TRANSFORMERS A transformer is a device in which an input alternating current produces an output alternating current of different voltage.

A step-up transformer results in an increased voltage. A step-down transformer results in a decreased voltage. The transformer itself consists of two separate coils, a primary and a secondary, usually wound around a soft iron core, to intensify the magnetic field in the primary. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. An alternating current flows in the primary, thus creating changing magnetic fields that thread through the secondary. Thus, there is a changing magnetic flux in the secondary coil, which produces a current in that coil. Since the magnetic field is changing at a given frequency, the current induced in the secondary coil is also an alternating one. If the secondary coil contains more turns of wire than the primary, the transformer will be a step-up one. If the secondary coil contains less turns of wire than the primary, the transformer will be a step-down one. A step-up transformer is shown below.

Mathematically:

where VP = primary voltage, VS = secondary voltage, NP = number of turns of wire in primary coil and NS = number of turns of wire in secondary coil.

In an ideal transformer no energy is lost and so the energy input is the same as the energy output per unit time. We can write this as: Power in = Power out VP IP = VS IS

From which we have:

This formula implies that in a step-up transformer, although the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, the output current is lower than the input current. This is a direct consequence of the conservation of energy law. Clearly, if the output current did not decrease compared to the input current, VS IS would be greater than VP IP and energy would have been created from nothing. Similarly for step-down transformers, the output voltage is lower than the input voltage but the output current is higher than the input current. From a practical point of view, transformers need to be designed carefully. There are many sources of potential energy losses in transformers, heat losses in the coils, heat losses in the core due to eddy currents and possible magnetic leakage. The eddy currents in the core are induced by the changing magnetic fields threading through the transformer. To reduce the effect of eddy currents, the core is made of layers called laminations separated by thin insulating layers, rather than being one solid block of metal. Modern transformers operate with around 99% efficiency and have many practical applications. Perhaps the most important application is in the transfer of electrical energy from a power station to its point of use. Energy losses in power transmission lines can be shown to be proportional to I2R. Clearly, the lower the current, the lower the energy loss in the line. For this reason, the 240 V power produced by the generators at a power station is stepped up by transformers to very high voltages (220 kV to 500 kV) before being transmitted from the power station. In this way the current flowing in the transmission lines is very low and energy loss in the lines is minimised. (Also, lower currents mean that smaller diameter transmission lines can be used, which leads to savings in materials and construction costs.) In order to be used by the various consumers, the voltage needs to be stepped down to the required value. This happens at electricity sub-stations, where transformers step the high voltage down to 240 V for domestic use or other particular values for industry and public transport (e.g. electric trains). Transformers are also used in certain electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the mains domestic power supply. For example, transformers in the 1 to 100 watt power level are often used as step-down transformers to couple electronic circuits to loudspeakers in radios, television sets, and Hi-Fi equipment. In many electronic devices a number of different voltages are required for normal operation. Transformers are used to convert the 240 V mains supply voltage to the required voltage. This can be achieved by having several secondary coils wrapped around the primary or by having one secondary coil and tapping into it after the appropriate number of turns of wire.