School of Engineering and Design

Lecture 13: Boundary Layer Transition

Aim To describe the phenomenon of boundary layer transition Objectives Sketch boundary layer development for a flat plate Define critical distance and critical Reynolds number for transition Describe factors affecting transition from laminar to turbulent flow Introduce Prandtls small disturbance theory

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

School of Engineering and Design

Boundary layer transition

The process by which a boundary layer changes from being laminar to being turbulent Transition first discovered by Osborne Reynolds in 1883 during experiments of pipe flow (note: origination of Reynolds number, Re)
Dye filament Laminar flow

Turbulent flow Reynolds experiment on pipe flow

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

The original tank today (University of Manchester)

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Boundary layer development on a flat plate

The flow over a flat plate can be defined into three distinct regions:
2. Transition Intermittent burst of turbulence
U U
Increased growth rate Transition region

1. Laminar Low frequency, small fluctuations

3. Turbulent High frequency, large fluctuations

laminar x0.5
x
Laminar Critical distance, xcr Transition point Turbulent

turbulent x0.8

The process of transition occurs within a finite streamwise length. For simplicity, it is assumed to occur abruptly at a critical distance, xcr from the leading edge
ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Critical Reynolds number

The value of x (from the leading edge) where transition is said to take place is the critical distance xcr. In turn, xcr allows the definition of a critical Reynolds number for transition as:
Re xcr =

U xcr

The prediction of transition is still difficult and depends on the use of empirical (experimental) observations From empirical relations for flows over flat plates and aerofoils, it can be assumed that Rexcr = 5105

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

School of Engineering and Design

Application of boundary layer transition

Example 1. An aerofoil is placed in a flow at a free stream velocity of 150m/s. Assuming that conditions of the airflow correspond to standard sea-level, determine the critical distance from the leading edge of the aerofoil. What happens to the critical distance as the free stream velocity is doubled?

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Example 1 solution
Re xcr

U x = cr

Hence:

xcr =

Re xcr

For standard sea-level conditions, = 1.8010-5 kg/ms and = 1.225kg/m3

(5 10 5 )(1.80 10 5 ) xcr = = 0.049m (1.225)(150)

If U is doubled to 300m/s for the same Rexcr the laminar flow region is halved, as the transition point moves forward to xcr = 2.45cm.

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Transition and the Reynolds number

Why is transition inevitable as Re becomes large?
2 U x U inertia force per unit area Re = = U viscous force per unit area

As Re increases, the viscous force becomes less compared to the inertia force and hence the ability of the flow to resist disturbances reduces This also satisfies the natural law that a system will eventually become disordered under external disturbances unless work is done to maintain order Most flows in nature are turbulent Low Reynolds number <Rexcr
Small velocity disturbances decay Boundary layer is stable Laminar flow

High Reynolds number >Rexcr

Small velocity disturbances are amplified Boundary layer is unstable Turbulent flow

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Factors affecting boundary layer transition

Increased surface roughness generates flow disturbances near the surface which encourage boundary layer transition, e.g. dimples on a golf ball, dead flies on the leading edge of a wing.

Surface roughness

FreeFree-stream turbulence

Increased free-stream turbulence promotes boundary layer transition. Mainly a problem in wind tunnel testing, where free-stream turbulence is often higher than in the free-flight case.

Pressure gradient

A favourable pressure gradient (pressure decreasing with distance) tends to damp out disturbances and hence prolong laminar flow. An adverse pressure gradient has the opposite effect.

Surface heating

Surface heating amplifies disturbances in the flow and hence promotes transition

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Transition in boundary layers

In aircraft engine gas turbines and compressors, the freestream turbulence intensity is high (3-15%), therefore transition occurs at a much lower Reynolds number

For aircraft flying at cruise conditions, the atmospheric turbulence intensity is low (less than 1%), therefore transition occurs at much higher Reynolds number. However, icing and dirt build-up at the leading edge of a wing can trigger transition

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Prandtls small disturbance theory

The process of transition proceeds through a series of stages: 1. Receptivity The first stage is the conversion of external disturbances (such as free-stream turbulence or surface roughness) into internal instability oscillations in the boundary layer 2. Linear stage The second stage consists of the growth of low-amplitude 2D waves called tollmientollmienwaves. schlichting waves This region extends to 80% of the total transition region Non3. Non-linear stage The disturbances become increasingly 3D and develop very rapidly to form turbulent flow
ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Transition in a flat plate boundary layer

Experiment

Simulation

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Consequence of transition
Skin friction coefficient is much higher in turbulent boundary layers
cf
Turbulent

Laminar

Location of onset of transition

Significant increase in skin friction coefficient and heat transfer across the transition region It is advantageous to keep the flow laminar in order to reduce skin friction drag

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Case study: laminar flow aerofoil

The skin friction on slender shapes such as wing aerofoils can be reduced by designing the shape in such a manner to encourage laminar flow The standard aerofoil design has its maximum thickness near the leading edge The pressure distribution for the standard aerofoil shows that the point of minimum pressure occurs near the leading edge, with a long stretch of increasing pressure from this point to the trailing edge Hence the standard aerofoil has large regions of turbulent flow (transition is encouraged by adverse pressure gradients increasing pressure with distance)

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Case study: laminar flow aerofoil

The laminar aerofoil design has its maximum thickness near the middle of the aerofoil The pressure distribution for the laminar aerofoil shows that the point of minimum pressure occurs near the trailing edge, with a long stretch of decreasing pressure from the leading edge to the point of minimum pressure Laminar boundary layers are encouraged by decreasing pressure distributions, hence the laminar aerofoil has long regions of laminar flow benefiting from reduced skin friction drag

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Case study: laminar flow aerofoil

The North American P-51 Mustang was the first aeroplane to incorporate a laminar flow aerofoil for the wing section Future civil transport aircraft may utilise very low-sweep wings to promote laminar flow; conventional swept wings encourage crossflow and TollmienSchlichting wavesdominated transition

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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Summary
Boundary layer transition is the process by which a boundary layer changes from being laminar to being turbulent Critical Reynolds number:
Re xcr =

U xcr

Where Rexcr = 5105 for flows over flat plates and aerofoils

Transition can be encouraged by increases in surface roughness, free-stream turbulence, streamwise pressure (i.e. an adverse pressure gradient) and surface heating The process of transition begins with an initial external disturbance, which propagates in the form of low-amplitude 2D Tollmien-Schlichting waves before becoming 3D, fully developed turbulent flow

ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13

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ME2605 Aerodynamics Lecture 13