There are a number of steps in building a pipeline. 1. Surveying and clearing the right-of-way.

The right-of-way is a narrow strip of land that contains the pipeline(s) and is where all onsite construction activities occur. It is surveyed, cleared of brush and trees, and levelled to give workers and equipment access to build, inspect and maintain the pipeline.

2. Right-of-way preparation. The right-of-way will be graded, and ice and snow or gravel pads will be built to allow for the movement of ditchers, additional equipment, materials and other pipeline construction activities. 3. Hauling and stringing the pipe. Lengths of pipe are moved from stockpile sites to the right-of-way. They are lined up along the right-ofway, ready for welding.

4. Bending the pipe. A pipeline must cross over hills and curve around special places such as lakes and sacred sites. To accomplish this, a specialized pipe-bending machine is used to bend some pipe to the shape of the land. The pipe retains its strength and remains circular where it is bent because of the characteristics of steel and the bending techniques used.

5. Welding. Welding is a technique where another metal is melted and used to join lengths of pipe. The area of the weld where the two pipes are joined is actually stronger than the pipe, by design. This step is repeated a number of times until multiple pipe sections are joined to form a pipeline. Automatic welding machines are used where possible and some hand welding also takes place. A rigorous quality assurance and quality control program is followed to ensure the strength and quality of the welding.

6. Digging the trench. A trench, or ditch, must be dug to allow the pipe to bury the pipe. The way the trench is dug, and what equipment is used, depends mainly on the type of soil. Alternates include bucket wheel trenchers, like those used for the Norman Wells pipeline, and chain trenchers, like those used for the Ikhil pipeline. Other digging equipment will include backhoes.

7. Lowering the pipe. Tractors with special arms called sidebooms are used to lower the pipe into the trench. Care is taken to avoid damaging the pipe and its exterior coating.

8. Installing valves and special fittings. Valves and other connections are part of a pipeline. These assemblies are installed as the pipeline is constructed. They include shut-off valves that can block off sections of the pipeline for maintenance.

9. Crossings. A pipeline will need to cross rivers and streams, roads and other pipelines. Plans are developed in advance. Water crossings can be completed either by "open cut" techniques or by horizontal directional drilling. The selection of a crossing method depends upon site specific criteria such as fish habitat, water flow, and soil conditions such as rocks and boulders. Generally, horizontal directional drilling is selected for major river crossings where local soil conditions permit the technique. 10. Backfilling the trench. Before testing the pipeline, the ditch is backfilled. Sometimes the excavated soil is used to fill the trench and sometimes other selected backfill is used. Care is taken to protect the pipe coating from potential damage.

11. Testing. A variety of methods will be used to ensure the integrity of the assembled pipeline and to comply with code.

12. Cleaning up. The pipeline right-of-way and temporary facilites such as camps will be reclaimed.

Pipeline construction companies handling the heat in desert terrain

By Stephanie Clancy

Pipelines International June 2010

Constructing pipelines through desert terrain gives rise to a range of logistical challenges.Here, companies experienced in desert environments explain the challenges and how these are overcome.
Working in desert areas poses a number of challenges to pipeline construction companies. These include access to the construction site, specialised equipment, constructing through sand dunes, dealing with sandstorms, and ensuring the safety and health of workers in the heat. Getting traction in sand

In order to transport equipment, pipes and workers to and from the construction site, temporary access and service roads often need to be installed along the pipeline route. Athens-based Consolidated Contractors Company (CCC) Senior Projects Co-ordinator Sami Fidawi says that sourcing harder earth material for roads can often be difficult due to the availability and specifications of the material, and the distance required for its transportation to site. Often, two tractors are utilised to haul heavy trucks and equipment over sand dunes.
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When accessing the site, it is important for workers to be aware of the dangers of driving in the desert. Sandstorms can occur, reducing visibility and increasing the chance of a collision. Sandstorms can also make the pipeline right-of-way (ROW) inaccessible for many vehicles, especially trailers. McConnell Dowell Australia General Manager Pipelines Mark Twycross says There needs to be awareness of two-way traffic with adequate signage and calling on two-way radio protocols to ensure that there are no collisions. Mr Fidawi says that another hazard in desert terrain occurs in areas with a high water table. In such areas it is better to elevate the RoW, if suitable earth materials are available, to avoid equipment becoming stuck which necessitates towing, with high risk of equipment damage and lost time. Indian construction company Punj Lloyd says that it designates transport safety officers in order to mitigate the hazards associated with transporting equipment and pipe to site. The company recently used this technique to successfully transport 19,909sections of pipe 350 km on the Gas Export Capacity Increase Pipeline located in Oman. Keeping equipment cool under pressure The equipment sourced for use in desert environments should be tailored to withstand very hot climates. Mr Fidawi says that some equipment features suited for desert terrain include: Over-sized cooling systems; Air-conditioned cabins; and; Non-conventional military-type electronic components. The use of all-terrain vehicles such as heavy-duty trailers and all-wheel drive personnel carriers is also valuable when operating in extreme heat. Mr Fidawi says that it is important to ensure emergency tools such as spare tyres, backup tanks, basic hand tools, and towing tools are available with all vehicles, in addition to other safety requirements. Mr Twycross adds that ongoing maintenance and cooling-off periods for machinery, as well as lubricants for high temperature working conditions, help to ensure that pipeline equipment does not fail in the heat. Overcoming construction risks Mr Fidawi says that large sand dunes often need to be removed to ensure that pipelines are installed in stable terrain. Wider trenches are often dug to allow for side collapses during sandstorms, and extra protection measures, such as wind barriers or tents, are taken while welding to maintain quality.

Magnatech International says that the use of mechanised welding in desert terrain can aid the construction process, as it reduces the physical effort required by workers to weld the pipeline. Applying field joint coatings to pipelines in desert terrain can also pose challenges. ShawCor subsidiary Canusa CPS has undertaken a detailed analysis of the risks involved in high temperature pipe coating and field joint challenges of pipeline construction in remote locations, including deserts. In a technical paper authored by Wayne Hodgins and Robert Buchanan, the company examined the effect of temperature fluctuations on exposed coated pipe during construction. The paper found that high daytime temperatures can substantially elevate the pipeline temperature. Overnight lows then created significant steel temperature swings that can have adverse effects on brittle coatings as the pipeline expands and contracts. The paper states that the use of sandbags to support pipe during construction, rather than wood blocking, limits damage to the pipeline coating. In addition, Canusa says that sandstorms can contaminate the joint coating during installation. This requires correct surface preparation and pre-cleaning prior to blasting. Mr Fidawi notes that levels of humidity need to be considered when conducting surface preparation before joint coating, and high humidity may require work to be rescheduled to periods of low humidity. In addition, water for hydrotesting can be difficult to source and can require transportation, particularly if fresh water is required. Finally, many high pressure pipelines that are constructed in the desert require anchoring so that, when operations commence, any changes in temperature and pressure of the pipeline do not cause it to buckle and snake out of the ground. Pipeline workers in the hot seat Desert conditions will always represent a challenge with high levels of heat and sandstorms confronting workers onsite. In the summer months, many activities cannot proceed under harsh conditions or during maximum temperature hours, especially at the peak day hours between 11am and 3pm. During the windy months, Mr Fidawi says that CCC ensures construction teams start working as early as possible while the wind is calm to make the best possible use of those good hours. This often means workers are on the pipeline spread to start working by sunrise. He says that mid-day breaks and sometimes selected night-shift options may need to be considered especially for concrete works. Mr Twycross says that it is important to protect workers against fatigue, dehydration, risks of sun stroke and heat stroke, and eye irritations by paying careful attention to hydration, dietary requirements and sun protection. McConnell Dowell ensures workers are provided with meals containing the correct natural salts that need to be replenished after a day out in the heat.

Russian construction company Stroytransgaz says that campsites along the pipeline route are important to minimise the travelling distance for workers, and maximises their productivity during cooler hours. The company recently completed the 217 km Shaybah Abqaiq Oil Pipeline in Saudi Arabia, using four villages to house workers when constructing along the pipeline route. Both McConnell Dowell and CCC stress that all personnel receive first aid and safety training, as well as the use of alternative emergency communication options such as satellite phones and radios as most of the pipeline routes in deserts lack proper mobile coverage.