteenthcenturyinthatheaspiredtobean exemplaryintellectual,maintaininganelevatednotionofintellectualresponsibility.Helivedinthepresentbutwasprofoundlyrootedinthecultureandpoliticsofthe past.Hedevelopedatasteforpuncturinghypocrisy,unmaskinglies,anddecodingmystifications.Falseidealismalwaysrepresentedtohimthemostdangerouscultural force.Hedemonstratedanequaltasteforculturalpreservationandaffirmation.Heregardedhimselfasafixedpointforotherstofollow,butalwayswithhumilityand withthenotionthathewascontinuallyinprocess,evolvingandrethinkinghisearlierpositions.Thisbookhasmappedoutanitineraryofdistinctlytwentiethcentury engagedstands,notdramaticconversionswithoutmediations.Inthissense,engagementmodifiedengagement:onecommitmentincontextbecameaframeof referenceandaspringboardforadvanceorregression.Thereweredefiniteperiodsofpartialtototaldisengagementandintrospection.Disengagementwasalsopart ofthedialectic. RomainRollandassumedapropheticvoicebecauseheintuitedpatternsinhumanbehaviorandunderstoodthetragedyofhistoricalrepetition.Ifhistoryrepeateditself withouthumanknowledge,peoplewouldnevergainmasteryovertheirownlives.Herealizedmostofhiscontemporarieswereemotionallyandintellectuallyun

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preparedtohearhismessage.Hewasamoralistwhoconcernedhimselfwithuniversalissues,wholinkedaparticularabusetoallencompassingprinciplesone exampleofcrueltyreverberatedforallofhumanity.Headvancedatotalizingbuttragicviewoftheindividualinsocietybasedonthenovelist'stechniqueofcritical realism.Hisoceanicsensibilityallowedhimtofeelanintimatecontactwithotherhumanbeingswhostruggled.Atmoments,hefeltindissolublymergedwiththemintoa largerwhole.Theoceanicfeelingexistedalongsidehisanalyticalfaculties.Itenabledhimtotranscendtheboundariesoflanguage,ethnicity,history,andculture.The oceanicsensewasneverantiintellectual,butitdistrustedcriticalintelligencestrippedofvisceralemotions,devoidofcompassionateunderstandingforhumansuffering. RomainRollandaspiredtoexpresshismoralviewswithcourage,regardlessofthereceptivityofhisaudience.Rarelyshrill,oftenpolemical,butalwayscourteous,he occasionallybecamesentimentalandselfrighteousabouthisownethicalstance.Yethefullyrealizedthelimitationsofconscienceinafielddominatedbypolitical, economic,social,ormilitarypower.Ifappealstoconsciencewerefutile,ifarticulatingthegrievancesofhistory'svictimsmeantdefendinglostcauses,hepersisted neverthelesswiththeconvictionthatpotentialopeningscouldbediscoveredamongthoseinpowerorthosewhoweredestinedtocometopower.Protestand subsequentpoliticizedresistancemightmakethemastersofpowerillatease. Therewasadialecticofintellectualengagementinhiscareer,summedupelegantlyinthephrase''Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismofthewill."Inpositinga necessarytensionbetweenpessimismandoptimism,intelligenceandwill,thinkingandrevolution,hesharplydistinguishedthecommittedwriterfromhisdisengaged contemporaries.Thelossoftensionunbalancedthewriter'stenuoussituationattheinterfaceofpoliticsandculture,wherepowerrelationsandculturalproduction intersectedandcriticalanalysiswasalwaysdifficult.Pessimismoftheintelligencemeantbeingabletoseeglaring,aswellassubterranean,sourcesofmiseryandto uncoverthoserelationshipsinthepresentthatworkedagainsthumandignityandfulfillment. Optimismofthewillwasaleapintoactionthatenabledtheengagedwritertostruggleforhopelesscausesandtoresistco

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optationandthestatuswithwhichmodernsocietiesrewardedillustriouswriters.Itaffirmedrenewaleveninthefaceofchaosanddevastation.InRomainRolland's case,itmayhaveinvolvedawillfulrechannelingofaggressiveenergiesintoculturallysanctionedmodesofbehavior. Thedialectic"Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismofthewill"implicitlyacknowledgedeveryperson'srighttochoosetobeanintellectual.Anintellectuallifewas opentothepossibilitiesofreflectionandselfreflection.Itgrantedtheindividualanactiveandcriticalconnectiontothecommunity.Tobeanengagedintellectual,as Sartrebrilliantlyformulatedit,wastobeawarethatonewasalreadyengaged,thatone'slifewascontemporaneousbynecessity.Engagementencouragedintellectuals tousetheirknowledge,historicalconsciousness,imagination,andemotiontomakeresponsiblechoicesinthepresent,aswellastopassonaculturallegacy. RomainRollandwasbothanexponentandpractitioneroflittratureengage.Heapplieditexperimentallyinnovels,plays,biographies,essays,journalisticpieces, protests,appeals,manifestos,andalsoinhisprivatecorrespondenceanddiaries.Writingwasameansofignitinghisaudiencetocreateasocietythatwouldguarantee humanrightswithoutthealienatingaspectsofclass,caste,nationalism,militarism,orprivilege.Nosocietywastrulyfreeunlessesprit,thatuntranslatableFrenchnoun meaningmind,spirit,soul,wit,andsensibility,wasexpressedbyeveryindividualinaspontaneousandselfdeterminingmanner.Theengagedwriterviewedreflection asaformofaction.Thosewhoreflectedwereenjoinedtorevisetheiranalysesinthelightofchangingcircumstances.Engagedwriterstookfullresponsibilityfortheir writingsandtheiractions:noalibis,noexcuses,noselfdeception.Thereciprocityofthewriterandreaderwastheparadigmforradicalsocialchangeandauthentic dialogue.Theengagedintellectualunderstoodtheimplicitpowerofwordstoinspireandtransformreaders.Wordsinformed,relaxed,andconsoled,whiletappinginto thedeepeststrivingsofthehumansoul.Engagedwritingsweremediations,transferringenergybetweentextsandaudience. Oncetheengagedwriterbecamemoreinvolvedinpoliticalactivity,writingtookonnewparametersandencounterednewlimitations.RomainRollandwasattimes confrontedwithimpossible

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choices.Hiscommitmentwassimultaneouslytosocialrevolutionandtodemocraticfreedoms,includingintellectualindependence.Inrevolutionarycrises,astheSoviet Unionillustratedinthelate1930s,itwasoftenimpossibletosalvageboththesocialistrevolutionandtheguaranteeofindividualhumanrights.Nothinghecouldsayor dowouldshiftthemomentumoftherevolution'sslidetowardtyranny.Thisdilemmaforcedhimtomaintainhissympathiesforsocialistrevolutionwhileremaining outsidetheFrenchCommunistParty,theCommunistInternational,andallotherleftwingpoliticalpartiesandsocialmovements. Inhisreflectionsontheworldwars,socialrevolutions,counterrevolutionsandthemassivesocialandeconomicdislocationsofhisera,RomainRollanddevelopeda newintellectualstyle,formulatingalanguageofengagementthatcombinedthenegativeandthepositive.Thenegativeemphasizedlucidity,thewriter'sneedtobe analyticalandinsharpantagonismtoantiintellectual,antiprogressive,andantidemocraticforces.Henegatedpoliticalandculturalvaluesthatdeniedtheoppressedan opportunitytodeveloptheirmentalandemotionallives.Engagementwasapowerfulwayofrebellingagainsttheembourgeoisement,bureaucratization,and professionalizationofFrenchintellectuallife.HealsocriticizedthoseaspectsofsocialistandMarxistorthodoxythatstifledtheimagination,workedagainstdialogue, andtrampledonhumanrights.Theengagedwriterreflectedonhimselfwhilecontestingspecificgrievanceswithinthelargerframework.Onesingleabuse,oneknown injustice,resonatedforallpeople.Thekeyunitofdiscoursewasalwayshumanity.Thepositivewasexpressedasasensationoffusion,ofthepotentmutualityand freedomimplicitinhumancontact.RomainRollanddescribedthisdeepsenseofonenesswiththeenvironmentandwithotherindividualsas"oceanic."Oceanic optimismgavehimasenseofpurposeandmeaning,evenindefeat,andremindedhim,particularlyinadversecircumstances,thatpeoplecouldmakeandcomprehend theirownhistory. Thewriter'sexistenceinthetwentiethcenturywasanomalous.Writersconsumedwhilenotproducing.Nopricecouldbeplacedonthem,novalueassignedtotheir activities.Buttheengagedwriterwasnotsimplyanarticulateimpostoronthestageofhistory.RomainRolland'stragicvisiontranscendedstaticnineteenthcentury valuessuchashonor,genius,virtue,andcourage.He

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couldsynthesizeinasinglepassagetheidealismofWilliamofOrange,thedoubtsofMontaigne,andtheactivistfervoroftheFrenchRevolution.Asanengaged writer,hekepttoleration,selfreflexiveknowledge,andthewilltochangetheworldindialecticalrelationtooneanother.''Pessimismoftheintelligence,optimismof thewill"washislegacytothiscentury.Thatdialecticalblendofnegativeandpositive,realismandidealism,selfknowledgeandselfaffirmation,linkedtoamature historicalsenseofthepossibilitiesofarationallyorganizedsocialcommunity,allowsthewritertoact,tomediate,tocontest,andtodreamallatthesametime.

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NOTES
Thefollowingabbreviationshavebeenusedinthenotes: ARR BV GRR ArchivesRomainRolland,Paris. UnBeauVisagetoussens.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRolland (18861944)(Paris,1967). GandhietRomainRolland.Correspondance,extraitsduJournalet textesdivers(Paris,1969).TranslatedintoEnglishasRomainRolland andGandhiCorrespondence(NewDelhi,1976),trans.R.A.Francis. D'unerivel'autre.HermannHesseetRomainRolland. CorrespondanceetfragmentsduJournal(Paris,1972). RomainRolland,Journaldesannesdeguerre(Paris,1952). L'Indpendancedel'esprit.CorrespondanceentreJeanGuhennoet RomainRolland(Paris,1975). DeuxHommesserencontrent.CorrespondanceentreJeanRichard BlochetRomainRolland(19101918)(Paris,1964). CorrespondanceentreLouisGilletetRomainRolland(Paris,1949). RomainRolland,Parlarvolution,lapaix(Paris,1935). RomainRolland,QuinzeAnsdecombat(Paris,1935).Translatedinto EnglishasIWillNotRest(NewYork[1935]),trans.K.S.Shelvankar. ChoixdelettresMalwidavonMeysenbug(Paris,1948). ChreSofia.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandSofiaBertolini GuerrieriGonzaga(19011908)(Paris,1959). ChreSofia.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandSofiaBertolini GuerrieriGonzaga(19091932)(Paris,1960). RabindranathTagoreetRomainRolland.Lettresetautrescrits
(Paris,1961).

HHRR JAG JGRR JRBRR LGRR PRP QAC RRMvM RRSBGG (1959) RRSBGG (1960) RTRR

Chapter1
1.Formoretheoreticalstudies,seePhilipRieff,ed.,OnIntellectuals(NewYork,1969)LewisA.Coser,MenofIdeas:ASociologist'sView(New

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York,1970)AlvinW.Gouldner,TheFutureofIntellectualsandtheRiseoftheNewClass(NewYork,1979). 2.TheodoreZeldin,TheFrench(NewYork,1982),394413,alsoseeTheodoreZeldin,France,18481945,2vols.(Oxford,1977),2:243345.RgisDebray, Teachers,Writers,Celebrities:TheIntellectualsofModernFrance,trans.DavidMacey(London,1981),3994.RaymondAron,TheOpiumofthe Intellectuals,trans.TerenceKilmartin(NewYork,1962),203324J.E.Flower,WritersandPoliticsinModernFrance,19091961(NewYork,1977). MichelFoucault,"TruthandPower,"inPower/Knowledge:SelectedInterviewsandOtherWritings,19721977,ed.ColinGordon(NewYork,1980),127 133. 3.SeeGeorgeL.Mosse,"FascismandtheIntellectuals,"inTheNatureofFascism,ed.S.J.Woolf(NewYork,1969),205225RobertSoucy,Fascismin France:TheCaseofMauriceBarrs(Berkeley,Calif.1972)andZeevSternhell,MauriceBarrsetlenationalismefranais(Paris,1972). 4.MichelWinock,Histoirepolitiquedelarevue"Esprit,"19301950(Paris,1975)J.L.LoubetdelBayle,LesNonconformistesdesannes30(Paris, 1969). 5.DanielGurin,NiDieunimatre:Histoireetanthologiedel'anarchisme,2vols.(Lausanne,1969)JeanMaitron,Histoiredumouvementanarchisteen France(Paris,1955). 6.DavidL.Schalk,TheSpectrumofPoliticalEngagement(Princeton,N.J.,1979),325. 7.JeanPaulSartre,SartrebyHimself,trans.RichardSeaver(NewYork,1978),63. 8.MichelineTisonBraun,LaCrisedel'humanisme,2vols.(Paris,1958,1967),1:4635022:5458,168171,257271. 9.H.StuartHughes,ConsciousnessandSociety(NewYork,1958)GeorgeL.Mosse,TheCultureofWesternEurope(NewYork,1961)WilsonH.Coates andHaydenV.White,TheOrdealofLiberalHumanism(NewYork,1970),vol.2. 10.JulienBenda,TheTreasonoftheIntellectuals,trans.RichardAldington(NewYork,1969)DavidL.Schalk,SpectrumofPoliticalEngagement,2648. 11.JeanPaulSartre,WhatIsLiterature?trans.BernardFrechtman(NewYork,1965).

Chapter2
1.SigmundFreud,CivilizationandItsDiscontents,inTheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud,standarded.,trans.JamesStrachey,24vols. (London,19531974)(hereinaftercitedasStandardEdition),21:64. 2.Ibid.SigmundFreud,"ADisturbanceofMemoryontheAcropolis:AnOpenLettertoRomainRollandontheOccasionofHisSeventiethBirthday"(1936), StandardEdition22:238,248. 3.LettersfromSigmundFreudtoRolland,4March1923,29January1926,13May1926FreudtoVictorWittkowski,6January1936,inLettersofSigmund Freud,18731939,trans.TaniaSternandJamesStern(London,1970),346,365,371,423. 4.DavidJamesFisher,"ReadingFreud'sCivilizationandItsDiscon

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tents,"inModernEuropeanIntellectualHistory:ReappraisalsandNewPerspectives,ed.DominickLaCapraandStevenL.Kaplan(Ithaca,N.Y.,1982), 251279DavidJamesFisher,"SigmundFreudandRomainRolland:TheTerrestrialAnimalandHisGreatOceanicFriend,"AmericanImage33(Spring1976): 159DavidS.Werman,"SigmundFreudandRomainRolland,"InternationalReviewofPsychoAnalysis4(1977):225242JeffreyMoussaieffMasson, TheOceanicFeeling:TheOriginsofReligiousSentimentinAncientIndia(Dordrecht,1980),3350. 5.LetterfromRollandtoFreud,5December1927,BV,264266. 6.LetterfromFreudtoRolland,14July1929,LettersofSigmundFreud,388. 7.Freud,CivilizationandItsDiscontents,StandardEdition22:68. 8.LetterfromFreudtoRolland,19January1930,LettersofSigmundFreud,392393. 9.RomainRolland,TheLifeofRamakrishna,trans.E.F.MalcolmSmith(Calcutta,1970),67thisfirstappearedasEssaisurlamystiqueetl'actiondel'Inde vivante.LaViedeRamakrishna(Paris,1929). 10.RomainRolland,LeVoyageintrieur(Songed'unevie)(Paris,1959),1926,40WilliamT.Starr,RomainRolland:OneAgainstAll(TheHague,1971), 1121StefanZweig,RomainRolland:TheManandHisWork(1921NewYork,1972),37RonaldA.Wilson,ThePreWarBiographiesofRomainRolland (1939NewYork,1972),15. 11.Rolland,Voyageintrieur,139173Starr,RomainRolland,3344Wilson,PreWarBiographies,2126Zweig,RomainRolland,2331RenCheval, RomainRolland,l'Allemagneetlaguerre(Paris,1963),94116. 12.LetterfromRainerMariaRilketoPrincessMarievonThurnundTaxisHohenlohe,17April1913,inLettersofRainerMariaRilke,trans.JaneB.Greeneand M.D.H.Norton(NewYork,1972),92. 13.Zweig,RomainRolland,4547. 14.Ibid.,811Wilson,PreWarBiographies,612. 15.Starr,RomainRolland,176,200Cheval,RomainRolland,l'Allemagneetlaguerre,29n.6. 16.RomainRolland,Mmoires(Paris,1956),2135. 17.Rolland,Voyageintrieur,2741. 18.RomainRolland,LeClotredelarued'Ulm.JournaldeRomainRollandl'Ecolenormale(18861889)(Paris,1952)Rolland,Mmoires,3671. 19.Rolland,Clotredelarued'Ulm,313ontheSorbonneofthisperiod,seeStevenLukes,EmileDurkheim:HisLifeandWork(NewYork,1972),373375. AlsoseeRobertJ.Smith,TheEcoleNormaleSuprieureandtheThirdRepublic(Albany,N.Y.,1982). 20.RomainRolland,LesOriginesduthtrelyriquemoderne.Histoiredel'opraenEuropeavantLullyetScarlatti(Paris,1895). 21.RomainRolland,DeladcadencedelapeintureitalienneauXVIesicle(1895)(1931Paris,1957)Rolland,Mmoires,195196. 22.Rolland,Mmoires,222. 23.Zweig,RomainRolland,3236JacquesRobichez,RomainRolland(Paris,1961),3132,4748,5556. 24.RomainRolland,Pguy,2vols.(Paris,1944),1:4041,137143. 25.Ibid.,1541. 26.Rolland,Clotredelarued'Ulm,17,8081,8586,89,145,148.

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27.Ibid.,7374. 28.ClaudeDigeon,LaCriseallemandedelapensefranaise(18701914)(Paris,1959),519533AllanMitchell,TheGermanInfluenceinFranceAfter 1870(ChapelHill,N.C.,1981). 29.RomainRollandcompletedeightplaysinaprojectedcycleoftwelveforhisThtredelaRvolution.Thefollowinglistisinthematicorderandindicatesyearof publication:Pquesfleuries.Prologue(Paris,1926)Le14juillet(Paris,1902)LesLoups(Paris,1898)LeTriomphedelaraison(Paris,1899)LeJeude l'amouretdelamort(Paris,1925)Danton(Paris,1900)Robespierre(Paris,1939)LesLonides.Epilogue(Paris,1928) SeeRomainRolland,LesTragdiesdelafoi:SaintLouis,Art,LeTriomphedelaraison(Paris,1913)andRolland,LeThtredelaRvolution:Le14 juillet,Danton,LesLoups(Paris,1909). VariousdimensionsoftheFrenchpopulartheaterhavebeenstudiedinDavidJamesFisher,"RomainRollandandtheIdeologyandAestheticsoftheFrench People'sTheatre,"TheatreQuarterly9,no.33(1979):83103DavidJamesFisher,"TheOriginsoftheFrenchPopularTheatre,"JournalofContemporary History12(1977):461497DavidJamesFisher,"RomainRollandandtheFrenchPeople'sTheatre,"DramaReview,March1977,7590"People'sTheatre inFranceSince1870,''TheatreQuarterly6,no.23(1976)MichaelRagon,HistoiredelalittratureproltarienneenFrance(Paris,1974),134Denis Gontard,LaDcentralisationthtrale(Paris,1973),2141EmileCopfermann,LeThtrepopulaire,pourquoi?(Paris,1969),22LonMoussinac,Le Thtredesoriginesnosjours(Paris,1966)JackLang,L'Etatetlethtre(Paris,1968),109110HelenW.Machan,"ThePopularTheatreMovement inFrance,''Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofIllinois,1950MauriceEdgarCoindreau,LaFarceestjoue:VingtAnsdethtrefranais(NewYork,1942),153 177JacquesCopeau,"LeThtrepopulaire,"Thtrepopulaire,no.36(1959):9194MarcelDoisy,LeThtrefranaiscontemporain(Brussels,1947), 232233JeanRichardBloch,"LeThtredupeuple.Critiqued'uneutopie,"inCarnavalestmort(Paris,1920),2740. 30.RomainRolland,"Prfacemonthtre"(1892),Textespolitiques,sociauxetphilosophiqueschoisis,ed.JeanAlbertini(Paris,1970),118119. 31.Ibid.,119123forananalysisofRomainRolland's"criticalrealism,"seeGeorgLukcs,RealisminOurTime,trans.JohnManderandNeckeMander(New York,1964),9394,96,97103,105,108LukcswroteashortessayonRomainRolland'sColasBreugnoninTheHistoricalNovel,trans.HannahMitchell andStanleyMitchell(NewYork,1963),322332. 32.RomainRolland,"Rponsel'enqutesurlacritiquedramatique,"Revued'artdramatique,5February1899,160161. 33.RomainRolland,"LaPoisonidaliste,"Revued'artdramatique,July1900,661665reprintedinRomainRolland,Compagnonsderoute.Essaislittraires (Paris,1936),1722.

Page307

34.RomainRolland,"EnqutesurlaComdieFranaise,"Revuenaturiste,1October1901,6265. 35.OnPottecher'sPeople'sTheaterofBussang,seeFisher,"OriginsoftheFrenchPopularTheatre,"463465Gontard,Dcentralisationthtrale,2141. 36.LetterfromRollandtoMauricePottecher,27November1897,ARR. 37.Rolland,Mmoires,281295. 38.Ibid.,247,262264,275. 39.Ibid.,284288lettersfromRollandtoLucienHerr,1February1898,15December1898,citedinRobertJ.Smith,"ANoteonRomainRollandintheDreyfus Affair,"FrenchHistoricalStudies7no.2(Fall1971):284287MichaelR.Marrus,ThePoliticsofAssimilation:TheFrenchJewishCommunityattheTime oftheDreyfusAffair(Oxford,1971). 40.Rolland,Mmoires,289290. 41.Ibid.,283ChristopheCharle,"Champlitteraireetchampdupouvoir:LesEcrivainsetl'AffaireDreyfus,"Annales,ESC32,no.2(MarchApril1977):240 264JeanDenisBredin,TheAffair:TheCaseofAlfredDreyfus,trans.JeffreyMehlman(NewYork,1986),275285,520. 42.Rolland,Mmoires,291,316AntoinetteBlum,"RomainRollandfacel'AffaireDreyfus,"Relationsinternationales,no.14(Summer1978). 43.Ibid.,286Rolland,Voyageintrieur,164165. 44.LetterfromRollandtoMalwidavonMeysenbug,22May1898,RRMvM,233. 45.Rolland,Mmoires,290291. 46.RomainRolland,"Prface"(January1909),Le14juillet.ThtredelaRvolution(Paris,1926),vi. 47.Rolland,"Prface"(June1901),Le14juillet,3. 48.RomainRolland,LeThtredupeuple.Essaid'esthtiqued'unthtrenouveau(Paris,1926),7485,171191.Thisworkwasoriginallypublishedin CahiersdelaQuinzaine,24November1903firstpublishedinbookformin1904atentheditionwaspublishedin1913.Icitethethirteentheditionof1926.It appearedinEnglishasThePeople'sTheater,trans.BarrettH.Clark(NewYork,1918)Clark'stranslation,nowoutofprint,omittedacriticalchapteronpeople's festivals.OnesegmentofRomainRolland'stexthasbeenreprintedinTheTheoryoftheModernStage,ed.EricBentley(Baltimore,1968),455470another segment,entitled"TheatrefortheRealPeople,"appearedinTheatreQuarterly6,no.23(1976):1723. 49.Cheval,RomainRolland,l'AllemagneetlaguerreMarcelleKempf,RomainRollandetl'Allemagne(Paris,1962)MichaelKelly,ModernFrenchMarxism (Baltimore,1982),523DanielLindenberg,LeMarxismeintrouvable(Paris,1975)GeorgeLichtheim,MarxisminModernFrance(NewYork,1965)Claude Willard,LesGuesdistes(Paris,1965). 50.Rolland,Mmoires,240,241,244. 51.Ibid.,292,293,294,296298,314letterfromRollandtoLouisGillet,18January1901,LGRR,117118. 52.LetterfromRollandtoGillet,22January1901,LGRR,121. 53.Rolland,Mmoires,251,295,312. 54.Rolland,Le14juillet,7firstpublishedinCahiersdelaQuinzaine,20March1902publishedinEnglishasTheFourteenthofJuly,trans.BarrettH.Clark (NewYork,1928).

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55.Rolland,Le14juillet,125138. 56.Rolland,"Prface"(June1901),Le14juillet,3. 57.LetterfromRollandtoFirminGmier,11January1902,ARRalsoseeRomainRolland,"Variante.Pourunereprsentationdeftepopulaireavecorchestreet choeurs,"Le14juillet,138149Rolland,"Notesurladernirescne,"ibid.,150151DavidSices,MusicandtheMusicianinJeanChristophe(NewHaven, Conn.,1968),105110andRomainRolland,"Le14juillet,''L'Artduthtre,18June1902,107111. 58.LettersfromRollandtoJulienTiersot,12February1902,8May1902,ARRRomainRolland,"LaMusiquependantlaRvolution,"Pageslibres,no.80(12 July1902):3536. 59.LetterfromRollandtoMalwidavonMeysenbug,31December1899,RRMvM,273. 60.RomainRolland,"LeThtredupeuple,"CahiersdelaQuinzaine,24November1903. 61.Rolland,Thtredupeuple,65,106107. 62.Ibid.,108112. 63.Ibid.,6465. 64.Ibid.,106107. 65.LetterfromRollandtoSofiaGuerrieriGonzaga,22May1903,RRSBGG(1959),116. 66.Rolland,Thtredupeuple,153168. 67.Ibid.,169. 68.LetterfromRollandtoHenrikIbsen,5July1894,BV,4346Ibsenrepliedinaletterdated23July1894,"Yourletterinspiredmewithaverylivelysympathy." ARR. 69.RomainRolland,"Prface"(January1908),ViedeBeethoven(Paris,1969),1318. 70.RomainRolland,ViedeMichelAnge(Paris,1964),209. 71.Rolland,Mmoires,310.LivesofIllustriousMenincludedViedeBeethoven(Paris,1903),ViedeMichelAnge(Paris,1906),andViedeTolsto(Paris, 1911). 72.RomainRolland,"Prface"(March1927),ViedeBeethoven(Paris,1969),710. 73.RomainRolland,"RichardStrauss,"inRichardStraussandRomainRolland:Correspondence,Diary,andEssays,ed.RolloMyers(Berkeley,Calif.,1968), 175195originallypublishedinRevuedeParis,15June1899. 74.Rolland,ViedeBeethoven(Paris,1969),esp.98102. 75.Rolland,ViedeTolsto(Paris,1959),14. 76.Ibid.,156174. 77.LetterfromRollandtoTolstoy,16April1887,BV,1719. 78.LetterfromTolstoytoRolland,4October1887,Compagnonsderoute,237246firstpublishedinCahiersdelaQuinzaine,25February1902. 79.RomainRolland,"IntroductionunelettredeTolstoy,"Compagnonsderoute,219223Rolland,"InMemoriamLonTolstoy,"ibid.,224. 80.Rolland,ViedeTolsto(Paris,1959)translatedbyBernardMiallasTolstoy(PortWashington,N.Y.,1972). 81.Rolland,ViedeTolsto(Paris,1959),111125. 82.Ibid.,170171,174.

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83.Ibid.,159168. 84.Ibid.,4,18fortheinfluenceofHugoandMicheletonhim,seeRomainRolland,"LeVieuxOrphe:VictorHugo"(1935),Compagnonsderoute,198217 Rolland,Mmoires,265266andRolland,Thtredupeuple,8586. 85.LetterfromRollandtoMalwidavonMeysenbug,10April1900,RRMvM,281. 86.SeeRomainRolland,Pourl'honneurdel'esprit.CorrespondanceentreCharlesPguyetRomainRolland(Paris,1973). 87.LetterfromRollandtoMalwidavonMeysenbug,30December1901,RRMvM,305306. 88.SeethebibliographyinBernardDuchatelet,"DesdbutsdeJeanChristophe(18861906),"2vols.,doctoralthesis,UniversityofLille,1975,1:781793. 89.RomainRolland,JeanChristophe(Paris,1966),1562Englishtrans.GilbertCannan(NewYork,1913),473. 90.Ibid.,1559,1562(English,470,474). 91.Ibid.,983,1024,1062,1077(English,361,405,448,463). 92.Ibid.,801,1115,1024,1055,1072,1077,1138,1435(English,168,395396,405,439,458,463,52,353). 93.Ibid.,942,943944,10081009,1282(English,317,318319,387,194)alsoseeVictorBrombert,TheIntellectualHero:StudiesintheFrenchNovel, 18801955(Chicago,1960),2122,25,33,38,138,157,160161WilliamM.Johnston,"TheOriginoftheTerm'Intellectuals'inFrenchNovelsandEssaysof the1890's,"JournalofEuropeanStudies4(1974):4356. 94.Rolland,JeanChristophe,987,993,995996,1062,1068,1257,1325(English,365,370,373,448,453,167,242). 95.Ibid.,1176(English,91)andRomainRolland,"Dialoguedel'auteuravecsonombre"(March1908),JeanChristophe,635639.JeanChristophewas dedicated"tothefreesoulsofeverynationwhosuffer,whostruggle,andwhowillvanquish."SeePaulClaudel,"LaPensereligieusedeRomainRolland,"in Accompagnements(Paris,1949),6288PierreSipriot,RomainRolland(Bruges,1968). 96.Starr,RomainRolland,124145Zweig,RomainRolland,157237letterfromRollandtoCharlesPguy,14June1913,Pourl'honneurdel'esprit,340.

Chapter3
1.LetterfromRollandtoH.G.Wells,1July1911,BV,9596. 2.LetterfromRollandtoAlphonseSch,14January1914,BV,118120alsoseelettersfromRollandtoJeanRichardBloch,14January1912and16January 1913,JRBRR,99100,177179. 3.LetterfromRollandtoLouisGillet,6July1914,LGRR,280seealsoletterfromRollandtoJeanRichardBloch,14January1912,JRBRR,99.Inthisperiod RomainRollandcompletedhissecondnovel.SeeRomainRolland,ColasBreugnon.Bonhommevitencore(Paris,1919)RomainRolland,DeJeanChristophe ColasBreugnon.Pagesdejournal(Paris,1946)Stefan

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Zweig,RomainRolland:TheManandHisWork(1921NewYork,1972),241253WilliamT.Starr,RomainRolland:OneAgainstAll(TheHague, 1971),172174. 4.HenriGiordan,ed.,RomainRollandetlemouvementflorentinde"laVoce"(Paris,1966). 5.LetterfromRollandtoSofiaBertoliniGuerrieriGonzaga,23September1913,RRSBGG(1960),184Rolland,DeJeanChristopheColasBreugnon,106. 6.ForadaybydayaccountofRomainRolland'sactivitiesduringtheGreatWar,seethemagnificentJournaldesannesdeguerre(Paris,1952)(JAG),surelyone ofthemoststirringintellectualdocumentsproducedduringthisperiod. 7.RomainRolland,Audessusdelamle(September1915),reprintedinL'Espritlibre(Geneva,1971),5355lettersfromRollandtoBloch,21September 1914,24September1914,JRBRR,270278. 8.RolandN.Stromberg,RedemptionbyWar:TheIntellectualsand1914(Lawrence,Kans.,1982),3960,153156RobertWohl,TheGenerationof1914 (Cambridge,Mass.,1979),141SandiCooper,"LiberalInternationalismBeforeWorldWarI,"PeaceandChange1(1973):1119SandiCooper,"TheGunsof AugustandtheDovesofItaly:InterventionandInternationalism,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):2943. 9.SeeRomainRolland,"LettreouverteGerhardHauptmann"(24August1914),L'Espritlibre,5759RomainRolland,"ProAris"(September1914),ibid.,61 69andRomainRolland,"Audessusdelamle"(15September1914),ibid.,7083(reprintedinEnglishtranslationofAudessusdelamle,titledAbovethe Battle,trans.C.K.Ogden[Chicago,1916],1955). 10.RomainRolland,"Jaurs"(1August1915),L'Espritlibre,165172(AbovetheBattle,181192).AlsoseeRomainRolland,"Lettreceuxquim'accusent"(17 November1914),L'Espritlibre,104110andRomainRolland,"LesIdoles"(4December1914),ibid.,111120. 11.RomainRolland,"InterArmaCaritas"(30October1914),L'Espritlibre,90100(AbovetheBattle,7692)andRomainRolland,"LeMeurtredeslites"(14 June1915),L'Espritlibre,154164(AbovetheBattle,168180). 12.Rolland,"Audessusdelamle,"77(AbovetheBattle,47). 13.Rolland,"Audessusdelamle,"82(AbovetheBattle,55). 14.Rolland,"Audessusdelamle,"74(AbovetheBattle,43)andRolland,"LesIdoles,"116118(AbovetheBattle,115119). 15.Rolland,"InterArmaCaritas,"100(AbovetheBattle,91). 16.RomainRolland,"Littraturedeguerre,"L'Espritlibre,143(AbovetheBattle,153)alsoseeRomainRolland,Clrambault.Histoired'uneconsciencelibre pendantlaguerre(1920Geneva,1971),148. 17.Rolland,"InterArmaCaritas,"100(AbovetheBattle,91). 18.Rolland,"Lettreceuxquim'accusent,"107(AbovetheBattle,101102). 19.Rolland,"Pourl'Europe,"L'Espritlibre,121(AbovetheBattle,122)RomainRolland,"Pourl'Europe:UnAppeldelaHollande,"L'Espritlibre,125127 (AbovetheBattle,127130). 20.Rolland,"LesIdoles,"117118(AbovetheBattle,116117). 21.RenCheval,RomainRolland,l'Allemagneetlaguerre(Paris,1963),476583WilliamT.Starr,RomainRollandandaWorldatWar(Evanston,Ill.

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1956),97114DavidJamesFisher,"PacifismandtheIntellectual:TheCaseofRomainRolland,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):8596. 22.Cheval,RomainRolland,564565Starr,RomainRollandandaWorldatWar,130136. 23.LetterfromRollandtohismother,18December1914,inJecommencedevenirdangereux.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandsamre(19141916) (Paris,1971),45Cheval,RomainRolland,584697Starr,RomainRollandandaWorldatWar,137198. 24.RomainRolland,"Introduction"(6April1931),L'Espritlibre,2931seealsoRolland,AbovetheBattle,14. 25.JAG,558,11291131Cheval,RomainRolland,594599telegramfromV.I.LenintoHenriGuilbeaux,8April1917,TheLettersofLenin,ed.Elizabeth HillandDorisMudie(NewYork,1937),423alsoseeAlfredE.Senn,TheRussianRevolutioninSwitzerland,19141917(Madison,Wis.,1971),162,213. 26.ShaulGinsburg,RaymondLefebvreetlesoriginesducommunismefranais(Paris,1975),2527,29,3738,80ChristianGras,AlfredRosmer(1877 1964etlemouvementrvolutionnaireinternational(Paris,1971)RobertWohl,FrenchCommunismintheMaking(Stanford,Calif.,1966),58. 27.LetterfromRosaLuxemburgtoLuiseKautsky,17December1917,inRosaLuxemburg,LetterstoKarlandLuiseKautsky,1896to1918,trans.LouisP. Lochner(NewYork,1925),211212. 28.LetterfromLenintoV.A.Karpinski,13September1915,inVladimirIlyichLenin,Oeuvres(Paris,1959),36:351. 29.RomainRolland,"LeFeuparHenriBarbusse"(February1917),L'Espritlibre,245JAG,496. 30.RomainRolland,"AraPacis,"L'Espritlibre,179181Rolland,"Auxpeuplesassassins,"ibid.,189197Rolland,"UnGrandEuropen:G.F.Nicolai,"ibid., 262298. 31.RomainRolland,"Tolstoy:L'Espritlibre,"L'Espritlibre,207210Rolland,"AMaximeGorki,"ibid.,211212Rolland,"Voixlibresd'Amrique,"ibid.,218 221Rolland,"PourE.D.Morel,"ibid.,235236. 32.RomainRolland,"Introduction"(June1919)toLesPrcurseurs,inL'Espritlibre,178letterfromRollandtoRenArcos,19December1920,indicatingthathe hadreceivedtwentydeaththreatsduringthewar,ARR. 33.Rolland,"PourE.D.Morel,"236RomainRolland,"Pourl'Internationaledel'esprit"(15March1918),L'Espritlibre,322331.

Chapter4
1.SigmundFreud,"ThoughtsfortheTimesonWarandDeath"(1915),TheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud,standarded.,trans.James Strachey,24vols.(London,19531974)14:274302. 2.BenedictdeSpinoza,APoliticalTreatise,inTheChiefWorksofBenedictdeSpinoza,trans.R.H.M.Elwes(London,1883),314. 3.RomainRolland,"Pourl'Internationaledel'esprit"(1918)inL'Espritlibre(Geneva,1971),322331forotherperspectivesonRomainRolland'spacifist intellectualstance,seeDavidJamesFisher,"PacifismandtheIntellectual:TheCaseofRomainRolland,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):8596Ren Cheval,RomainRolland,l'Allemagneetlaguerre

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(Paris,1963),681699WilliamT.Starr,RomainRollandandaWorldatWar(Evanston,Ill.,1956),162169,173174,207208. 4.Letters,RollandtoMaximGorky,18March1917,27January1919,ARRJAG,1052JeanPerus,RomainRollandetMaximGorki(Paris,1968),4552. 5.LetterfromRollandtoRabindranathTagore,26August1919,RTRR,2728JAG,12721273letterfromRollandtoPaulVaillantCouturier,30March1919, JAG,1777. 6.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandetl'Espranto,"LaVieouvrire,6August1919Rolland,"L'OpiniondeRomainRollandsurl'Espranto,"LaVieouvrire,23 April1920. 7.LetterfromRollandtoUptonSinclair,22August1919,UptonSinclairMSS,LillyLibrary,IndianaUniversity,Bloomington,Indiana. 8.RomainRolland,"Pourbtirlacitlibredel'esprit"(1November1918),JAG,1637. 9.JAG,242,699,1113. 10.Ibid.,11291131,558,644645forHenriGuilbeaux'sattitudetowardRomainRolland,seehis"L'Agenouveauetlesintellectuels,"Demain,August September1918,198onGuilbeaux,seeAlfredSenn,TheRussianRevolutioninSwitzerland(Madison,Wis.,1971),37,141,162,174,180,213,227228. 11.RomainRolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"Europe,NovemberDecember1965,201204,207andJournalintime,carnet32,May1920July1920,28, 5657,74,183,ARR. 12.RomainRolland,"AlaRussielibreetlibratrice"(1May1917)inL'Espritlibre,205206firstpublishedinDemain,1May1917republishedinLePopulaire, 22July1919. 13.JAG,12271228,1366,1426,1537,15471548,1577letter,RollandtoJeanRichardBloch,24October1918,JRBRR,375380letterfromRollandto MonsieurB.,26January1919,JAG,1700. 14.RomainRolland,"PournosfrresdeRussie.Contreleblocusaffameur"(23October1919),QAC,3132firstpublishedinL'Humanit,26October1919. 15.RomainRolland,untitledarticle,LaVieouvrire,22October1919. 16.JAG,915,1010,1131,1139,11671168,1183,1365,1784. 17.ForLenin'sviewsonimperialism,seeVladimirIlyichLenin,Imperialism,TheHighestStageofCapitalism(1917Moscow,1964),185304forhisviewson pacifism,seeLenin,"BourgeoisPacifismandSocialistPacifism"(1917),CollectedWorks(Moscow,1964),23:177194. 18.JAG,1342,1366,1367,14261427,1537,15471548,1577. 19.Ibid.,1700,1782,1784letterfromRollandtoBloch,24October1918,JRBRR,375380. 20.JAG,152,766,802,1205,1343,1524,16611662letterfromRollandtoJeanLonguet,22August1918,BV,158159letterfromRollandtoBloch,24 November1918,JRBRR,380alsoseePeterNettl,RosaLuxemburg(Oxford,1969),486489. 21.RomainRolland,"JanviersanglantBerlin,"QAC,1130firstpublishedinL'Humanit,1618February1919alsoseeRomainRolland,"Surunmartyr," L'Avenirinternational,no.13(January1919):3639JAG,1704.

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22.JAG,1704. 23.Rolland,"JanviersanglantBerlin,"QAC,2729. 24.Ibid.,11,12,15. 25.Ibid.,27. 26.Ibid.,30. 27.RomainRolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"Europe,NovemberDecember1965,181182. 28.JAG,66,969,1002,10531054,1368,1431,1537,1654forRomainRolland'spublicpositionsonWilson,seeRomainRolland,"Lettreouverteauprsidente Wilson"(November1918),L'Espritlibre,332333andRolland,"UneLettredeRomainRollandJeanLonguet,"ibid.,334theletterswerepublishedinLe Populaire,18November1918and4December1918,respectively. 29.JAG,1661,1665alsosee16961697,1738,1776,1799,1822,18281829,1832. 30.RomainRolland,"UneLettredeRomainRollandJeanLonguet"(4December1918),L'Espritlibre,334n.1(datedJune1919)alsoseeRomainRolland, QAC,186Journalintime,carnet30,July1919October1919,ARR.RomainRollandrefusedtocontributeanarticletoL'ArtlibreonWilsonin1924,accusing theexpresidentofprofoundinsincerityand"failureofinternaltruth"seeletterfromRollandtoPaulColin,6February1924,ARR. 31.NicoleRacine,"TheClartMovementinFrance,19191921,"JournalofContemporaryHistory2,no.2(April1967):195208AnnieKriegel,"Naissance dumouvementClart,"Mouvementsocial,no.42(JanuaryMarch1963):117135. 32.JAG,1824. 33.Ibid.,1272,1273,1777. 34.LetterfromRollandtoHenriBarbusse,23June1919,JAG,18311832. 35.LetterfromRollandtoBarbusse,14June1919,JAG,1828. 36.JAG,1826alsoseethelettersofcollectiveresignationfromsevenRollandiststotheClartgroup,18June1919,signedbyCharlesVildrac,Georges Chennevire,F.Crucy,LonWerth,AlbertDoyen,L.Bazalgette,PaulSignacibid.,1830. 37.JAG,18241825lettersfromRollandtoMarcelMartinet,10July1919toEdouardDujardin,10July1919toEdouardDujardin,4September1919,ARR. 38.LettersfromRollandtoBarbusse,17June191923June1919,JAG,1829,18311832. 39.RomainRolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"entryof14December1919,Europe,NovemberDecember1965,185. 40.Ibid.,184185,187188RomainRolland,HenriBarbusse,GeorgesDuhamel,"AppelpourlepremierCongrsdel'Internationaleintellectuelle,"L'Humanit, 23January1920Clart,24January1920.SeealsolettersfromRollandtoRaymondLefebvre,31December1919,4January1920,15January1920,19 February1920,ARRShaulGinsburg,RaymondLefebvreetlesoriginesducommunismefranais(Paris,1975),114116,119122Racine,"TheClart MovementinFrance,19191921,"203.

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41.JAG,17261727,17441748onMorel,seeSheldonSpear,"E.D.Morel'sU.D.C.International,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):97108. 42.LetterfromRollandtoE.D.Morel,30March1919,JAG,1778. 43.LettersfromRollandtoAmdeDunois,6January1919,24June1919,ARRPierreJeanJouve,RomainRollandvivant(Paris,1920),217219n.1. TheDeclarationfirstappearedas"Firedclarationd'intellectuels,"L'Humanit,26June1919,1itwasalsopublishedinL'Artlibre,June1919LaFeuille, June1919Rassegnainternazionale,July1919Forum,August1919Demokratie,18July1919ForeignAffairs,August1919NewYorkTimesCurrent HistoryMagazine,October1919andTheLiberator,December1919.ItwasreprintedinRomainRolland'sLesPrcurseurs(1919),inL'Espritlibre,337 342andhisQAC,16.Forcontemporaryechoes,seePaulSouday,"UneDclarationd'intellectuels,"LeTemps,27June1919MarcelMartinet,"Les Intellectuelsetlaguerre,"LaVieouvrire,2July1919F.Vandrem,LeMiroirdelettres(Paris,1919),112116.Thefollowingisanationalbreakdownof thosewhosignedtheDeclaration: France:Alain,RaoulAlexandre,RenArcos,HenriBarbusse,CharlesBaudouin,LonBazalgette,EdouardBernaert,LucienBesnard,JeanRichardBloch, LouiseBodin,SamuelBuchet,Dr.E.Burnet,AlphonsedeChateaubriant,GeorgesChennevire,FranoisCrucy,PaulDesanges,FernardDesprs,Albert Doyen,GeorgesDuhamel,EdouardDujardin,AmdeDunois,GustaveDupin,Dr.JosephFivez,WaldemarGeorge,G.GeorgesBazile,JeanGuhenno, AugustinHamon,PierreJeanJouve,C.A.Laisant,A.M.Labour,RaymondLefebvre,MarcelMartinet,EmileMasson,AlexandreMercereau,LucMriga, MathiasMorhardt,GeorgesMatisse,MadeleineMatisse,A.Pierre,AugustPrenant,GabrielReuilland,RomainRolland,JulesRomains,NellyRoussel,Han Ryner,Dr.Schirardin,EdouardSchoen,P.Schultz,EdouardSchneider,Sverine,PaulSignac,Dr.RobertSorel,GastonThiesson,JulesUhry,PaulVaillant Couturier,CharlesVildrac,Dr.Wacker,LonWerth. Germany:G.vanArco,AlbertEinstein,W.Foerster,LeonardFrank,H.vonGerlach,IvanGoll,WilhelmHerzog,HermannHesse,DavidHilbert,Kthe Kollwitz,MaxLehmann,HeinrichMann,A.Moissi,PaulNatorp,GeorgF.Nicolai,NithackStahn,H.Paasche,HlneStoecker,FritzvonUnruh,H.Wehberg, FranzWerfel. Italy:EnricoBignami,RobertoBracco,BenedettoCroce,AmaldoLucci,AttilioCimbro,MarieCimbroBonnet,ConfucioCotti,DinoMuratore,Dr.Enrico Lenzi,Dr.ElsaCastagneri. Belgium:PaulColin,GeorgesEekhound,J.F.Eslander,FransHellens,GeorgesKhnopff,FransMasereel,MlotduDy,JacquesMesnil,EdmondPicard, HenryvandeVelde. Switzerland:ErnstBloch,Dr.RobertEder,AugustForel,CharlesHofer,ProfessorRagaz,H.RoordavanEysinga.

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England:EdwardCarpenter,LowesDickinson,RogerFry,BertrandRussell,IsraelZangwill. Sweden:VernervonHeidenstam,Ellenkay,SelmaLagerlf,CarlLindhagen. Catalonia:M.LopezPico,AlfonsMaseras,Eugeniod'Ors,PaulM.Turull,EmilioH.delVillar. Holland:Dr.L.G.Brouwer,Dr.FrederickvanEeden,J.C.Kapteyn. Austria:Dr.A.H.Fried,StefanZweig. Russia:PaulBirukof,MaximGorky,NicolasRubakin,L.deWiskovatov. Hungary:MonseigneurAlexandreGiesswein,AndreasLatzko. Poland:Dr.M.deRusiecka. Greece:GeorgesDonvalis,Yannios. UnitedStates:JaneAddams,SherwoodAnderson,VanWyckBrooks,WaldoFrank,FrederickP.Hier,B.W.Huebsch,JohnHaynesHolmes,HoraceB. Liveright,EdgarLeeMasters,ScottNearing,UptonSinclair,AlfredStieglitz,LouisUntermeyer,OswaldGarrisonVillard. India:AnandaCoomaraswamy,RabindranathTagore. Argentina:Dr.ManuelGalvez. Brazil:BenedictaCosta. Theappealwasalsosignedbyover100Spanishwritersandscholars,thesignaturescollectedbyEmilioH.delVillar28professorsfromtheUniversityofTurin 56professorsandstudentsfromPiedmontand617individualsfromcentralEurope,whosesignatureswerecollectedbyGeorgF.Nicolaiandpublishedinhis brochure,RomainRollandsManifestunddiedeutschenAntworten(Charlottenburg,1919). 44.RomainRolland,"Dclarationdel'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"L'Espritlibre,337338. 45.JAG,16March1919,17691771. 46.Ibid.,1770. 47.RomainRolland,"TheIntellectuals:TheirFailureTheirOpportunity,"ForeignAffairs1,no.2(August1919):56thiswasreprintedinQACas"Pourl'union destravailleursdesmainsetdel'esprit(commentairelaDclarationdel'Indpendancedel'Esprit),"710. 48.Rolland,"TheIntellectuals,"5. 49.Ibid.,6. 50.Ibid.,5. 51.Ibid.,6. 52.Ibid. 53.RomainRolland,"Dclarationdel'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"L'Espritlibre,342. 54.Perus,RomainRollandetMaximeGorki,53,5764,73. 55.RomainRolland,DedicationtoLesPrcurseurs(1919),inL'Espritlibre,175.

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56.LetterfromRollandtoGeorgeBernardShaw,25April1919,JAG,1796. 57.JAG,1771Jouve,RomainRollandvivant,218n.1. 58.JAG,126,1007. 59.LetterfromRollandtoShaw,25April1919,JAG,1796. 60.LetterfromShawtoRolland,7May1919,JAG,1815. 61.Ibid. 62.LetterfromRollandtoShaw,28May1919,JAG,1817. 63.LetterfromShawtoRolland,27June1919,citedinPRP,1314. 64.LetterfromRollandtoShaw,29June1919,PRP,14. 65.LetterfromShawtoRolland,10July1919,PRP,14n.1. 66.QAC,lxivPRP,1415. 67.MaxEastman,''ALettertoRomainRolland,"TheLiberator,December1919,2425forRomainRolland'srelationswithEastmanduringthewar,seeRomain Rolland,"Voixlibresd'Amrique"(August1917),L'Espritlibre,222234. 68.Eastman,"LettertoRomainRolland,"24. 69.Ibid.,25. 70.LetterfromRollandtoMaxEastman,5December1919,BV,161162Rolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"183184. 71.Rolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"183. 72.LetterfromRollandtoWaldoFrank,21March1920,ARR. 73.JAG,510515,12841286,1762,1771. 74.Ibid.,1820. 75.LettersfromAlbertEinsteintoacolleagueinBreslau,17August1919,andtoaliberalprofessorinPotsdam,18August1919,citedinEinsteinonPeace,ed. OttoNathanandHeinzNorden(NewYork,1965),3132. 76.JAG,1817. 77.RomainRolland,"UnGrandEuropen:G.F.Nicolai"(15October1917),L'Espritlibre,262297JAG,802,16001602,16071609,17561769,1771. 78.Nicolai,RomainRollandsManifest,27.SomeofthesignersincludedAlfredAdler,JohannesR.Becher,EdouardBernstein,MaxBrod,MartinBuber,Richard Dehmel,KasimirEdschmid,AlbertEinstein,AugustForel,WilhelmFoerster,LeonardFrank,IvanGoll,WalterGropius,WilhelmHerzog,HermannHesse,Kurt Hiller,HermannKantorowicz,KarlKautsky,AnnetteKolb,KtheKollwitz,AndreasLatzko,CarlLindhagen,EmilLudwig,HeinrichMann,WalterRathenau,Arthur Rosenberg,RenSchickele,ArturSchnabel,ArthurSchnitzler,WilhelmSteckel,HlneStocker,ErnstToller,KurtTucholsky,FritzvonUnruh,FranzWerfel,Kurt Wolff,StefanZweig. 79.KarlKraus,inNicolai,RomainRollandsManifest,5456. 80.JAG,574,606alsoseeRolandN.Stromberg,RedemptionbyWar:TheIntellectualsand1914(Lawrence,Kans.1982),7475,150. 81.LetterfromBenedettoCrocetoRolland,9April1919,JAG,1792,1864. 82.LetterfromRollandtoCroce,18April1919,BV,160. 83.LetterfromCharlesGidetoRolland,May1919,JAG,18171818. 84.LetterfromCharlesRichettoRolland,May1919,JAG,1818. 85.QAC,lxiv,n.1alsoseeJAG,1814.

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86.Forasampleofthepositiveresponses,seeletterfromIsraelZangwilltoRolland,May1919,JAG,18181819E.D.Morel,"ContributionsfromAbroad," ForeignAffairs,1(August1919):5lettersfromLouisUntermeyertoRolland,28September1919,ARRfromStefanZweigtoRolland,20March1919,23 March1919,7April1919,14April1919,ARRHermannHessetoRolland,2May1919,HHRR,61AlaintoRolland,29June1919,Salutetfraternit.Alain etRomainRolland(Paris,1969),7980JeanGuhennotoRolland,4July1919,JGRR,15AugustPrenanttoRolland,June1919,JAG,1820Rabindranath TagoretoRolland,24June1919,4October1919,RTRR,2526,2930. 87.LetterfromBertrandRusselltoRolland,7April1919,JAG,1790. 88.Ibid.,1791. 89.JAG,1792. 90.Ibid.,1814. 91.LetterfromRollandtoRussell,4June1919,JAG,1819Russellhadproposedon4May1919toreviseparagraph3oftheDeclaration,ibid.,1818. 92.LetterfromRollandtoRussell,4June1919,JAG,1819. 93.Ibid. 94.Ibid.,1820. 95.LetterfromRollandtoRussell,23June1919,ARR. 96.LetterfromRollandtoRussell,16March1920,BV,162163. 97.LetterfromRollandtoPierreJeanJouve,9June1919,citedinJouve,RomainRollandvivant,263. 98.Ibid.,262263.

Chapter5
1.DavidJamesFisher,"TheRollandBarbusseDebate,"Survey,no.2/3(91/92)(SpringSummer1974):121159JeanAlbertini,"BarbusseetRolland,"Europe, September1974,119129JeanAlbertini,"ControverseentreHenriBarbusseetRomainRollandausujetdel'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"inTextespolitiques, sociauxetphilosophiqueschoisis,ed.JeanAlbertini(Paris,1970),182190DavidCaute,CommunismandtheFrenchIntellectuals,19141960(London, 1964),8083. 2.CharlesS.Maier,RecastingBourgeoisEurope:StabilizationinFrance,Germany,andItalyintheDecadeAfterWorldWarI(Princeton,N.J.,1975)Felix Gilbert,TheEndoftheEuropeanEra,1890tothePresent(NewYork,1979),204254PhilippeBernard,LaFind'unmonde,19141929(Paris,1974), 121167. 3.RonaldTiersky,FrenchCommunism,19201972(NewYork,1974),2353NicoleRacineandLouisBodin,LeParticommunistefranaispendantl'entre deuxguerres(Paris,1972),89102Jederman,La'Bolchevisation'duP.C.F.(19231928)(Paris,1971)RobertWohl,FrenchCommunismintheMaking, 19141924(Stanford,Calif.,1966),396432JacquesFauvet,Histoireduparticommunistefranais,2vols.(Paris,1964),1:6782. 4.AnnieKriegel,Auxoriginesducommunismefranais,19141920.Contributionl'histoiredumouvementouvrierfranais,2vols.(Paris,1964)Annie Kriegel,LeCongrsdeTours.Naissanceduparticommunistefranais(Paris,1964). 5.DanielLindenberg,LeMarxismeintrouvable(Paris,1975),221230

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GeorgeLichtheim,MarxisminModernFrance(NewYork,1966),168Wohl,FrenchCommunismintheMaking,441454. 6.Lindenberg,Marxismeintrouvable,230Lichtheim,MarxisminModernFrance,6768AnnieKriegel,TheFrenchCommunists:ProfilesofaPeople, trans.ElaineP.Halperin(Chicago,1972). 7.LetterfromRollandtoJeanLonguet,19March1921,ARR. 8.QAC,xvii. 9.LettersfromRollandtoJeanRichardBloch,30January1920,28March1920,17September1920,20September1920,ARR.Inthisfinalletter,Romain Rollandhyperbolicallyassertedthat''abookisworthanarmy." 10.RomainRolland,Liluli(Geneva,1919Englishtrans.NewYork,1920). 11.LetterfromRollandtoIstardeThionville,13May1920,BV,164. 12.Rolland,Liluli,116118,188,189,190,199200. 13.LetterfromRollandtoBloch,20December1921,ARRalsoseelettersfromRollandtoLouiseCruppi,9February1919,25February1919,ARR.Fora discerningdiscussionofLiluliasaworkofart,seePierreJeanJouve,RomainRollandvivant(19141919)(Paris,1920),280293. 14.RomainRolland,PierreetLuce(Geneva,1971),4142firstpublishedinGenevain1920,Englishtrans.,PierreandLuce(NewYork,1922). 15.LettersfromRollandtoPaulColin,23February1920,27February1920,ARR. 16.RomainRolland,Clrambault.Histoired'uneconsciencelibrependantlaguerre(Geneva,1971)firstpublishedinParisin1920translatedbyKatherine MillerasClrambault:TheStoryofanIndependentSpiritDuringtheWar(NewYork,1921). 17.RomainRolland,"Introductionl'uncontretous"(March1917),Clrambault,82. 18.Rolland,Clrambault,367. 19.Ibid.,148. 20.Ibid.,281. 21.Ibid.,269. 22.Ibid.,293. 23.Ibid.,368. 24.EugenWeber,PeasantsintoFrenchmen:TheModernizationofRuralFrance,18701914(Stanford,Calif.,1976),99,295,297,544n.11. 25.DavidJamesFisher,"PacifismandtheIntellectual:TheCaseofRomainRolland,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):8890. 26.JeanMaxe,"L'Idole'l'europen'RomainRolland,"Cahiersdel'antiFrance1(Paris1922):10,13,67,91forearlierattacksonRomainRollandbytheFrench extremeright,seeHenriMassis,RomainRollandcontrelaFrance(Paris,1915)J.M.Renaitour,StphaneServant,andPaulHyacintheLoyson,Audessusouau coeurdelamle?(Paris,1916)IsabelleDebran,M.RomainRolland,initiateurdudfaitisme(Geneva,1918). 27.LetterfromRollandtoCruppi,7December1922alsoseeRolland,Journalintime,December1920,43,ARR. 28.AndrGide,"Rflexionssurl'Allemagne,"NouvelleRevuefranaise,1June1919,46nAndrGide,"Journalsansdates,"NouvelleRevuefran

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aise,1July1919,278:"Hisbook(JeanChristophe)neverseemsbetterthanwhentranslated." 29.AlbertThibaudet,"LaConsciencelibreetlaguerre,"NouvelleRevuefranaise,no.88(1January1921):6780FrederickJohnHarris,AndrGideand RomainRolland:TwoMenDivided(NewBrunswick,N.J.,1973),7185ontheintellectualimportanceoftheNouvelleRevuefranaise,seeHerbertR. Lottman,TheLeftBank:Writers,Artists,andPoliticsfromthePopularFronttotheColdWar(Boston,1982),3234RgisDebray,Teachers,Writers, Celebrities:TheIntellectualsofModernFrance,trans.FrancisMulhern(London,1981),6075. 30.LettersfromRollandtoBloch,12October1920toPierreAbraham,26July1932,ARR. 31.PaulColin,LaVertud'hrosmeetRomainRolland(Brussels,1919)StefanZweig,RomainRolland,derMannunddasWerk(Frankfurt,1920),English trans.1921,Russian1923,French1930PierreJeanJouve,RomainRollandvivant(19141919)(Paris,1920)JeanBonnerot,RomainRolland.Savie,son oeuvre(Paris,1921)MarcelMartinet,PageschoisiesdeRomainRolland,2vols.(Paris,1921). 32.StefanZweig,RomainRolland:TheManandHisWork(NewYork,1972),vStefanZweig,TheWorldofYesterday(Lincoln,Neb.,1964),265267. 33.JeanAlbertini,IntroductiontoAvezvousluJeanRichardBloch?(Paris,1981),9140. 34.LetterfromBlochtoRolland,27January1920,inRomainRolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"Europe,NovemberDecember1965,196Blochhad favorablyreviewedRomainRolland'sworks.See"ColasBreugnon.UnLivregai,"L'Humanit,7,8,9June1919JeanRichardBloch,"LeThtredupeuple. Critiqued'uneutopie,"Carnavalestmort(Paris,1920),2740. 35.LetterfromRollandtoBloch,30January1920,inRolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"196198. 36.RomainRolland,"UnLivredeRaymondLefebvre.LeSacrificed'Abraham,"L'Humanit,19March1920,1. 37.RaymondLefebvre,ReviewofLesPrcurseurs,inLePopulaire,11January1920. 38.OnBarbusse,seeAnnetteVidal,HenriBarbusse.Soldatdelapaix(Paris,1953)VladimirBrett,HenriBarbusse,samarcheverslaclart,sonmouvement Clart(Prague,1963)"HenriBarbusse,"Europe,January1969,377"HenriBarbusse,"Europe,September1974,3241. 39.RomainRolland,"LeFeuparHenriBarbusse"(February1917),inL'Espritlibre(Geneva,1971),237245. 40.LettersfromRollandtoRaymondLefebvre,31December1919,4January1920,12January1920,15January1920,19February1920,andesp.10March 1920,ARR. 41.RomainRolland,Journalintime,cahier29,32,ARR. 42.Rolland,Journalintime,cahier30,28lettersfromRollandtoBloch,20September1920toStefanZweig,26July1919,ARR.AlsoseeQAC,xvi,lxv. 43.LetterfromRollandtoBloch,10April1920Rolland,Journalintime,cahier29,32,ARR.

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44.Rolland,"Journalindit(19191920),"187theconversationwithDuhamelwasdated17December1919. 45.HenriBarbusse,LeCouteauentrelesdents.Auxintellectuels(Paris,1921). 46.Ibid.,14,36. 47.Ibid.,47,6062,74,77,80. 48.HenriBarbusse,"L'AutreMoitidudevoir.Aproposdu'Rollandisme,'"Clart,no.2,3(December1921):2528thetextwasalsopublishedinJournaldu peuple,no.3132(31January1February1922).TheentireRollandBarbussedebateinchronologicalorderwaspublishedinTextespolitiques,190233. 49.Barbusse,"L'AutreMoitidudevoir,"inTextespolitiques,12194. 50.Ibid.,194,198199. 51.Ibid.,193,194,199,200. 52.Ibid.,194,195,197,199. 53.Ibid.,196,197,198. 54.RomainRolland,"LettreouvertedeRomainRollandHenriBarbusse,"L'Artlibre,January1922,12republishedinClart,no.6(1February1922):126 127Rassegnainternazionale4:1417Journaldupeuple,no.33(2February1922)TheNation,8February1922LesHumbles,March1922.AllofRomain Rolland'sopenletterstoBarbussewereincludedinQAC,4359,translatedintoEnglishasIWillNotRest,trans.K.S.Shelvankar(NewYork[1935]),127145. 55.RomainRolland,"LettreouvertedeRomainRollandHenriBarbusse,"Textespolitiques,202,204. 56.Ibid.,202,203,204205. 57.Ibid.,202,204. 58.Ibid.,203,204. 59.Ibid.,203. 60.Ibid. 61.Ibid.,204,205,206. 62.Ibid.,205. 63.HenriBarbusse,"LettreRomainRollandproposduRollandisme,"Clart,no.6(1February1922):127128alsopublishedinJournaldupeuple,no.36(5 February1922)andL'Artlibre,February1922,19Textespolitiques,206209. 64.RomainRolland,"DeuximeLettreHenriBarbusse,"L'Artlibre,February1922,1719alsopublishedinJournaldupeuple,no.47(16February1922) Textespolitiques,209218. 65.Rolland,Textespolitiques,209210. 66.Ibid.,210,211,213. 67.Ibid.,211,213. 68.Ibid.,213. 69.Ibid. 70.Ibid.,214. 71.Ibid.,216217. 72.Ibid.,217218. 73.HenriBarbusse,"RponsedeHenriBarbusse,"Clart,no.10(1April1922):221225alsoinJournaldupeuple,no.92(2April1922)no.94(4April 1922)Textespolitiques,218227.

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74.Barbusse,"RponsedeHenriBarbusse,"219,223,226. 75.Ibid.,224,225,226. 76.Ibid.,220. 77.Ibid.,220,221,222. 78.Ibid.,226227. 79.OnthetrialoftheSocialRevolutionaries,seeRoyA.Medvedev,LetHistoryJudge:TheOriginsandConsequencesofStalinism,trans.ColleenTaylor(New York,1972),381384. 80.RomainRolland,"LaRvolutionetlesintellectuels.Lettreauxamiscommunistes,"L'Artlibre,April1922,4950alsoinJournaldupeuple,no.117(29April 1922)Textespolitiques,227233. 81.Textespolitiques,230forRomainRolland'sinformationabouttheSocialRevolutionaries,seeQAC,lxvilxvii. 82.Rolland,"LaRvolutionetlesintellectuels,"Textespolitiques,228,229,230. 83.Ibid.,232233. 84.Ibid.,230,231. 85.Ibid.,231. 86.Ibid.,232233. 87.LettersfromRollandtoBarbusse,18January1922toColin,27December1921,1January1922Rolland,Journalintime,1January1922,8182,ARR. 88.LettersfromRollandtoEdouardDujardin,20January1922toColin,9January1922,ARR. 89.AmdeDunois,"Aproposdu'Manifestecommuniste,'"L'Humanit,10March1922,1. 90.RomainRolland'sletterwaspublishedinL'Humanit,12March1922. 91.AmdeDunois,"Neutralitestimpossible,"L'Humanit,12March1922,1. 92.MarcelMartinet,"LesIntellectuelsetlarvolution,"L'Humanit,25March1922,1Martinetwroteanearlierpieceonthesamethemes,"LaRvolutionetla libert,"L'Internationale,8March1922. 93.AlbertMathiez,"L'EliteeuropenneetlaTerreur,"Clart,no.14(June1922):323. 94.RomainRolland,"L'EliteeuropenneetlaTerreur.RponseAlbertMathiez,"Clart,no.16(1July1922):372373republishedinJournaldupeuple,13 July1922seealsoAlbertMathiez,"RpliqueRomainRolland,"Clart,no.16(1July1922):373374. 95.LettersfromRollandtoColin,3February1922,10February1922,27February1922,3March1922,6March1922,ARR. 96.RomainRolland,"DeuximelettredeRollandBarbusse,"Textespolitiques,215216. 97."L'Indpendancedel'Esprit.Rponsesl'appeldeRomainRolland,"L'Artlibre,no.3(March1922).Thefollowingintellectualsparticipatedinthedebate:Ren Arcos,GeorgBrandes,LonBazalgette,GeorgesChennevire,PaulColin,JeanDebrit,GeorgesDuhamel,EdouardDujardin,LucDurtain,GustaveDupin,Kasimir Edschmid,FernandGouttenoiredeToury,PierreJeanJouve,AnnetteKolb,AndreasLatzko,FransMasereel,HeinrichMann,MarcelMartinet,JacquesMesnil, JulesRomains

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RenSchickel,FritzvonUnruh,CharlesVildrac,HenryvandeVelde,LonWerth,andStefanZweig. 98.EdouardDujardin,"L'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"3637MarcelMartinet,ibid.,3940.MartinetandPierreMonattehadvisitedRomainRollandon18March 1922.SeeRolland,Journalintime,cahier32,123,ARRKasimirEdschmid,L'Artlibre,no.4(April1922):5051. 99.FernandGouttenoiredeToury,"L'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"38LonWerth,ibid.,42. 100.SeeP.J.JouveandCharlesVildrac,"L'Indpendancedel'Esprit,"39,42,respectively. 101.JosephRivire,"EnquteRomainRollandHenriBarbusse,"Cahiersidalistes,June1922,126127MarcelMillet,ibid.,123124. 102.Fabrice,"RomainRollandetHenriBarbusse,"LeLibertaire,no.158(3February1922)MauriceWullens,"RomainRollandetBarbusse,"ibid.no.160(17 February1922)Fabrice,"Littrateur,"ibid.,no.160(17February1922)AndrColomer,''LaRvolutionetleproltariat,"ibid.,no.165(24March1922)Andr Colomer,''Philosophieourvolution,"ibid.,no.168(14April1922)Gnold,"LeBonGrainetl'ivraie,"Revueanarchiste,no.5(May1922)HanRyner, "Rollandists,"Journaldupeuple,no.99(9April1922)MarcelineHecquet,"Delanoncoopration,"Journaldupeuple,no.179(29June1922). 103.QAC,xxiiixxixlettersfromRollandtoColin,21April1922toMaximGorky,20December1921,21January1922lettersfromGorkytoRolland,3 January,25January1922,ARR. 104.LettersfromRollandtoColin,23April1922toEinstein,21April1922toErnstRobertCurtius,19January1923,ARRalsoseeJosephKvapil,Romain Rollandetlesamisd'Europe(Prague,1971),86109PierreAbraham,"LaNaissanced'unerevue,"Europe,SeptemberOctober1973,613. 105.QAC,lxx. 106.RomainRolland,L'Ameenchante,vol.1,AnnetteetSylvie(Paris,1922). 107.LetterfromRollandtoPaulSeippel,28May1922,ARR.Duringtheheatofthedebate,RomainRollandintercededonbehalfofBarbusse'scandidacyinthe CercleLittraireInternationale.SeelettersfromRollandtoLonBazalgette,9March1922toBloch,3March1922,ARR. 108.RomainRolland,"LeBanditismeducapitalauxEtatsUnis.UneLettredeRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,15June1922,1. 109."LettredeRomainRolland,"Journaldupeuple,no.87(8July1922)"LeProcsdesS.R.russes,"Journaldupeuple,no.196(16July1922)Rolland, Journalintime,12July1922,ARR. 110.LetterfromRollandtoMarcelMartinet,18July1922Rolland,Journalintime,18July1922,ARR. 111.LetterfromRollandtoMartinet,13July1922,ARR. 112.LeonTrotsky,"LeDrameduproltariatfranais,"Clart,no.22(1October1922):507511LeonTrotsky,"UnePicequiestunedate,"L'Humanit,7 October1922,1theClartpiecefirstappearedinRussianinIzvestia,16May1922inEnglishinLabourMonthly,22August1922reprintedinTrotskyon LiteratureandArt,ed.PaulN.Siegel(NewYork,1970),148161.

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113.LetterfromRollandtoFransMasereel,11October1922,ARR. 114.Rolland,Journalintime,October1922,4951,56,ARR.Ayearlater,RomainRollandarguedforaneducationthatstressedfreeinquiryandopposedevery churchmentality:"Andchurchesallclericalism(bourgeoisorproletarian)thatistheenemy!"L'Ecolemancipe,no.45(1September1923):23VictorSerge defendedSovietformsofcollectiveeducationinhisrebuttalandaccusedRomainRollandoftakingflightintoanabstractformofneutralityseeVictorSerge,"Au dessusdelamlesociale,"L'Ecolemancipe,no.4(14October1923):4951. 115.LetterfromRollandtoEdouardDujardin,2March1922,ARR.

Chapter6
1.RomainRolland,"EuropeandtheColouredPeoples,"ForeignAffairs1,no.11(1May1920):1RomainRolland,"ALetterfromRomainRolland,"Foreign Affairs2,no.12(June1921):185. 2.RomainRolland,"TheIronNet,"Survey56,no.9(1August1926):495496forthefullversionofthisarticle,seeletterfromRollandtoPaulKellog,18 November1925,BV,227230. 3.Rolland,"IronNet,"496. 4.RomainRolland,"L'Appelauxintellectuels.UneLettredeRomainRolland,"publishedinLaLibert(Cairo),no.981letterisdated18December1924,ARR. 5.RomainRolland,"RponsedeRomainRolland,'QuepensezvousdelaguerreduMaroc?'"Clart,no.76(15July1925):271Rolland,"Appelauxtravailleurs intellectuels.Ouiounon,condamnezvouslaguerre?"ibid.,285thisappealwasalsosignedbyBarbusseandtheClartgroup,thePhilosophiescircleofNorbert Guterman,HenriLefebvre,PierreMorhange,andGeorgesPolitzer,aswellasbyMarcelMartinet,GeorgesPioch,CharlesVildrac,andLonWerth. 6.Rolland,"RponsedeRomainRolland,'QuepensezvousdelaguerreduMaroc?'"271. 7.Rolland,"IronNet,"495,496. 8.Ibid. 9.Ibid.AlsoseeRomainRolland,"Protestationcontrel'invasionduNicaraguaparlestroupesdesEtatsUnis,"Frontunidestravailleursetintellectuelsde l'Amriquelatine(1927),ARR. 10.RomainRolland,"AdresseauxtudiantsettravailleursindochinoisenFrance"(17May1926),QAC,6971thisfirstappearedinthemonthlyIndochinese newspaper,VitNamHn,publishedinParisalsoseeletterfromRollandtoChengTcheng,13January1927,ARR.ForRomainRolland'sinfluenceonChinese intellectuals,seeT.B.KinYnYn,"LaRenaissanceChinoiseetl'influencedeRomainRolland,"Europe,15September1927,101108. 11.LettersfromRollandtoCountRichardCoudenhoveKalergi,14September1925,QAC,xxxandtoLouisRougier,14November1924,ibid.,xxxiixxxiiialso seeRomainRolland,"SurPanEurope,"ibid.,9798thiswasfirstpublishedinL'Effort(Lyons),28January1930forafullcritiqueofpanEuropeanideas,see RomainRolland'sdebatewithGastonRiou,summarizedinhis"Europe,largistoi,oumeurs."QAC,112126.

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12.RomainRolland,"LePactKellog,"Monde,no.12(25August1928):1"LePactKellogetlacomdiedelapaix,"L'Effort,30October1928''Contreletrait depaix,''Cridespeuples,10February1929"Contrelaguerre.UnAppeldeRomainRolland,"Monde,no.67(14September1929):3"LaPirateriedelapaix," PRP,1926thisfirstappearedinEurope,15November1929,431436Russiantrans.Izvestia"Ilfautrviserlestraits"(30October1931),PRP,107109"Il fautrviserlestraits,"PRP,110111,firstpublishedinL'Effort,January1932and"Ilfautrvisertoutl'ordresocial"(23April1932),PRP,112118. 13.SeePeterBrock,TwentiethCenturyPacifism(NewYork,1970).ThoughBrock'sessayisexcellentonBritish,Indian,andAmericanvarietiesofpacifism,itis scantyonContinentalpeacemovements. 14.RomainRolland,"MessagelaVolontdepaix,"PRP,100104,firstpublishedinVolontdepaix,no.5(OctoberDecember1928)RomainRolland, "Rponsel'exposd'EugenRelgis,"inEugenRelgis,L'Internationalepacifiste(Paris,1929),2729seeJeanTrain,"SurRomainRolland,"Mreducatrice,no. 79(JulySeptember1929):5. 15.ThesedebatesarediscussedinDavidJamesFisher,"RomainRollandandtheQuestionoftheIntellectual,"Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofWisconsin,1973,320372. 16.RomainRolland,"Contrelaloimilitaire,"PRP,144n.1thisfirstappearedinEurope,no.53(15May1927):62.AlsoseeRomainRolland,"Postface,"in MarianneRauze,L'AntiGuerre.Essaid'unedoctrineetd'unephilosophiedel'antimilitarismeen1923(Niort,1923),187192thiswasreprintedas"Contredu pacifismengatif,"inPRP,9397.OneoftheleadingadvocatesofpeacetimecivilservicewastheSwissPierreCrsoleseePierreHirsch,ed.,BonVoisinage. EdmondPrivatetRomainRolland(Neuchtel,1977). 17.RomainRolland,"LeDevoirdesintellectuelscontrelaguerre,"PRP,143148firstpublishedinL'Avenirsocial(Brussels),1May1927. 18.JeanBis,Littraturefranaiseetpensehindouie.Desorigins1950(Paris,1974),9351EdwardW.Said,Orientalism(NewYork,1979),166197, 226254. 19.DavidJamesFisher,"PacifismandtheIntellectual:TheCaseofRomainRolland,"PeaceandChange7,no.12(Winter1981):9194R.A.Francis,"Romain RollandandGandhi:AStudyinCommunication,"JournalofEuropeanStudies5(1975):291307DavidJamesFisher,"RomainRollandandthePopularizationof Gandhi,19231925,"GandhiMarg,18,no.3(July1974):145180Bis,Littraturefranaiseetpensehindoue,357428MargaretW.Fisher, "Introduction"toRomainRolland,MahatmaGandhi(NewYork,1973),536V.V.RamanaMurti,"RomainRollandandGandhi,"GandhiMarg,no.37(January 1966):40PierreMeile,"Gandhi,oulasagessedchaine,"inM.K.Gandhi,Autobiographieoumesexpriencesdevrit(Paris,1964),6CamilleDrevet, "GandhiinFrance,"GandhiMarg,no.4(October1959):302. 20.PaulClaySorum,IntellectualsandDecolonizationinFrance(ChapelHill,N.C.,1977). 21.JosephJ.Doke'sM.K.Gandhi,AnIndianPatriotinSouthAfrica(London,1909)wasthefirstbookonGandhi.

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22.RenGrousset,Histoiredelaphilosophieorientale(Paris,1923)Histoiredel'Asie(Paris,1924),vol.2andLeRveildel'Asie(Paris,1924).Seealso RenGunon,Introductionauxdoctrineshindoues(Paris,1921),andL'Orientetl'Occident(Paris,1924). 23."LesAppelsdel'Orient,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925).ParticipantsincludedGabrielAudisio,HenriBarbusse,AndrBreton,Paul Claudel,AndrDesson,FlorentFels,ClaudeFerrire,AndrGide,RenGunon,AndrHarlaire,FranzHellens,DinetandSlimanbenIbraham,SylvainLvi,Ren Lalou,HenriMassis,PaulMassonOursel,AndrMaurois,RomainRolland,Sdir,FritzvonUnruh,andPaulValry. 24.HenriBarbusse,"LesAppelsdel'Orient,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925):244AndrBreton,ibid.,250251. 25.PaulValry,"Puissancedechoixdel'Europe,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925):1617. 26.HenriMassis,"Misesaupoint,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925):3038alsosee"HenriMassisnousparledelaGrandeAsiedeRomain RollandetRabindranathTagore,"Journallittraire,no.42(7February1925):4HenriMassis,Dfensedel'Occident(Paris,1927).Foranintroductionto Massis,seeRobertWohl,TheGenerationof1914(Cambridge,Mass.,1979),518. 27.ThiswaswellarticulatedbySylvainLvi's"Distinction,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925):1113andAndrGide,"LesAppelsdel'Orient," ibid.,18alsoseeSylvainLvi'sL'Indeetlemonde(Paris,1926). 28.RomainRolland,"LesAppelsdel'Orient,"Cahiersdumois,no.910(FebruaryMarch1925):322. 29.ForRomainRolland'spersonalreactiontotheworksofMassisandLvi,seeletterstoKalidasNag,18July1924,ARRand2May1925,RTRR,132alsosee RomainRolland,L'Inde.Journal,19151943(Paris,1951),46,289,411,488hepreferredthescholarlyworksofPaulMassonOurseltothoseofLviand Massis.ForRomainRolland'sthoughtsonEurope'sdegeneration,seehisconversationwithTagore,24June1926,RTRR,183. 30.Rolland,L'Inde,3940.Inaddition,seeletterfromRollandtoHermannHesse,5April1923,HHRR,100101Hesserepliedon6April1923,ibid.,101103. Hesse'sabilitytoabsorbEasternreligiousideaswasrelatedtohismarginalpositioninEuropeanintellectualcurrents. 31.RomainRolland,"AuP.E.N.ClubdeLondres(PourlapremirerunioninternationaleduClubInternationaledesEcrivains),"1May1923,QAC,5961first publishedinEurope,15June1923,102105.RomainRolland,"'Surl'occupationdelaRuhr,"QAC,6162firstpublishedinRassegnainternazionale,July1923, andinLibresPropos,6October1923,218.RomainRolland,"Appelauxfranaispourvenirenaideauxmalheureuxd'Allemagne,"QAC,6264thisfirstappeared inEurope,15February1924,233234L'Universel,February1924,1andRevueeuropene,no.13(1March1924):7273letterfromRollandtoErnstToller, 20November1924,ARRalsoconsultQAC,71. 32.Rolland,L'Inde,911. 33.Ibid.,1213alsoseeRomainRolland,LesPrcurseurs(1919Ge

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neva,1971),191RabindranathTagore,"LeMessagedel'IndeauJapon,"trans.AndreJouve,inRomainRolland,Alacivilisation(Paris,1917),2530. 34.LettersfromRollandtoTagore,26August1919,10April1919,25April1921,RTRR,2628,2122,3435alsoseeRolland,L'Inde,1927. 35.Rolland,"AvantPropospourLaDansedeCivad'AnandaCoomaraswamy,"L'Inde,598604thisfirstappearedinAnandaCoomaraswamy,LaDansede Civa,trans.MadeleineRolland(Paris,1922).LetterfromRollandtoDilipKumarRoy,24February1924,inD.K.Roy,AmongtheGreat(Bombay,1945),86 89alsopublishedinGRR,208210Englishtranslation,RomainRollandandGandhiCorrespondence,trans.R.A.Francis(NewDelhi,1976),2325alsosee lettersfromRollandtoMaximGorky,4April1922,16September1922,8February1923,4October1923,1August1924,16October1924,ARRfromRolland toRoy,1October1924,AmongtheGreat,6062. 36.RomainRolland,MahatmaGandhi(Paris,1924),14. 37.LettersfromRollandtoNag,21October1924,RTRR,118119fromRollandtoMarcelMartinet,1November1924,ARR.From1923to1924,Revue europenewasmorereceptivethanEuropetotheIndianculturalinfluenceitpublished"DeuxPomesdeTagore,"trans.P.J.Jouve,no.8(1923):2123andC. F.Andrews,"UneJourneavecMahatmaGandhi,"no.21(1November1924):4754withanintroductionbyRomainRolland. 38.Rolland,L'Inde,18. 39.Ibid.,3435. 40.Ibid.,39.RollandacknowledgedhisintellectualdebttoNaginMahatmaGandhi(Paris,1966),9seelettersfromRollandtoNag,14August1922,GRR, 172,and12November1922,ARR. 41.RomainRolland,"LaRponsedel'AsieTolsto"(May1927),ViedeTolsto(Paris,1959),214231firstpublishedinEurope,15July1928,338357 "LettrecriteparTolstodeuxmoisavantsamort,Gandhi,"inRolland,ViedeTolsto,331335.ForRomainRolland'srelationswithTolstoyandTolstoyasa bridgebetweenGandhiandRomainRolland,seeRomainRolland,MonsieurleComte.RomainRollandetLonTolstoytextes(Paris,1981),135,139,149, 166167. 42.LetterfromRollandtoNag,21December1922,GRR,173. 43.LetterfromRollandtoNag,12November1922,ARRalsoseelettersfromRollandtoLouiseCruppi,25January1923toPaulColin,25January1923to MauriceDelamin,7February1923,GRR,175,175176,177178toColin,25January1923toPaulAmann,9February1923,GRR,175,180.Thebiography waspublishedinthreepartsinEurope,15March1923,12916315April1923,26731015May1923,427454theconcludingremarksofthefinalchapter werepublishedunderthetitle"L'Evangiledelanonviolence,"inLibresPropos,16June1923,7274.ItwasreleasedinbookformbytheFrenchpublisherLes EditionsStockin1924,andtranslatedintoEnglishbyCatherineP.GrothasMahatmaGandhi:TheManWhoBecameOnewiththeUniversalBeing(New York,1924reprint,NewYork,1973).IwillcitethedefinitiveFrencheditionof1966. 44.Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,27,2829. 45.Ibid.,64.

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46.Ibid.,15,35,4748. 47.Ibid.,48,73. 48.Ibid.,4950. 49.Ibid.,109112. 50.Ibid.,59alsosee21,69,9596. 51.ForrepresentativehistoricalevaluationsoftheeventsatChauriChaura,seeD.G.Tendulkar,Mahatma:TheLifeofMohandasKaramchandGandhi (Bombay,1951),2:101123B.R.Nanda,MahatmaGandhi:ABiography(London,1958),235237FrancisWatson,TheTrialofMr.Gandhi(London, 1969),184185Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,89,96. 52.Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,96. 53.Ibid.,8485. 54.Ibid.,44,48. 55.ErikH.Erikson,Gandhi'sTruth:OntheOriginsofMilitantNonviolence(NewYork,1969),229254Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,86. 56.Ibid.,85V.V.RamanaMurti,"RomainRollandandGandhi,"GandhiMarg,no.37(January1966):40,observesthatRomainRollanddrawshisportraitfrom "aTagoreanviewpoint." 57.Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,85. 58.Ibid.,113. 59.RomainRolland,"L'IndedepuislalibrationdeGandhi,"Europe,15April1924,507514.Thisessayservedasthe"postface"inlatereditions(seeRolland, MahatmaGandhi,117126)butisnotincludedintheEnglishtranslation.Gandhiwasreleasedfromprisonon2February1924. 60.RomainRolland,"IntroductionLaJeuneInde,"GRR,349361firstpublishedinRevueeuropene,no.20(1October1924):115.ThisservedasRomain Rolland'sintroductiontotheFrenchabridgementofGandhi'sJeuneInde(Paris,1924),trans.HlneHartEnglishtranslationinRollandGandhiCorrespondence, 509519. 61.Rolland,"IntroductionLaJeuneInde,"514. 62.Ibid.,513. 63.Rolland,MahatmaGandhi,21,43n.25,111RomainRollandcitedM.N.Roy,IndiainTransition(Geneva,1922),andM.N.RoyandEvelynRoy,One YearofNonCooperation(Calcutta,1923),addingthatthesebrochures"setforththecommunistthesis,inoppositiontoGandhi,"ibid.,130. 64.DespitethepopularityofRomainRolland'svolumeonGandhi,itwasignoredbyreviewers.ThreerarebutnotsubstantivereviewsareCharlesHenryHirsch, MercuredeFrance165(1July1923):191192,and175(1November1924):793JeanCaves,"LeNihilismeeuropenetlesAppelsdel'Orient,"Philosophies, no.2(15May1924):190195andPaulSouday,"MahatmaGandhideR.Rolland,"LeTemps,13March1924.LettersfromRollandtoLucDurtain,1June 1923toWaldoFrank,17June1923toStefanZweig,22March1924GRR,192,196,212. 65.RamPrasadDube,"LesAspectssociauxaumouvementGandhidansl'Inde,"Clart,no.8(1March1922):188191. 66.M.N.Roy,"LeCongrsnationaldeGaya.VersladisparitionduquitismedeGandhi,"L'Humanit,3March1923,3. 67.ExecutiveCommitteeoftheCommunistInternational,"LesCrimesdel'imprialismebrittanique,"L'Humanit,19March1923,3.

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68.HenriBarbusse,"Rvolutionnairesd'Orientetd'Occident.AproposdeGandhi,"Clart,no.39(13July1923):314. 69.Ibid.,315. 70.Ibid.,316. 71.Ibid.,317. 72.Ibid.,317318. 73.Ibid.,318. 74.Ibid. 75.Ibid.,319. 76.Ibid.,320EvelynRoy's"MahatmaGandhi.Rvolutionnaireoucontrervolutionnaire?"Clart,no.46(November1926):437439,wascriticalofboth BarbusseandRomainRollandClarthadevolvedtoanextremeleftpositionby1926. 77.LettersfromRollandtoJacquesMesnil,12March1923andtoJ.Taupin,12March1923,GRR,188,188189. 78.LetterfromRollandtoRoy,24February1924,GRR,209. 79.LetterfromRollandtoC.F.Andrews,24September1924,GRR,218.RomainRollandnotedinMarch1924thathisportraitofGandhiwasproscribedinthe SovietUnion(ibid.,432). 80.LetterfromRollandtoAndrews,24September1924,GRR,217218. 81.ForthetextofGandhi'sstatement,seeM.K.Gandhi,NonViolenceinPeaceandWar(Ahmedabad,1962),1:2930,whichfirstappearedinYoungIndia,12 December1924. 82.Rolland,journalextract,January1924,GRR,437438.ForLeMatin'sexploitationofGandhi'sstatement,see"Gandhirefusedel'argentoffertparMoscou pourfomenterlarvolutionauxIndes,"LeMatin,20January1925,1. 83.LetterfromRollandtoRogerAvermaete,28July1924,GRR,215. 84.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,24February1924,GRR,1314. 85.LettersfromRollandtoGandhi,1October1925,GRR,15fromMadeleineSladetoRolland,12November1925,ibid.,1516fromGandhitoRolland,13 November1925,ibid.,16journalextract,14September1925,ibid.,439440.AlsoconsultMadeleineSlade,TheSpirit'sPilgrimage(NewYork,1960). 86.LetterfromGandhitoRolland,22March1924,GRR,14. 87.Rolland,journalextract,December1924,GRR,437. 88.LetterfromGandhitoEmilRoniger,October1926,GRR,26(EnglishtranslationinRollandGandhiCorrespondence,77)alsopublishedinLiberAmicorum RomainRolland,ed.GeorgesDuhamel,MaximGorky,andStefanZweig(Zurich,1926),155. 89.LetterfromRollandtoSlade,26September1926,GRR,2223(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,72). 90.GRR,23(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,73). 91.RomainRolland,"HicetNunc"(22November1926),inLeVoyageintrieur(Paris,1959),374379. 92.LettersfromRollandtoGeorgeLenard,8March1928toReginaldReynolds,19September1930,GRR,240,253(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,410, 423).RomainRollandalsousedthelinefromSpinozaastheepigraphtoMreetfils(1927),inL'Ameenchante,431.

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93.Rolland,"HicetNunc,"375,376,379. 94.LetterfromRollandtoSlade,10December1927,GRR,3032(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,8890)lettersfromSladetoRolland,6January1928,12 February1928,GRR,3233,3435(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,9091,9394)letterfromGandhitoRolland,17February1928,GRR,3637 (RollandGandhiCorrespondence,9596)letterfromRollandtoSlade,21January1928,GRR,33(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,9192). 95.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,8March1928,GRR,3941(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,99102)M.K.Gandhi,"MyPartintheWar,"and"A SpiritualDilemma,"inAnAutobiography:TheStoryofMyExperimentswithTruth(NewYork,1971),346348,348350. 96.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,7March1928,GRR,41(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,101). 97.LettersfromRollandtoGandhi,16April1928,17February1928,GRR,4648,5153(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,111114,128130). 98.MessagefromRollandtoReginaldReynoldsforGandhi'sbirthday,1October1930,GRR,254255(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,141). 99.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,10September1931,GRR,6162(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,147148)letterfromRollandtoSlade,9November 1931,GRR,6568(RollandGandhiCorrespondence156159). 100.Rolland,journalextract,December1931,GRR,70(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,163164)thefulltextofGandhi'svisitisrecordedinGRR,69127. 101.GeoffreyAshe,Gandhi(NewYork,1969),311312LouisFischer,TheLifeofMahatmaGandhi(NewYork,1962),298301. 102.Rolland,journalextract,GRR,7376(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,168171). 103.Rolland,journalextract,GRR,7576(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,169170). 104.Rolland,journalextract,GRR,8385,86,115116(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,179181,183,217218). 105.GRR,9798,114117,118119(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,195197,216217,218219).OnlytherevolutionarysyndicalistscoveredGandhi's visittoEuropeseeD.Gurin,"GandhiParis,"Rvolutionproltarienne,no.122(December1931):306309.GandhirepliedtoMonatte'squestion(posedby RomainRolland)inRvolutionproltarienne,no.123(January1932):56. 106.Rolland,L'Inde,315321,338. 107.Ibid.,353,362364,376380. 108.Ibid.,320,364. 109.Ibid. 110.LetterfromGandhitoRolland,20December1931,GRR,129. 111.Rolland,L'Inde,423dated1933. 112.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,2January1932,GRR,134135,(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,245248).Thisletterwasneithercompletednormailed becauseofGandhi'sarrestinIndia. 113.GRR,135. 114.RomainRolland,LeVoyageintrieur.(Songed'unevie)(Paris,1959)Rolland,Beethoven.LesGrandesEpoquescratricesdel'Hroque l'Appassionata(Paris,1928)Rolland,GoetheetBeethoven(Paris,1930)Rolland

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Essaisurlamystiqueetl'actiondel'Indevivante.LaViedeRamakrishna(Paris,1929)andLaViedeVivekanandaetl'vangileuniversel,2vols.(Paris, 1930). 115.Rolland,L'Inde,262alsoseelettersfromRollandtoAlbertCrmieux,8February1928toSwamiAshkananda,4October1927toSwamiShivananda,12 September1927,ARR.LetterfromRollandtoRoy,22August1928,inRoy,AmongtheGreat,5154. 116.Rollandcoinedtheterm"oceanicsensation"inaletterwrittentoSigmundFreudon5December1927(BV,264266)seeDavidJamesFisher,"SigmundFreud andRomainRolland:TheTerrestrialAnimalandHisGreatOceanicFriend,"AmericanImago33,no.1(Spring1976):159andDavidJamesFisher,"Reading Freud'sCivilizationandItsDiscontents,"inModernEuropeanIntellectualHistory,ed.DominickLaCapraandStevenKaplan(Ithaca,N.Y.,1982),251279. 117.LetterfromRollandtoFreud,17July1929,ARR.AlsoseeRomainRolland,TheLifeofRamakrishna,trans.E.F.MalcolmSmith(Calcutta,1970),45,6 7Rolland,TheLifeofVivekanandaandtheUniversalGospel,trans.E.F.MalcolmSmith(Calcutta,1970),254.ForastudyofRomainRolland'sreligiosity,see PaulClaudel,"LaPensereligieusedeRomainRolland,"inAccompagnements(Paris,1949),6288. 118.ThefollowingisalistofRomainRolland's"Courrierdel'Inde"articles:"Courrierdel'Inde.LaDclarationdeguerredel'Angleterrel'Inde,"GRR,383393 (firstpublishedinEurope,15February1932,250260)"Courrierdel'IndeII.EchecauRoi!"GRR,394406(firstpublishedinEurope,15March1932,416 427)''Courrierdel'IndeIII.Rvolution,lechefinvisible,"GRR,406417(firstpublishedinEurope,15May1932,108119)"LeChristdesIndes,''GRR,417 419(firstpublishedinJourneinternationalepourl'Inde,6October1932)"TagoreetGandhipendantlejeune,"L'Inde,559562(firstpublishedinEurope,15 November1932,448551)"Versl'unitdel'Indeparl'ententeHindoueMusulmane,"L'Inde,559562(firstpublishedinEurope,15January1933,107110) "Documentssurl'Inde,"L'Inde,568572(firstpublishedinEurope,15February1933,254257)"PourlescondamnsdeMeerut,"L'Inde,573577(first publishedinEurope,15April1933,593597)"LesResolutionsduCongrsNationaldeTouteL'Inde,Calcutta"(May1933),L'Inde,578581(firstpublishedin Europe,15June1933,273276). 119.LettersfromRollandtoLucienPrice,25December1931toStefanZweig,30December1931toMarcelLob,1January1932toRMeynard,17January 1932GRR,284287,287291,295,300301. 120.LetterfromRollandtoWaldoFrank,26January1932,GRR,301302.AlsoseelettersfromRollandtoReginaldReynolds,12July1933toEugeneLagot,4 November1933toSaumyendranathTagore,14November1933GRR,316318,320,321322.ForRomainRolland'sattemptstobridgethecommunistand Gandhianmovements,see"EntretienentreRomainRollandetS.Tagore,"GRR,330332. 121.LetterfromRollandtoGandhi,14April1932,GRR,154157(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,302305). 122.Gandhihadattackedsocialisttheoryandpracticeinhis"AdresseauCongrsdeBombay,"Europe,15March1935,deliveredinSeptember1934.Alsosee letterfromGandhitoMadeleineRolland,28March1935,GRR,162163.ForRomainRolland'sreactions,seePRP,74n.1and

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Rolland,journalextract,GRR,340343(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,324327). 123.RomainRolland,"Actedereconnaissanced'unhommed'OccidentGandhi"(February1939),GRR,420422(RollandGandhiCorrespondence,345 348). 124.SeeJoanV.Bondurant,TheConquestofViolence:TheGandhianPhilosophyofConflict(Berkeley,Calif.,1971),fortheconnectionbetweenGandhism andtheliberaldemocraticideologiesErikson,Gandhi'sTruth,forthecorrespondencesbetweenGandhismandpsychoanalysisandGeorgeWoodcock,Mohandas Gandhi(NewYork,1971),forthelinktoanarchistideas.

Chapter7
1.LetterfromRollandtoLouiseCruppi,15February1922,ARRalsoQAC,xl. 2.LetterfromRollandtoCruppi,1November1922,ARR. 3.LetterfromRollandtoSofiaGuerrieriGonzaga,27July1922,RRSBGG(1960),287letterfromRollandtoCruppi,8February1923,ARR. 4.LetterfromRollandtoGuerrieriGonzaga,31December1922,RRSBGG(1960),290291letterfromRollandtoCruppi,13September1923,ARR. 5.Rolland,Journalintime,December1924December1925,ARRletterfromRollandtoUmbertoZanottiBianco,31August1925,ARR. 6.LettersfromRollandtoRenArcos,31August1925toLonBazalgette,7September1925toJeanRichardBloch,5September1925and15October1925, ARR. 7.RomainRolland,"Contrelaguerreetsesagentsprovocateurs,"QAC,6667firstdeliveredasanaddresstotheFrenchLeagueoftheRightsofMan,Drmeand Ardchesections,19April1926. 8.RomainRolland,"Vitasinelibertate,nihil,"QAC,67thiswasfirstaletterwrittentoHenryTorrs,23April1926. 9.RomainRolland,"LettreFilippoTurati"(1May1927),QAC,6768RomainRolland,"LaVeuvedeMatteottisquestre,"LePopulaire,3October1927,3. ForadescriptionoftheweeklyLaLibertandforinformationontheactivitiesofTuratiandClaudioTreves,seeCharlesDelzell,Mussolini'sEnemies:TheItalian AntifascistResistance(Princeton,N.J.,1961),58. 10.HenriGiordan,ed.,RomainRollandetlemouvementflorentinde"laVoce"(Paris,1966).GiovanniAmendola'stributetoRomainRollandappearedinLiber AmicorumRomainRolland(Zurich,1926),393394. 11.LetterfromRollandtoGiorgioAmendola,22May1926,inGiordan,RomainRollandetlamouvementflorentinde"laVoce,"355356alsoseeQAC,xl publishedinItalianinGiorgioAmendola,Communismoantifascismoresistenza(Rome,1967),411412. 12.RomainRolland,L'Inde.Journal,19151943(Paris,1951),109119,126127,134. 13.LetterfromRollandtoGaetanoSalvemini,5July1926,RTRR,147. 14.LetterfromRollandtoRabindranathTagore,11November1926RTRR,78alsoseetheconversationbetweenRollandandTagore,25June1926,ibid.,187 191.

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15.LetterfromRollandtoKalidasNag,67July1926,RTRR,149151. 16.LetterfromRollandtoSalvemini,5July1926,RTRR,147alsoseeRolland,L'Inde,138146,157,159166,179,182192.ForTagore'sfinalstatementon Italianfascism,see"TagoreenItalie,"Europe,15August1926,andL'Humanit,16August1926.SeeRomainRolland,"LettreTheIndianDailyMail,"L'Inde, 184185,foraprotestagainstthespreadofproItalianfascistpropagandainIndia. 17.LetterfromRollandtoMadameThrseDispandeFloran,31January1927,ARR. 18.LetterfromRollandtoSalvemini,28May1927,BV,248251alsoseeQAC,lxxiv. 19.RomainRollandandHenriBarbusse,"Auxespritslibres,contrelefascisme,"BulletinduComitdedfensedesvictimesdufascismeetdelaterreurblanche (February1927),QAC,xliiinalettertoBarbussedated28January1928,RomainRollandcondemnedthisbulletinforitscommunistinvectiveandpropaganda, ARR. 20.LetterfromRollandtoHeinzHaeberlin,3March1927,inPierreAbraham,RomainRolland(Neuchtel,1969),135. 21.LettersfromRollandtoHenriBarbusse,30November1926,10February1927,ARR. 22.LetterfromRollandtoBarbusse,28January1928,ARR. 23.LetterfromRollandtoBarbusse,28October1928,ARR. 24.RomainRolland,"M.RomainRollandprendposition,"Clart,no.5(15January1927):158MarcelFournierhadchallengedRomainRollandinClart,no.4 (15December1926):124. 25.LetterfromRollandtoAndrBerthet,30October1928,ARR. 26.RomainRolland,"Avertissementl'Amrique"(10September1926),QAC,7273.RomainRollandalsoprotestedtheabuseofjusticeintheSaccoandVanzetti casesee"LettreunamiAmricainsurlemeutrejudiciairedeSaccoetVanzetti,"ibid.,7478firstpublishedinEurope,15October1927,andTheNation,28 September1927. 27.RomainRolland,"AuFlambeaud'Egypte,"14October1929,BV,284286letterfromRollandtoCharlesLeceur,28June1930,ibid.,305307. 28.RomainRolland,"SurpanEuropa"(28January1930),QAC,9798thisfirstappearedinL'Effort(Lyons)asanaddresstoseculareducatorsforaconference organizedbytheLeagueoftheRightsofMan. 29.RomainRolland,"LeGouvernementrestemuetsurlesmassacresdu1ermai.UneProtestationdeRomainRollandcontrelerepatriementforcdeTaoSaigon," L'Humanit,12May1931,1. 30.Rolland,journalextract,16March1931,ARR. 31.RomainRolland,"UnMeetinggrandioseetvibrantpourlalibrationdeTaoenfaveurdel'indpendancedel'Indochine,"L'Humanit,20May1931,1this reappearedas"Politiquecoloniale,"inL'Oeuvresociale(Besanon),no.463(18July1931):1. 32.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandappellelaluttervolutionaire,"L'Humanit,4November1931,3alsoseehisreviewofPinYin'sUneJeuneChinoise l'armervolutionnaire,inL'Intransigeant,18July1931.ForadiscussionofRomainRolland'simpactoncontemporaryChineseintellectuals,seeT.B.KinYn Yn,"LaRenaissanceChinoiseetl'influencedeRomainRolland,"Europe,15September1927,101108.

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33.RomainRolland,"TheActionoftheLeagueAgainstImperialism,"AntiImperialistReview,1,no.3(JanuaryFebruary1932):209alsosignedbyBarbusseand Gorky. 34.RomainRolland,"PourlescondamnsdeMeerut,"QAC,189197firstpublishedinL'Humanit,18March1933Europe,15April1933TheWorld Tomorrow,14September1933reprintedinL'Inde,573577. 35.Rolland,"PourlescondamnsdeMeerut,"192. 36.RomainRolland,"PourlescondamnsdeSaigonenIndochine,"QAC,197198thisfirstappearedinMonde,no.273(26August1933):13.RomainRolland becameoneofthehonorarypresidents(alongwithBarbusse,PaulLangevin,andVictorMargueritte)oftheCommitteeforAmnestyandDefenseofIndochineseand ColonizedPeoplesseeRolland,"MessagedeRomainRolland,"inFlicienChallaye,Souvenirssurlacolonisation(Paris,1935),xiii,138. 37.KeyliteratureontheAmsterdamPleyelmovementincludesE.H.Carr,TheTwilightoftheComintern,19301935(NewYork,1982),385399Babette Gross,WilliMnzenberg(NewYork,1974),223246HelmutGruber,"WilliMnzenberg:PropagandistForandAgainsttheComintern,"InternationalReviewof SocialHistory11(1965):188210HelmutGruber,"WilliMnzenberg'sGermanCommunistPropagandaEmpire,19211933,"JournalofModernHistory38, no.3(September1966):278297DanielH.Brower,TheNewJacobins:TheFrenchCommunistPartyandthePopularFront(Ithaca,N.Y.,1968),1718, 3941,5455,102,105,142143GeorgesLefranc,Histoiredufrontpopulaire(Paris,1965),3647JacquesFauvet,HistoireduParticommunistefranais (Paris,1964)1:116118MauriceThorez,Filsdupeuple(Paris,1960),7980NicoleRacine,''L'AssociationdesEcrivainsetArtistesRvolutionnaires (A.E.A.R.),"Mouvementsocial,no.54(JanuaryMarch1966):2947AndrLegendre,"Bibliographie,"Cahiersdel'InstitutMauriceThorez,no.1(April 1966):165181ClaudeWillard,"LesIntellectuelsfranaisetlefrontpopulaire,''Cahiersdel'InstitutMauriceThorez,no.34(October1966March1967): 115124. 38.NathanaelGreene,CrisisandDecline:TheFrenchSocialistPartyinthePopularFrontEra(Ithaca,N.Y.,1969)PeterJ.Larmour,TheFrenchRadical Partyinthe1930s(Stanford,Calif.,1964)StanleyHoffmann,"ParadoxesoftheFrenchPoliticalCommunity,"inInSearchofFrance,ed.StanleyHoffmannetal. (NewYork,1965),2324,33.SeetheentriesbySandiE.Cooper,DavidJamesFisher,JamesFriguglietti,andDavidSchalkinBiographicalDictionaryof ModernPeaceLeaders,ed.HaroldJosephson(Westport,Conn.,1985). 39.MauriceThorez,"PourquoilescommunistesirontGenve,"L'Humanit,28June1932,1earlierMarcelCachinhadexhortedthecongresstobe"practicaland realistic."See"L'Humanitseraaucongrsmondialcontrelaguerre,"L'Humanit,17June1932,1. 40.Carr,TwilightoftheComintern,396427RonaldTiersky,FrenchCommunism,19201972(NewYork,1974),5495GeorgeLichtheim,Marxismin ModernFrance(NewYork,1966),3468. 41.LetterfromRollandtoBarbusse,10September1932,ARR.GuesslerNormand,"HenriBarbusseandhisMonde(19281935),"JournalofContemporary History,Spring1976,173197.AlsoseethejointappealsignedbyRollandandBarbusse,"AppeldeRomainRollandetHenriBarbusse,"

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leafletissuedbyComitcontrelaguerreimprialiste,BibliothqueNationale,Paris,Imprimsno.2638. 42.RomainRolland,"LaPatrieestendanger!"PRP,27,28firstpublishedinL'Humanit,1May1932,andinPravda. 43.RomainRolland,"Contrelaguerre.Rassemblement!"(1June1932),PRP,29. 44.RomainRolland,"AppellaLiguedesCombattantsdelaPaix"(10June1932),PRP,34. 45.Ibid.,36. 46.RomainRolland,"LettreVictorMric,"12July1932,PRP,40. 47.RomainRolland,"LettreAlbertdeJong"(31July1932),PRP,42firstpublishedinEurope,no.118(15October1932):302304.DeJongwasgeneral secretaryoftheInternationalAntimilitaristBureauinAmsterdam. 48.FriedrichAdler,"LettredeFritzAdlerHenriBarbusse,"Monde,no.217(20July1932),13E.PaulGraber,"LesIdalistesentrelesmainsdes manoeuveristes,"LaSentinelle,no.168(22July1932),1. 49.FriedrichAdler,"UnCongrscontrelaguerre.LettredusecrtairedeI.O.S.RomainRolland,"LaSentinelle,no.164(18July1932):1FriedrichAdler,"Le Congrsmondialcontrelaguerren'estqu'unemanoeuvrecommunistedirigecontrelespartissocialistes,"PopulairedeParis,20July1932,3. 50.LettersfromRollandtoFriedrichAdler,7July1932,16July1932,ARRRolland,"LaRponsedeRomainRolland,"Monde,no.217(20July1932):13 Barbusse,"RponsedeHenriBarbusse,"Monde,no.217(20July1932):1314Rolland,"LaRponsedeRomainRollandauchiefsocialisteGraber,"L'Humanit, 4August1932,1Rolland,''LettredeRomainRollandPaulGraber,"Europe,15September1932,151152.MauriceThorezusedtheAmsterdamCongressto attackFrenchSocialistleaderLonBlumandtoaccusetheSocialistsofbeingagentsofimperialismseeMauriceThorez,''Aveclesouvrierssocialistescontreles saboteursduCongrs,"L'Humanit,21July1932,1. 51.Congrsmondialcontrelaguerreimprialiste,"BulletinduCongrs,"typescript,18,InternationalInstituteforSocialHistory,Amsterdam. 52.RomainRolland,"Dclarationluelapremiresanceducongrsmondialdetouslespartiscontrelaguerre,"PRP,45,46firstpublishedinEurope,15 September1932,148151alsoinMonde,no.222(3September1932)inWladimirMartel,Verslaguerreoularvolution(Alenon,1933),1821inThe WorldCongressAgainstWar,ed.AmericanCommitteeforStruggleAgainstWar(NewYork,1933),1115alsoseeRomainRolland,"LaGuerreestentreles mainsdupeupleouvrier,"L'Humanit,28August1932,12. 53.Rolland,"Dclarationlue...ducongrsmondial,"46. 54.Ibid.,4748. 55.Ibid.,49. 56."ManifestooftheWorldCongressAgainstWaratAmsterdam,August2729,1932,"inTheWorldCongressAgainstWar,1624firstpublishedas"Le Manifesteducongrsd'Amsterdam,"Monde,no.223(September1932):45alsopublishedinMartel,Verslaguerreoularvolution

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6369.Martel'sbook,withintroductionbyBarbusse,summarizedtheAmsterdamCongressfromtheFrenchcommunistperspective.FortheSovietviewpoint, seetheanonymouspamphletVoixdel'URSSAmsterdam[1932]. 57."ManifestooftheWorldCongressatAmsterdam,"20,24. 58.LettersfromMadeleineRollandtoRolland,28and29August1932,ARR.ForarightwingperspectiveontheAmsterdamCongressseeLeFigaro,12 September1932forthecommunistperspective,seeGabrielPeriandJ.Berlioz,"Acclamparlecongrsmondial,MarcelCachinexposelesmthodeslninistesde luttecontrelaguerre,"L'Humanit,29August1932,1fortheFrenchpacifistperspective,seeVictorMargueritte,"QuelquesObservationssurlecongrs d'Amsterdam,"Evolution,no.81(October1932):614621VictorMric,''NosMoyensdelutte,''Patriehumaine,no.66(29April1933):1forthesocialist position,seeAdolfStrumthal,"LaManifestationcommunisted'Amsterdam,"PopulairedeParis,4September1932,3fortheTrotskyist,seeLonTrotsky,"Lettre surlecongrscontrelaguerre,"Luttedeclasse,no.39(15June1932):23PierreNaville,"Camaradesduparti,repoussezlemanifestedeconfusionadoptparle congrsd'Amsterdam,"LaVerit,5September1932,1.FortheSurrealistview,seeAndrBreton,"LaMobilisationcontrelaguerren'estpaslapaix"(1933),in MauriceNadeau,Histoiredusurrealisme(Paris,1964),371376andfortheSovietviewpoint,seeMaximGorky,"TotheDelegatesoftheAntiwarCongress(A SpeechThatWasNotDelivered),"inMaximGorky,ArticlesandPamphlets(Moscow,1951),342354. 59.RomainRolland,"LeCongrsmondiald'Amsterdamcontrelaguerre,"PRP,50thiswasfirstpublishedinEurope,15October1932,249255.Alsosee AnnetteVidal,HenriBarbusse.Soldatdelapaix(Paris,1953),266n.1. 60.Rolland,"LeCongrsmondial,"PRP,53,5556. 61.Ibid.,5658. 62.Ibid.,5859. 63.RomainRolland,"LettreHenriBarbusse"(20December1932),PRP,6164. 64.Bureauinternationalducomitmondialdeluttecontrelaguerre,"Declarationsurlaparticipationdesgroupementsd'actionindividuelleaumouvement d'Amsterdam,"inPRP,64,signedbyHenriBarbusse,MarcelCachin,WilliMnzenberg,J.Chvernik,andH.Stassova. 65.Rolland,"LeCongrsmondial,"PRP,60Carr,TwilightoftheComintern,391392. 66.Carr,TwilightoftheComintern,392394forprimarydocumentsontheAmsterdamPleyelmovement,seeTractspolitiquesd'organisationsetpartis pacifistesdiverscirca19301939,BibliothqueNationale,Paris,Lb5716552anonymouseditorial,"Aprslecongrsd'Amsterdam,"Europe,15September 1932,11221129JacquesDuclos,"LeCongrseuropenantifasciste,"Europe,15June1933,803808anonymouseditorial,"Aprslecongrsmondialdes jeunes,"Europe,1October1933,13031306HenriBarbusse,"UneEtapedufrontunique,"Monde,no.264(24June1933):1516Tractsducomitmondial deluttecontrelaguerreimprialiste(1933),ArchivesNationale,Paris,F1713148.

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67.LettersfromRollandtoLouisGibarti,16September1933,17September1933fromRollandtoWilliMnzenberg,26December1933fromMnzenbergto Rolland,December1933ARR. 68.Rolland,L'Ameenchante(Paris,1967),11431144,1248,1259,1358thesevolumesofthenovelcyclewerefirstpublishedasL'Annonciatrice.LaMort d'unmonde.L'Enfantement,2vols.(Paris,1933). 69.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1152,1284. 70.Ibid.,12801281,1302,1305. 71.Ibid.,1009,1219,1284,1300,1303,1305. 72.Ibid.,11471151. 73.InalettertoLucienRothdated1December1933,RomainRollandrevealedthattheliberalantifascistGaetanoSalveminiwastheprototypeforthecharacter CountBrunoChiarenza(ARR). 74.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,12171221,1288. 75.Ibid.,12601264. 76.Ibid.,13091310,1343. 77.Ibid.,13581361alsoseeRomainRolland,"LeCombat,"Commune,no.1(July1933):4144. 78.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,14261430,14481453alsoseehis"IntroductionL'IcaredeLaurodeBosis,"Europe,MayAugust1933,515. 79.Rolland,Introduction(1January1934),L'Ameenchante,xvxix. 80.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,13571358,alsoquotedinQAC,liilxii.TheGermanFascistspreventedL'AnnonciatricefrombeingtranslatedintoGermansee ibid.,lxxix.Forthreefavorablereviews,seeMagdeleinePaz,"L'AnnonciatriceparRomainRolland,"Monde,no.249(11March1933):10"RomainRolland L'Annonciatrice,"Commune,no.78(MarchApril1934):819820andChristianSnchal,Europe,no.35(15March1934):137142.

Chapter8
1.RomainRolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"Europe,1January1946,4(dated1February1933)ibid.,910(datedMarch1933). 2.Ibid.,7(dated2March1933). 3.Ibid.,78(dated2March1933).RomainRollandfeltthatitwasextremelyimportanttohavenonJewishwritersprotestNaziinjustices.Thispiecewasfirst publishedas"Contrelefascismehitlrien,"Europe,15March1933,440alsoinQAC,199200EnglishtranslationinIWillNotRest,trans.K.S.Shelvankar (NewYork,[1935]),291292. 4.RomainRolland,"Contrelesbourreauxdel'Allemagne"(20March1933),QAC,200(Englishtranslation,IWillNotRest,292). 5.LettersfromRollandtoJeanGuhenno,2February1933,1March1933,JGRR,255,258.On22May1933,RollandurgedGuhennotocommissiona rigorouscritiqueofHitler'sMeinKampf(ibid.,270). 6.Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal"(dated10January1933),45letterfromGermanconsulinGenevatoRolland,19April1933,in"Fragmentsdejournal,"12. 7.LetterfromRollandtoGermanconsulinGeneva,30April1933,in"Fragmentsdejournal,"12.AlsoseeQAC,lxxvii,wherethisletterisdated20April1933.

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8.LetterfromRollandtoStefanZweig,30March1933,"Fragmentsdejournal,"111publishedas"Lettreunamiallemandcontrel'abdicationdupartisocial dmocrateallemand,"QAC,200201(IWillNotRest,292293). 9.LetterfromRollandtoIngeborgAndreas,15May1932,ARR. 10.RomainRolland,"Contrel'antismitismeenAllemagne"(dated5April1933),QAC,201202(IWillNotRest,293). 11.RomainRolland,"Contreleracismeetl'antismitisme"(dated9April1933),QAC,202204(IWillNotRest,294295)originallyalettertoHardoBruckner. 12.LetterfromRollandtoVladimirPozner,secretaryoftheGuildforEmancipationThroughBooks,4May1933,"Fragmentsdejournal,"13Rolland,"From RomainRolland,"FightAgainstWarandFascism1,no.10(August1934):14. 13.Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"15HenriBarbusse,"UnAppelmondialduComitd'Amsterdampourlefrontuniquedeluttecontrelaguerreetsoninstrument: LeFascisme,"Frontmondial,no.4(April1933):23. 14.RomainRolland,"LettrelaKoelnischeZeitung,"14May1933,QAC,205(IWillNotRest,295297)firstpublishedinEurope,15May1933,andFront mondial,no.6(June1933):14. 15.Rolland,"LettrelaKoelnischeZeitung,"QAC,206. 16.Ibid.,206207. 17.Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"15alsosee"AuseinanderdersetzingmitRomainRollandeinBriefwechselberdasneueDeutschland,"KoelnischeZeitung,21 May1933,1. 18.SechsBekenntnissezumneuenDeutschland(Hamburg,1933)thisincludedaGermantranslationofRomainRolland'slettertotheKoelnischeZeitung,79,a replyfromtheeditorialboard,andopenlettersfromRudolfBinding(1420),E.G.Kolbenheyer,WilhelmvonScholz,OttoWirz,andRobertFabreLuce. 19.Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"16,17. 20.LetterfromRollandtothedirectoroftheNietzscheArchiveinWeimar,4August1933,"Fragmentsdejournal,"17. 21.RomainRolland,"Appellajeunesse"(17May1933),QAC,207210(IWillNotRest,297299)firstpublishedinFrontmondial,no.6(June1933):89. 22.Livrebrunsurl'incendieduReichstagetlaterreurhitlrienne,ed.Comitinternationald'aideauxvictimesdufascismehitlrien(Paris,1933). 23.DimitroffContraGoering,ed.Comitinternationald'aideauxvictimesdufascismehitlrien(Paris,1934).SeealsoRolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"18letter fromRollandtoGuhenno,12July1934,JGRR,304. 24.RomainRolland,"ContrelesvraisincendiairesduReichstag"(4September1933),QAC,210211ibid.,lxxviii(IWillNotRest,299). 25.RomainRolland,"PourThaelmann,"QAC,214215firstpublishedinMonde,6July1934,11(IWillNotRest,302).AlsoseeRolland's"Appelaupeuple d'Allemagne,pourl'acquittementdeDimitrovetdesescompagnons,"QAC,211212firstpublishedinMonde,no.289(23December1933):3"PourTorgler," QAC,213214,firstpublishedinL'Humanit,22

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December1933,andDpchedeToulouse,21December1933"SurOssietzskyetKurtHiller,"17September1933,publishedintheTimes(London),the ChicagoDailyNews,TheNation,andtheNewYorkTimes. 26.LetterfromDimitrovtoRolland,31August1933,citedinGeorgiDimitrov,LettersfromPrison,ed.AlfredKurella(London,1935),6061alsoinRolland, "Fragmentsdejournal,"1920. 27.PaulVaillantCouturier,"Qu'estcequel'AEAR?"inCeuxquiontchoisi(Paris,1933),14quoteisfromRolland's"Message,"ibid.,5. 28.RomainRolland,"Rponseauquestionnaireducomitmondialdelajeunessecontrelaguerreetlefascisme,"22March1934,ARRRomainRolland,"Appel l'aidedesvictimesaufascismeautrichien,"Frontmondial,no.13(April1934):7Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal"(18August1933),18. 29.Rolland,"Fragmentsdejournal,"19. 30.Rolland,QAC,lxxix,datedsummer1934. 31.LetterfromRollandtoVictorMargueritte,6October1933,"Fragmentsdejournal,"21. 32.NathanaelGreene,FromVersaillestoVichy(NewYork,1970),69. 33.RomainRolland,"AppelaupeupledeParis(aprsl'meutefascistedu6fvrier),"QAC,215firstpublishedinLittratureinternationale,no.1(1934):3(IWill NotRest,303). 34.RomainRolland,"Appell'uniondestravailleursintellectuelsavecleproltariat,"QAC,215216writtenforthesixthdayofinternationalsolidaritysponsoredby theSecoursOuvrierInternational(IWillNotRest,303304). 35.RomainRolland,"Appelauxjeunescontrelefascisme,"QAC,216218(IWillNotRest,304305),firstpublishedinTribunedesjeunes(Prigueux),May 1934. 36.RomainRolland,"LaCroixetlefaisceau(introductionaulivreantifascisteautrichien)"(20June1934),QAC,218222thisfirstappearedastheprefaceto OesterreichBrandherd,Europas(Zurich,1934). 37.LetterfromRollandtoCarloRosselli,30May1934,ARR. 38.RomainRolland,"PourceuxquimeurentdanslesprisonsdeMussolini.AntonioGramsci,"QAC,223("ForThoseDyinginMussolini'sJails.AntonioGramsci,"in IWillNotRest,307313)firstpublishedinL'Humanit,27October1934,3releasedasabrochuretranslatedintoGermanasDieindenGefangnesssterben (Zurich,1934)inItalianasQuellichemuiononelleprigionidiMussolini(1934).DuringthisperiodRollandwashonorarypresidentoftheComitatoInternationale diAiutoaiCarceratieDeportatiAntifascistiItaliani.Alsosee"AppeldeRomainRollandauSecoursrougeinternationalpourl'envoid'unedlgationdecontrleen Italie"(alsosignedbyBarbusse,Einstein,andLangevin),ARR.FormoreinformationontherelationshipbetweenRomainRollandandGramsci,seeAlfonsoLeonetti, ''RomainRollandetGramsci,''inNotessurGramsci(Paris,1974),209220inanextractfromRomainRolland'sjournalof28June1935,hereportedmeeting Gramsci'stwosonsinMoscow,whothankedhimforhisintercessionsfortheirfather.SandroNelli,"RomainRollandetlepeupleitalien,"L'Humanit,20March 1936,8,applaudedRomainRollandforhisantifascistactivitiesandhishelpingettingthedyingGramscireleasedfromprison.RomainRolland'slastpublicstatement onAntonioGramsciwas

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entitled,"NotreGramscin'estpasunmort,niunvaincu,"L'Humanit,24May1937,3. 39.Rolland,"PourceuxquimeurentdanslesprisonsdeMussolini,"QAC,223225. 40.Ibid.,229. 41.RomainRolland,"Salutlarvolutiond'Espagne,"QAC,230firstpublishedinL'Humanit,6November1934,1Rolland,"DeclarationdeRomainRolland," LaVerit,no.199(30March1934). 42.RomainRolland,"LeFascismeestl'ennemi.Ilfautlebriser"(10June1934),QAC,230235firstpublishedintheSovietreviewFrontdelascienceetdela technique. 43.RomainRolland,"Appelaumondepourladfensedelapaixendanger,"Vigilance,no.29(15October1935):15alsoseeRomainRollandandJeanRichard Bloch,"Contrelescrimesdufascismeitalien,"Vigilance,no.26(20July1935):14.VigilancewasabimonthlybulletinoftheCommitteeofAntifascistAction, headedbyPaulRivet,Alain,andPaulLangevin.AlsoseeNicoleRacineFurlaud,''LeComitdeVigilancedesIntellectualsAntifascistes(19341939).Antifascisme etpacifisme,"Mouvementsocial,no.101(OctoberDecember1977):87113.RomainRollandalsosignedthemanifesto"Rponseauxintellectuelsfascistes,'' Europe,no.153(15November1935):452453. 44.RomainRolland,"Pourladfensedupeuplethiopien,"3September1935,ARR. 45.RomainRolland,"Parlarvolution,lapaix"(20March1935),inPRP,169171firstpublishedas"LaPaixestmortellepourl'hitlrisme,"Monde,no.329(29 March1935):12.ByMayJune1935therewasaconsciousnessofintellectualantifascisminFrance,andRomainRollandwasfrequentlycitedasitsprototype.See LouisDolicet,"Courantsantifascisteschezlesintellectuelsfranais,"Monde,no.336(16May1935):5andHenriBarbusse,"Pourunecomprhensionclairedes devoirsproposdelarsolutiondesintellectuels,"ibid.,no.340(13June1935):1. 46.RomainRolland,"LePlusGrandDanger,"inCommentempcherlaguerre?(Paris,1936),711.ThisbrochurewaspublishedbytheWorldCommittee AgainstWarandFascisminaseriescalledStratgieettactiquedeluttecontrelaguerreetlefascisme. 47.LouisAragon,"UneEntrevueavecRomainRolland,l'ingnieurdesmes,"Cahiersdubolchevisme13,no.5(15March1936):257263. 48.RomainRolland,"LettreadressparRomainRollandauxintellectuelsetlajeunessebulgare,"12July1936,ARR. 49.ClaudeEstier,LaGauchehebdomadaire,19141962(Paris,1962),5774J.P.Bernard,LeParticommunistefranaisetlaquestionlittraire,1921 1939(Grenoble,1972),191198. 50.RomainRolland,"Pourl'indivisiblepaix,"inCommentempcherlaguerre?1219firstpublishedinVendredi,no.12(24January1936):1alsoappearedin L'Humanit,29January1936,4LeBarrage,no.83(6February1936):2Cahiersdubolchevisme13,no.34(15February1936):212217Cahiersdes droitsdel'homme,no.7(10March1936):156159. 51.Rolland,"Pourl'indivisiblepaix,"inCommentempcherlaguerre?1415. 52.Ibid.,1619.

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53.RomainRolland,"LettreGeorgesPioch,13April1933,"PRP,85.PiochwaspresidentoftheInternationalLeagueofFightersforPeace. 54.HenriBouch,"L'Allemagneestelleprte?"Vendredi,no.13(31January1936):12. 55.FlicienChallaye,"RponseRomainRolland,"Vendredi,no.13(31January1936):4alsoinLeBarrage,no.83(6February1936):1,andCahiersdes droitsdel'homme,no.7(10March1936):159161.Challayeoutlinedhisstrategyandtacticsintwobrochures,PourlapaixdsarmemmeenfacedeHitler (Paris,1933)andPourlapaixsansaucunerserve(Paris,1935).ThepacifistweeklyLeBarrage,organoftheInternationalLeagueofFightersforPeace,most consistentlyadvocatedtheintegralpacifistposition.SeeRenGerin,"LesPontinss'agitent.NotrePositionresteinchange,"LeBarrage,no.16(30August1934):1 FlicienChallaye,"LeDiscoursdeM.Hitler,"LeBarrage,no.54(30May1935):12FlicienChallaye,''LeConflititalothiopienetlesprincipesdenotreligue," LeBarrage,no.64(12September1935):1FlicienChallaye,"Pourunrassemblementuniverseldespacifistesintgraux,''LeBarrage,no.79(9January1936):1. TheDutchpacifistBarthlemydeLigt'sbook,Pourvaincresansviolence(Paris,1933),mostcoherentlyarguedtheGandhianposition,evendeployedagainst Hitler. 56.Challaye,"RponseRomainRolland,"4. 57.GeorgesPioch,"QuestionsRomainRolland,"LeBarrage,no.82(30January1936):1,3GeorgesPioch,"D'unarticlencessaire,"LeBarrage,no.83(6 February1936):1L.Cancouet,"ARomainRolland.Rponsed'unproltaire,"LeBarrage,no.83(6February1936):3SylvainBrousaudier,"Aproposdel'article deRomainRolland,"LeBarrage,no.83(6February1936):3L.Emery,"RponseRomainRolland,"Feuilleslibresdelaquinzaine,no.9(10February1936): 3335. 58.SeeSalutetfraternit.AlainetRomainRolland(Paris,1969),63132.Intheperiodofthisdebate,Alainwrote"PourRomainRolland"(29January1936) and"Proposd'Alain"(15May1936),arguingthatthegreatandtruespiritofRollandwasthatofJeanChristopheandLiluli(ibid.,119126)Alain,"LaPolitique aucitoyen.Proposd'Alain,"Feuilleslibredelaquinzaine,no.10(25February1936):56. 59.RomainRolland,"Pourladfensedelapaix,"Vendredi,no.18(6March1936):3alsopublishedinCahiersdesdroitsdel'homme,no.7(10March1936): 160164Commune,no.32(April1936)textpublishedinCommentempcherlaguerre?2030.AlsoseeRomainRolland'sletterstoAndrChamson,18 February1936,25February1936(ARR),fortheeditorialpoliticsofthispiece.HeexplainedhisintentiontoJeanCourregelongue,3March1936(ARR).Romain RollandandJeanGuhennodebatedtheissuesofwarandpeaceversusrevolutionandantifascisminlettersexchangedbetweenJanuaryandMarch1936seeJG RR,368374. 60.Rolland,"Pourladfensedelapaix,"inCommentempcherlaguerre?28. 61.Ibid.,2830. 62.Ibid.,28,30. 63.VictorBasch,"LeProblmedelapaix,"Cahiersdesdroitsdel'homme,no.7(10March1936):148156RomainRollandansweredin"UneLettre

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deRomainRollandlaliguedesdroitsdel'homme,"ibid.,no.8(20March1936):184. 64.MichelAlexandreandL.Emery,"UneLettreVendredi,"Vendredi,no.23(3April1936):4PierreCuenat,"Paixindivisible?Oui...maisd'abordfaitesla paix,"LeBarrage,no.92(2April1936):34PierreCuenat,"Manifestepacifiste,"Feuilleslibresdelaquinzaine,no.18(25June1936):191192Pierre Cuenat,"Oestlapaix?Pacifismeetrvolution,''Vigilance,no.36(28April1936):15. 65.MarcRivire,"Nousvoulonsvivreetsprer.LettreouverteRomainRolland,"Feuilleslibredelaquinzaine,no.39(25June1937):166167Flicien Challaye,"Deuxpacifismes,"Cahiersdesdroitsdel'homme,no.10(10April1936):225FlicienChallaye,"SeconderponseRomainRolland,"ibid.,225228 alsoinLeBarrage,no.90(19March1936):2.RomainRollandcameunderattackbyGrarddeLacazeDuthiers,"Preface,''inEugenRelgis,LesVoiesdelapaix (Paris,1936),9,11andbyVictorMargueritte,LeCadavremaquill.LaS.D.N.(marsseptembre1936)(Paris,1936),241,243. 66.RomainRolland,"LaPaixpourtous,"Paixetlibert,no.8(16March1936):1Rolland,"LaPaixquenousvoulons,"ibid.,no.19(14June1936):1and Rolland,"Discoursdurassemblementuniverseldelapaix,"ibid.,no.24(19July1936):2.RomainRollandreplieddirectlytoAlaininLePeupleallemandaccuse. Appellaconsciencedumonde(Paris,1937),78.HeansweredCuenat'scriticismin"UneLettredeRomainRolland,"Feuilleslibresdelaquinzaine,no.27 (10December1936):336.ForfurtherbrochuresattackingtheFrenchintegralpacifistsfromanantifascistandcommunistperspective,seeFrancisJourdain,Fautil donnerlescoloniesHitler?(Paris,1936)SirNormanAngell,LaPaixetlasecuritcollective(Paris,1936)andesp.RenMaublanc,LePacifismeetles intellectuels(Paris,1936). 67.Rolland,IntroductiontoCommentempcherlaguerre?6. 68.GeorgeLichtheim,MarxisminModernFrance(NewYork,1966),44. 69.AndrMalraux,"Prface,"JGRR,513,esp.7. 70.Ibid.,12.

Chapter9
1.RomainRolland,"SurlamortdeLnine,"QAC,65(IWillNotRest,155),written1February1924asalettertoW.J.PanskiSolski,Berlincorrespondentof Izvestia.AlsoseeletterfromRollandtoMarcelMartinet,28February1924,ARR. 2.RomainRolland,"Rponseuneadressedel'Acadmied'tatdessciencesd'art,"20October1925,QAC,xxxvii,lxxii(IWillNotRest,4142,78).Thiswasa replytoP.Kogan's"AddresstoWesternEuropeanandAmericanArtists"forthefulltext,seeJeanBertrandBarrre,RomainRollandparluimme(Paris,1967), 141142. 3.LetterfromRollandtoLonBazalgette,12March1925,ARR. 4.RomainRolland,"M.RomainRollandprendposition,"Clart,no.5(15January1927):158Fourrieransweredin"RponsedeMarcelFourrier,"ibid.,158. 5.RomainRolland,"LettreauLibertairesur'larpressionenRussie'"

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(28May1927),QAC,7980(IWillNotRest,175176)firstpublishedinLeLibertaire,no.114(10June1927):2alsopublishedinEurope,15October 1927,270271. 6.JeanBrecot,"UneEnquteduLibertairesurlarpressionenRussie,"LaVieouvrire,no.419(17June1927). 7.LetterfromAnatoleLunacharskytoRolland,2September1927,QAC,81(IWillNotRest,176177). 8.LetterfromRollandtoAnatoleLunacharsky,23September1927,QAC,8183(IWillNotRest,177178).TheRollandLunacharskyexchangewasfirst publishedinEurope,15October1927,271272. 9.RomainRolland,"Rponsel'invitationadressparVoks,pourlesftesduXeanniversairedelaRvolutiond'Octobre"(14October1927),QAC,8384(IWill NotRest,178179)firstpublishedinNouvellessovitiques,andL'Humanit,7November1927,3.SeealsoRomainRolland,"Salutauplusgrandanniversairede l'histoiresociale,"4November1927,QAC,8586(IWillNotRest,179180)firstpublishedinVetchernayaMoskwa. 10.N.Lazarevitch,"ARomainRolland,"LeLibertaire,no.139(5December1927). 11.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandetlaRussie,"LeLibertaire,no.140(16December1927):1seeGuidoMiglioli,LeVillagesovitique(Paris,1927). 12.N.Lazarevitch,"RomainRollandetlaRussie,"LeLibertaire,no.141(23December1927):2. 13.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandetlaRussie,"LeLibertaire,no.141(23December1927):2alsoseelettersfromRollandtoAmdeDunois,14October 1927toCharlesBernard,14November1927toEdouardDujardin,10January1928andtoMartinet,2February1928,ARR. 14.ConstantinBalmontandIvanBounine,"LeMartyredescrivainsrusses.ARomainRolland.UnAppeldssprdeConstantinBalmontetIvanBounine," L'Avenir,no.3592(12January1928):12. 15.RomainRolland,"RponseConstantinBalmontetIvanBounine"(20January1928),QAC,86,95(IWillNotRest,180187)firstpublishedinEurope,15 February1928,246252.ForGorky'sreflectionsonthisdebate,see"UneLettredeMaximeGorkyRomainRolland"(January1928),Europe,15March1928, 430432. 16.Rolland,"RponseBalmontetBounine,"QAC,88. 17.Ibid.,9294. 18.Ibid.,8889. 19.Ibid.,91n.1. 20.Ibid.,96. 21.RomainRolland,LesLonides(Paris,1928)Rolland,"Prface"(28October1927),ibid.,715letterfromRollandtoLucienRoth,28November1928, ARR. 22.OnIstrati,seeMichelRagon,HistoriedelalittratureproltarienneenFrance(Paris,1974),220. 23.RomainRolland,"Foreword,"inPanatIstrati,KyraKyralina,trans.JamesWhithall(NewYork,1926),vfirstpublishedas"UnGorkibalkanique,"Europe,15 August1923,257259. 24.LetterfromRollandtoPanatIstrati,citedinIstrati,"Preface,"KyraKyralina,ix.AlsoseeletterfromRollandtoIstrati,HolyFriday,1921,BV,175177.

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25.PanatIstrati,Versl'autreflamme(Paris,1929),3vols.VictorSerge,MemoirsofaRevolutionary,trans.PeterSedgwick(London,1963),254,278279. 26.LetterfromRollandtoJeanGuhenno,9October1929,JGRR,71. 27.LetterfromRollandtoIstrati,8October1929,citedinJGRR,7172. 28.LetterfromRollandtoGuhenno,9October1929,JGRR,72.ForRomainRolland'slastreflectionsonthedyingandisolatedIstrati,seeibid.,256257,337 339. 29.LettersfromRollandtoCharlesVildrac,14December1928toMadameFlicienChallaye,9March1929toValentinBoulgakov,11April1929,ARR. 30.RomainRolland,"LettreEugneRelgissurlesdevoirsdesintellectuelsetlaconfdrationinternationaledutravailintellectueletmanuel"(20October1930), QAC,102111(IWillNotRest,199207).AlsoseeEugneRelgis,L'Internationalepacifiste(Paris,1929)JulienBenda,LaTrahisondesclercs(Paris,1927). BendaspecificallycensuredRomainRollandasaclercwhocommittedtreason(TheTreasonoftheIntellectual,trans.RichardAldington[NewYork,1969],76, 8081,164,187,217n.2).ForacontextualanalysisofBenda,seeDavidL.Schalk,TheSpectrumofPoliticalEngagement(Princeton,N.J.,1979),2648. 31.Rolland,"LettreEugneRelgis,"106. 32.RomainRolland,"DeuxVoixlancentl'appelcontrelesforcesderaction"(withTheodoreDreiser),QAC,99101(IWillNotRest,195196)firstpublishedin Monde,no.98(19April1930):3Rolland,"Queseravotreattitudeencasd'agressioncontrel'Unionsovitique?"L'Humanit,7July1930,4.Alsoseelettersfrom RollandtoMartinet,11July1930toFransMasereel,27September1930,ARRandtoHeinzHaeberlin,28May1930,inPierreAbraham,ed.,RomainRolland (Neuchtel,1969),139140. 33.RomainRolland,"Europe,largistoi,oumeurs!"(January1931),QAC,121firstpublishedinNouvelleRevuemondiale,no.2(February1931),andPaix mondiale,AprilMay1931.Riourepliedin"LesEtatsUnisdel'EuropeoulesEtatUnisdumonde,"NouvelleRevuemondiale,no.1(January1931)andno.3 (March1931).SeeletterfromRollandtoLucienRoth,6February1931,ARR.AlsoseeletterfromRollandtoCountRichardCoudenhoveKalergi,14September 1925,citedinBarrre,RomainRollandparluimme,165. 34.Rolland,"Europe,largistoi,oumeurs!"120121(IWillNotRest,209219).AlsoseeletterfromRollandtoCharlesBaudouin,31January1931,ARR. 35.RomainRolland,"LettreSergeRadinesurle'materialisme'communiste,"QAC,131(IWillNotRest,229230)letterfromRollandtoBaudouin,24August 1932(ARR),paraphrasingLenin,that"agoodidealismwasworthmorethanabadorfoolishmaterialism." 36.RomainRolland,"LettreFedorGladkovetIlyaSelvinskysurl'individualismeetl'humanisme"(February,1931),QAC,129(IWillNotRest,223225).First publishedinLiteraturnayagazetaletterfromRollandtoBaudouin,14March1931,ARR. 37.Rolland,"Europe,largistoi,oumeurs!"124. 38.RomainRolland,"SalutGorki"(10May1931)QAC,134135(IWillNotRest,233235)firstpublishedinLiteraturnayagazeta.

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39.Rolland,"SalutGorki,"134. 40.Ibid.,135. 41.RomainRolland,"AupremieroudarnikdelaRpubliqueuniverselleduTravail,salutd'uncompagnonfranais"(October1931),QAC,136(IWillNotRest, 236240)firstpublishedasaprefacetotheFrencheditionofGorky'sEuxetnous(Paris,1931),andinL'Humanit,6December1931.LetterfromRollandto Roth,1October1931,ARR. 42.Rolland,"Aupremieroudarnik,"137. 43.Ibid.,140141seeJeanPerus,RomainRollandetMaximeGorki(Paris,1968),243283. 44.Rolland,"Aupremieroudarnik,"142. 45.RomainRolland,"Adieuaupass"(6April1931),QAC,142154(IWillNotRest,243278)firstpublishedinEurope,15June1931,161202. 46.Rolland,"Adieuaupass,"181,184185. 47.Ibid.,187188. 48.AndrBreton,Misredelaposie(Paris,1932),esp.1013Englishtrans.inAndrBreton,WhatIsSurrealism?SelectedWritings,ed.FranklinRosemont (NewYork,1978),7682. 49."LettredeRomainRollandauxSurralistes"(4February1932),inBreton,Misredelaposie,2930. 50.RomainRolland,L'Ameenchante(Paris,1967).Thisconclusiontothenovelcycle,calledL'Annonciatrice,wasfirstpublishedin2vols.,eachover300pages, inDecember1933byEditionsAlbinMichelvol.1wascalledLaMortd'unmonde,vol.2,L'Enfantement.Iwillcitethedefinitiveeditionof1967.Rollandalso publishedanimportantintroduction,dated1January1934,ibid.,viixix.Thesecondaryliteratureonthistextisvirtuallynonexistent.SeeChristianSnchal,reviewof L'Ameenchante,Europe,15May1934,137142andMarieLouiseCoudert,"L'Ameenchante,"Europe,NovemberDecember1966,5257. 51.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,10941097(Englishtrans.,111112)thissecondvolumetranslatedintoEnglishasAWorldinBirth,trans.AmaliadeAlberti(New York,1934). 52.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,961(Englishtrans.,301)thisfirstvolumetranslatedintoEnglishasTheDeathofaWorld,trans.AmaliadeAlberti(NewYork, 1933). 53.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1141(WorldinBirth,175). 54.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1141(WorldinBirth,175)PaulNizancoinedthephrase"watchdogs"(LesChiensdegarde[Paris,1932]). 55.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1043(WorldinBirth,44). 56.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1094(WorldinBirth,110111). 57.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1198(WorldinBirth,250). 58.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1043(WorldinBirth,43)alsoseeletterfromRollandtoBelaIlls,22September1932,inLiteraturnayanasledstvo(Literary heritage)(Moscow,1969),286. 59.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,909(DeathofaWorld,229). 60.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,787788(DeathofaWorld,6768). 61.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,982(DeathofaWorld,328). 62.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1255(WorldinBirth,326). 63.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1146(WorldinBirth,182).

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64.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1285(WorldinBirth,364). 65.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1046(WorldinBirth,49). 66.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1252(WorldinBirth,321). 67.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1047,1259(WorldinBirth,50,317). 68.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1151(WorldinBirth,188). 69.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1047(WorldinBirth,4950). 70.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,14401441(WorldinBirth,572574)alsoseeletterfromRollandtoAlfredKurella,10December1933,inLiteraturnaya nasledstvo,299300. 71.Rolland,L'Ameenchante,1146(WorldinBirth,181).

Chapter10
1.DavidCaute,TheFellowTravellers:APostscripttotheEnlightenment(NewYork,1973),126135DavidCaute,CommunismandtheFrench Intellectuals,19141960(London,1964),102111MichaelKelly,ModernFrenchMarxism(Baltimore,1982),2448GeorgeRoss,Workersand CommunistsinFrance:FromPopularFronttoEurocommunism(Berkeley,Calif.,1982),118JrgenRhle,LiteratureandRevolution:ACriticalStudyof theWriterandCommunismintheTwentiethCentury,trans.JeanSteinberg(London,1969),321326. 2.L.Darnar,"ChezRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,26May1933,1IvanAnissimov,"RomainRollandpasselaRevolution,"LaLittratureinternationale,no.1 (1933):2632MagdeleinePaz,"L'AnnonciatriceparRomainRolland,''Monde,no.249(11March1933):10LucieRiver,"DeJeanChristophel'Ame enchante,''Monde,no.283(4November1933):7"RomainRollandMarcelCachin,"L'Humanit,15September1934,1. 3.RomainRolland,"Lnine,l'artetl'action,"Compagnonsderoute.Essaislittraires(Paris,1936),225236,esp.230,233firstpublishedinEurope,15January 1934,514translatedas"AGreatMasterofAction,"InternationalLiterature,no.1(January1939):7172. 4.Rolland,"Lnine,l'artetl'action,"225227,234236. 5.KarlRadek,"ContemporaryWorldLiteratureandtheTasksofProletarianArt,"inProblemsofSovietLiterature,ed.A.Zhadanov(NewYork,n.d.),95,138 139,145publishedinFrench,Correspondanceinternationale,no.8384(15September1934)alsoseeRomainRolland,QAC,xxxix,lxxiii. 6.RomainRolland,"Panorama,"QAC,ixlxxx(translatedintoEnglishas"Panorama,"inIWillNotRest,1588)firstpublishedinEurope,15January15April 1935,536,153175,305328. 7.Rolland,"Panorama,"lixlxii,lxxixseeletterfromRollandtoRenArcos,23October1934,requestingthatArcossendhimacopyofMarx'sMorceauxchoisis andPaulNizan's"Marxphilosophe"(ARR). 8.Rolland,"Panorama,"lx,Rolland'semphasis. 9.Ibid.,lviii,lix. 10.Ibid.,lvii,lix,lxi,lxiii. 11.Ibid.,xxxviixxxix,xlv,livlvii,lix. 12.Ibid.,lix,lviilviii. 13.Ibid.,xxxviii,li.

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14.Ibid.,xxxviii. 15.AndrMalraux,citedinRolland,"Panorama,"lxxxseeJeanLacouture,AndrMalraux,trans.AlanSheridan(NewYork,1975),163196. 16.RomainRolland,"Pourquicrivezvous?"Commune,no.9(May1934):779780inQAC,237238(translatedintoEnglishas"ForWhomDoIWrite?"inI WillNotRest,319320).AlsoseeRolland's''Enqute,"inLittratureinternationale,no.3(1934):36.LouisAragon,Commune,no.9(May1934):778. 17.OnBarbusse,seeGuesslerNormand,"HenriBarbusseandHisMonde(19281935),"JournalofContemporaryHistory,Spring1976,173197Rhle, LiteratureandRevolution,326329JeanPierreBernard,LeParticommunistefranaisetlaquestionlittraire,19211939(Grenoble,1972),5761,71 77. 18.LetterfromRollandtoHenriBarbusse,28December1934,ARR. 19.VictorSerge,MemoirsofaRevolutionary,19011941,trans.PeterSedgwick(London,1963),284322HerbertLottman,TheLeftBank:Writers,Artists, andPoliticsfromthePopularFronttotheColdWar(Boston,1982),9296,111,4853Caute,CommunismandtheFrenchIntellectuals,110111,134 135,241. 20.Serge,Memoirs,316,318319FrederickJ.Harris,AndrGideandRomainRolland:TwoMenDivided(NewBrunswick,N.J.,1973),150152. 21.LetterfromRollandtoJeanGuhenno,24October1934,JGRR,313314. 22.Ibid.,314. 23.RomainRolland,"LettredeRomainRollanduningnieurAmricain,"Regards,no.62(21March1935):3. 24.Ibid. 25.Ibid. 26.SeePaulHollander,PoliticalPilgrims:TravelsofWesternIntellectualstotheSovietUnion,China,andCuba,19281978(NewYork,1981),102176 SylviaR.Margulies,ThePilgrimagetoRussia:TheSovietUnionandtheTreatmentofForeigners,19241937(Madison,Wis.,1968). 27.RomainRolland,"UnSjourchezGorki"(journalextracts,JuneJuly1935),Europe,FebruaryMarch1960,1330. 28.Ibid.,1923,25,2930.AlsoseeletterfromRollandtoMadeleineRolland,26June1935,BV,337339. 29.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandaumomentdequitterl'U.R.S.S.proclame,dansunelettreStaline,lancessitdeladfendre,"L'Humanit,22July1935,1. 30.RomainRolland,"RetourdeMoscou,"Commune,no.26(October1935):129. 31.Ibid.,130. 32.Ibid.,131132. 33.Ibid.,132133. 34.RomainRolland,"Auxcalomniateurs!"L'Humanit,23October1935,1. 35.Ibid.,1,4. 36.Ibid.,4. 37.RomainRolland,"L'Espriteuropen,"Nouvelleslittraires,no.684(23November1935):6forBenda'srejoinder,see"L'Espriteuropen,"ibid.,no.685(30 November1935):6.

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38.Rolland,"L'Espriteuropen,"6. 39.VladimirPozner,"Alarecherched'unepatriehumaine,"Monde,no.341(20June1935):8. 40.NicolaiBukharin,"SalutRomainRolland,"Commune,no.24(August1935):14311434.ForasampleofcommunistreactionstoRomainRolland'sSoviet trip,seetwounsignedpieces,"RomainRollandenU.R.S.S.,"L'Humanit,1July1935,2''LaJeunessesovitiquerendvisiteRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,17 July1935,3.AlsoseeRenBlech,''QuinzeAnsdecombatetParlarvolution,lapaix,parRomainRolland,"Commune,no.25(September1935):9498Red SoldiersfromLakeTarkalregion,"LettreRomainRolland,"Commune,no.25(September1935):122123. 41.MarcelMartinet,"RponseRomainRolland,"Rvolutionproltarienne,no.195(25March1935):101102alsopublishedinLesHumbles,no.5(May 1935):1622. 42.LonTrotsky,"RomainRollandremplitsamission,"LesHumbles,no.12(December1935):38translatedas"RomainRollandExecutesanAssignment,"in TheWritingsofLeonTrotsky,(19351938),ed.NaomiAllenandGeorgeBreitman(NewYork,1970),161165.ForotherTrotskyistarticlesonRollandandthe SovietUnion,seeGeorgesHenein,"Hommageauxinflexibles,"LesSuperbes,no.5(May1936):34MauriceParijanine,"LettreouverteRomainRollandde MauriceParijanine,"LesHumbles,no.910(SeptemberOctober1936):8082MarcelMartinet,"PourlessoixantedixansdeRomainRolland,"Rvolution proltarienne,no.215(25January1936):21. 43.RomainRolland,"ALonTrotsky,"LesHumbles,no.56(MayJune1934):12. 44.RomainRolland,"Introduction"(October1935),Compagnonsderoute,916. 45.LouisAragon,"UneEntrevueavecRomainRolland,l'ingnieurdesmes,"Cahiersdubolchevisme,no.5(15March1936):257262alsoinCommune,no.3 (May1936):11381139. 46.PaulLangevin,"Paixd'abord,"L'Humanit,3February1936,12alsoinL'Universitsyndicaliste,February1936reprintedinPaulLangevin,LaPenseet l'action(Paris,1964),274277JeanRichardBloch,"NouvelleRencontredelaFranceetRomainRolland,"Commune,no.29(January1936):513520Louis Aragon,"RomainRollandoulestrsorsdel'exprience,"Regards,no.107(30January1936):34. 47.AndrMalraux,"TroisDiscours"and"Rponseaux64,"Commune,no.28(December1935):411hisappealswerearesponsetoamanifestosignedby64 rightwingintellectuals(LeTemps,4October1935),includingCharlesMaurras,HenriMassis,AlphonsedeChateaubriant,andDrieulaRochelle. 48.RomainRolland,"RponseuneenqutedeVendmairesur'ledeclindesidesdelibertetdeprogrs,'"Europe,15January1936,104107. 49.RomainRolland,"Voyageautourdemachambre,"L'Humanit,26January1936,1,8. 50.See"HommageRomainRollandpoursonsoixantediximeanniversaire,"L'Humanit,26January1936,8,withtributesfromAndrGide,FrancisJourdain, RenArcos,MarcelPrenant,JulesRomains,VictorMargueritte,PaulRivet,Alain,LucDurtain,PaulNizan,GeorgesFriedmann

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AndreViollis,JeanCassou,AndrChamson,JeanGuhenno,CharlesVildrac,andJeanRichardBloch"HommageRomainRolland,"Commune,no.3 (March1936):789801,withtributesfromMaximGorky,WaldoFrank,GeorgiDimitrov,StefanZweig,T.G.Masaryk,E.Bens,LeonidLeonov,VanMin, andrevolutionarystudentsoftheUniversityofLisbon.SeeJeanRichardBloch,Vendredi,17January1936JeanGuhenno,Europe,15January1936Fernand Dprs,Regards,no.4(31January1936)andWaldoFrank,NewMasses,no.18(21January1936):19. 51.AndrGide,Vendredi,24January1936,laterreprintedinNouvelleRevuefranaise,no.47(1March1936):437438. 52.SeeMarcelCachin,"RomainRolland,"L'Humanit,30January1936,12MarcelCachin,"MagnifiqueHommagedupeupledeParisRomainRolland," L'Humanit,1February1936,1MarcelCachin,"AvecRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,2February1936,1.AlsoseeFrancisJourdain,"LeRledumouvement internationalAmsterdamPleyel,"Clart,no.4(November1936):179181. 53.RomainRolland,"Pourunthtredupeuple,"Regards,no.116(2April1936):3. 54.RomainRolland,"LaGrandeUnit,"Clart,no.1(August1936):35. 55.LetterfromRollandtoLonBlum,7February1936,ARR. 56.LettersfromRollandtoAmdeDunois,14February1936toLucienRoth,27May1936,ARR. 57.LetterfromRollandtoAndrChamson,20August1936,ARR. 58.RomainRolland,"Al'aide,"Paixetlibert,no.30(1936):4Rolland,"UnMessagedeRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,6September1936,4,and11 September1936,4alsoinClart,no.2(September1936):6769. 59.RomainRolland,"Appeltouslespeuplesausecoursdesvictimesd'Espagne,"L'Humanit,22November1936,Englishtrans.inInternationalSolidaritywith theSpanishRepublic,19361939(Moscow,1975),138.Forasplendidanalysisofthebrigades,seeRobertA.Rosenstone,CrusadeoftheLeft:TheLincoln BattalionsintheSpanishCivilWar(Lanham,Md.,1980). 60.RomainRolland,"Ausecoursdesvictimesd'Espagne,"Clart,no.5(December1936):227Rolland,citedinDoloresIbarruri,TheyShallNotPass:The AutobiographyofLaPasionaria(NewYork,1976),266. 61.LetterfromRollandtoBlum,3October1936,ARR.Blumneverreplied.ForanaccountofBlum'sdilemmasduringthisperiod,seeJeanLacouture,LonBlum (Paris,1977),259387. 62.LettersfromRollandtoJeanRichardBloch,10October1936toHowardDunham,26January1937,ARR. 63."LaCultureendanger,"Commune,no.40(December1936):424426,signedbyRomainRolland,AndrGide,JeanRichardBloch,AndrChamson,Louis Aragonalsosee"Dclarationdesintellectuelsrpublicainsausujetdesvnementsd'Espagne,"Commune,no.40(December1936):389391,signedbyRomain Rolland,PaulLangevin,GeorgesPolitzer,AndrGide,PaulNizan,andHenriLefebvre. 64.RomainRolland,"MessagetotheInternationalCongressofAntiFascistWritersinValencia,"citedinIbarruri,TheyShallNotPass,266267. 65.RomainRolland,"Messagelacomitpourladfensedelacultureespagnol,"7November1937,ARRRolland,"Frentepopular,"inFrance

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Espagne,no.1(1937)Rolland,"LaFranceestelleunemission?"Cahiersdelajeunesse,no.12(15July1938):1316Rolland,"C'estpournousque l'Espagnesouffreetcombat,"L'Avantgarde,20January1939,1.AlsoseeAndrMalraux,"Pourlacollaborationdesfrontspopulairesespagnoletfranais,"in Agirdanslaclart,PublicationsduComitmondialcontrelaguerreetlefascisme(Paris,1936),61. 66.RomainRolland,"AdieuGorki,"Europe,15July1936,289290alsopublishedinRegards,no.128(25June1936):3.AlsoseeRomainRolland,"MonAmi lepluscher,"L'Humanit,21June1936. 67.FrederickBrown,TheaterandRevolution:TheCultureoftheFrenchStage(NewYork,1980),393394HenriNogures,Frontpopulaire(Paris,1977), 26,90.OntheculturalpoliticsoftheFrenchPopularFront,seeElizabethG.Strebel,"FrenchSocialCinemaandthePopularFront,"JournalofContemporary History12,no.3(July1977):499519PascalOry,"De'CinLibert'laMarseillaise,"Mouvementsocial,no.91(AprilJune1975):153175NicoleRacine, "L'AssociationdesEcrivainsetArtistesRvolutionnaires(AEAR),"Mouvementsocial,no.54(JanuaryMarch1966):2947. 68.SeeP.Gsell,"RomainRollandetlethtredupeuple,"L'Humanit,14July1936,12andreviewsbyJ.Chabannes,Nouvelleslittraires,18July1936,8P. Unik,Regards,23July1936andM.Savin,NouvelleRevuefranaise,no.47(1936):396399. 69.RomainRolland,"Quatorzejuillet1789et1936,"Europe,15July1936,293297alsopublishedinRegards,no.130(9July1936):1617republishedin Europe,no.533534(SeptemberOctober1973):113116. 70.Ibid. 71.J.E.Flower,WritersandPoliticsinModernFrance,19091961(London,1977)ReneeWinegarten,WritersandRevolution:TheFatalLureofAction (NewYork,1974),274291LewisA.Coser,MenofIdeas:ASociologicalView(NewYork,1965),233243.Foramorebalancedaccount,seeRoger Shattuck,"WritersfortheDefenseofCulture,"PartisanReview51,no.3(1984):393416. 72.SeeW.H.Auden,"September1,1939,"citedinSamuelHynes,TheAudenGeneration:LiteratureandPoliticsinEnglandinthe1930s(NewYork, 1977),382GeorgeOrwell,HomagetoCatalonia(NewYork,1952),181,46,65,145,149,159RaymondAron,TheOpiumoftheIntellectuals,trans. TerenceKilmartin(NewYork,1957),265324. 73.LetterfromRollandtoBloch,15February1936,ARR.

Chapter11
1.DanielR.Brower,TheNewJacobins:TheFrenchCommunistPartyandthePopularFront(Ithaca,N.Y.,1968)FernandoClaudin,TheCommunist MovementfromCominterntoCominform,trans.BrianPearce(NewYork,1975),1:166242JacquesFauvet,Histoireduparticommunistefranais(Paris, 1964),1:152268JacquesDanosandMarcelGibelin,Juin1936,2vols.(Paris,1952reprint1972)GeorgeRoss,WorkersandCommunistsinFrance:From PopularFronttoEurocommunism(Berkeley,Calif.,1982),111GeorgesLefranc,Histoiredufrontpopulaire(Paris,1965)DanielGurin

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Frontpopulaire,rvolutionmanque(Paris,1963reprint1970)JeanGacon,"19341938:LeFrontpopulaireenFrancecommemouvementpopulaire," Cahiersd'histoiredel'InstitutMauriceThorez,no.5(OctoberNovember1973):4456AnnieKriegel,"Frontpopulaire,"Mouvementsocial,no.54 (JanuaryMarch1966). 2.RonaldTiersky,FrenchCommunism,19201972(NewYork,1974),5495MichellePerrotandAnnieKriegel,LeSocialismefranaisetlepouvoir(Paris, 1966)GeorgeLichtheim,MarxisminModernFrance(NewYork,1966),3468NicoleRacineandLouisBodin,LeParticommunistefranaispendant l'entredeuxguerres(Paris,1972),205262. 3.LetterfromRollandtoMauriceThorez,12July1936,publishedas"UneLettredeRomainRolland,"Cahiersdubolchevisme,no.1213(25July1936):879 MauriceThorez,Filsdupeuple(Paris,1937). 4.LettersfromRollandtoSergeiDinamov,1October1935,inLiteraturnanasledstvo(Literaryheritage)(Moscow,1969),324325toAlfredKurella,14 February1936,ibid.,326toJeanRichardBloch,10October1936,ARR. 5.LettersfromRollandtoJeanGuhenno,24March1936,2April1936,31December1936,JGRR373374,376,378. 6.AndrGide,Retourdel'U.R.S.S.(Paris,1936)AndrGide,"AvantproposduRetourdel'U.R.S.S.,"Vendredi,6November1936ClaudeNaville,AndrGide etlecommunisme(Paris,1936)JeanGuhenno,"LettreouverteAndrGide,"Vendredi,17December1937JeanGuhenno,"RponseAndrGide," Vendredi,24December1937GeorgesFriedmann,"Gideetl'U.R.S.S.,"Europe,15January1937,529.Forafulldiscussion,seeFrederickJ.Harris,Andr GideandRomainRolland:TwoMenDivided(NewBrunswick,N.J.,1973),110165. 7.RomainRolland,"L'U.R.S.S.enavubiend'autres.UneLettredeRomainRollandproposdulivred'AndrGide,"L'Humanit,18January1937,1English trans.inHarris,AndrGideandRomainRolland,154155. 8.Rolland,"L'U.R.S.S.enavubiend'autres,"1. 9.Ibid.alsoseelettersfromRollandtoLucienRoth,31December1936toGeorgesFriedmann,4January1937conversationwithLouisAragon,29June1937, ARRletterfromRollandtoGuhenno,29December1937,JGRR380381. 10.AndrGide,Retouchesmonretourdel'U.R.S.S.(Paris,1937reprint1978),95,146alsoseeAndrGide,Littratureengage(Paris,1950). 11.RomainRolland,"RomainRolland,LargoCaballero,LaPasionariasaluentl'U.R.S.S.,lagrandepatriedusocialisme,"L'Humanit,25January1937,4. 12.RomainRolland,"L'AdressedeRomainRollandlaconferencenationaleduparticommuniste,"L'Humanit,25January1937,6. 13.LettersfromHenriGuilbeauxtoRolland,17February1936,3September1936,22September1936,ARR. 14.HenriGuilbeaux,LaFindesSoviets(Paris,1937),2748. 15.LetterfromRollandtoGuilbeaux,4May1937,ARRseeLucienRoth'sreviewofGuilbeaux'sLaFindesSovietsinFeuilleslibresdelaquinzaine,no.40(10 July1937):186letterfromRollandtoRoth,18September1937,ARR. 16.RomainRolland,"BriefaneinenAustralier,"DieneueWeltbhne33

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no.7(11February1937):219Rolland,"LaGrandVoixdeRomainRollandappellel'aidepoursauverdelahacheRembtsetStamm,"L'Humanit,12June 1937,3Rolland,"UnAppeldeRomainRolland.Sauvezdelahachelesotagesallemandsdelapaix,"L'Humanit,11October1937,3,alsopublishedinN. Marceau,CinqAnsdedictaturehitlrienne(Paris,1938),3132. 17.RomainRolland,"RomainRollandsaluedeIXeCongrsduparticommunistefranais,"L'Humanit,25December1937,1. 18.GeorgesSadoul,"Matresdelaculture.CompagnonsderouteparRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,11December1937,8. 19.IhavefollowedaccountsofthetrialsinRoyA.Medvedev,LetHistoryJudge:TheOriginsandConsequencesofStalinism,trans.ColleenTaylor(NewYork, 1972),152239RobertConquest,TheGreatTerror:Stalin'sPurgeoftheThirties(NewYork,1968)IsaacDeutscher,Stalin:APoliticalBiography(New York,1967),345385,414460. 20.LetterfromRollandtoLilianeFearn,14October1936,ARRRomainRollandhadmadeasimilaraccusationabouttheroleofrevolutionaryanarchistsand TrotskyistsinSpainseelettertoBloch,15February1936,ARR. 21.LetterfromRollandtoCountMichelKarolyi,12February1937,ARRalsoseeLeProcsducentreantisovitiquetrotskiste(Paris,1936).Letterfrom RollandtoJeanCourregelongue,18March1937,ARRinajournalextractdated27January1937,RomainRollandstatedthathewasunconvincedbyPierre Dominique'scharacterizationofStalinasunLeninist,Bonapartist,imperialist,andmilitarist(ARR). 22.LetterfromRollandtoKarolyi,12February1937,ARR. 23.Ibid. 24.LetterfromRollandtoMadeleineRolland,4August1937,BV,353. 25.LetterfromRollandtoKarolyi,12February1937,ARR. 26.LetterfromRollandtoGeorgiDimitrov,29December1937,sentviaMauriceThorez,ARR. 27.IbidletterfromRollandtoThorez,10February1938,ARR. 28.LetterfromHermannHessetoRolland,3March1938,HHRR,163164. 29.LetterfromRollandtoHesse,5March1938,HHRR,165. 30.LettersfromRollandtoBloch,3March1938fromRollandtoFriedmann,7March1938,ARR. 31.LetterfromRollandtoCourregelongue,15November1937,ARR. 32.LetterfromRollandtoToshihikoKatayama,8December1937,BV,354355. 33.RomainRolland,"LaMissiondelaFrancedanslemonde.UnAppeldeRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,31March1938,1. 34.LetterfromRollandtoLonMoussinac,27April1938,ARR. 35.RomainRolland,"TlgrammeDaladieretChamberlain,"inJeanGiono,"Prcisions,"Cahiersducontadour,no.7(November1938):4,datedearly September1938,andalsosignedbyPaulLangevinandFrancisJourdainreprintedinJeanGiono,Prcisions(Paris,1939),89. 36.Alain,JeanGiono,VictorMargueritte,"TlgrammeDaladieretChamberlain,"reprintedinGiono'sPrcisions,910.Curiously,RomainRolland,Alain,and Gionohadtogethersignedanantiwarprotest:"Contre

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laguerre,RomainRollandauctdesinstituteurs,"L'Oeuvre,1October1938,citedinGiono,Prcisions,6.InaletterwrittentoGuillaumeBoniface,3 September1937,RomainRollandstronglyobjectedtoGiono'spacifism,seeingitasa"puerilityunworthyofaliteraryman.Lethimnotimaginethattheir shepherd'scrookwilldisarmthethreateninganddegradingfascisms"(ARR). 37.RomainRolland,"La'Paix'deMunichestunecapitulationdgradante,"L'Humanit,14October1938,1. 38.LetterfromRollandtoFrancisVogarde,23September1938,ARRalsoseeletterfromRollandtoNaoumAronson,5December1938,BV357358. 39.RomainRolland,"Deuilsurl'Europe,"Europe,no.49(15April1939):433434reprintedinEurope,no.533534(SeptemberOctober1973):169170. AlsoseehisaddresstotheNationalCongressoftheAmsterdamPleyelmovement,1113November1938,publishedinL'Humanit,13November1938.Seealso RomainRolland,"Appel.Du15au22janviersemainenationaledesolidarit.UnAppeldeRomainRolland,"L'Humanit,14January1939,3. 40.LettersfromRollandtoThorez,28November1938,and20March1939,ARR. 41.RomainRolland,"Prface"(October1938),Robespierre(Paris,1939),7partsofRobespierrewerepublishedinEurope,FebruaryMarch1939,145162, 289298inInternationalLiterature,no.7(July1939):38andinCommune(JanuaryApril1939):114,506,633. 42.RomainRolland,"LaParoleestl'histoire"(1January1939),Robespierre,312alsosee"FlicitationsdeRomainRollandaprslacrationduRobespierrela radio,"L'Humanit,16August1939Rolland,"Prface,"inN.Marceau,L'AllemagneetlaRvolutionfranaise(Paris,1939),915. 43.Rolland,"Prface,"Robespierre,8. 44.Rolland,Robespierre,286287.OntheinfluenceofRousseauonRobespierre,seeRomainRolland,"JeanJacquesRousseau,"introductiontoTheLiving ThoughtsofRousseau,ed.RomainRolland(London,1939),12,24. 45.Rolland,"LaParoleestl'histoire,"315317Rolland,Robespierre,286. 46.Rolland,Robespierre,63,88. 47.Ibid.,180,300,258. 48.Ibid.,162alsoseeRolland,"Prface,"Robespierre,8. 49.WalterLaqueurandGeorgeL.Mosse,eds.,TheLeftWingIntellectualsBetweentheWars,19191939(NewYork,1966)alsoseeJrgenRhle, LiteratureandRevolution:ACriticalStudyoftheWriterandCommunismintheTwentiethCentury,trans.JeanSteinberg(London,1969). 50.RichardCrossman,ed.,TheGodThatFailed(NewYork,1950),110DavidCaute,TheFellowTravellers:APostscripttotheEnlightenment(New York,1973),250266PaulHollander,PoliticalPilgrims:TravelsofWesternIntellectualstotheSovietUnion,China,andCuba(NewYork,1981),70176, 400437IrvingHowe,"Intellectuals,Dissent,andBureaucrats,"Dissent,Summer1984,303308. 51.RomainRolland,"Ncessitdelarvolution,"Europe,15July1939,289302.

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52.Ibid. 53.Ibid. 54.LetterfromRollandtoJeanCassou,30August1939,ARR. 55.Ibid. 56.Ibid. 57.Ibid. 58.LetterfromRollandtoFriedmann,19September1939,ARR. 59.RomainRolland,"LettreadressparRomainRollandauprsidentDaladier"(3September1939),LeTemps,19September1939. 60.RomainRolland,"AdressedeRomainRollandlajeunessefranaise,"L'Avantgarde,20January1939,1letterfromRollandtoCharlesBaudouin,15 September1939,ARR"DeuxHeuresavecRomainRollandaupaysdeColasBreugnon,"L'Avantgarde,16June1939,1,5. 61.LettersfromRollandtoClaraBeerli,29January1939toBaudouin,10January1940toGeorgesDuhamel,7November1939,ARR. 62.LetterfromRollandtoBloch,20November1939,ARR.

Conclusion
1.LetterfromRollandtoHelenF.Farrere,3June1940,BV,366.OntheVichyregime,seeRobertO.Paxton,VichyFrance:OldGuardandNewOrder(New York,1972)JeanPierreAzma,DeMunichlalibration,19381944(Paris,1979)MichaelMarrusandRobertO.Paxton,VichyFranceandtheJews (NewYork,1982). 2.LetterfromRollandtoJeanRichardBloch,8November1944,BV380.SeealsoMarcelDoisy,RomainRolland,18661944(Brussels,1945),8791William T.Starr,RomainRolland:OneAgainstAll(TheHague,1971),245248D.A.Prater,EuropeanofYesterday:ABiographyofStefanZweig(London,1972), 286341. 3.LettersfromRollandtoFarrere,3June1940toBloch,8November1944,BV,366,381MarieRomainRolland,"Prface,"LettresdeRomainRollandun combattantdelaRsistance(Paris,1947),unpaginated. 4.LetterfromRollandtoJeanGuhenno,2January1939,JGRR,386. 5.RomainRolland,Beethoven.LesGrandesEpoquescratricesandLaNeuvimeSymphonie(Paris,1943)RomainRolland,LesDerniersQuatuors(Paris, 1943). 6.RomainRolland,Pguy,2vols.(Paris,1945).LetterfromRollandtoGuhenno,31December1942,JGRR,400401letterfromRollandtoMadeleineRolland, 8May1943,BV,375. 7.MarieRomainRolland,"Prface"Journalofficiel,21February1941. 8.LetterfromRollandtoGuhenno,1January1941,JGRR,389. 9.See"Notebiographique,"inLettresdeRomainRollanduncombattantdelaRsistance(Paris,1947)H.R.Kedward,ResistanceinVichyFrance (London,1978). 10.LetterfromRollandtoEliWalach,1March1940,inLettresdeRomainRollanduncombattantdelaRsistance.Foragooddiscussionofthereactionof FrenchintellectualstotheResistance,seeJamesD.Wilkinson,TheIntellectualResistanceinEurope(Cambridge,Mass.,1981),2577. 11.LettersfromRollandtoAndrGeorge,7January1942,BV,370371toGuhenno,4January1942,JGRR,395396.

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12.LetterfromRollandtoM.andMme.R.Mercier,7December1944,BV,382. 13.RomainRolland,"MessagedeRomainRollandlupourluiensonabsencelaSorbonneunesancesolennelledecommmorationdesintellectuelsvictimesde l'occupation,"9December1944,firstpublishedas"FranceetLibert,"Nouvelleslittraires,5April1945citedinDoisy,RomainRolland,203204.Alsosee"Un MessagedeRomainRollandauxLettresfranaises,"inLettresfranaises,16September1944,wherehesignedanappealoftheComitNationaldesEcrivains. 14.SeeDoisy,RomainRolland,8990. 15.SeeLettresfranaises,6January1945thisepisodeisdiscussedinOtisFellowsandJohnPappas,"RequiescantinPace:Bergson,Pguy,Rolland,"French AmericanReview5,no.2(Fall1982):217233. 16.RomainRolland,"LeTestamentdeRomainRolland,"citedinDoisy,RomainRolland,205.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ForacompletebibliographyofRolland'spublishedwritingssee: WilliamT.Starr.ACriticalBibliographyofthePublishedWritingsofRomainRolland.Evanston,Ill.,1950. M.N.Vaksmakher,A.V.Paievskaya,E.L.Galperina.RomainRolland,Indexbiobibliographique.Moscow,1959.

WorksbyRomainRolland
I Novels JeanChristophe(19041912).Editiondfinitive.Paris,1966. ColasBreugnon,bonhommevitencore(1919).Paris,1969. Clrambault.Histoired'uneconsciencelibrependantlaguerre(1920).Geneva,1971. PierreetLuce(1920).Geneva,1971. L'Ameenchante(19221933).Paris,1967. II Theater LesTragdiesdelafoi:SaintLouis(1897),Art(1898),LeTriomphedelaraison(1899).Paris,1913. LesVaincus(1897).Paris,1922. LeThtredelaRvolution:Le14juillet(1902),Danton(1900),LesLoups(1898).Paris,1909. LeThtredupeuple.Paris,1903. LeTempsviendra.Paris,1903. LaMontespan.Paris,1904. LesTroisAmoureuses.Paris,1906. Liluli.Paris,1919. LeJeudel'amouretdelamort.Paris,1925. Pquesfleuries.Paris,1926. LesLonides.Paris,1928. Robespierre.Paris,1939.

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III Biographies FranoisMillet.London,1902. Beethoven.Paris,1903. ViedeMichelAnge.Paris,1906. Haendel.Paris,1910. ViedeTolsto.Paris,1911. Empdocled'Agrigenteetl'gedelahaine.Paris,1918. MahatmaGandhi.Paris,1924. Beethoven.LesGrandesEpoquescratrices.7vols.19281945.Paris,1966. Essaisurlamystiqueetl'actiondel'Inde.1.LaViedeRamakrishna.Paris,1929.2.LaViedeVivekanandaetl'vangileuniversel.2vols.Paris,1930. Pguy.2vols.Paris,1944. IV Essays "LaDcadencedelapeintureitalienneauXVIesicle."Thesis,UniversityofParis,1895. LesOriginesduthtrelyriquemoderne.Histoiredel'operaenEuropeavantLullyetScarlatti.Paris,1895. Parisalsmusikstadt.Berlin,1905. Musiciensd'aujourd'hui.Paris,1908. Musiciensd'autrefois.Paris,1908. Audessusdelamle.Paris,1915.RepublishedinL'Espritlibre.Geneva,1971. LesPrcurseurs.Paris,1919.RepublishedinL'Espritlibre.Geneva,1971. Voyagemusicalaupaysdupass.Paris,1919. LaRvoltedesmachines,ouLaPensedchane.Paris,1921. CeuxquimeurentdanslesprisonsdeMussolini.Paris,1934. QuinzeAnsdecombat.Paris,1935. Parlarvolution,lapaix.Paris,1935. Compagnonsderoute.Essaislittraires.Paris,1936. Commentempcherlaguerre?Paris,1936. Valmy.Paris,1938. LesPagesimmortellesdeJ.J.Rousseau.NewYork,1939. LeVoyageintrieur(Songed'unevie).Paris,1942. LePriple.Paris,1946. LettresdeRomainRollanduncombattantdelaRsistance.Paris,1947. Souvenirsdejeunesse(18661900).Paris,1947. "Gabrield'AnnunzioetLaDuse."LesOeuvreslibres,no.20,1947. Inde.Journal19151943.Paris,1951. Journaldesannesdeguerre.Paris,1952. Mmoires.Paris,1956.

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V Correspondence CahiersRomainRolland Cahier1.ChoixdelettresMalwidavonMeysenbug.Paris,1948. Cahier2.CorrespondanceentreLouisGilletetRomainRolland.Paris,1949. Cahier3.RichardStraussetRomainRolland.CorrespondanceetfragmentsduJournal.Paris,1951. Cahier4.LeClotredelarued'Ulm.JournaldeRomainRollandl'EcoleNormale(18861889).Paris,1952. Cahier5.CetteAmeardente.Choixdelettresd'AndrSuarsRomainRolland(18871891).Paris,1954. Cahier6.PrintempsRomain.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandsamre(18891890).Paris,1954. Cahier7.UneAmitifranaise.CorrespondanceentreCharlesPguyetRomainRolland.Paris,1955. Cahier8.RetourauPalaisFarnse.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandsamre(18901891).Paris,1956. Cahier9.DeladcadencedelapeintureitalienneauXVIesicle.ThselatinedeRomainRolland.Paris,1957. Cahier10.ChreSofia.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandSofiaBertoliniGuerrieriGonzaga(19011908).Paris,1959. Cahier11.ChreSofia.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandSofiaBertoliniGuerrieriGonzaga(19091932).Paris,1960. Cahier12.RabindranathTagoreetRomainRolland.Lettresetautrescrits.Paris,1961. Cahier13.CesJourslointains.AlphonseSchetRomainRolland.Lettresetautrescrits.Paris,1962. Cahier14.FraleinElse.LettresdeRomainRollandElsaWolff.Paris,1964. Cahier15.DeuxHommesserencontrent.CorrespondanceentreJeanRichardBlochetRomainRolland(19101918).Paris,1964. Cahier16.RomainRollandetlemouvementflorentinde''laVoce.''CorrespondanceetfragmentsduJournal.EditedbyHenriGiordan.Paris,1966. Cahier17.UnBeauVisagetoussens.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRolland(18661944).Paris,1967. Cahier18.Salutetfraternit.AlainetRomainRolland.Paris,1969. Cahier19.GandhietRomainRolland.Correspondance,extraitsduJournalettextesdivers.Paris,1969. Cahier20.Jecommencedevenirdangereux.ChoixdelettresdeRomainRollandsamre(19141916).Paris,1971. Cahier21.D'unerivel'autre.HermannHesseetRomainRolland.Correspondance,fragmentsduJournalettextesdivers.Paris,1972. Cahier22.Pourl'honneurdel'esprit.CorrespondanceentreCharlesPguyetRomainRolland(18981914).Paris,1973. Cahier23.L'Indpendancedel'esprit.CorrespondanceentreJeanGuhennoetRomainRolland.Paris,1975.

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Cahier24.MonsieurleComte.RomainRollandetLonTolstoytextes.Paris,1981. OtherPublishedCorrespondence DeJeanChristopheColasBreugnon.PagesdeJournal.Paris,1946. HermannHesseRomainRollandBriefe.Zurich,1955. JeanChristopheetArmel.CorrespondancedeRomainRollandetdeJeanBodin.Lyons,1955. RomainRollandLugnPoe,correspondance(18941901).EditedbyJacquesRobichez.Paris,1957. RichardStraussandRomainRolland,Correspondence.EditedbyRolloMeyers.Berkeley,California,1968. BonVoisinage.EdmondPrivatetRomainRolland.EditedbyPierreHirsch.Neuchtel,1977. CorrespondancePanatIstratiRomainRolland(19191935).CahiersPanatIstrati.Valence,1987. UnpublishedLettersandManuscriptsConsulted ArchivesRomainRolland,BibliothqueNationale,Paris.

WorksonRomainRolland
GeorgesAnquetil.EssaisurRomainRolland.LaBeautdesonoeuvreetseserreurs.Paris,1918. RenArcos.RomainRolland.Paris,1948. V.E.Balakhonov.RomainRolland,19141924.Leningrad,1958. JeanBertrandBarrre.RomainRollandparluimme.Paris,1955. JeanBertrandBarre.RomainRolland,l'meetl'art.Paris,1966. CharlesBaudouin.RomainRollandcalomni.Paris,1918. JeanBonnerot.RomainRolland.SaVie,sonoeuvre.Paris,1921. RenCheval.RomainRolland,l'Allemagneetlaguerre.Paris,1963. PaulColin.LaVertud'hrosmeetRomainRolland.Brussels,1918. ErnstRobertCurtius.DieliterarischenWegbereiterdesneuenFrankreich.Potsdam,1918. MauriceDescotes.RomainRolland.Paris,1948. MarcelDoisy.RomainRolland(18661944).Brussels,1945. R.Dvorak.DasEthischeunddasAesthetischebeiRomainRolland.Bottrop,1933. M.Elder.DeuxEssais:RomainRollandOctaveMirbeau.Paris,1916. PierreGrappin.LeBundneuesVaterland(19141916),sesrapportsavecR.Rolland.LyonsandParis,1952. OttoGrautoff.RomainRolland.FrankfortamMain,1914. H.Hatzfeld.PaulClaudelundRomainRolland.Munich,1921.

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WernerIlberg.TraumundTat.RomainRollandinseinemVerhltniszuDeutschlandundzurSowjetUnion.Halle,1950. WernerIlberg.DerschwereWeg.LebenundWerkRomainRollands.Schwerin,1953. PierreJeanJouve.RomainRollandvivant(19141919).Paris,1920. ZofiaKarczewskaMarkiewicz.TeatrRomainRollanda.Warsaw,1955. MarcelleKempf.RomainRollandetl'Allemagne.Paris,1962. JosefKopal.RomainRolland.Prague,1964. B.Krakowski.LaPsychologiedespeuplesallemandetjuifdanslesromansdeRomainRolland.Toulouse,1931. MiriamKrampf.LaConceptiondelaviehroquedansl'oeuvredeRomainRolland.Paris,1956. WalterKchler.RomainRolland,HenriBarbusse,FritzvonUnruh.Wrzburg,1920. JosephKvapil.RomainRollandSonItinraire,saplacedanslalittraturegnrale.Prague,1967. JosephKvapil.RomainRollandetlesamisd'Europe.Prague,1971. Fr.Laichter.RomainRollandetCharlesPguy.Prague,1956. EugenLerch.RomainRollandunddieErneuerungderGesinnung.Munich,1926. ArthurR.Lvy.L'IdalismedeRomainRolland.Paris,1942. M.Lob.UnGrandBourguignon,ungrandeuropen.Auxerre,1928. HaroldMarch.RomainRolland.NewYork,1971. MauriceMartinduGard.Feuxtournants.Paris,1925. MarcelMartinet.PageschoisiesdeRomainRolland.Paris,1921. HenriMassis.M.RomainRollandouledilettantismedelafoi.Paris,1913. HenriMassis.RomainRollandcontrelaFrance.Paris,1915. JeanMaxe."LeBolchevismelittraire.'L'Idole,l'europen,'RomainRolland."Cahiersdel'antiFrance.Paris,1922. W.Michel.EssaysberGustavLandauer,RomainRolland....Hanover,1920. T.Motyleva.TvorcestvoRomenaRollana.Moscow,1959. JeanPerus.RomainRollandetMaximeGorki.Paris,1968. JacquesRobichez.RomainRolland.Paris,1961. AlphonseSch.RomainRolland,l'humbleviehroque.Paris,1912. PaulSeippel.RomainRolland,l'hommeetl'oeuvre.Paris,1913. ChristianSnchal.LesGrandsCourantsdelalittraturefranaisecontemporaine.Paris,1934. ChristianSnchal.RomainRolland.Paris,1933. S.Sdermann.RomainRolland.Stockholm,1916. PaulSouday.LesLivresdutemps.3vols.Paris,19131930. WilliamT.Starr.RomainRollandandaWorldatWar.Evanston,Ill.,1956. WilliamT.Starr.RomainRolland:OneAgainstAll.TheHague,1971. R.A.Wilson.ThePreWarBiographiesofRomainRollandandTheirPlaceinHisWorkandthePeriod.London,1939. J.Ziegler.RomainRollandim"JeanChristophe"iberJudenundJudentum.Vienna,1918. StefanZweig.RomainRolland,derMannunddasWerk.Frankfurt,1920. StefanZweig.TheWorldofYesterday.Lincoln,Neb.,1964.

Page360

SpecialStudies,Anthologies,Articles
MaximGorky,GeorgesDuhamel,andStefanZweig,eds.LiberAmicorumRomainRolland.Zurich,1926. DerRomainRollandAlmanachzum60.FrankfortamMain,1926. "Le60eAnniversairedeRomainRolland."Europe,February1926. "RomainRolland."Europe,JanuaryFebruary1955. "Gorki."Europe,FebruaryMarch1960. "RomainRolland."Europe,NovemberDecember1965. RomainRolland.SaVie,sonoeuvre,18661944.ArchivesdeFrance.Paris,1966. PierreAbraham,ed.RomainRolland.Neuchtel,1969. Bulletindel'AssociationdesamisdufondsRomainRolland.EditedbyMarieRomainRolland.Paris,19461984.

Page361

INDEX

A
ActionFranaise,38,173,187,192,199,255 andassassinationofJaurs,226 andassaultonBlum,259 andOrientalism,117 Adler,Alfred,277 Adler,Friedrich,163,164 Adler,Valy,277 Aesthetics,24,86,106,222,226 Alain,280,339n.43 Alexandre,Michel,201 Algeria,113 L'Ameenchante(Rolland),105,344n.50 antifascismin,147,170176,201202,227,246 antiimperialismin,173 Cartesianrationalismin,228 fellowtravelingin,227228,230235 andGandhism,173,176,234 individualismin,170,174,230,234 andItalianfascism,234 justifiableviolencein,173 Leninismin,173,234 Marxistanalysisoffascismin,171,175 andMarxistcultureinFrance,230233 asmirrorofRolland'spolitics,170,172,173 mysticismin,227 asnovelofengagement,172,173 prePopularFrontpoliticsin,174176 portraitofMussoliniin,171172 praisedbycommunistwriters,237,239 proSovietismin,173,201202,230235,282 andsocialrevolution,234 workerintellectualalliancein,232,235 Amendola,Giovanni,136,148,149150,183 AmsterdamPleyelmovement,110,158,162,164,166,181,234 andanticapitalism,162,164,169 andantifascism,159,165,166,168,169,170,181,187,192,202,237 andantiimperialism,159,160,162,164,165,166,169 andantiwaractivity,159,160,161,162,166 andComintern,158,162,163,168 andcommunism,161,162164,167,170,335nn.56,58 andFrenchCommunistParty,159,168,169,334n.50,335n.56 andintellectuals,160,163,164,166167,192 leftistschismsin,162164 manifestoof,165167,180 andpacifism,161,163168,170 andPopularFront,158,159,162,181,187,258 andproSovietism,237 andrightwing,335n.58 Rolland'sdeclarationto,164165 andSerge,245 andsocialism,161,162164,166,334n.50 sovietcontrolover,163,168169 andSurrealism,335n.58 asumbrellaorganization,161 workersrepresentedin,163,164 Anarchism:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,161 andantiSovietism,207208,210,215217,274 andcommunism,80,90,95 andengagement,4 French,104,207208 andGandhism,126 German,184 martyrsof,67 andpacifism,115,159,197 andRollandBarbussedebate,95,98,104,108 Russian,207 andSpanishCivilWar,351n.20 Andrews,C.F.,129 Angell,Norman,47,104 Annamites,156,157 Anticommunism:andanarchism,202208,210,215,216,274 andantiSemitism,280281 andGestapo'scollusionwithantiSovietleft,274 andliberalantifascism,151,153 andMachiavellianism,230 andNazism,184,185186 and"RedImperialism,"165166 andRussianemigrs,211 Antifascism,6,110,135,137,147,203204 inL'Ameenchante,147,170176,227,234,246 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,154,165,166,168,169,170,181 andanticommunism,151,153 andantiimperialism,153,155,157,159,165 andantinationalism,183 andantiSemitism,180181 and

Page362

Antifascism(continued) assassinationofAmendola,148,149150 andcapitalism,157,171,202 andclassstruggle,189190,193,203 andcommunism,152,190,191,194,203,241,255,332n.19,341n.66 andfellowtraveling,235,241,253,265,270271,278,285 andFrenchResistance,280,294295 andGandhism,153,158,180,195,340n.55 andintellectualautonomy,151,209 andinternationalism,149,180,183,200,203204 andMunichAccords,280 andnationalism,281 andNaziSovietPact,290 organizations,151152,194 andpacifism,159,193203,224,255,340n.55,352n.36 andPopularFront,195,203204,236,241,258,264,266 ofrefugees,149,150,151,176,189,190,197 andsocialrevolution,160,170,193,200,202,204 andSpanishCivilWar,191192,260263,268,269270,274 andStalinism,278 andTagore,150151 andviolence,173,175176,180,189190,195 andworkerintellectualalliance,176,187189,194,203,229. SeealsoIntellectuals,antifascistSovietUnion:andantifascism Antiimperialism,77,85,87,266 inL'Ameenchante,234 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,159,160,162,164,165,166 andantifascism,153,159,265 antiSoviet,113,114 andantiwarcoalition,160 andcommunism,155,159 andfascism,154,165 andGandhism,112,113114,124,126,132,167 andpacifism,153,154,159 inLesPrcurseurs,73 andsocialrevolution,156 andSovietUnion,221,225 andviolence,112113,114,116 Antiintellectualism,65,84,181,233,241,262 Antimilitarism,107,115 inClrambault,83 ofFrenchpeasants,85 andinternationalism,153 andnonviolence,168 and"peacetime"pacifists,76 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"6364,6870 inSovietUnion,252 andworkingclass,165 Antinationalism,38,51 inAbovetheBattle,3941,43,4748 andanticapitalism,183 andantifascism,183 andantiracism,180 inClrambault,8384 andcommunism,281 andinternationalism,180,183,189 inLiluli,82 andpacifism,85 inLesPrcurseurs,73 inRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"6278 inSovietUnion,252. SeealsoInternationalismNationalism AntiSemitism:andanticommunism,280281 andantifascism,180181,336n.3 inFrance,19,183 inSovietUnion,250,251 andVichygovernment,295 Antiwarposition,Rolland's,77,111,143,177 inAbovetheBattle,4048 "antiFrench"attitudeof,256 inClrambault,8385 andcritiqueofcapitalism,44 andEuropeanleftists,4446 andGandhianantiimperialism,113114 inLiluli,82 andmodernityofGreatWar,42 moralvantagepointof,4041,44,45 inPierreandLuce,82 inLesPrcurseurs,66 andtreason,256 Antiwarstruggle:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,159,160,161,164165 andantiimperialism,160 andcommunism,159,224 inLeFeu(Barbusse),88 inFrance,159 andGandhism,142,224 andintellectuals,4243,4748,115,160 andLeagueofNations,201 andpacifism,159 andrevolutionarysocialists,4446,57 andsocialrevolution,161,199. SeealsoAntiimperialismAntimilitarismPacifism Aragon,Louis,242,279,297 and"Frontrouge"trial,225227 interviewsRolland,194,255 andNaziSovietPact,288,289 ArchivesRomainRolland,4 Armand,Gustave,14 Aron,Raymond,3 Aroseff,Alexander,275 Art.SeePoliticalart L'Artlibre(periodical),87,313n.30 andRollandBarbussedebate,90,101,103,104,107 AssociationoftheFriendsoftheSovietUnion,289 AssociationRpublicainedesAnciensCombattants,89 AssociationofRevolutionaryWritersandArtists(AEAR),178,184185 Aulard,Alphonse,21

Page363

Austria,185,189 AustrianSocialDemocrats,163,189 L'Avenir(newspaper),211

B
Bach,J.S.,138 Balmont,Constantin,211212,214 Barbusse,Henri,117,271,275 andAmsterdamPlevelmovement,158,160,163,164,167,168,181 andantifascism,152,160 andClart,59,61,88,90,91 communistwritingsof,8990,108 deathof,263 debatesRolland,72,79,87,90111,126,322n.107 andFrenchCommunistParty,89,96,109,242,263 andGandhism,98,126127,328n.76 andintellectualcommitment,242 onrevolutionaryviolence,9093,95,98 onroleofintellectual,8991 Rolland'simpressionsof,89,105,243 onscientificsocialism,9192,97 andSerge,244 onSovietUnion,92,98,99,242,271 andStalinism,108,243 LeBarrage(periodical),196,340n.55 Barrs,Maurice,38,199 Basch,Victor,201 Bastille,23,96,210,263,264 Bazalgette,Lon,39,206 Bazin,Ren,38 Beethoven,Ludwigvan,2830,138,182,237,293294 Benda,Julien,218,252,343n.30 Bergson,Henri,16,297 BerlinerTageblatt(newspaper),73 Binding,Rudolf,182 Birukof,Paul,53 Bloch,JeanRichard,39,87,279,288289 Blum,Lon,225227,257,334n.50 andFrenchinterventioninSpain,259,261262,265,268,271 andPopularFrontgovernment,203,258259,261262,265,281 Bonnerot,Jean,87 Bose,SubhasChandra,139 Bosis,Laurode,174 Bouch,Henri,197198 Bounine,Ivan,211212,214 Bourgeoisie,101,107,111 cultureof,22,2425,27 andfascism,171,175,188 ideologyof,95,101,225 progressivesectionof,160,169170,191,265 Bourget,Paul,38,199 Brandes,Georg,100 Bral,Clotilde,18,19 Brecht,Bertolt,205 Brecot,Jean,207208 Breton,Andr,117,226 Brousaudier,Sylvain,199 Bukharin,Nicolai,210,253,277,283

C
Caballero,Largo,271 Cachin,Marcel,257 CahiersdelaQuinzaine(periodical),22,24,3233,307n.48 Cahiersdubolchevisme(periodical),194 Cahiersdumois(periodical),117 Cahiersidalistes(periodical),104,107 Camus,Albert,79 Cancouet,L.,199 Capitalism,210 andantiSovietism,218219 ascauseofwar,44 andclassstruggle,107,225 andcontrolofmedia,219 crisisof,165 declineof,248 depictedinL'Ameenchante,171 asenemyofrevolution,210 andfascism,137,171,182189,192193,202,204,240241 French,157,187,192,193 Gandhi'sviewof,133134 andimperialism,113,133,156,157,165,225 Marxistcritiqueof,101 and"pseudoliberalism,"246 inUnitedStates,106 Cassou,Jean,288 Catholicism,12,16,38 andfascism,148,189 leftwing,4 andVichygovernment,295 Censorship,62,63,84 Challaye,Flicien,160 andpacifismversusantifascism,196202passim,340n.55 Chamberlain,Neville,279280 Chamson,Andr,195 Chateaubriand,FranoisAugusteRende,14 China,156,157,159,234 Christianity,46,131,161 andantifascism,194 andGandhism,120,122,132 andmilitarism,41 and"peacetime"pacifists,76 Civildisobedience,121122,141 CivilizationandItsDiscontents(Freud),8 Clamecy(birthplaceofRolland),12,297 Clart(periodical),5961,74,105 andantiimperialism,113,153 andItalianfascism,148 andRollandBarbussedebate,101,103,108 sectarianismof,8889

Page364

Clart(periodicalofWorldCommitteeAgainstWarandFascism),258 Classconsciousnessandclassstruggle:andantifascism,189190,193,225 andBolshevism,5556 andbourgeoissociety,2526 andcolonialism,233234 andGandhism,125,127,133,142 andintellectualidealism,102,109,208 andMarxistideology,108,225 andpacifism,162,201,202 andpeople'stheater,2526 andPopularFront,258 andviolence,92 andworkerintellectualalliance,71,101,109,165. SeealsoWorkingclass ColdWarpolitics,297 Colette,SidonieGabrielle,59 Colin,Paul,8687,101 Colonialism,112,113,153,165 British,96,120,124,157 andclassstruggle,233234 culturalvaluesimposedby,116,154,155 anddecolonization,220 andhumanrights,157. SeealsoImperialism ComdieFranaise,18 Comitd'AideauxLuttesContreleFascismeHitlrien,178 Commitment,intellectual.SeeEngagement CommitteeofAntifascistAction,339n.43 Commune(periodical),242,249,257 Communism:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,159,161,162164 andantifascism,152,190,191,194195,203,241,255,341n.66 andantiimperialism,159,160 andantinationalism,281 andantiwarstruggle,77,159,160 British,289 Bulgarian,183 Dutch,183 excludedfromEuropeangovernments,79 comparedtofascism,148,152,153,206207,249250,286 French,88,187,190,286,288289 andFrenchResistance,294 andGandhism,125,126130,143,155,176 German,179180,183 andhumanism,227,279 inIndia,126,128,129,157,327n.63 andindustrialism,99 infallibilityof,92,93 andintellectualautonomy,71,91,92,94,108,224 andintellectualresponsibility,109,239,270 Italian,177,190191 andliberty,101 martyrsof,67 andNaziSovietPact,288290 andpacifism,85,108,143,155,159160 scientificnatureof,92,93,99 sectarian,89,100 Spanish,271 andSurrealism,225227 violencelegitimatedby,92,9394,98. SeealsoCommunistInternationalFrenchCommunistPartyIntellectuals,communistLeninismMarxismSovietUnionStalinism CommunistInternational:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,158,162,168 andantifascism,152,204,278 andBarbusse,89,91,108 dictatorialspiritof,240 andengagement,301 andFrenchcommunism,80 andGandhism,127,129,143,155 andintellectuals,52,70,90,277 andNaziSovietPact,289 andPopularFront,160,266 andReichstagfire,184 Serge'spositionin,244 CommunistManifesto(MarxandEngels),66,101 LaConditionhumaine(Malraux),236 Condorcet,Marquisde,214,287 Constructivism,221 Coomaraswamy,AnandaK.,118 Corneille,Pierre,14 Coty,Franois,173 CreativeEvolution(Bergson),297 Criticalthought,26,31,95,149 Croce,Benedetto,73,148 CroixdeFeu,187 Cuba,157 Cuenat,Pierre,201 Curie,Marie,74 CyranodeBergerac(Rostand),17 Cyril,Victor,59,60 Czechoslovakia,185,279281

D
Daladier,Edouard,157,279280,281,290 Danton,GeorgesJacques,23,102,283 DarknessatNoon(Koestler),267 Das,C.R.,126 daVinci,Leonardo,273 Dat,Marcel,225226 Debray,Rgis,3 "DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind"(Rolland),87,314n.43 antiwarpositionof,6164,6870,73 Croce'ssigningof,73 Einstein'ssigningof,72 "engagement"deletedin,65 immediatereceptionof,75 andintellectualautonomy,6164,6871,104 internationaloutlookof,75 Kraus'sresponseto,73 listofsignatories

Page365

314n.43,316n.78 Marxistresponseto,7072 andmilitarizationofintellectuals,6364,6870 andoceanicfeeling,64 andpacifistintellectuals,7273,74,104105 Russell'ssigningof,7475 scientists'responseto,7273,74 Shaw'sresponseto,6870 andsupportforSovietUnion,66 andworkerintellectualalliance,6266 deGaulle,Charles,296 deLigt,Barthlemy,197 dellaTorre,Maya,213 Demain(periodical),45,53,271 deMaistre,Joseph,255 Democracy,6,56,80,93,206 andantifascism,152,172,200,201,229,268 andantiSovietism,219 anddecentralizedculture,272 andfascism,136137,160,187,271 andideology,225 andPopularFrontgovernment,258,265266 inSovietUnion,241 andworkingclass,256 Demokratie(periodical),73 DeutscheallgemeineZeitung(newspaper),73 Dimitrov,Georgi,168,183,184,276 Dollfuss,Engelbert,189 DosPassos,John,160 Dostoevsky,Fyodor,16 Dreiser,Theodore,160 DreyfusAffair,1820,33,38,46,222,257 Drumont,Edouard,19 Dube,RamPrasad,126 Duchne,Gabrielle,164 Duhamel,Georges,61,104,166,213,274275 Dujardin,Edouard,104 Dunois,Amde,99,101102,259 Durtain,Luc,104,213,288

E
Eastman,Max,47,7072,213 EastWestculturalexchange,115119,127,140,256 EcoledesHautesEtudesSociales,15,24 EcoleNormaleSuprieure,1415 Einstein,Albert,47,72,89,160,182 Eisenstein,Sergei,248 Eisner,Kurt,67 Emery,Lon,199,201 Empedocles,254 Encyclopedists,96 TheEndoftheSoviets(Guilbeaux),271 Engagement,86,298302 inL'Ameenchante,172,228229,234235 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,158,170 andantifascism,151,172,204,227,229,265 antiimperialist,153 andantiwarmovement,46,158 andcommunism,242 anddisengagement,76,77,102,137,142,222,228,298 andfellowtraveling,235,269,285 andFrenchResistance,295 Gandhian,139,144,158,214 andhumanism,229,239 andintellectualresponsibility,226,228,269 andmoralism,65,76 pacifist,133,162 andpolarizationofdiscourse,217 andpopularculture,27,265 andPopularFront,265 revolutionary,71,133 andselfdisclosure,296 andsocialisthumanism,229,284 stylesof,37,229 afterWorldWarI,77 Engels,Friedrich,21 England:andantifascism,175,176,198,200 asenemyofrevolution,210 andItalianinvasionofEthiopia,194 andnegotiationswithGermany,279280 pacifismin,61,65 Sovietrelationswith,289 andSpanishCivilWar,261,262 Esperanto,52 Ethics,22,109,223,299 andantiimperialism,153 andoceanicfeeling,6 andOrientalism,116 Ethiopia,192193,194,196,201,202,251 Etudesrobespierristes(Mathiez),275 Europe:decadenceof,223 declineof,154 economicmodernizationin,79 andEurocentrism,44,85,118,217 failureofrevolutionin,79,80,93,96,140,212 fascistascendancyin,139,160,231 andimperialism,162 interwarperiodin,79,143 andpanEuropeanism,154,156,217,219. SeealsoEuropeanculture Europe(periodical),120,138,179,206,257,286 foundingof,105 andNaziSovietPact,288289 refusestopublishTagore,119 Europeanculture:andcommunistintellectuals,237 andculturalcrisis,17 declineof,116,256 effectofWorldWarIon,39,42,51,64,7576,107 andfindesicleculture,33 andLenin,237238 andoceanicfeeling

Page366

Europeanculture(continued) 12 andpeople'stheater,25 andsocialrevolution,254255 andSovietUnion,255256

F
Fabre,Henri,106 Fascism,4,85,131,156,194 andantiintellectualism,241 andantiSovietism,160,165,196,198,201,203204,207,218 ascendancyof,139,236 Austrian,189 andcapitalism,137,171,187189,192,193,204,240241 andcollusionwithantiSovietleft,274 comparedtocommunism,148,152,153,206207,249250,286 Czechoslovakian,185 European,247 French,147,149,159,183,187,192,193,255 andheroworship,171,187 andimperialism,153,154,165,171,187,188,192,194,195,204 andintellectuals,181,182,184 Marxistanalysisof,171,175,188,204 asamassmovement,147 andmilitarism,150,193 andnationalism,187,188,193 nonviolentoppositionto,139,149,153,158,176,195202,224,258 originof,148,171 popularappealof,171,177,183 andracism,180181,186,192,195 Romanian,152 Spanish,191,247,260,281 andSpanishCivilWar,260262 Swiss,278 andviolence,153,171,217 SeealsoAntifascismGermanfascismItalianfascism Fellowtraveler,Rollandas,53,109,191 andL'Ameenchante,227228,230235 andantifascism,241,270271,278,285286 andantimilitarism,241 andAragonaffair,225 celebratedbySovietwriters,253 andcommunistintellectuals,169,237,239,253254,255,285 andCompagnonsderoute,254255,273 andcomparisonbetweencommunismandfascism,286 criticizedbyFrenchleftists,253254 denouncedbyTrotsky,254 andengagement,27,235,269,285,286 andGandhism,143,221 andhumanrightsappeals,274277 andMoscowpurgetrials,273,275276,284286 andNaziSovietPact,288290 andoceanicfeeling,284 andoppressivepracticesintheSovietUnion,213,217,240 andpacifism,241 andPopularFront,235,253,269,285 andshiftfromcriticaltouncriticalprocommunism,265266 andSpanishCivilWar,191 andStalinism,253254,269,271,273,278,284,351n.21 Feminism,164,234 Ferry,Jules,135 LeFeu(Barbusse),88,89,243 Feuerbach,Ludwig,239 Finland,288 Flaubert,Gustave,223 Forel,August,47 Fort,Paul,59 Forum(periodical),73 Foucault,Michel,3 France:anarchistsin,207208 andantifascism,192,195,196,200,201,203,280 antiSemitismin,183,187 communistsin,88,187,190,286,288289 culturalattitudesin,86,228,255 democratizationofculturein,22 DreyfusAffairin,1820,33,38,46,222,257 fascistpotentialin,142,149,159,183,187,192 Germanrelationswith,34,57,72,118,194,196199,201 imperialismof,113,155,157 andinterventioninSpain,259262,265,268,271,281 interwarpoliticsin,79 leftistschismsin,8081,106,203 Marxismintroducedin,109 andMunichAccords,280 nationalismin,38,79,86,183,187,192,193,295 Naziinvasionof,194,196201,204,280,292 pacifistsin,85,159,186,195202,256,258 recoveryof,fromWorldWarI,79 rightwingpoliticsin,79,115,149,159,183,186187,193,266 Sovietrelationswith,194,198,201,289 StaviskyAffairin,187 ThirdRepublicin,192,236,292 universitysystemof,1416,85 Vichygovernmentin,292294,295 France,Anatole,59,60,74,100,272 Franco,Francisco,260,261,262,281 Freiheit(periodical),73 FrenchAcademyofSciences,74 FrenchCommunistParty:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,159,168,169,334n.50,335n.56 andantifascism,268,271,282 andAssociationofRevolutionaryWritersandArtists,184 andBarbusse,89,96,109,242,263 Bolshevizationof,79,8081,253 anddebateonSoviet

Page367

Union,217 andengagement,301 andintellectuals,7980,242,267 leadershipof,96 andnationalunity,281282 politicaltacticsof,80,81,267268 andPopularFront,203,257,267,271 purgesin,80,106 Rolland'ssupportfor,267268,273 andschismwithinFrenchleft,80,81,106,262 andSpanishCivilWar,271. SeealsoL'Humanit FrenchRevolution:inL'Ameenchante,234 andantifascism,187 andcommunism,100,102103 contradictedbyfascism,149 andengagement,302 andFrenchintellectuals,2021,102103 andliberalidealism,59 musicof,24 andoceanicfeeling,138 andPopularFront,237,264 inLe14juillet,2224 inRobespierre,282284 andRussianRevolution,209210,286287 andStalinism,251252,282284,287 FrenchSocialistParty,2122,33,61,261 Freud,Sigmund,8,9,51 onoceanicfeeling,8,11 onreligion,1112,138 andRolland,89,11 Friedmann,Georges,277,279,289 Frontmondial(periodical),181 Frossard,L.O,225226 FutureofanIllusion(Freud),9

G
Gandhi,Mohandas,6,96,98,112 activitiesof,duringWorldWarI,132,141 antiindustrialismof,120,123,124,127 assassinationof,143 Autobiographyof,132 Britishpersecutionof,138,143 oncapitalism,133134 andcastesysteminIndia,124,138,141142 onclassstruggle,125,127,133134,329n105,330n122 oncommunism,127,134,328n76,330n122 contactsof,withSovietUnion,128129,328n82 andcorrespondencewithRolland,130131,132 idealizationof,116,119,130,144 imprisonmentof,121,124,131,327n59 IndianHomeRulewrittenby,120 influencedbyTolstoy,120,326n41 meetswithMussolini,135,136 meetswithRolland,133134,329n105 nationalismof,119,120 politicalactivityof,111,121122,124,138 repudiatesBolshevism,129130 asarevolutionary,127,128,138 Rolland'sbiographyof,112,120,122126,130,131,143 sexualpuritanismof,123 andsupportforBritishEmpire,132,141 visitsfascistItaly,133,134137 Gandhism,6,31,101,104,111 asalternativetoBolshevism,96,108,115,117,131,138140 inL'Ameenchante,173,176,234 andantifascism,153,158,180,195,197,255,340n55 andantiindustrialism,142 andantiwaractivity,167 andChristianity,120,122,132,143 andcivildisobedience,121122,124 andcommunism,126129,138139,143,176,237,246 anddepoliticization,142 andelitism,121,131 experimentalnatureof,125 andillegaltactics,121,126 andimperialism,113114,154155 andindividualism,9697,120,126,132,140,144 andinternationalism,154 andItalianfascism,135137 andliberalism,331n124 moralnatureof,121,122,126 andnationalism,142 andnoncooperation,121,123,127,130,139,142,143 petitbourgeoisnatureof,126,127128 aspoliticalstrategy,9697,98,107,108,121,140,141,161 andpsychoanalysis,331n124 relevanceof,toEurope,98,131,132,133,140144,161 religiousaspectof,97,120,126,128,139,142 Rolland'spopularizationof,111,115,117,131,139140 Rolland'sstudyof,119120 andSerge,245 andsocialism,139,142 andsocialrevolution,127,128,133,158,161,218,256 andsyndicalism,126,140 andviolence,123,125,191 Garaudy,Roger,279 Gentile,Giovanni,148 Germanfascism,189 andanticommunism,184,185186,280281 andantiintellectualism,179,181,182,184 andantiSemitism,180181,251,280281 andantiSovietism,251 ascendancyof,153,159,160,177 collusionof,withantiSovietleftists,274 andculture,243 defendedbyintellectuals,182 andFreikorps,58 andinvasionofCzechoslovakia,279281 andinvasionofFrance,194,196201,204,280,292 andinvasionofPoland,290 andinvasionofSovietUnion,160,196,198,201,204,294 andleftist

Page368

Germanfascism(continued) schisms,179180 militarycapabilityof,198,199,204 andMunichAccords,280 andmysticism,281 andNaziSovietPact,288290 pacifistresponseto,200201,280 refugeesfrom,197 andReichstagfire,168,169,178,183184 Rolland'sdenunciationof,178179,181182,200,271,290291 andSpanishCivilWar,260261 andviolence,281 Germania(periodical),73 Germany,72,117 anarchistsin,184 communistsin,168,179180,183 Frenchrelationswith,34,57,72,118 inJeanChristophe,34,37 leftistschismin,163,169,179180 andrepressionduringWeimarRepublic,5758 Spartacistuprisingin,57,189 SeealsoGermanfascism Gibarti,Louis,163,169 Gide,Andr,38,86,166,184,226,244 andantiStalinism,271 asfellowtraveler,255 andRolland,257,269271 Gide,Charles,74 Giono,Jean,280 Giornaled'Italia(newspaper),135 Giustiziaelibert(newspaper),189 Gladkov,Fedor,221 Gobineau,CountJosephArthurde,181 Goebbels,PaulJoseph,177,181 Goering,Hermann,177,184 Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,182,237,254255 Goncharov,Ivan,16 Gorky,Maxim,47,104,160,215,238,275,277 andBolshevism,56,206,222224 deathof,263 Rolland'smeetingwith,247248 Gramsci,Antonio,190191,234,338n38 Gran,Gerhard,47 GreatDepression,236 GreatWarSeeWorldWarI Guhenno,Jean,179,195,340n59 Guilbeaux,Henri,45,53,271 Guirinis(RussianeditorofLenin'sworks),238

H
Hardy,Thomas,60 Hartoch,Oscar,276,277 Hbert,Jacques,283 Hegel,GWF,225,230,239 Henry,Victor,53 Heroism,celebrationof:andfascism,171 inRolland'sworks,6,12,23,2729 Herr,Lucien,19,21 Hesse,Hermann,47,118,277,325n30 Hiller,Kurt,184 Hindenburg,Paulvon,177,179 Hinduism,118,121,137,142 Hitler,Adolf:andanticommunism,184 andantiSemitism,181,196 denouncedbyRolland,178,273,290 andimperialism,193 invasionplansof,194,196200,202,204,280 MeinKampfwrittenby,182,186,195,196,198 orationsby,inCzechoslovakia,185 risetopowerof,159,170,177 andSpanishCivilWar,260261 Holmes,JohnHaynes,153 Honegger,Arthur,263 Hugo,Victor,14,19,148,254,255 Humanism,4,87,106 andcommunism,227,279 communistantipathyto,100,106,221 andengagement,76,77,229,239 andindividualism,65 andintellectuals,178,227,243 and''intellectual'sinternational,''52 SeealsoSocialisthumanism Humanitarianism:andantifascism,153 andantinationalism,118 andantiwarthought,42,46 communistcritiqueof,90,91,98,106 andintellectuals,47,144 andSerge,244 L'Humanit(newspaper),106,126,217,269,271,280 andFrenchCommunistParty,80 praiseforRollandin,257 andRollandBarbussedebate,101,106 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"61,66

I
Ibsen,Henrik,28 Idealism,138,158,220,298,302 andCroce,73 andLenin,343n35 Marxistcritiqueof,239240 andpacifism,77 Imagination,100,103,110,138 Imperialism,92,95,99,116,156 American,153154,157 andantiimperialistaggression,112113 andantiSovietism,212,218219 British,116,118,124,126,155,156,157 andcapitalism,44,113,133,156,165 anddeclineofEuropeanempires,116 Dutch,157 andfascism,153,154,165,171,187,188,192193,194 French,113114,155,156,157

Page369

323nn5,10 German,156,160 Japanese,156,159,160,162 andLeninism,85,224 progressiveaspectof,154 IndependenceofthemindSeeIntellectuals,autonomyof India,165,221 Britishdominationof,96,120,124,135,138,155,156157 classstructureof,128 communistsin,126,128,129,157 andculturalexchangewithEurope,116118,119,140 Gandhi'sactivityin,111,121122,124,138,141,142,197 homerulein,124,125 Moslemsin,124 relationsof,withItaly,135 riotsin,122 Rolland'swritingson,117118 andsocialrevolution,126 IndianCongressParty,139,156 Individualism:inClrambault,84,85 andGandhism,9697,120,126,132,143 andidealism,177,240 andintellectuals,46,65,81,85,104,222,223 andinternationalism,53,104,105 andmassmovements,21,27,46,67,98,101,102,223 andoceanicfeeling,138 andpacifism,77,98 andresistancetostate,9697 ofRolland,21,61,81,106,107,194,205,221 andSoviethumanism,242 inSovietUnion,252 Indochina,114,155,156,234 IndustrialWorkersoftheWorld,106 Intellectuals:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,160,163,165,166167 andantiimperialism,160161 antiwar,4243,4748,115,160 Asian,105,323n10 classconscious,160,185,258 disengagementof,222 andDreyfusAffair,19,222 andelitism,225 andfascism,181,182,184 andGandhism,140,144 andimperialism,113,148 andindividualism,46,65,81,85,104,192,222,223 andinternationalism,76 isolationof,105,223 Italian,148 andLeninism,56 andmassmovements,46,6267,242 andmiddleclass,27 militarizationof,38,42,6265,115 andnationalism,38,43,4748,6278passim,87 andnonviolence,144 andOrientalism,117 politicizationof,107108,109,158,218,229 privilegeof,192 revolutionary,6667,102,103,206,270 rightwing,38,117 roleinsocietyof,107108,109,236,266 andSovietUnion,209,210211,253254,270 andviolence,82,91,92,94,104,226 andworkingclass,24 SeealsoIntellectuals,antifascistIntellectuals,autonomyofIntellectuals,communistIntellectuals,FrenchIntellectuals,pacifistIntellectuals,responsibilityof "Intellectual'sinternational"Workerintellectualalliance Intellectuals,antifascist:inL'Ameenchante,176 andantiSemitism,180 andcommunism,185,194 inFrance,192,195201,203 andFrenchResistance,295296 andGermanfascism,148,190191 andNaziSovietPact,290 andpacifism,195201 andPopularFront,203,204,236,258,279 andSovietUnion,209 andworkerintellectualalliance,188,204 Intellectuals,autonomyof:andantifascism,151,209 andantiwarstruggle,95,223 inClrambault,83 andcommunism,71,91,92,94,108,224 anddisengagement,222 inFrance,38 andGandhism,129,206207 and"intellectual'sinternational,"87 andmassmovements,46 andpacifism,224 andresistancetostate,4748 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"6164,6871,104 andsocialstruggles,95,223 Intellectuals,communist:andantifascism,190 dogmatismof,94,106 andengagement,108,242 andEuropeanculture,237 andfellowtraveling,169,237,239,253254,255 inFrance,7980,89,242243,263,267,279,288 andGorky,223 inSovietUnion,221,233,238 andworkerintellectualalliance,101,102 Intellectuals,French,35 inL'Ameenchante,228 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,166167 andantifascism,192,195201,203 andcommunism,7980,242243,263,267,279,288 andDreyfusAffair,19,222 andFrenchResistance,295296,353n10 andFrenchRevolution,2021 humanist,243 andintellectualautonomy,38 isolatedfromsocialstruggles,192,222 andItalianfascism,148 rightwing,38,192 andRollandBarbussedebate,79,90111 andRollandGidedebate,269271

Page370

Intellectuals,pacifist,85,91,115,217218 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,160 andantifascism,186,195201 inClrambault,53 andEuropeanscientists,7273,74 andinternationalism,53,218 andnegotiationswithHitler,280 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"7273,74,104105 andworkingclass,67 Intellectuals,responsibilityof:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,158 andantiwarstruggle,42 andcommunism,109,239,270 andmassmovements,46 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"6264,75 andsocialrevolution,9596 andsocialstruggles,222223,228 "Intellectual'sinternational,"38,39,5153,76,111 andantinationalism,38,52 andantiwarthought,38,47 attemptstoorganize,61 andBolshevism,56,59,87 andClart,6061 andclassstruggle,67 andelitism,52 andEurocentrism,52 "honorroll"of,47 andliberalism,59 andoceanicfeeling,39 andSocialistInternational,58 InternationalAntifascistCommittee,181 InternationalBrigades,260262,265,271,281 InternationalCongressofAntifascistWriters,262 Internationalism,6,47,61,88,101,108 andanticapitalism,87 andantifascism,149,180,183,200,202203 andantimilitarism,153 andantinationalism,180,183,189 inClrambault,84,85 consistentwithindividualism,53,104 anddecolonization,116 andGandhism,119,141,154 andintellectuals,76 martyrsof,67 andpacifism,53,76,88,201,217 andsocialism,67,91 andSovietUnion,241,248 andStalinism,287288 Wilsonian,85 SeealsoAntinationalismNationalism InternationalLeagueofWomenforPeaceandFreedom,164 InternationalWriters'CongressfortheDefenseofCulture,244 Istrati,Panat,214217,269 Italianfascism,147,149,171,189,190 inL'Ameenchante,171172,234 andantiSemitism,180 andcollusionwithantiSovietleft,274 andGandhi,133,134137 andinvasionofEthiopia,192193,194,196,201,203,251,255 andItalianculture,147 originof,148 refugeesfrom,149,150,151,172,190191,197 seizureofpowerby,147 andSpanishCivilWar,260261 SpecialTribunalsof,190191 SeealsoMussolini,Benito ItalianLaborConfederation,137 ItalianSocialistParty,137 Italy,39 communistsin,172,190191 Gandhi'svisitto,133,134137 intellectualsin,148,190 relationsof,withIndia,135 socialistsin,137 Tagore'svisitto,150151 SeealsoItalianfascism

J
Jacobinism,84,109,237,260,264 andstateterror,246,283 Japan,117,153,162 Jaurs,Jean,21,22,41,67,84,226,264 JeanChristophe(Rolland),89,147,309n.95 andantifascism,186 bannedbygovernmentinNaziGermany,185186 bannedbyVichygovernment,294 criticalreceptionof,37,86 cultofheroismin,36 FrenchGermanreconciliationin,34 importanceofmusicin,34,35 intellectualsasmaincharactersin,3436 andinternationalism,170 literarysuccessof,37 populismof,3637 publicationof,33,86 serializationof,32,33 Journaldupeuple(newspaper),90,104,106 Jouve,PierreJean,47,77,87

K
Kamenev,LevBorisovich,254,274 Kant,Immanuel,230 Katayama,Sen,160 Kirov,Sergei,244246,251252,254 KoelnischeZeitung(newspaper),181182 Koestler,Arthur,267 Korea,157 Koudachef,Marie,247,272,293,294 Koudachef,Serge,293 Kraus,Karl,73 Krupskaya,NadezhdaK.,238 Kuomintang,157

L
Labor,conceptof,209,211,241.SeealsoTradeunionsWorkingclass

Page371

Lalou,Ren,288 Langevin,Paul,152,160,339n.43 Laundauer,Gustav,67 Lazarevitch,N.,210211 LeagueofNations,52,5859,85,153,165 asdeterrenttowar,201 andItalianinvasionofEthiopia,192,194,203 LeagueoftheRightsofMan,201 Lefebvre,Raymond,59,61,8788,190,292 Legay,Klber,271 Lenin,V.I.:asBolshevikleader,5556,210 andCompagnonsderoute,254255 andEuropeanculture,237238 exiledinSwitzerland,45,46 comparedtoGandhi,127 andidealism,343n.35 ideologicalfreedomof,93 andimperialism,312n.17 andpacifism,312n.17 praisedbyRolland,205,237238,271 andrevolutionaryviolence,55,224,245 Leninism,111,224 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,159 andBonapartism,205 criticizedbyRolland,224,237 andFrenchCommunistParty,80 andGandhism,138139,140,176,180 andhegemony,205206 andimperialism,85 and"intellectual'sinternational,"87 andRollandBarbussedebate,91,99,108,109 andRussianRevolution,5556 andsocialrevolution,224 Lessing,Theodor,184 Levi,Primo,147 Liberalism,77,144 andantifascism,151,153,178,189,195,197,203 collapseof,59,229 andcommunism,100 andGorky,222,223 andpacifism,85 andMadeleineRolland,271 andRollandBarbussedebate,91,98 andSovietUnion,246 TheLiberator(periodical),70 LaLibert(periodical),135,149 LeLibertaire(periodical),104,207,208,210,211,331n.9 Libertarianism,4748,85,95,104,110 Liebknecht,Karl,57,67,81 Literaturnayagazeta(periodical),221 Littraturedelarvolutionmondiale(periodical),225 Litvinov,Maxim,251 Lukcs,Georg,306n.31 Lunacharsky,Anatole,53,208 Luxemburg,Rosa,4546,57,67

M
Machiavellianism,102,129,189,193,251 andantiSovietism,230 andNaziSovietPact,289 Malraux,Andr,112,184185,203,204,257 andPopularFront,236237,255 andSoviethumanism,242 Mann,Heinrich,72,160,179 Mann,Thomas,72,179 Marcel,Gabriel,297 Margueritte,Victor,160,280 Martinet,Marcel,47,87,99,102,106,253 Marx,Karl,21,66,101,102,187,237 citedbyRolland,225,239240,273,279 Marxism,4,21 inL'Ameenchante,230233 andanalysisoffascism,171,175 inClrambault,84 andcritiqueofidealism,239240 andeconomicmaterialism,225,231 endorsedbyRolland,238 limitsof,99101 andobjectionstoRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"7072 andoceanicfeeling,241 in"Panorama,"239240,345n.6 andRollandBarbussedebate,104,108 scientificvalidityof,71,93,249. SeealsoClassconsciousnessandclassstruggleCommunismIntellectuals,communistLeninismStalinism Massis,Henri,117,118,325n.29 Massmovements:andfascism,147 andGandhism,126 andidealism,240 andindividualism,21,27,46,67,98,101,102,223 andintellectuals,46,6267,242 andsocialchange,46,92,96 MassonOursel,Paul,325n.29 Materialism,31,99,100101,205,220 economic,225 andLenin,343n.35 andSovietreconstruction,233 Mathematics,92,97 Mathiez,Albert,102103,275 LeMatin(newspaper),130 Matteotti,Giacomo,136,148,150,183 Maurras,Charles,38,226 MeinKampf(Hitler),182,186,195,196,198 Mesnil,Jacques,53,245 Michelet,Jules,20,25,187,234,237 Michon,Georges,196,197 Miglioli,Guido,210,213 Milhaud,Darius,263 Militarism,92,156,210 andantiSovietism,219 British,210 andfas

Page372

Militarism(continued) cism,150,193 French,38,183 andintellectuals,41,51,63 andnationalism,225 Misredelaposie(Breton),226 Molire,255,272 Montaigne,Michel,71,302 Montessori,Maria,135 Monteverdi,Claudio,15 Morel,E.D.,47,61,65,91,104 Morocco,113,165 Moussinac,Lon,279 Mhsam,Erich,184 MunichAccords,280281 Mnzenberg,Willi,158,160,163,168,169 Mussolini,Benito,190,191 andanticommunism,152 andBonapartism,148 depictedinL'Ameenchante,171172 andGandhi,135137 honoredbyNietzscheGesellschaft,183 andinvasionofEthiopia,192193,194,201,255 andItalianrefugees,149,151 andMarchonRome,147 meetswithTagore,150 risetopowerof,170 andSpanishCivilWar,260261 comparedtoStalin,249250. SeealsoItalianfascism Mysticism,6,17,33,64,77 inL'Ameenchante,227 anddepoliticization,142 andGermanfascism,281 Hindu,137138,142

N
Nag,Kalidas,120 NapoleonBonaparte,107,148,205,283 NationalCommitteeofStruggleAgainstWarandFascism,202 Nationalism,99 andantifascism,281 andantiSemitism,180181 andantiSovietism,219 andcontrolofmedia,219 andcreativefreedom,223 andfascism,150,187,193 French,38,79,86,117118,192 andGandhi,119,120,142 andGermanfascism,180181 andimperialism,112,155,225 andintellectuals,38,43,4748,6278passim,87 andmilitarism,225 andpanEuropeanism,218. SeealsoAntinationalismInternationalism Nationalliberationmovements,112114 inIndia,119,141 andnonviolence,96,142 NaziParty.SeeGermanfascism NaziSovietPact,170,288290 Nearing,Scott,213 Nehru,Jawaharlal,139 Nicaragua,165 Nicolai,GeorgF.,47,7273,91 Nietzsche,Friedrich,3,29,35,51,182 andfascism,183 Nizan,Paul,279 NobelPrize,74,118,211 awardedtoRolland,44 Nonviolence,111,115,119,143 aggressivediscourseof,123,142 andantifascism,139,149,153,170,176,195202 andantiimperialism,113,129,167 andantimilitarism,168 andcivildisobedience,121122 andcommunism,128,138,159 andindividualism,9697 andinternationalism,141 limitednatureof,142,170 aspoliticalstrategy,9697,98,123125,127,133,139 psychologicalcritiqueof,142143 andreligiousbeliefs,133 andsocialrevolution,133,143,144,161,162. SeealsoGandhismIntellectuals,pacifistPacifism NouvelleRevuefranaise,86,105,206,269

O
"Oceanic"sensibility,Rolland's,6,39,7778,299,301 andantifascism,266 andantiwarthought,41,47 andFreud,912,138,330n.116 andGandhism,116 andHinduism,137138 andrefusaltocondemnMoscowtrials,273274 andsocialisthumanism,240 andworkerintellectualalliance,22,223,229,284 L'Ordinenuovo(newspaper),190 Orientalism,11518,325n.23 Ossietzsky,Karl,184

P
Pacifism,6,111,324n.13 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,161,166 andanticapitalism,201202 andanticommunism,199,200,202,245246,274 andantifascism,159,193203,224,255,340n.55,352n.36 andantiimperialism,153,154,156,159,160 andantimilitarism,168 andantinationalism,85 andantiwarstruggle,159 Christian,115 andcivildisobedience,141 andClart,59,88 andclassstruggle,162,201,202 in

Page373

Clrambault,8385,94 andcommunism,71,108,143,155,159160 inEngland,61,65 inFrance,85,159,186,195,256,258 futilityof,166,196,200 andGandhism,116,125,132,140,141,143 andidealism,77 andindividualism,77,98 andintellectualautonomy,224 andinternationalism,53,76,88,201,218 andPopularFront,160,201,256,258 religious,85,141 andMarieRomainRolland,271 RollandasEuropeanleaderof,114115 andsocialism,67 andsocialrevolution,98,143,161,199,203,224,227228 andsocioeconomiccauseofwar,162 inSovietUnion,107 Tolstoyan,31,115 andworkingclass,67,161162. SeealsoAntiwarstruggleGandhismIntellectuals,pacifistNonviolence Paixetlibert(periodical),202 Papen,Franzvon,177 Papini,Giovanni,39 ParisCommune,173,187 PartitoSocialistaUnitario,148 PaulBoncour,Joseph,115,226 Paz,Magdeleine,244,274 Pguy,Charles,38,234,297 andpublicationofCahiersdelaQuinzaine,22,24,3233 Rolland'sbiographyof,33,294 People'stheater,1718,2227,37,195,306n.29 andPopularFront,257258,263264 Ptain,Henri,292 Philippines,157 Picasso,Pablo,263 Pioch,Georges,199 Platonism,218,252 Poincar,Raymond,79,105 Poland,171 Politicalart,17,170 andintellectuals,185,206 andoceanicfeeling,22 andPopularFront,265 Popularculture:andintellectuals,27,52,185 andmiddleclassinstitutions,25,26 andPopularFront,236,258,265,349n.67 andworkingclass,2427. SeealsoPeople'stheater PopularFront,6,79,160,176,194 andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,158,159,162,169,181,187 andantifascism,195,197,201,203,204,236,241,255,258261,264,266 andculturalrevolution,266 andfellowtraveling,235,253 andFrenchCommunistParty,169,203,257,267,271 andFrenchgovernment,258,259,261 andFrenchRevolution,237,264 andintellectuals,203,204,236,258,279 andMoscowpurgetrials,277 andpacifism,160,201,256,258 andpeople'stheater,257258,263264 andpopularculture,236,258,265,349n.67 Rollandasculturalsymbolof,257,263264,268 andSpanishCivilWar,259262,264,265,279 andStalinism,266,269,287 andsupportforSovietUnion,256,257,274 andVichygovernment,292 andviolence,264 andworkerintellectualalliance,258,265 andworkingclass,237,265 Populism,2224,26,84,87,287288 Pottecher,Maurice,18 Pozner,Vladimir,253 Pravda(newspaper),208 ThePrelude(Wordsworth),103 Prvost,Jean,38 Prezzolini,Giuseppe,38 Propaganda,42,64,82,121,165 antifascist,152,169,170,278 antiSoviet,219,245246 communist,240 fascist,188189 andnonviolence,124,126

R
Racine,Jean,255 RAcism,38,41,64,223 andfascism,180181,186,192,195,196 Radek,Karl,238,274 Radine,Serge,220 Ramzin,L.K.,220 Rassegnainternazionale(periodical),90 Realism,91,98,102,110 Reed,John,47 Reformism,45,58,91,97,142,225 Regards(periodical),245,257 Relgis,Eugne,217218 Religion:andantiSovietism,219 andcreativefreedom,223 Eastern,137138 erodedbywar,82 andGandhism,120 andRolland,6,9,12,16,47,71,97,131 inSovietUnion,250 Renan,Ernest,254 Revolution.SeeSocialrevolution RevolutionandCulture(periodical),208 Revueanarchiste(periodical),104 Revueeuropenne(periodical),119

Page374

Riazanov,D.B.,253 Richet,Charles,74 Rilke,RainerMaria,13,39 Riou,Gaston,219 Rivet,Paul,339n.43 Robespierre,Maximilien,102103,246 Mathiez'swritingson,192,275 Rolland'swritingson,282284 Rolland,Madeleine,14,119,166,272 Rolland,MarieRomain.SeeKoudachef,Marie Rolland,Romain,lifeof:adolescence,16 antifascistactivism,185,204 antiwaractivism,4048,51,60 biographiesabout,8687 birth,12 breakwithCatholicism,16 breakwithGandhism,204 childhood,1214 conversiontoGandhism,123124,140 death,290,296 debateoverburialplace,297 divorcefromClotildeBral,18,22,29 domesticlife,13 atEcoleNormaleSuprieure,1415,16 electedtoRussianAcademyofSciences,237 father,27 GoethePrizerejected,179 GrandPrixdeLittraturewonby,37 historicaltraining,1415 illnessduringAmsterdamPleyelCongress,164 incomeasfreelancewriter,86 isolation,personalandliterary,33,44,85,86,105,153 lastpublicappearance,296 marriagetoClotildeBral,18 marriagetoMarieKoudachef,271 mother,14,16,27 NobelPrize,receiptof,44 oldage,292294 parents,13,14,16,27 Paris,childhoodrelocationto,14 personalcontactwithGandhi,130131,133 politicization,44,158,170,194,204 resignationfromClart,88 resignationfromNietzscheGesellschaft,183 returntoFrancefromSwitzerland,278 Rome,twoyearfellowshipin,39 schooling,14 senseofheroism,2729,119,233,253 seventiethbirthdaycelebration,256257,347348n.50 sister,14,119,166 success,literary,2829,37,8586,278 Switzerland,residencein,13,39,53,105,117,177,278 teachingcareer,1516,37 travelsinSovietUnion,244,245,247249 treason,accusedof,4344,117 Vichysurveillanceof,294 Rolland,Romain,worksof:AbovetheBattle,3944,71,246 AnnetteetSylvie,105 L'Annonciatrice,170,227 Beethoven,2830,120,137,293 "CalltoYouth,"183 Clrambault,8285,87,91,93,94,108 ColasBreugnon,86 Commentempcherlaguerre?195,256257,268,280 Compagnonsderoute,254255,273 Danton,23,306n.29 "DeclarationtotheWorldCongress,"164165 anddialecticalformula,7,8788,190,299,300,302 diary,5,16,296,310n.6 "TheDutyofIntellectualsAgainstWar,"115 EssayonMysticismandActioninLivingIndia:TheLifeofRamakrishna,137 "FortheDefenseofPeace,"199 "FortheIndivisiblePeace,"195196 TheFreeSpirit,185 Gandhi,biographyof,112,120,122126,130,131,143,327n.64 GoetheetBeethoven,137 "GoodbyetothePast,"224 Gramsci,brochureindefenseof,190191 "GreetingtotheSpanishRevolution,"191 Handel,28 LeJeudel'amouretdelamort,306n.29 LesLonides,214,306n.29 Liebknecht,unfinishedbiographyof,81 LifeofVivekanandaandtheUniversalGospel,137 Liluli,70,82,225 LesLoups,20,23,306n.29 manifestos,5,24,39,6175 Memoirs,293,296 Millet,28 "MissionofFranceintheWorld,"279 MonsieurleComte,326n.41 musicalstudies,5,15,24 "NecessityofRevolution,"286287 openletteronGermanfascism,181182 "Panorama,"239 Pquesfleuries,306n.29 "Parlarvolution,lapaix,"193,252 Pguy,biographyof,294 ThePeople'sTheater,24,32,307n.29 PierreandLuce,82 LesPrcurseurs,6667,73,88 Le14juillet,2224,263,306n.29 QuinzeAnsdecombat,239,252 Ramakrishna,biographyof,137 Robespierre,282284,306n.29 "ASojournatGorky's,"247248 TheateroftheRevolution,17,21,306n.29 TragediesofFaith,17 translationsof,33,61,86,125,278 LeTriomphedelaraison,306n.29 ViedeBeethoven,2830 ViedeMichelAnge,28 ViedeTolsto,28,30. SeealsoL'Ameenchante"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind"JeanChristophe RollandBarbussedebate,72,79,87,105,126,322n.107 inL'Artlibre,90,101,103,104,107 inClart,101,103

Page375

108 andcommunism,99101,109 andculturalhegemony,110 andFrenchRevolution,102103 andGandhism,9697,98,107,108,111,126127,328n.76 andintellectualautonomy,91,92,9596,98,108 intellectuals'responseto,102105,107 andoppressioninSovietUnion,9293,94,99 andpacifism,91,94,98,107 andrevolutionaryviolence,90,9295,98 androleofintellectual,8991,109 andRussianRevolution,102103 andscientificsocialism,9192,97 andsocialrevolution,92,96,98 andStalinism,108 andTrotsky,106107 andworkingclass,96,102,108 Rosmer,Alfred,53 Rosselli,Carlo,189,190 Rostand,Edmond,17,59 Rosyn,J.H.,59 Roth,Lucien,259 Roy,DilipKumar,119 Roy,M.N.,126,128 Rubakin,Nicholas,53 Russell,Bertrand,47,100,104,153,160,197 andRolland's"DeclarationofIndependenceoftheMind,"7475 RussianRevolution,53,95,166 andantifascism,203 comparedtoFrenchRevolution,209210 andGandhi,143 impactof,onFrenchcommunists,80,233 andintellectuals,90,102,206 andliberalism,246 moralnatureof,110 oppressiveaspectsof,54,5556,94,98,100,207212 Rolland'sreappraisalof,224,253 andSerge,245 andsocialisthumanism,240 asworldhistoricevent,5455,65,110,207209,224 Rykov,A.I.,277

S
LeSacrificed'Abraham(Lefebvre),8788,292 Sadoul,Georges,273 Salvemini,Gaetano,39,151 Sartre,JeanPaul,3,79,298 Schumann,Maurice,297 Schumuckle,Karl,277 Science,40,91,97 andcommunism,92,93,99 Gandhi'sdistrustof,120,123 andMarxism,71,93 andreligion,138 SearchforaMethod(Sartre),79 SecoursRougeInternational,190 Seldte,Franz,273 Selvinsky,Ilya,221 LeSemeur(periodical),245 Serge,Victor,216,253,269,271,274 Sovietpersecutionof,244245 Shakespeare,William,14,237,254 Shaw,GeorgeBernard,47,6870,160 Siddhartha(Hesse),118 Sinclair,Upton,60,160 Slade,Madeleine,130131 SocialDemocraticParty(German),5758,180,184 Socialism:andAmsterdamPleyelmovement,161,162164,166 andantifascism,160 andantiSovietism,274 andClart,91 and"embourgeoisement,"164 evolutionary,96,189 excludedfromEuropeangovernments,79 French,81,187,203 andGandhism,139 inIndia,139 andintellectuals,263 andinternationalism,67,91 Italian,148,172 martyrsof,67 andoceanicfeeling,12,22 andopportunism,166,170 andpacifism,67,76 andreformism,225 scientific,91,92 "sentimental,"53 Spanish,271 andSurrealism,225227 andviolence,90,92 Socialisthumanism,55,67,144,266 inL'Ameenchante,229 andMarx,239240 andSovietUnion,217,221222,241242 andStalinism,284 SocialistInternational,41,52,58,163,166 Socialrevolution,46,53,91,190 inL'Ameenchante,234 andantifascism,160,170,193,199,200,202,204 andantiimperialism,156 anddespotism,94 andEuropeanculture,254255 failureinEuropeof,79,80,212 andGandhism,125,138,144,158,218,256 historyof,100 andintellectualautonomy,67 andintellectuals,6667,102,103,206 andLenin,238 andLeninism,224 inLesLonides,214 martyrsof,67 moralnatureof,31,33,104,106107 in"NecessityofRevolution,"286287 andnonviolence,98,133,144,168 andpacifism,143,161,199,203,224,227228 inRobespierre,282284 SolidaritFranaise,187 Sorbonne,15,37 SouthAfrica,111,120,142

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SovietUnion,92,95,117,168,192 andantifascism,160,165,175,191204passim,209,221222,231,248,251,266,285 andantiimperialism,221,225,231,251 antiintellectualismin,65,95,100,209 andantiracism,251 andantiSovietconspiracy,274275 artandcultureof,66,206,217,223224,241,243244,248 Britishrelationswith,175,289 collectivepsychosisin,249 democracyin,209,241,247 emigrsfrom,211212,219 andEuropeanculture,255256 fascistinvasionof,160,165,196,198,203,204,207,218,250251,294 Frenchrelationswith,175,194,201,289 andintellectuals,209,210211,253254,270 andinternationalism,241,248 andinvasionofFinland,288 andItalianinvasionofEthiopia,251 andleadershipofEuropeanleft,8081,92,133 andliberalism,246,247 nationalismin,241 andNaziSovietPact,288290 overturestoGandhiby,128129,328n.82 pacifistsin,107 andPopularFront,256,257,264 andRollandGidedebate,269271 Rolland'ssupportfor,6,66,245246,250252,269270,274,285286 socialadvancesin,207,212213,217,220221,233,249251,270 associalexperiment,192,207,217,240,246,252,270 andsocialisthumanism,241,242 andSovietConstitution,247 andSpanishCivilWar,262,265,266 threatenedbybourgeoisdemocraticstates,55,66,92,95,207,212,218219 andworkerintellectualalliance,222,241,252. SeealsoRussianRevolutionSovietUnion,oppressionin SovietUnion,oppressionin,9293,104,212,220 andantiintellectualism,6566,95,100,209 andantiSemitism,250 andBolshevikleadership,5556 andeducation,323n.114 andEuropeanultraleftists,216217 comparedtofascism,206,209 andfellowtraveling,213,217,286 andFrenchleft,206,253254 comparedtoFrenchRevolution,246,275,282284 andKirovassassination,246 inLesLonides,214 andMoscowpurgetrials,274277,282286 andpacifism,107 andpersecutionofSerge,216,244245,253 andreligion,250,251 andRolland'sappealsforhumanrights,275278 andSovietculture,248 andStalinism,271272,275,277278,282284,287 andtrialofSocialRevolutionaries,99,104,106,207208 SpanishCivilWar,203 anarchistsin,351n.20 andantifascism,191192,260263,265,269271,274,285 andfascism,260262 Frenchnoninterventionin,259262,265,268,281 andL'Humanit,271 andInternationalBrigades,260,261,262,265,271,281 andPopularFront,259262,264,265,279 andSovietaid,262,265,266,268,271 Trotskyistsin,351n.20 SpartacistuprisinginGermany,57,189 Spinoza,Benedictde,38,51,132 Stalin,Joseph,99,210,238,241242,351n.21 andantiSovietism,247 andcultofleadership,224,277278 andKirovassassination,251252 meetswithRolland,244,248,270 comparedtoMussolini,249250 andPopularFront,236 Rolland'shumanrightsappealsto,273,275,277 andSergeaffair,244245 onwriters,241 Staline(Barbusse),243 Stalinism,108,217,240,241242,244 andFrenchleft,253,269 andMoscowpurgetrials,275278,282285,287 andRobespierre,282285 andRolland'sfellowtraveling,253254,269,271272,273,278,284,351n.21 andsocialisthumanism,284 SunYatSen,Madame,160 Surrealism,166,225227,244,335n.58 Syndicalism,45,46,161,204 French,21,44 andGandhism,126,140,161 andSerge,244 Syria,113

T
Tagore,Rabindranath,118119,123,127,150151 Technology:andcapitalistindustry,99 Gandhi'soppositionto,120 andwar,40,82 Thaelmann,Ernst,184,271 Tharaud,Jrme,297 ThirdInternational.SeeCommunistInternational Thorez,Maurice,159,268,275,276,281282,334n.50

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Tolstoy,Leo,16,135,237,254,326n.41 correspondencewithRolland,3032 influenceonGandhi,120 Lenin'sstudyof,238 Torgler,Ernst,183,184 Tradeunions,106,156,162,166 andantifascism,203 andfascism,172 andFrenchcommunism,80 andpopularculture,25 TreasonoftheIntellectuals(Benda),218,343n.30 Trotsky,Leon,80,210 asBolshevikleader,55 andMoscowpurgetrials,274,283 andRollandBarbussedebate,106107 andStalinism,253254 Trotskyism,166,215,216217,244,274,351n.20 Turati,Filippo,149 Turgenev,Ivan,16,238 Turgot,AnneRobert,287

U
Unamuno,Miguelde,153 UnionofDemocraticControl,61 UnitedStates,106,165,236 Utopianism,109110

V
VaillantCouturier,Paul,59,61,184,279 Valry,Paul,117 vanderLubbe,Marius,183 vandeVelde,Henry,104 vanEeden,Frederick,104 Vatican,135 Vendredi(periodical),195,199,257,259,269 Verhaeren,Emile,39 Verne,Jules,14 VersaillesPeaceTreaty,61,77,114,182 andAmsterdamPlevelCongress,165,166 ascontributingtoworldwar,58,113 LaVieouvrire(periodical),45,207 Vietnam,114 Vigilance(antifascistorganization),192 Vigilance(periodical),339n.43 Vildrac,Charles,104 Violence,83,91,95,100,116 andantifascism,173,175176,180,189190 andantiimperialism,112114,117 andAragonaffair,226227 communist,153,240,242,245 experienceof,9394 fascist,153,171,217,281 andFrenchRevolution,283 andGandhism,123,125,191 andPopularFront,264 andpropaganda,42 andsocialrevolution,83,90,92,94,96,98,103,106107,108,224 Viollis,Andre,195 LaVoce(periodical),3839,150 Voltaire,96,188,272,273 Vorwarts(periodical),73

W
Wagner,Richard,14,17,290 Walach,Elie,294295 War,causesof,44,67,85,91,162 WeimarRepublic,57,118,177,183 Wells,H.G.,39,47,153,160 WhatIsLiterature?(Sartre),3,298 WilliamofOrange,302 Wilson,Woodrow,5859,85,140,313nn.28,30 Wordsworth,William,103 Workerintellectualalliance:inL'Ameenchante,232,235 andantifascism,176,187189,194,203,229 andbourgeoisdemocracy,256 andclassstruggle,101,102,218 andFrenchintellectuals,228,279 andoceanicfeeling,223,229 andPopularFront,258,265 inSovietUnion,222,241,252 Workingclass:andantifascism,176,188,191,192,203,204,265 andantiimperialism,156,157,160,161 antiintellectualismof,84 andantimilitarism,165 andantiwaractivity,166 andEuropeandemocracy,256 andoceanicfeeling,22 andpacifism,67,161162 politicizationof,133 andpopularculture,2427 andPopularFront,237,265 separationfromintellectuals,24 socialistrepressionof,58 WorldCongressAgainstWar.SeeAmsterdamPleyelmovement WorldCommitteeAgainstWarandFascism,194,236,258 WorldWarI,4,6,96,120,194 andEuropeanculture,39,42,51,64,7576,107 andimperialism,112113 modernityof,42 originsoffascismin,147,148,189 andpacifism,200 andpropaganda,42 roleofintellectualsin,6364,82,8384,104,107 Rolland'soppositionto,3948,51,83

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Y
Yagoda,G.G.,244,277 YoungIndia(periodical),119,121,129,132 Yugoslavia,171

Z
Zangwill,Israel,47 Zeldin,Theodore,3 Zinoviev,G.E.,210,254,274 Zionism,251 Zola,Emile,4,46,297 Zweig,Stefan,39,60,87,104,293 Compositor: HuronValleyGraphics Printer: Binder: Text: Display:

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