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STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

Lecture154.1: OffshoreStructures: GeneralIntroduction

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE To identifu the basic vocabulary, to inhoduce the major.on".Oo for offshore platform stuctures, and to explain where the basic structural requirements for desigr are generated. PREREQIIISITES None. SUMMARY The lecturestartswith a_presentation ofthe importanceofoffshore hydro-carbonexploitation,the basicstepsin the development process(from seismicexplorationto platform removal)and the introductionof the major structuraiconcepri(jackerbase,GBS-based, fff, nuti". h" major codesareidentified. For the fixed platform concepts(lacket and GBS), the different execution phasesare briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Specialattentionis given to someprinciplesoftopside design. A basicintroductionto costaspects presented. is Finally terms ae intoduced through a glossary.

1. INTRODUCTION
Offshoreplatforms areconstructed producethe hydrocar-bons and gas.The contributionofoffshore oil productionin the year lggg to the to oil world energyconsumption was9Yoand is estimatedtobe 24%o 2000. in The investnent (CAPE requiredat presentto produceone barrel ofoil per day ($/B/D) and the productioncosts(OpE per barrel are depictedin the tablebelow. Condition Conventional Average Middle East Non-Opec Offshorc North Sea Deepwater CAPEX $18/D

OPEX$/B

4000 8000 500- 3000 3000 12000

5
I 8

10000 25000 15000 35000

5-10 l 0 - l5

World oil production in 1988w_as million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the challenge for the offshore designer: a growing 63 contribution is required from offshore exploitation, a very capital intensive activity. Figure 1 showsthe distributionofthe oil and gas elds in the North Se4 a major conaibutionto the world offshorehydrocarbons. also It indicates the onshorefields in England, the Netherlands and Germany

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GEFMANY

BELGIUM

FigureI North Sea, oil and gas fields (source\Vorld Oil. Augusr 19BB) 2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelning majority of platformsarepiled-jacketwith deck suctures, built in steel(seeSlides 1 and 2). all

Slide 1 : Jacket basedplatform - Southem sector North Sea

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Slide 2 : Jacket basedplatform - Northem sector North Sea A secondmajor type is the gravity concretestructure (seeFigure 2), which is employed in the North Seain the Norwegian and British sectors.

Figure2 Gravity based substructureplatform primarily constructed for the British and Norwegianfields in the Northern North Sea
A third type is the floating production rmit. 2.2 Environment The offshore environment can be characterizedby: . . r . . o water depth at location soil, at seabottom in-depth and wind speed, aiitemperahre waves, tide and storm surge, cr[rent ice (fixed, floes, icebergs) (if earthquakes necessary)

The topside saucture also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance(airgap) usually is taken at approximately 1,50 m, but should be increasedifreservoi depletion will createsignificant subsidence.

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2.3 Construction

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The envronment well as financial aspects as requirethat a high degreeofprefabricationmust be performedonshore.It is necessary designto to limit offshore work to a minimum. The overall cost of a man-how offshore is approximately five times that of an onshore man-hour. The cost of construction equipment requiredto handleloads,andthe cost for logisticsare also a maitudehigher offshore. Thesefactorscombinedwith the size and weight of the items,requirethat a designer must carefully considerall constructionactivitiesbetween shop fabricationand offshoreinstallation. 2.4 Codes Structuraldesigr hasto comply with specificoffshorestructuralcodes,The worldwide leadingstructuralcodeis the API-RP2A [1]. The recentlyissuedLloyds rules [2] and the DnV rules [3] are alsoimportant. Specificgovernment requirements have io be compliedwrth, e.g. in the rules of Deparnent Energy @oE), Norwegian PetroleumDirektorate of (NPD). For the detail desigr of the topsidestructwethe AISC-code[4] is frequent used,andthe AWS-code [5] is usedfor welding. In the UK the Piper alpha diaster has led to a completely new appr<iach regulation ofhore. The responsibility for regulatory control has been to moved to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the operatorhas to produce a formal safety assessment (ISA) himself instead of complyingwith detailedegulations. 2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey

Govemmentauthorities requirethat recognized bodiesappraise aspects the ofsfuchral integnfy and issuea cefificate to that purpose. The major certificationbodiesare: o r o . . Det norskeVeritas (DnV) Lloyds Registerof Shipping (LRS) ' AmericanBueauof Shipping (ABS) BureauVeritas @V) Germrischer Lloyd (GL)

Their requirements availableto the designer 3, 6,7 , 8]. are [2, Insurancecompaniescovering ansport and installation require the sucttrresto be reviewed by warranty surveyors before acceptance.The warrantysurveyorsapply standards, ifavailable, on a confidentialbasis.

3. OF'FSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD

3.1 Introduction The diffeent requirementsof an offshore platform and the typical phasesof an ofhore developmentare summaized in [9]. Afer severalinitial phaseswhich include seismic field surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-up drilling rigs are used for this purpose fo water depthsup to 100 - 120 m; for deeperwater floating rigs are used.The results are studied and the economics and risks of different development plansare evaluated. .. Factorsinvolved in the evaluation may includenumberof wells required,fixed or floatedproduetion.facilitieg-number.of such facilities, and pipeline or tanker offJoading. As soon as exploitation is decided and approved,there are four main technical activities, prior to production: . . . . engineeringand design fabrication and installation ofthe production facility drilling of production wells, taking 2 - 3 months/well Foviding the off loading systemipelines, tankers,etc.).

The drilling and construction interaction is describedbelow for two typical fixed platform concepts. 3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water First thejacket is installed. The wells ae then drilled by ajack-up drilling unit standing close by with a cantilever rig extending over thejacket. Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a cantilever rig. fln this instanceit is engagedin exploratory drilling and is therefore working.in isolation.)

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Slide 3 : Cantilevered drilliirg rig: Selelevating [ack-up) eloration drilling platfonn. Design and construction ofthe topside are progressedparallel to the drilling, allowing production to start soon aftr deck installation. For further wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be called once again and will reach over the well areaof the production deck. . As an altemative to this conceptthe wells ae often accommodatedin a separate wellhead platform, linked by a bridge to the production platform (seeSlide l). 3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep lVater The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanentplatform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts after the platform is built and completely installed. Consequentlyproduction stats betweenone and two years after platform installation. In recentyearspre-drilledwells havebeenusedto allov/ an earlier startofthe production.ln this casethe platform hasto be installedexactlv abovethe pre-drilled wells.

4. JACKETS AND PILE FOT]NDATION

4.1 Introduction Jackets,the towerJike bracedtubular structures,generally perform two flnctions: . They provide the substucture for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable above the waves. . They supportlaterally and protectthe 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline riser. The installationmethodsfor thejacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design. 4.2 Pile Foundation The jacket foundalignis provided-byo4-ded_tubular steelpiles,-qrilhdiafntrq 40 Up.tA.2n.Te piles are driven approxrm,alely - 80 m, and in somecases120m deepinto the seabed. Thereare basicallythreetypesofpile/jacket arrangement (seeFigure 3):

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Supply lines
KII

Pile

4 Conventional above-water

B New underwater techniques

C Free-riding subsea technique

Figure3 Jacket foundationtypes with conventionaland new pile - drivingtechniques

Pile-throughleg concept, wherethe pile is installedin the cornerlegsofthejacket. Skirt piles throughpile sleeves thejacket-base, at wherethe pile is installedin guidesattached thejacket leg. Skirt piles can be groupedin to clusters aroundeachofthejacket legs. Vertical skirt piles are directly installedin the pile sleeveat thejacket base;all other guidesaredeleted.This arrangement resultsin reduced structuralweight and easierpile driving. In confrast inclined piles enlargethe foundation at the bottom, thus providing a stiffer structure. 4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance Axial load esistance requiredfor bearingas well asfor tension.The pile accumulates is both skin friction aswell as end bearingresistance. Lateralload resistance ofthe pile is requiredfor resaintofthe horizontalforces.Theseforceslead to sipicant bendingofthe pile near to the seabed. Number,arrangement, diameterant'pne-ation ofthe piles dependon the environmentalloadsand th soil conditionsat the location. 4.4 Corrosion Protection The most usual form ofcorrosion protectionofthe bareunderwater part ofthejacket as well the upperpart ofthe piles in soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes.A sacrificial anode(approximate 3 kl.I each) consists of a zinclaluminium bar casi about a steel tube and weldedon to the structures. Typically approximately5% ofthejacket weight is appliedas anodes. The steelwork in the splashzone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members.

5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are: . . . .. . . well control supportfor well work-over equipment separationof gas, oil and non-ansportable componentsin tlre raw product, e.g. water, parafines/waxesand sand support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore power generation accommodationfor operating and maintenancestaff.

There are basically two structural types oftopside, the integrated and modularized topsidewhich arepositionedeitheron ajacket or on a concretegravity subsfucture. 5.2 Jacket-based Topsides 5.2.1 Concepts

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There are four structuralconcepts practice.They result om the lifting capacityofcrane vesselsand the load-out capacityat the yards: in . . . . the singleintegrateddeck (up to approx 100lvfl{) the split deck intwo fourJeg units the integrated deck wth living quarter module the modularizedtopsideconsisting modulesupportframe (MSF) carryinga seriesof modules. of

Slide 4 showsan integrateddeck (thoughexcludingthe living quarters andhelideck)being moved from its assembly building.
I':j.:i.i::iij.']i.'::::|']]]:]|'''':|':'''':',Ai':::j::'||:....'|',

Slide 4 : Integrated topsideduring load out 5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides For the smaller decks, up to approximately 100 MN weight, the support struchre consistsof trussesor portal ames with deletion of diagonals, The moderate vefical load and shearper column allows the topsideto be supported vertical columns (deck legs) only, down to the top ofthe by piles (situatedat approximately+4 m to +6 m L.A.T. (Low Astonomic Tide). 5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-basedTopsides A major modularized topside weighs 200 to 400 MN. In this casethe MSF is a heavy tubular structure (Figure 4), with lateral bracing down to the top ofjacket.

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Drilling erricks d

Production

M o d u l es u p p o r tf r a m e

36.well conductors ienclosing oil and waler wellsl

Foundatio n piles

Nole.the launch girdersin the lackel and the convelional pileguides

Figure4 Typicaljacketbasedmodularized topside

5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides
The topsidesto be supportedby a gravity-basedsubstructure(seeFigure 2) are in a weight range of 200 MN up to 500 MN. The backbone ofthe structureis a systemofheavy box-girderswith a height ofapproximately l0 m and a width ofapproximately 12 - 15 m (seeFigure 5).

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Casl sleel tansi

Figure5 Module support frame (MSFI for a gravity based substructure {GBS)
The substructureofthe deck is rigidly connectedto the concete column and acts as a beam supporting the deck modules. This connection inhoduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck strucfure. A recent developmen! foreseenfor the Norwegian Troll platform, is to provide a flexible connection betweenthe deck and concetecolumn, thus eliminating fatigue in the deck [10].

6. EQUTPMENTAND LIWNG QUARTER MODULES

Equipmentmodules(20-15 MN) havethe form of rectangular boxeswith one or two intermediate floors. The floors are steelplate (6, 8 or l0 mm thick) for roofand lower floor, andgrating for intermediate floors. In living quafiermodules(5-25 MN) all sleepingroomsrequirewindows andseveraldoorsmust be provided in the outer walls. This requirement can nterfere seriously with tuss arangements-Floors ae flat or stiffened plate. Threetypes ofstuctural concepts, avoidinginterior columns,can be distinguished: all
-:l

. conventional trussesin the walls. o stiffenedplatewalls (so calledsftessed skin or deckhousetype). . heavy:base frame (with wind bracingsin the walls).

7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction The designofoffshore structures to considervariousrequirements has ofconstuction relatingto: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. fabrication. weight. load-out. seatransport. offshoreinstallation. module installation. hook-up. commissioning.

A documentedconstuction sfategy should be available during al1phasesofthe design and the actual design development should be monitored againstthe construction sategy. Constructionis illustratedbelow by four examples. 7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides

7.2.1Lift Installed Jackets Thejacket is built in the vertical (smallerjackets)or horizontalposition (biggerjackets)on a quayofa fabricationsite.

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The jacket is loaded-outand seafastened aboarda barge.At the offshorelocation the bargeis mooredalongsidean ofhore cranevessel. Thejacket is lifted offthe barge,upended from the horizontal,and carefi.rlly down onto the seabed. set After settingdoun thejacket, the piles ae installedinto the sleeves and,diven into the seabed. Fixing the piles to thejacket completes the installation. 7.2.2 Lauch Insf alled Jackets Thejacket is built in horizontalposition. For load-outto the transport barge,thejacket is put on skids sliding on a straighttrack ofsteel beams,and pulled onto the barge(Slide 5).

Slide 5 : JacAet being loadedonto bargeby skidding At the offshorelocationthejacket is slid offthe barge.It immerses deeplyinto the water and assrmes floating position afterwards(seeFigure a 6).

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Paee of 2,0 1l

Stage 1

F e a e t o n t A maximum on the bsrge

Stage 2

Stage 3

Marimum barge lrim Maximum keel immersion Note rocker beam fully.supponting the jacket

Stage 4 Figure 6 I-aunch of jacket.

Stage 5

Two parallel heavy vertical trussesin the jacket structure are required, capableoftaking ttre support reactions during launching. To reduce forces and moments in the jacket, rocker arms are attachedto the stern of the barge. The next phaseis to upright the jacket by meansof controlledflooding ofthe buoyancytanks and then set down onto the seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a vertical position after the launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing completesthe installaton. 7.2.3Topsidesfor a Gravi-Based Structure (GBS) The topsideis assembled abovethe seaon a temporarysupportnear a yard. lt is then takenby a bargeofsuch dimensionsasto fit betweenthe columns of the temporary support and betweenthe columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a deep floating condition in a shelteredsite, e.g. a Norwegian{ord. The bargeis positionedbetweenthe columnsand the GBS is then deballasted matewith and to take over the deckfiom to the barge.The floating GBS with deck is then towed to the offshore site and set down onto e seabed. 7.2.4Jacket Topsides For topsides to approximately120MN, the topsidemay be installedin one lift. Slide 6 showsa 60 MN topsidebeing installedby floating up cranes.

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Slide 6 : Installationof 60MN K12-BP topsideby floating crane For the modularizedtopside,first the MSF will be installed,immediatelyfollowed by the modules. 7.3 Offshore Lifting

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Lifting ofheavy loads from barges(Slide 6) is one ofthe very importantandspectacular constnrctionactivitiesrequiring a focuson the problem when concepts developed. are Weatherwindows,i.e. periodsof suitableweatherconditions,arerequired for theseoperations. 7.3.1Crane Vessel Lifting ofheavy loads ofhore requiresuseofspecializedcranevessels. Figure 7 providesinformation on a typical big, dual cranevessel.Table I (page16) lists someof the major offshorecranevessels.

i U
E

.!

4
c

.E .T

I t

!! .hg rs! 'r +

.g

LniqditFdE) dEfr

Figure 7 Lift capacity diagram for a big dual crane vessel

7.3.2Sling-arrngement, Slings and Shackles For lifting, steelwire ropesin a four-slingarrangement usedrilhich directly rest in the four-point hook ofthe canevessel,(seeFigure 8). are The heaviest sling available now has a diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of approximately 48 MN, and a safe working load (SWL) of l6 MN. Shacklesare availableup to 10 MN SWL to connectthe padeyes installedat the module'scolumns.Due to the space required,connecting more than one shackleto the samecolumn is not very attactive. So when the sling load exceeds10 MN, padears become an option.

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Pge'13 20 of

(b)T[,th sprder beam,lifi pintrs lowermodule t floor

(c] /ith spreader frame,fift point module roof t

FigureI Samefour-point slingarrangerneilts

Table I Major Offshore Crane Vessels Operator Heerema Name Mode Monohull

rype
Fix Rev

Lift ing capacity(Tonnes)

Thor
Odin

2720 1820 2720 2450 4536+3629=9164 + 3630 2720: 6350 3630+2720=6350 + 3000 2000:5000 4000 3800 1820 1450 3360 2450 + 5000 6000: 12000 7 0 0 0 + 7 0 0 01 4 0 0 0 = 1600

Monohull

Fix Rev

Hermod

Semisub

Fix
Rev

Balder

Semisub

Fix Rev

McDermott DB5O

Monohull

Fix
Rev

DBlOO Semisub DBIOl DBIO2

Micoperi Semisub

Fix
Rev

Fix
Rev

Semisub Semisub

Rev Rev Rev.

M7000

ETPM
Notes:

DLBl60I Monohull

1. Ratedlifting capacityin metric tonnes 2. IVhen the crane vesselsare provided with two cranes,these cranesare situated at the vesselsstern or bow at approximately 60 m distance c.t.c. l. 3. Rev: Load capabilitywith frrlly revolving crane.

Fix: Load capabil with cranefixed. 7.4 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening

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Transportation performedaboarda flatop bargeor, ifpossible, on the deck ofthe cranevessel. is

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The module requiresfixing to the barge(seeFigure 9) to withstandbargemotions in rough seas. The seafasteningconceptis determined the by positionsof the framing in the modrleaswell asof the "hardpoints" in the barge.

Cargo barge Typically 1OOx3OOx2O feet or 12Ox4OOx25eet

Module

{a} Base supported only'

(b) Base supported plus roll-bracings

Seafastening concepts

Figure 7.5 Load-out 7.5.1Introduction For load-out theebasicmethodsare applied: o skidding . platform hailers . shearlegs. 7.5.2Skidding

Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consistsof a series of steel beams, acting as tack, on which a group of skids with each approximately 6 MN load capacity is arranged.Each skid is provided with a hydraulicjack to control the reaction. 7.5.3Platform Trailers Specialized tailer units (seeFigure 10) canbe combinedto act as one unit for loadsup to 60 - 75 MN. The wheelsare individually suspended and integratedjacks allow adjustmentup to 300 mm.

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propelledmodular lransporter

l
l

. -I
I

-T'
I

I I

t t
l t

I
I

-r-T
l
I I

- T ' -+- -+-+Coupling possibility

^ -

ffiffi

*"--ryegtc@

E::lt=t:lt:t=+it-

Electronicall-way steering

Figure1O Self propelled, modularplatform trailerfor load-out

The load capacity over lle projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85 ktr/sq.m. The units can drive in all directions and negotiate curves. 7.5.4Shearlegs Load-outby shearlegs attractivefor smalljacketsbuilt on the quay.Smallerdecks(up to 10 - 12MN) can be loadedout on the decklegspreis positionedon the barge,thus allowing deck and decklegto be installedin one lift ofhore. 7.6 Platform Removal In recentyearsplatform removalhas becomecommon.The mode ofremoval depends sfrongly on the regulations ofthe local authorities. Provisionfor removalshouldbe considered the designphase. in

8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction The majority ofsfuctural analyses basedon the lineartheory ofelasticity for total systembehaviour.Dynamic analysisis performed for the are systembehaviourrrder wave-attack ifthe nahual period exceeds seconds. 3 Many elementscan exhibit local dynamicbehaviour,e.g. compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slenderjacketmembers, conductors. 8.2 In-place Phase Threetypesof analysisareperformed: . . .o Survival state,under wave/currenlwind attack with 50 or 100 years recrrrence period. Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years recurrenceperiod, under rll operation. Fatigueassessment. Accidental.

All these analysesare performed on the complete and intact structure, Assessmentsat damagedstructurei, e.g. with one member deleted, and

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assessments collision situationsare occasionallv of oerformed. 8.3 Construction Phase The major phasesof construction when structural integrity may be endangeredare: o . . . Load-out Seatransport Upendingofjackets Lifting.

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9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction The economicfeasibility of an offshoreprojectdepends many aspects: on capitalexpendihrc (CAPE, tax, royalties,operational expendihre

(oPEX).

ln a typical offshore field development,one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one third on the drilling of wells and one thid on the pipelines. Costestimates usuallypreparedin a deteiministicapproach. are Recentlycost-estimating using a probabilisticapproach been developed has and adopted major offshoreprojects. in The CAPEX of an installed offshore platform topside amountsto approximately 20 ECU/kg. 9.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)

The major elementsin the CAPEX for an offshore platform are: . o . o . project managementand design materil and equipment procurement fabrication transportand installation hook-upand commissioning. (OPEX)

9.3 Operational Expenditure

ln the North Seaapproximately 20 percent of OPEX are required for offshore inspection,maintenanceand repair QMR). The amount to be spent on IMR over the project life can add up to approximately half the original investrnent. r IMR is the areain which the skuctural engineermakes a contribution by effort in design,selection of material, improved corrosion protection, accessibility, basicprovisionsfor scaffolding,avoidingjacketattacbments dangerous divers,etc. to

10.DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS

Deep water introduces a wide range of exha difculties for the operator, the designerand constructo of offshore platforms. Fixed platformshave recentlybeeninstalledin water of 410 m. depth,i.e. "Bullwinkle" developed Shell Oil fo a Gulf of Mexico location. by Thejacket weighednearly 500 MN. The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North sea is approxim ately 220m atpresent.The development of the Troll field situated in approximately 305 m deepwater is plannedfor 1993. In the Gulf of Mexico and offshoreCalifornia severalfixed platformsin water depthsof 250 - 350 m arein operation(Cewez4 Cognac).Exxon has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in operation in 300 m deepwater. An option for deeper locationsis to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby (approximately maximum l0 km) fixed platform at a smaller water depth.Alternatively subsea wells may be usedwith flexible risersto a floating productionrmit. Subsea wells arenow feasiblefor 300 900 m deepwater.The deepest wells havebeendeveloped offBrasil in moderate weatherconditions. The tensionleg platfonn (TLP) seems be the most promising deepwater to productionrnit (Figure 11). It consists a semi-submersible of pontoon, tied to the seabedby vertical prestressed lethers. The fist TLP was Hutton in the North Seaand recently TlP-Jolliet was installed ar a 530 m deeplocation in the Gulf of Medco. NorwegianSnorreand Heidrun fields havebeendeveloped with TLPs aswell.

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Figure11 Tensionleg platform

11.CONCLUDING ST]MMARY
'. Th lecture starti with're presentatioi of the importance of offshore hydro-carbn exploitatior the basic steps in the devlopment process(from seismicexplorationto platform removal) and the inftoductionofthe major structuralconceptsfiacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating). The major codesareidentied, (jacketand GBS), the different executionphases briefly explained:design,fabricationand installation. For the fixed platform concepts are Specialattentionis given to the principlesoftopside design. A basicintroductionto costaspects presented. is Finally termsare infoduced within a glossary.

. . . .

12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AIR GAP Clearancebetween the too of maximum wave and undersideofthe tooside. CAISSONSSeeSUMPS CONDUCTORS The tubular protecting and guiding the drill string from the topside down to 40 to 100m under the seabottom. Afrer drilling it protectsthe well casing. G.B.S. Gravity basedstructure,sitting flatly on the seabottom, stablethroughits weight. HOOK-UP Connecting ssmponentsor systems,after installation ofhore. JACKET Tubular sub-structureunder a topside, standingin the wate and pile founded. LOAD-OUT The operation of bringing the object (module, jacket, deck) from the quay onto the transportation barge. PADEARS (TRUNNIONS) Thick-walled tubar stubs, directly receiving slings and transversely welded to the main structure. PADEYES Thick-walled plate with hole, receiving the pin of the shackle,welded to the main structure.

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PIPELINE RISER The piping sectionwhich risesfrom the seabed to topsidelevel. SEA-FASTENING The structure to keep the object rigidly connectedto the barge during transport. SHACKLES Connecting element(bow + pin) betweenslingsandpadeyes. SLINGS Cableswith splicedeyedat both ends,for offshorelifting, the upperend restingin the cranehook. SPREADERTubular frame,usedin lifting operation. SITBSEA TEMPLATE Structure at seabottom,to guide conductorsprior to jacket installation. SUMPS Vertical pipesfrom topsidedown to 5-10 m below water level for intake or discharge. TOPSIDE Topside,the compactoffshoreprocess plant, with all auxiliaries,positionedabovethe waves. UP ENDING Bringing thejacket in vertical position,prior to set down on the seabottom. WEATTIERW]NDOW A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine operation. WELLIIEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves mounted on its top.

Page'18 o'f20'

13. REFERENCES
practicefor plarming,designingand constructing fixed offshoreplatforms. [1] API-RP2A: Recommended AmericanPetoleum Institute lSth ed. 1989. The structuraloffshorecode,governsthe majority ofplatforms. [2] LRS Codefor offshoreplatforms. Lloyds Registerof Shipping. London (tK) 1988. Regulations amajor certifuingauthority. of of [3] DnV: Rulesfor the classification fixed offshoreinstallations. Det Norske Veritas 1989. Important setofrules. for [4] AISC: Specification the design,fabricationand.r..tion ofrt-ctural steelfor buildings, American lnstitute of SteelConstruction1989. Widely usedstructuralcodefor topsides. [5] AWS D1.l-90: Structwal Welding Code- Steel. American Welding Society1990. The stnctural offshore welding code. [6] Dnv/I4arine Operations:Standardfor insurancewarranty suweys in marine operations. Det norskeVeritas June1985. Regulations of a major certifuing authority. Part 1 Structures. [7] ABS: Rulesfo building and classingoffshoreinstallations, AmericanBureauof Shipping 1983. Regulations a major certiSing authority. of for and classification ofoffshore platforms. [8] BV: Rulesandregulations the construction BureauVeritas,Paris 1975. Regulations amajor ceftirying authority. of

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[9] ANON: A primer of offshoreoperations. PetexPubl.AustinU.S.A 2nded. 1985. Fundamental informationaboutoffshoreoil and gasoperations. [10] AGJ Berkelderet al: Flexible deckjoints. ASIIE/OMAE-conferenceThe Hague 1989Vol.II pp.753-760. interesting Presents new conceptin GBS design.

14.ADDITIONAL READING
1. BS 6235: Codeofpractice for fixed ofhore structures. British Standads Institution I 982. knportant code,mainly for the British offshore sector. 2. DoE Offshoreinstallations: Guidanceon designand construction, U.K. Deparnentof Energy 1990. Govemmentalregulations for British offshore sector only. 3. UEG: Design of tubularjoints (3 volumes). llEG OffshoreResearch Publ. U.R.33 1985. hnportanttheoreticalandpracticalbook. joints. 4. J. Wadenier:Hollow section Delft University Pess1981. publicationon tubular designincluding practicaldesignformulae. Theoretical 5. ARSEM: Design guidesfor offshorestructwesweldedtubularjoints. Edition Technip,Paris(France),1987. Importanttheoreticalandpracticalbook. Field development 6. D. Johnston: options. Oil & GasJournal,May 5 1986,pp 132 - 142. Goodpresentation development on options. 7. G. I. Claum et al: OffshoreStnrctures: Vol l : Conceptual DesigrrandHydri-mechanics;Vol 2 - Stength and Safetyfor Structuraldesigr. SpringerVerlag,London 1992. Fundamentalpublication on structwal behaviou. 8. W.J. Graff: Introduction to offshore structues. Gnlf PublishingCompany,Houston 1981. Good generalintoduction to offshorestrucnues. 9. B.C. Gerwick: Construction offshorestuctures. of JobnWiley & Sons,New York 1986. Up to datepresentation ofofhore designand consfuction. 10. T.A. Doody et al: Importantconsiderations successfirl for fabricationof offshore structures. OTC paper5348,HoustonI 986,pp 531-539. Valuablepaperon fabricationaspects. I 1. D.I. Karsan et al: An economic study on parametersinfluencing the cost of fixed platforms. OTC paper5301,Houston 1986,pp 79-93.

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Previous Next I Contents I ESDEP WG 15A

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

Lecture 15^.2: Loads (I) : fntuoduction and Environmental Loads

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE To introduce fpes of loads whicha fixed steeloffshore the for structure mustbe designed. present generated To briefly the loads by environmental factors. PREREQTTTSTTES A basicknowledge structural of analysis staticanddynamic for loadings. ST]MMARY The categories loadfor whicha pile supported platformmustbe designed introduced thenthedifferenttypesof of steeloffshore are and environmental loadsaepresented. loadsinclude:wind,wave,current, The earthquake, andsnow,temperature, bedmovement, ice sea marinegrowthandtide generated loads. Loadsdueto wind,wavesandearthquake discussed moredetailtogether are in with their idealizations the vaious for typesof analyses. Frequent references madeto the codes practice ae of recommended the American by Petroleum Institute, NorskeVeritas, British Standads Det the Institutionandthe BritishDepartrnent Energy,aswell asto therelevant of regulations the Norwegian of Petroleum Directorate.

1. INTRODUCTION
TheIoadsforwhichanoffshoreStructuremustbedesignedcarrbeclassifiedintothefoIlowingcategories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (dead)loads. Permanent (live) loads. Operating Environmentalloads including earthquakes. Construction installation loads. Accidental loads.

Whilstthe design buildings of onshore usuallyinfluenced is mainly by the permanent operating and loads,the design offshore of structures dominated environmental is by loads, especially waves, the loadsarisingin thevariousstages and ofconstr.uction and installation. This lecture deals with environmental loads,whilstthe otherloadings treated Lectwe 154.3. are in In civil engineering, earthquakes normallyregarded accidental are as loads(seeEurocode []), but in offshoreengineering are 8 they treated environmental as loads. This practice followedin thetwo lectures is dealingwith loads, Lectures 54.2 and154.3. 1

2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmentalloadsarethosecaused environmental phenomena by suchaswind, waves,current,tides, earthquakes, temperature, ice, seabedmovement, marinegrouth.Their chaacteristic and parameters, definingdesign loadvalues, determined special are in studies on thebasisof available (or data.According US andNorwegian to regulations codes practice), meanrecwrence of the intervalfor the corresponding designeventmustbe 100years, while according theBritish rulesit shouldbe 50 yearsor greater. to Detailsof design criteri4 simplifuingassumptions, required dat4 etc.,canbe foundin the regulations codes practicelistedin tl] - t8]. and of 2.1 Wind Loads Wind loadsacton theportionof a platformabove waterlevel,aswell ason anyequipmen! the housing, derric etc.located the on deck.An importantparameter pertainingto wind datais the time interval over which wind speeds averaged. averaging are For intervals lessthanoneminute,wind speeds classified gusts. averaging are as For intervals oneminuteor longerthey aeclassified sustained of as wind speeds. Thewind velocityprofilemaybe takenfrom API-RP2A[2]: Vnffs: (h/t/'(l) where: Vn is thewind veloc at heighth,

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V" is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically l0m above mean water level, l/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state,the distancefrom land and the averaging time interval. It is approximately equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustainedwinds in the open ocean. From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force F-(N) acting perpendicular to an exposedareaA(rn2) can be computedas follows:

p Fw:(J12) v2 c, a 1z;
where:

p is the wind density(p = 1.225Kg/m3) (C.: 1,5for beams sides buildings, C, is the shape coeffrcient and of Cr:0,5 for cylindricalsections Cr: 1,0for totalprojected and areaof platform). Shielding solidityeffectscanbe accounted in thejudgement and for, ofthe designer, usingappropriate coefficients. For combination with waveloads, DNV [4] andDOE-OG[7] rulesrecommend mostunfavourable the followingtwo the the of loadings: a l-minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves. gusts. b. 3-second API-RP2A[2] distinguishes globalandlocalwind loadeffects. the first case givesguideline between For it valuesof meanl-hour average wind speeds be combined to with extreme wavesandcurrent. the second For case givesvalues extreme it of wind.speeds be to usedwithoutregard waves. to Wind loadsaregenerally takenasstatic.When,however, ratioof heightto the leasthorizontal the dimension thewind exposed of object (or structure) greter is than'S, thenthis object(or structure) couldbe wind sensitive. API-RP2Arequires dynamieffects the of.the wind to be takeninto account this case theflow induced in and cyclic wind loadsdueto vortexshedding mustbe investigated. 2.2Wave Loads The waveloadingof an offshorestructure usually mostimportant all environmental is the of loadings which the structure for mustbe designed. forceson the structure caused themotionofthe waterdueto thewaveswhicharegenerated the actionofthe The are by by wind on the surface the sea.Determination these of of forces requires solutionof two separate, the thoughinterrelated problems. The frrstis the seastatecomputed usingan idealisation the wavesurface of profile andthe wavekinematics givenby an appropriate wave theory.The second the computation the wavefoiceson individualmembers on thetotal structure, is of and from the fluid motion. Two differentanalysis concepts used: are r The design waveconcept, wherea regular waveofgiven heightandperiodis defined the forcesdueto this waveare and calculated usinga high-order wavetheory.Usuallythe 100-year wave,i.e. themaximum wavewith a returnperiodof 100years, is chosen. dynamic No behaviour the struchreis considered. staticanalysis appropriate of This is whenthe dominant wave periodsarewell abovethe periodof the structure. This is the caseof extremestormwavesactingon shallowwater structures. o Statistical analysis the basisof a wavescatter on diagram the locationof the structure. for Appropriate wavespectra defined are to performthe analysisin the frequencydomainandto generate randomwaves,if dynamicanalyses extremewave loadingsare for required deepwater for structures. With statistical methods, mostprobable the maximumforceduringthe lifetimeof thestructure is calculated usinglinearwavetheory.The statistical approach to be chosen analyze fatiguestrength the dynamic has to the and behaviourof the structure 2.2.1'V/ave theories Wavetheories describe kinematics waves wateron the basis potentialtheory.In particular, the of of of they serve calculate to the particlevelocities accelerations the dynamic and pressure functions and as ofthe surface elevation ofthe waves. The wavesareassumed to be long-crested, they canbe described a two-dimensional field, andarecharacterized the parameters: i.e. by flow by waveheight(H), period(T) andwaterdepth(d) asshownin Figurel.

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Still water

Trough
c : Wave oelerity m/sec Mud line

Fiqure 1 Wave svmbols

Differentwavetheories varyingcomplexity, of developed the basis simplif,ing assumptions, appropriate differentranges on of are for of thewaveparameters. Amongthemostcommon theories the linearAiry theory,the Stokes are: fifth-order theory,the solitarywave. theory,the cnoidal theory,Dean's stream functiontheoryandthe numerical theoryby Chappelear. the selection the most For of appropriate theory,thegraphshownin Figure2 maybe consulted. an example, As Table 1 presents results the linearwavetheoryfor of particle pathsareillustrated Figures and4. Notethe stronginfluenceof the finite depthanddeepwaterconditions. Corresponding in 3 waterdepthon thewavekinematics. Results from high-order wavetheories be foundin the literature, see[9]. can e.g. Wave steepness parameter HlgT 2

o.
,, ^krQt \v'--,/

\rave

H/H g :

'l

,gg

: o,o2732

Deans or Chappelearnumerical

o,2

H/He: 0,675

2 I : 9,8'l m/sec

o,o1
Solitary depth solutionsi H/H 6 : g.g5

o,o2

0,o4 0,06 0,o8 0,10

0.12 0.14 . 1 6

0,18

Water depth parameterd/gT

Figure 2 Wave theory selection graph

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Wave profile

cos(kx-wt) : : u
5" e oo2e*
b -L^

s cos 0 q."*

W e t e r p a r t i c l ei a j e c t o r i e sc i r c u l a ro b i l s ( r a d i u s :
Magnriude of particle veloeities Magnilude of particle ecceleralions

Pressure

VJave cresl p = pg5.e*- pgz

Wave trough p = - pg6eu-Fgz

P r oo e o o t i o n ceterlv c =

ZT

Local oorticle velocities

KZ

0,oo -o,2 -o,50

\-/\
\7
I --l

a\.
a2).. r\
G{

h ^

Y/)
1 / l

*o
*O

-o,75

/o
/s
,r
#

(-t

\O

\o
-
\@

\Z
Y

-1,25 -f,50
- I,tn

\t

q
(r\.

/
l(N=lI

\.I

.2,OO

= =+ kx K,{ ( kx=i ' | : . : Figure 3 Parti'le orbits nd dvnamcs of a deepwater wave bv lineartheorv

SWL
1^l v V v v --\

Finite deplh

i< L

O.S

(a) Shallow water

o o o o o
o o o o o
o o t t o

Deep

t o,5

{b} Deep water

Figure 4 Comparisonof deep water and shallow water waves

2.2.2Wave Statistics In reality wavesdo not occurasregularwaves,but asirregularseastateS. irregular appearance The resultsfrom the linear superposition of an infinite numberof regularwaveswith varying frequency@igure5). The bestmeansto describe randomseastateis using the a waveenergy dens spectrum S(f,usuallycalledthe wavespectrum simplic. It is formulated a functionof the wavefrequency for as

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f using the parameters:significant wave height H, (i.e. the mean of the highest third of all waves presentin a wave train) and mean wave period (zero-upcrossingperiod) To. As an additional parameterthe spectral width can be taken into account.

aliri : llf uni4rtl

-T
Y

H.

+
: a,tl+ --lfl''l
o

a^ltl :

H" *r"r{ :5 }
2 In

__t n H
_T

a{ti= a +sin(nl
- t [ '

Figure 5 Modelling of random seas

Wavedirectionality be introduced means a directional can by of spreading functionD(f,o), whereo is the angleof the waveapproach (Figure6). A directional wavespectrum (4o) canthenbe dehnedas: direction S S (f,o ): S(.D(f,o ) (3)

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P i e r s o n - M s k o w i i zs o e c t r u m o

S{f}-Spectral density (m 2sec)

sfi]
5tw,
h -

= 2S(w) -(a/w- ) = (Aiw-) e 4 16n3n

= BH:/c
I
L t -

"s

Ztl S i g n i f i c a nw a v e h e i g h t t M e a n z e r o c r o s s i n gp e r i o d S p e c t r s lw i d t h a r m e t e r

D{f} spreading function

p sffl = gsp"t=on arameier 0o(ll = Meandireclion c = Normalizingrameter p

0oifi

Figure 6 Typical description of a directional wave spectrum.

with the square linear' of by of i.e. motions, calculated multiplication the waveenergyspectrum is Theresponse the, of structue, forces, response a given time interval can in the spectnrm significantandthe maximumexpected transfefunction. From the resultingresponse be easilydeduced. from measurements a ofthe structure needed. canbe obtained is It over diagram the location for For long-term statistics, wavescatter a diagramcontains hindcast method). The scatter the from weather observations theregion(theso-called in long periodor be deduced joint probability occurrence pairsof significant waveheightandmeanwaveperiod. everypar of parameters wave For the of of (Figure6), yieldingfinally the desired response spectrum. For formul4 e.g.Pierson-Moskowitz is by spectnm calculated a standard can of the and fatigueanalysis total number amplitude loadcyclesduringthe life-timeof the structure be derivedin this way.For. by to with substantial dynamicresponse the waveexcitation,the maximumforcesandmotionshaveto be calculated statistical structures analysis. methods a time-domain or forceson structuralmembers 2.2.3Wave pressure forces muchhigherthanwind loadings. forcesresultfrom the dynamic The experience substantial exposed waves to Structures Two differentcases be distinguished: can andthewaterparticlemotions. r Largevolumebodies,termedhydrodynamiccompactsfuctures,influencethe wave field by diffraction andreflection.The forces calculations based diffractiontheory. on haveto be determined costlynumerical by on these bodies on influence thewavefield. The forcescanbe calculated a . Slender, haveno signihcant in transparent structures hydrodynamically equation maybe applied whenD/L < 0.2,whereD is the with Morison's equation. a rule,Morison's As straight-forward manner diameter L is the wavelength. and member transparent. waveforceson the submerged The as ofoffshorestructures usuallybe regarded hydrodynamically can The steeljackets the whichexpresses waveforceasthe sumof an inertiaforceproportional can be by members therefore calculated Morison'sequation, F - c*''" i+cn' vlvl 4 2 dragforceproportionat the square to ofthe particlevelocity: and to theparticleacceleration a non-linear (4) where F is thewaveforceperunit lengthon a circularcylinder(N) wavetheoryat the cylinderaxis(m/s) with v, lvl arewaterparticlevelocitynormalto the cylinder,calculated the selected

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are water particle accelerationnormal to the cylinder, calculatedwith the selectedwave theory at the cylinder axis (m/sz) p is the water density (kg/.3) D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m) Ct, CIrare drag and inertia coefficients, respectively.

In this form the equation valid for fxed tubularcylinders. the analysis the motionresponse a sfuctureit hasto be modified is For of of to account themotionof thecylinderI l0]. Thevalues Co andC, depend the wavetheoryused, for of on surface roughness the and = 0,6to 1,2andCu = 1,3to 2,0.Additionalinformation be foundin theDNV rules parameters. flow According API-RP2A,Co to can

t4l.
is by integration The Thetotal waveforceon eachmember obtained numerical overthe lengtfiof themember. fluid velocities ahd pointsarefoundby directapplication wavetheory. accelerations the integration at ofthe selected This non-linear formulationis usedin the design waveconcept. According Morison's to equation dragforceis non-linear. the However, for for the determination a transfer of functionneeded frequency domaincalculations, dragforcehasto be linearized a suitable the in way [9]. Thus,frequency are for for domainsolutions appropriate fatiguelife calculations, whichthe forcesdueto the operational level wavesaredominated the linearinertiaterm.Thenonlinear formulation hence and by time domain solutions required dynamic are for part [10]. , for analyses deepwater of sfiuctures underextreme, stormwaves, whichthe dragportionof the forceis the dominant givenby Morison'sequation, lift forces andthe slammingforces typicallyneglected global the Fo In additionto the forces Fr, in For response computations, be important localmember can for design. a member section unit length, of these forces,can estimated be as follows:

FL:012) p c, nv21s Fs: (l/2)p C,ov2(6)

whereC, C, arethe lift andslamming coefficients respectively, therestof the symbols asdefined Morisonls and are in equation. Lift. .Slamming forcesareperpendicular fhe mmberaxisandthe fluid velocityv andarerelated the vortexshedding tQ to frequency. forces, actingon the underside horizontal members nearthemeanwaterlevelareimpulsiveandnearlyvertical.Lift forcescanbe estimated of by takingCy* 1,3Co. For tubularmembers * r.. C, 2.3 Current Loads profiletpical of the Gulf of Mexico. Figure7 showsa wind andtidal current Therearetidal, circulation stormgenerated and currents. velocities Wheninsufficient field measurements available, are current may be obinedfrom various sources, AppendixA of DNV e.g. the ofcurrent superimposed wavesaretakeninto account adding corresponding velocities on by the fluid [4]. In platformdesign, effects vectorially. the ofthe velocity,this additioncangreatlyincrease forceson a platform.For the Since dragforcevarieswith the square slender members, cyclic loadsinduced vortexshedding by may alsobe important and shouldbe examined. Fraction of depth 1,O

t,91im1sec)

o,75 o,5 o,25

o.70

o
Figure 7 Typical wind and tdal current profile in the Gulf of Mexico
2.4EarthquakeLoads
Offshore in regionsaretypicallydesigned two levelsofeathquake for intensity: strength the levelandthe ductility structures seismic levelearthquake. the strength For levelearthquake, defined havinga "reasonable as likelihoodofnot beingexceeded duringthe platform's the is to For life" (mean recurrence interval- 200- 500years), structure designed respond elastically. the ductility level earthquake, at for defuredascloseto the "maximumcredibleearthquake" the site, the structureis designed inelasticresponse to and

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have adequatereserve strengthto avoid collapse.

(Figure8) or by means design of eitherby setsof accelerograms maybe specified the For strength leveldesign, seismicloading (base acceleration input).For (Figure9). Use of design of over spectra a number advantages time historysolutions has response spectra intensity, characteristic leveldesigns. Ifthe design spectral approach strength for are design response spectra the preferable this reason directions usingan,* for thetwo principalhorizontal by hazar:d atthesite,is denoted a^*, thenAPI-RP2Arecommends of the seismic directions a'n* and0,7 a^*for thetwo horizontal TheDNV rules,on the otherhand,recommend and0,5a,n* for theverticaldirection. valueof a,n* andoften the spectralshapes determined site are by (two different combinations) 0,5 a.* for the vertical. The and studies. specificseismological
D A T E= E 6 O 9 13 f l M E = 1 7 2 4 3 6 BA43 KALMATA E6 A u t o m , d i g i t .C o m p = w s Recorded t Kalamata a D a l a a r e b a n dp a s s f i l t e r e db e t w e e nO , 1 O- O , 3 0 a n d 3 0 - 3 2 H z P e a k v a l u e s : A c c e l e r a l i o n= - 2 6 7 , 9 9 c m l s e c x 2 = V e l o c i t y2 3 , 6 6 c m / s e c :D i s p l a c e m e n t 5 , 3 4 c m

Acceleration (cm/sec)

270

o
. -2-to 2 4
25
lrme

velocrty (cm/sec)

30 {seci

o
-24 25 30 Time {sec)

5,4 Displaoement {cm}

U
' ' . ' l

-5,4
Time isec)

Figure B Ground accelerationand integrated ground velocty and displacementcurves for a Greek earthquake

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(4lt o '
tl
X

5'O
Sy'G : 2,5 5 Percent of criricat damping

2,O

1,O
S: Spestral acceleration
I

(l)

IE G
I

o,5
(t)

Sv: '
SD :

=1 l z

S*:

Spectral velocity
Spectral displacement

.0 t

-2 --,- , S,:

o,2 o ,1 o,o4

o,1

0.2

o,5

1,O

2,O

5,O

S o i lt y p e h i F o c k - c r y s t s l l i n e o n g l o m e r a t e r s h o l e- l i k e m a l e r i a lg e n e r a l l y a v i n gs h e e r w a v e v e l o c i i i e s n c o e x c e s so i S O O Ot / s e c ( 9 1 4 M / s e c l f B S h a l l o ws t r o n g a l l u v i u m c o m p e t e n ts a n d s , s i l l s e n d s t i l f c l a y s w i t h s h e a r s t r e n g t h s i n e c c e s s r o i a b o u t 1 5 O Op s f ( 7 2 k P a lL i m i t e d .t o d e p t h s o f l e s s t h a n a b o u t 2 O Of i t 6 1 M l a n d o u e r l y i n g o c k l i k em a t e r i a l s sa a i C D e e ps t r o n g a l l u v i u m - c o m p e i e n t n d s ,s i l t _ s n d s t i f f c l a y s w i t h t h i c k n e s s e s n e x c e s s o l a b o u t r m 2 O 0 f e e i ( 6 1 M 1a n d o v e r l y i n g o c k - l i k e a t e r i a l s

Period T isecondsl

Figure I

Design responsespectra recommendedin API RP2A

inputmustbe.specified'by of will analyses whichthe seismic for Designs ductil levelearthquakes normallyrequireinelastic for sets groundmotions that couldshakc platformsite.The the of 3-component accelerograms, or artificial,representative the extreme real however; may still be prescribe.d means design by of spectr4which areusually resultof a site the characteristics suchmotions; of 17: of is Design. specificseismotectonic study.More detailof the analysis earthquakes givenin theLectures Seismic 2.5 Ice and Snow Loads in zones.Ice formationand expansion generate can large Ice is a primary problemfor marinestructures the arctic and sub-arctic pressures give riseto horizontal well asverticalforces. addition, In largeblocksof ice drivenby currentwindsandwaveswith that as and impactloads. 0,5 speeds canapproach to 1,0m/s,may hit the structure produce that as As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal forcesmaybe estimated follows: ice F,: C,f"A (7) where: A is the exposed areaofstructure, f. is the compressive strength ice, of with usualvaluesbetween and0,7. for rate and 0,3 C, is the coeffrcient accounting shape, of loadapplication otherfactors,
laboratory tests and analical work are required to develop reliable design ice Generally, detailed studiesbasedon freld measurements, forces for a given geographicallocation. In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulationsincreasegravity and wind loads, the latter by increasing areasexposed to the action of wind. More detailed information on snow loads may be found in Eurocode I [8]. 2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations

Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal stresses.To take account ofsuch stresses,extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure must be estimated. Relevant data for the North Seaare given in 856235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources,human factors can also generatethermal loads, e.g. through accidental releaseof cryogenic material, which must be taken into account in design as accidental loads.The temperatureof the

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oil and gas produced must also be considered. 2.7 Marine Growth

Marinegrowthis accumulated submerged on members. maineffectis to increase waveforces the members increasing Its the on by not only exposed areas volumes, alsothe dragcoeffcient to highersurface and but due roughness. addition, increases unit mass ln it the of the member, resulting highergravityloadsandin lowermember in frequencies. Depending upongeographic location, thickness the of marinegrowthcanreach0,3mor more.It is accounted in design for throughappropriate increases the diameters masses the in and of submerged members. 2.8 Tides Tidesaffectthewaveandcurrent loadsindirectly,i.e.throughthevaiationofthe levelofthe seasurface. tidesareclassiflred (a) The as: astronomical tides- caused essentially from thegravitational ofthe moonandthe sunand(b) stormsurges caused the pull by combined actionof wind andbarometric pressure differentials duringa storm.The combined effectof thetwo typesof tide is calledthe stormtide.Tide dependent waterlevelsandthe associated definitions, usedin platformdesign, shownin Figure 10.The as are astronomical range tide depends the geographic on locationandthephase themoon.Its maximum, springtide, occursat new of the moon.Therangevariesfrom centimetres several to metres maybe obtained and from special maps.Stormsurges depend uponthe retumperiodconsidered theirrangeis on the orderof 1,0to 3,0m.Whendesigning platform,extreme and a stormwavesare superimposed the still waterlevel(seeFigure10),while for design on considerations aslevelsfor boatlandingplaces, such barge fenders, upperlimits of marinegrowth,etc.,the daily variations the astronomical areused. of tide Still water level (SWLi Storm surge Highest astronomcal tde (HAT) Astronomical tidal range

Mean water level {MWLi Lowest astronomical tide iLAT)

Figure 1O Tide-relateddefinitions of sea surface level

2.9 Sea Floor Movements Movement ofthe seafloor canoccurasa resultof activegeologic processes, pressure stormwavepressures, earthquakes, reduction in theproducing reservoir, The loadsgenerated suchmovements etc. by affect,not only the design ofthe piles,but thejacket aswell. Such forcesaredetermined special geotechnical by studies investigations. and

3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
. Environmental loadsform a major category loadswhichcontrolmanyaspects platformdesign. of of . The main environmental loadsare dueto wind, waves,current,earthquakes, and snow,temperature ice variations,marinegrowth, tidesandseafloor movements. . Widely accepted rulesof practice, listedas[1] - [3], provideguideline values mostenvironmental for loads. r Formajor sfuctures, specification ofenvironmental loadsrequires design specif,rc studies. . Some environmental loadscanbe highly uncertain. . Thedefinitionof certain environmental loadsdepends uponthetypeof analysis usedin the design.

4. REFERENCES
8: in Regions Design",CEN (in preparation). [1] Eurocode "Structures Seismic Practice Planning, for Designing Constructing and Fixed Offshore Platforms", AmericanPetroleum [2] API-RP2A,"Recommended Institute, Washington, D.C., lSth ed., 1989. for Integntyof OCSPlatforms"., UnitedStates Geologic Survey, NationalCentre, [3] OCS,"Requirements Verif,ing the Structural Reston, Virginia 1980. Construction Inspection OffshoreStnrctures", NorskeVeritas,Oslo,1977(with corrections and of Det [4] DNV, "Rulesfor theDesign, 1982).

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for Desigr of Load-bearing Structures Intended Exploitation Petroleum for of Resources", Norwegian [5] NPD, "Regulation Structural Petroleum Directorate, 1985. for British Standards Structures", Institution, London,1982. [6] 856235,"Codeof Practice FixedOffshore Guidance DesignandConstruction:', on U.K., Dept.of Energy, London1985. [7] DOE-OG,"OffshoreInstallation: 1: CEN (in preparation). [8] Eurocode "Basisof DesigrandActionson Structures", Vol G. Structures, 1 - Conceptual DesignandHydromechanics", Springer, London1992. [9] Clauss, T. et al: "Offshore Response Offshore S.4., of Structures Extreme to WavesincludingFluid - Structure Interaction", [10] Anagnostopoulos, "Dynamic Engr.Structures, 4, pp.179-185, Vol. 1982. Engineering", Structural Gulf Publishing Co.,Houston,1981. [11] Hsu,H.T., "AppliedOffshore to Structures", Publishing Gulf Co.,Houston,1981. [2] Graft W.J.,"Introduction Offshore of Structures", JohnWiley, New York, 1986. [3] Gerwic B.C. Jr., "Construction Offshore Table I Results Linear Airy Theory[11] of . Phase0=kx-cot Deep watr d/L>0,5 Finite water depth d/L<0,5
J ^^^L Lvrrr 1.t- L.1\ , */ o\" ^;p

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u
-(" ro2ek cos e

. " cosh klz + 'n*---1-;jsm sn Ko - 3 ' n * r '" f f cn s -si oh sflin Ko

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- d

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I

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Lecture 154.3: Loads (II) - Other Loads

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE To presentand briefly describeall loads, exceptenvironmentalloads,and the load combinationsfor which a fxed offshore structuremust be designed. PREREQIIISITES for A basicknowledgeofstructuralanalysis stic anddynamicloadings. SUMMARY Thesecategoriesinclude The various categoriesofloads, except envonmental,for which a pile-sipportedsteel offshore platform must be designedare presented. permanent(ded) loads, operating(live) loads, loads generatedduring fabrication and installtion (due to lifu, loadout, transportion, launching and upending) and by accidentlloads. In addition, the different load combnationsfor all types ofloads, including environmental,as required (or suggested) applicableregulations (or codesofpractice)aregiven. hereinarethe following: The categories ofloads described 1. 2. 3. 4. loads Permanent(dead) (live) loads Operating andinstallation loads Fabrication Accidentalloads

loadsarenot included.They aedealtwith in LectureI 54.2 of The major categories environmental

1. PERMNENT (DEAD) LOADS

Permanent loadsincludethe following: in a. Weightofthe structure ai, includingthe weightofgrout andballast,ifnecessary. or structureswhich are permanentlymountedon the platform. b. Weights ofequipment, attachments associated pressures. forcesincludebuoyancy andhydrosratic belowthe waterline.These forceson the variousmembers c. Hydrostatic mustbe designed the worst conditionwhenfloodedor non-flooded. for Sealed tubulamembers .. :

2. OPERATTNG(L[VE) LOADS

equipment material,as well asforcesgenerated or during on loadsarisefrom the operations the platfom and includethe weightofall non-permanent Operating operating loadsincludethe following: operation ofequipment.More specifically, a.Theweightofallnon-permanentequipment(e.g.drilling'production),facilities(e.g.livingquaters,fmiture,lifeSupportsystems,heliport'e liquids, etc. supplies, etc. moonng,helicopterlanding,crae operations, during operations, drilling, vessel e.g. b. Forcesgenerated The necessary data for computationofall operatingloadsare provided by the operatorand the equipmentmanufacturers.The data needto be critically evaluatedby the columnsarefor design ofthe portionsofthe is designer. exampleofdeiled live load specification given in Table 1 wherethe valuesin the first and second An stnrctwe directly affected by the loads and the reducedvalues in the last column ae for the sucture as a whole. In the absenceof suchdata,the following values are recommended B56235 [1]: in 3,2 and a. crew quarters passageways: KN/m2 b. workms areas: I(N/m-) c. storageareas:yH KN/mz where y is the specificweight ofstoredmaterials, to be takenlessthan6,87KN/m3, not H is the storage height(m). Forcesgenerateddung operationsare often dynamic or impulsive in natue and must be treatedas such.For example,according to the 856235 rules, two types of helicopter landing should be considered,heavy and emergencylanding. The impact load in the first caseis to be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-offweight, while in the secondcasethis factor becomes2,5. In addition, a horizontal load applied at the points ofimpact and taken equal to halfthe maximum take-offweight must be considered.Loads from rotating machinery, drilling equipment,etc. may normally be treatedas harmonic forces. For vessel mooring, designforces are computed for the is Accordingto 856235, the minimum impactto be considered ofa vesselof2500 tonnesat 0,5 m/s. at speeds. largestship likely to approach operational
^ -.-.., a

3. FABRICTION AND INSTA.LLATION LOADS

Duing fabrication, erection lifu ofvarious strucual Theseloadsare temporary and ariseduring fabrication and insllation ofthe platform or its components. during platform loadout,ansportation to the site, launching and upending, as componentsgeneratelifting forces,while in the installation phaseforces are generated well as during lifts elatedto installation. According to the DNV rules [2], the retum period for computing designenvironmentalconditions for instllation as well as fabrication should normally be three times phasethis designretum periodup to the owner,while the 856235 rules[1] recommend a API-RP2A,on the otherhand[3], leaves the durationofthe corresponding wth tansportation ofthe structureto the offshore site. minimum recurenceinterual of 10 yearsfor the design environmentalloads associated

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3.1 Lifting Forces

beinglifted, the numberand locationoflifting eyesusedfor the lift, the anglebetween Lifting forcesarefunctionsofthe weightofthe structuralcomponent eachsling (Figwe 1). All members conections and theverticalaxis andthe conditions underwhich the lifr is performed and ofa lifted component mustbe desigedfor the forces resultingfrom staticequilibriumofthe lifted weight andthe sling tensions. Moreover,API-RP2A recommends in orderto compensate any sidemovements, that for to structural members shouldbe designed the combinedactionofthe staticsling loadand a horizontalforce equalto for lifting eyesandthe connections the supporting 5% this load, appliedperpendicular the padeyeat the centreofthe pin hole.All thesedesignforcesareappliedas staticloadsifthe lifts areperformedin the to yard. If, however, lifting derrickor the structure be lifted is on a foating vessel, to thendynamicload factorsshouldbe appliedto the staticlifing forces. fabrcation te In particular, lifts madeoffshoreAPI-RP2A recommends minimumvaluesofdynamic load factors:2,0 ad 1,35.The first is for designingthe padeyes well for two as while the second for all othermembers asall members their endconections and framingthejoint wherethe padeye ttached, is is transmitting lifting forces.For loadout at shelteredlocations,the conespondngminimum load factors for the two groupsof structual componentsbecome,accordingto API-RP2A, 1,5 and 1,I 5, resoectivelv.

{a} Derrick and structuro on land

sJ

(b) Denick on land. Gtructure on floating barge

(c Derrick and strusture in the sea

Figure 1 Lifts under vrious conditions

3.2 Loadout Forces
when thejacket is loaded fiom the fabrication yard onto the barge.Ifthe loadout is carried out by direct lift, then, unlessthe lifting Theseae forces generated arrangement different from that to be usedfo installation, lifting forces neednot be computed,because is lifting in the open seacreatesa more severeloading condition which requires higherdynamicload factos.Ifloadout is doneby skiddingthe stucture onto the barge,a numberofstatic loadingconditions mustbe considered, with (as thejacketsupported its side.Suchloadingconditionsarisefrom the differentpositionsofthejacket during the loadoutphases, shownin Figure 2), from on marinetraftic or change supportsettlements. movement ofthe bargedueto tidal fluctuations, ofdraft andfrom possible Sincemovement ofthejacket is sloq all loading conditions can be taken as statc.Typical valuesoffriction coefcientsfor calculation ofskidding forces are the following: . o o o ............. 0-25 steelon steelwithout lubrication-. with lubrication...... ............ 0,15 steel steel on s t e eo n t e f l o n . . l . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . .0 . - .0. . . . . -,1 . teflonon teflon ....... 0.08

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M 5 4 3 2 1

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'l979 'l i

o
3 4 5 6 7 I I 10 1't1213141't61718

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65m

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95m

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7,2O

47.7BOr

125m

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7,4m

50.500r

142m

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Figure 2 Various phses of jacket loadout by skidding

3,3 Transportation Forces

(acket, deckfare transportedoffshore on bargesor self-floating. They dependupon the weight, geometryand Theseforcesare generatedwhen platform components during support conditions ofthe structure(by bargeor by buoyancy)and also on the environmentalconditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered ansporration. The types ofmotion that a floating structue may experienceare shown schematicallyin Figue 3.

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Pitch

Sway

Surge

Yaw

Figure 3 Types of moton of a floating object.

I order to minimize the ascitid.risksad securesafetransport from the fabrication yard to the platform site, it is important to plan the operatipncarefully by- ,\' . considering, according Io..\PI-RP2A[3], ihe followrng: -

. 1 . Previousexperie4cealo4g the tow route wiidows" 2. Exposure time and reliability ofpredicted"weather
Accessibilityof safehavens weathersystem Seonal designwind, wave and current conditions, taking into accountcharacteristicsofthe tow suchas size, structure, 5 . Appropriateretum periodfor determining sensitivitvand cost.
J.

Transportationforces are generated the motion ofthe to\H,i.e. the structureand supportingbarge.They are determinedfrom the design winds, wavesand curents.If by mustbe based the results on ofmodel basintestsor directly.Accordingto API-RP2A [3], towing analyses is the the stncture self-floating, loadscanbe calculated appropriateanalytical methodsad must consideru/ind and wave directibns parallel, perpendicularand at 45o to the tow axis. Inertial loadsmay be computedfrom a ofthe seastateandexperience makesuch rigid body analysis ofthe tow by combiningroll andpitch with heavemotions,when tle sizeofthe tow, magnitude as values: the assumptions reasonable. openseaconditions, following may be considered typical design For roll: 20' Single- amplitude Single- amplitudepitch: 10' Periodofroll or pitch: 10 second 0,2 Heaveacceleration: g When tanspofting a largejacket by barge,stability againstcapsizingis a primary design considerationbecauseofthe high centreofgrav ofthejacket. Moreover, the relative stiffiress ofjacket and bargemay needto be taken into accounttogether with the wave Slammingforces that could result during a heavyroll motion ofthe tow (Figure 4) when structural aaalyses caried out for designingthe tie-down bracesand tlejacket membersaffected by the induced loads. Specialcomputerprograms ae for systemand the resulting stresses any specified envionmentalcondition. are available to computethe transportationloads in the structure-barge

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Tie downs

F : Componerrt of gravity plus inertia G r - Cenlr of gravity of lacket z : Centre of gravity of the tow M = Metacentre of the tow
Areas of potential impact

Figur 4 Schematic vew of launch barge and jacket undergongmoton

3.4Launchingand UpendingForces
upendinginto its proper vertical position to rest on the during the launch ofajacket from the bargeinto the seaand during the subsequent Theseforcesare generated can view oftheseoperations be seenin Figure5. seabed. schematic A

Figure 5 Launchingand upending sequences of a platform jacket

There are five stagesin a launch-upendingoperation: a. Jcketslidesalongthe skid beams b. Jacketrotateson the rocker arms c. Jacketrotates md slidessimultaneously completely comesto its floatingequilibriumposition ard d. Jacketdeches e. Jacketis upendedby a combinationofcontolled flooding and simultaneouslifting by a derrick barge. The loads, static as well as dynamic, induced during eachofthese stagesand the force required to set thejacket into motion can be evaluatedby appropriateanalyses, which also considerthe action ofwind, waves and currentsexpectedduring the operation. To start the launcb,the bargemust be ballastedto an appropriatedraft and rim angle and subsequentlythe jacket must be pulled towards the stem by a winch. Sliding ofthe jacket startsas soonas the downward force (gravity componentald winch pull) exceedsthe friction force. As the jacket slides, its qeight is supportedon the two a and reches minimum, equal to the length ofthe rocker beams,when rotation starts.lt rs legs that arepart ofthe lamch russes. The supportlength keepsdecreasing ganerally at this instant that the most severelaunching forces developas reactionsto the weight ofthejacket. During sages (d) and (e), variable hydrostatic forces arise which haveto be consideredat all membersaffected.Buoyancy calculationsare required for every stageoffe operationto ensurefly contolled, stablemotion. required for launching and upending and also to porray the whole operationgraphically. Computerprogms are availableto perform the stressanalyses

4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
According to the DIW rules [2], accidenal loads are loads, ill-defined with respectto intensity and frequency,which may occur as a result ofccident or exceptional in as category the NPD regulations but not in API-RP2A [3], B56235 [] or the DOE-OG rules [5]. circumstances. Accidentalloadsarealsospecified a separate [4], dropped objects,and mintendedflooding ofbouyancytanks.Specialmeasures fire Examples ofaccidenl loadsareloadsdueto collision with vessels, or explosion, protection ofwellheads or other critical equipmentfrom a droppedobject can be provided by are normally taken to reducethe risk from accidentalloads. For example, specially designed,impact resistantcovers.According to the NPD regulations[4], an accidentalload can be disregardedif its annualprobability of occurrece is less

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Earthquakes treated an environmental are as loadin offshore and than loa. This numberis meantas an orderofmagnitudeestimate is extremelydifcult to compute. structue design.

5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
design employed. is uponthe designmethodused,i.e. whetherlimit stateor allowablestress fixed offshorestructuesdepend The load combinations usedfor designing procedures are: recommended usewith allowableshess for The load combinations ofthe platform. to environmental loadsplus maximumlive loads,appropriate normal operations a-Deadloadsplus operating b. Dead loads plus operatingenvironmentalloads plus minimum live loads, appropriateto normal operationsofthe plaform. c- Dead loadsplus exeme(design) environmentalloads plus maximum live loads, appropriatefor combining with extremeconditionsr d. Dead loads plus exheme(design) environmentalloads plus minimum live loads, appropriatefor combining with extremeconditions. Moreover, environmentalloads, with the exceptionofearthquake loads,should be combined in a mannerconsistentwith theirjoint probability ofoccunence during the with waves,wind, etc. as environmental loa4 i.e.,not 1obe combined Earthquake loads,ifapplicable,areto be imposed a separate loadingconditionconsidered. would requirecessation ofplaform limiting conditions that, ifexceeded, ofseverebut not necessarily environmental conditionsaredefinedas representative Operating operauons. the limit statedesignmethod,which the NPD rulesalsorequire[4]- 856235 design recommend semi-probabilistic but The DNV rules[2] permit allowablestress not method[1]. API-RP2Ais very specificin recommending to applylimit ste permitsboth methods the designequations givesarefor the allowablestress it but must be checked: methods. Accordingto the DNV andthe NPD rulesfor limit statedesigrfour limit states l. Ultimatelimit state mustbe used: Fr this limit stethe following two loadingcombinations Ordinary: P + 1,3L + 1,0D + 0,7E, and 1,3 : E x t r e m e 1 , 0 P+ 1 , 0 L + 1 , 0 D + 1 , 3E (live), Deformation (e.g.,temperature, (dead), differentialsettlement) Environmental and loadsrespectively. Operating whereP, L, D andE standfor Permanent For well controlled deadand live loadsduring fabrication and installation, the load factor 1,3 may be reducedto 1,2. Furthermore,for structuresthat are gas,the 1,3 load factor for environmentalloads - except earthquakes may be unmannedduring storm conditions and which ae not usedfor storageofoil and I,15. reducedto 2. Fatiguelimit state All loadfactorsaeto be takenas 1,0 limit state 3. Progressive Collapse All load factorsaeto be takenas 1.0. 4. Sewiceabilitylimit state All load factorsareto be takenas i.0. and are in characteristic valuesofthe loadsusedin the abovecombinations limit states summarized Table2, takenfrom the NPD rules. The so-called

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
. . o o o . In addition to environniental lods,an offshore structue must be designedfor deadand live loads,fabrication and inslallation loads as well as accidentalloads are rulesof practice,listedin the references, usuallyfollowed for specifring suchloads. Widely accepted usedfor the correspondingphases. The type and magnitudeof fabrication, transportationand installation loads dependupon the methodsand sequences Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into accountby meansof appropriatedynamic load factors. Accidental loads aenot well defined with respectto intensity and probability of occunence.They will typically require special protective mesues. Load combinationsand load factors dependupon the designmethodto be used.API-RP2A is basedon allowable stess design and recommendsagainstlimit state limit statedesig. desig,while DNV andNPD recommend desiga, BSI favoursallowablestress

7. REFERENCES
Institution,London, 1982. British Standards Fl 856235, "CodeofPracticefor Fixed OffshoreStructwes", Det and of [2] "Rulesfor the Design,Construction Inspection OffshoreStructures", NorskeVeritas@NV), Oslo, 1977(with conections1982). Institute,Washington, D.C., 18th Fixed OffshorePlaforms", AmericanPetroleum DesigningandConstructing Practice Plalming, for [3] API-RP2A, "Recommended ed.,1989. Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (MD), 1985 [4] "Regulation for Structural Desig of Load-bearingStructues Intendedfor.Exploitation of Petroleum Resources", ofEnergy, London 1985. [5] DOE-OG, "OffshoreInstallation:Guidaceon Designand Constuction",U.K. Department

8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. 2. 3. 4. OCS, "Requirementsfor Verif,ing the StructuralIntegity of OCS Platforms"., United StatesGeologic Survey,National Cente, Reston,Virginia, 1980. Gulf PublishingCo.;Houston,1981. Hsu, H.T., "Applied OffshoreStructal Engineering", Gulf PublishingCo.,Houston,1981. Grafl W.G., "Introductionto OffshoreStructures", New York, 1986. Gerwick,B.C. Jr., "Construction ofOffshore Stuctues", John!r'iley,

Table 1 Minimum designlive load specification Loads to be taken into account For portionsofthe structure For the structureas a whole

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(k/m2) Zone considered Flooring and joists 5 (1) Other components 5(1) (3)

zone(aroundwells and Process machines) large-scale Drilling zone Catwalks and walking platforms (except emergencyexits) Stairways (except emergenc] exits) Module roofing Emergency exits STORAGE Storagefloors - heavy Storagefloors - light Delivery zone Non-attributed area

2.5 2.5
I

5(1)

5( t ) 2.5 3

l.)

I 0

l8 9 l0
o

t2
o

8 (2) 4 (2)

10
J

as partlikely to be remtived, with a minimum valueof5 kN. Point loadsareassumed being (1) Accumulated with a point loadequalto the weight ofthe heaviest appliedto a 0,3m x 0,3m surface. (2) Applied on the entirety ofthe flooring surface(including trafc). runs. These valuesaethe input for the computer for (3) This columngivesthe loadsto be takeninto account the structe'soverallcalculation. Table 2 CharacteristicLoads accordingto NPD [4]

LOADTYPE

LIMIT STATFS FOR TEMPORARY PHASES Progressive Collapse 3ewiceability Fatigue Ultimate Abnornal effects Damage

LIMIT STATES FOR NORMAL OPERATIONS Prosressive Collapse Serviceability Fatigue Ultimate Abnormal effects Damage coridition

DEAD LIVE
DEFORMATION ENVIRONMENTAL Dependent on operational requirenmts Expected load history

EXPECTEDVALUE
SPECIFIED VALUE

VALUE EXTREME E)(PECTED

Va]ue dependent on measures taken Dependent on operational requiremmts Expected Annual Anual load probabiJity probability history Amual exceedance probability 702

to-z

104

ACCIDENTAL

NOTAPPUCABLE

Dependent on operational requiremm

NOTAPPUCABLE

Annual NOT exceedance APPLICABLE probability LO4

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ESDEPLECTURENOTE [WG15A] Previous lNext I Contents ES D E P G 1 5 4 W STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:OFFSHORE

P a g e1 o f 1 1

Lecture 15^.4 - AnalysisI

OBJECTI\rE/SCOPE
To presentthe main analysisproceduresfor offshore structures. PREREQTIISITES Lecture 15,A..1: Offshore Structures:General Introduction Lecture 154.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads Lecture 154.3: Loads II: Other Loads RELATED LECTURES Lecture 154.5: Analysis II SUMMARY

Acceptance criteriafor the ale Analyticalmodelsusedin ofhore engineering briefly described. are verificationof offshorestructures presented. for Simplerulesfor preliminarymembersizingaregiven andprocedrnes staticin-placeand dynamic analysis described. are

1. A}{ALYTICAL MODEL
The analysisof an offshore structure is an extensivetask, embracing consideration of the different stages,i.e. execution, installation, and in-service stages,dwing its life. Many disciplines, e.g. structural, geotechnical,naval architecture,metallurgy are involved. This lecture and Lecture 154.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of available analysis proceduresand providing benchmarksfor the readerto appreciatethe valid of his assumptionsand jackets, which are more unusual structurescomparedto decks and results. They primarily address more closely resemble onshorepetro-chemical plants. modules, and which

2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analytical models used in offshore engineeringare in some respectssimilar to those adoptedfor other types of steel structures.Only the salient featuresof offshore models are presentedhere. The samemodel is used tlroughout the analysisprocesswith only minor adjustmentsbeing made to suit the specific conditions, e.g. at supportsin particular, relating to each analysis.

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Stick models (beam elementsassembledin frames) are used extensively for tubular structures fiackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses(modules, decks). 2.1.1Jotnt Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its endsto other elementsin the model. If more accuracyis required, particularly for the assessment natural vibration modes, local of joint stiffriess matrix. flexibility of the connectionsmay be represented a by 2.1.2 Members In addition to its geometrical and material properties, eachmember is charactetisedby hydrodynamic coefficientS,e.g.relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave forces to be automatically generated.

2.2 PlateModels
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are describedby plate elements.The characteristicsassumedfor the plate elementsdependon the principal state of stress which they are subjectedto. Membrane stresses taken when the element is subjectedmerely to are axial load and shear.Plate stresses adoptedwhen bending and lateral presswe are to be taken into are account.

3. ACCEPTAI\CE CRITERIA
3.1 Code Checks
The verification of an element consistsof comparing its characteristicresistance(s) a design force to or stress.It includes: o a strength check, where the characteristicresistanceis related to the yield strength of the element, o a stability check for elementsin compressionwhere the characteristicresistancerelates to the buckling limit of the element. An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections(at least both ends and midspan) against resistanceand buckling. This verification also includes the effect of water pressurefor deepwater structures. Tubular joints are checkedagainstpunching under various load patterns. Thesechecksmay indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using overthicknessor internal ring-stiffeners. Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperatwe or durability wherever relevant.

3.2 Allowable StressMethod

This method is presently specified by American codes (API, AISC).

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The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the characteristicresistanceto obtain an allowable stressas follows: Condition

Axial

Strong axis bending

'Weak axis bending 0,75

Normal Extreme

0,60 0,80

0,66 0,88

1,00

"Normal" and "Extreme" respectively representthe most severeconditions: o under which the plant is to operatewithout shut-down. . the platform is to endureover its lifetime.

3.3 Limit StateMethod

This method is enforced by Europeanand Norwegian Authorities and has now been adopted by API ' as it offers a more uniform reliability. Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristicresistanceof the element, reflecting the amount of confidenceplaced in the design value of eachparameterand the degreeof risk acceptedunder a limit state,i.e: o Ultimate Limit State(ULS): correspondsto an ultimate event considering the structural resistancewith appropriate reserve. o Fatigue Limit State(FLS):

relates the possibilityof failure undercyclic loading. to (PLS): Limit State Progressive Collapse
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions. o ServiceLimit State(SLS): correspondsto criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator). 3.3.L Load factors Norwegian Authorities (2, 4) specify the following setsof load factors: Load Categories

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ULS (normal)

ULS (extreme)

PLS (accidental)

where the respectiveload categoriesare: P are permanentloads (structural weight, dry equipments,ballast, hydrostatic pressure). L are live loads (storage,persorxlel,liquids). . ,;

D are deformations (out-of-level supports, subsidence). E are environmental loads (wave, current, wind, earthquake). A are accidental loads (dropped object, ship impact, blast, fire). 3.3.2Material factors The materialpafal factors foi steel is normally taken'equalto 1,15 for ULS and tr,00for PL,Sand SLS design. 3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions Guidancefor classiffing typical conditions into typical limit statesis given in the following table:
Condition Loadings PIL E D
A

Design Criterion

Construction

ULS.SLS

Load-Out

reducedwind

disp support

ULS

Transport

transpol wind and wave

IJLS

Tow-out (accidental)

floo-ded compart

PLS

Launch

Lifting

In-Place(normal)

P+L

wind. wave & snow

actual

G'"*-

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In-Place(extrem

P+L

wind & 100 year wave

actual

ULS SLS

In-Place(exceptional) ]

P+L

wind & 10000year wave

actual

PLS

P+L

l u - quaKe

ULS

Rare Earthquake

P+L

I
Explosion P+L

roaquate

PLS

I
blasl PLS

Fire

o.oppe ouect I

F* Il ' . ' ]
reducedwave & wind

fire

PLS

drill collar

PLS

boat impact

PLS

PI-Sr

4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING

The analysis of a structure is an iterative processwhich requires progressiveadjusfinent of the, member sizeswith respectto the forces they transmit, until a safe and economical design is achieved. It is therefore of the utmost importanceto start the main analysis from a model which is close to the .: final optimized one. The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selectingrealistic sizesfor the main elements of offshore structuresin moderatewater depth (up to 80m) where dynamic effects are negligible,

4.1 Jacket Pile Sizes

o calculatethe vertical resultant (deadweight, live loads, buoyancy), the overall shearand the overturning moment (environmental forces) at the mudline. . assumingthat the jacket behavesas a rigid body, derive the maximum axial and shearforce at the top of the pile. o selecta pile diameter in accordancewith the expectedleg diameter and the capacity of pile driving equipment. . derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams. o sSuming equivalent soil subgrademodulus and full fixity at the base of the jacket, an calculatethe maximum moment in the pile and derive its wall thickness.

4.2 Deck Leg Sizes

o adaptthe diameter of the leg to that of the pile. r determinethe effective length from the degreeof fixity of the leg into the deck (depending upon the height of the cellar deck). o calculatethe moment causedby wind loads on topsides and derive the appropriatethickness.

4.3 Jacket Bracings

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. select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameterratio between 30 and 40. calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shearand the local bending causedby the wave assuming partial or total end restraint. . derive the thicknesssuch that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20 and70 and, eliminate any hydrostatic buckle tendency by imposin gDlt<170^/H 6f is the depth of member below the free surface).

4.4 Deck Framing

o select a spacingbetweenstiffeners (typically 500 to g00mm). derive the plate thickness from formulae accounting for local plastif,rcationunder the wheel footprint of the design forklift truck. o determine by straight beam formulae the sizes of the main girders under "blanket" live loads and/or the respectiveweight of the heaviest equipments,

5. STATIC II\-PLACE ANALYSIS

The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses.The structure is modelled as it standsduring its operational life,, and subjectedto pseudo-stac,:loads. This analysis is always carried at the very early stageof the project, often from a simplified nodel, to size the main elementsof the structure.

5.1 Structural Model

5.1.1Main Model

Themain model shouldaccount eccentricities local reinforcements thejoints. for and at Typicalmodelsfor North Sea jacketsmay featureover 800nodesand4000members. 5.1.2Appurtenances
The contribution of appurtenances (risers, J-tubes,caissons,conductors,boat-fenders,etc.) to the overall stiffrressof the structureis normally neglected: They are therefore analysedseparatelyand their reactions applied as loads at the interfaceswith the main structure. 5.1.3Foundation Model Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysedseparatelyfrom the structural model. Jhey are representedby an equivalent load-dependentsecantstiffness matrix; coeffrcients are determinedby an iterative processwhere the forces and displacementsat the common boundariesof structural and foundation models are equated This matrix may needto be adjustedto the mean reaction correspondingto each loading condition.

5.2 Loadings

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This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are describedin more detail in Lectures 154.2 and 154.3. 5.2.1 Gravity Loads Gravity loads consist of: . deadweight of structure and equipments. . live loads (equipments,fluids, personnel). Depending on the areaof structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to produce the most severeconfigtnation (compressionor tension); this may occur for instancewhen positioning the drilling rig. 5.2.2 Environm ental Lo ads Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumedto act simultaneously in the samedirection. In general eight wave incidenCesare selected;'fl each:theposition of the crest relative to the . platform must be establishedsuch that the maximum overfurning moment andlor shearare produced at the mudline.

5.3 Loading Combinations

The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads are approximatedby their pseudo-staticequivalent. The basic loads relevant to a'given condition are multiplied by the appropriateload factors and combined to produce the most severeeffect in each individual element of the stiucture.

6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamicanalysis normallymandatory everyofhore structure, canbe restricted the is for but to main modesin the caseof stiff structures.

6.1 Dvnamic Model

The dynamic model of the structure is derived from the main static model. Some simplifications may however take place: . local joint reinforcementsand eccentricitiesmay be disregarded. o massesare lumped at the member ends. . the foundation model may be derived from cyclic soil behaviour.

6.2 Equations of Motion

The governing dynamic equationsof multi-degrees-of-freedomsystemscan be expressedin the matrix form:

MX''+CX'+KX=P(t)

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M is the mass matrix C is the damping matrix K is the stiffness matrix X,X', X" are the displacement,velocity and accelerationvectors (fi.rnction of time).

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P(t) is the time dependentforce vector; in the most general caseit may dependon the displacements of the structure also (i.e. relative motion of the structure with respectto the wave velocity in Morison equation). 6.2.1Mass , the {gpresents distribution of massesover the structure. , I :

The mass matrix

Massesinclude that of the structureitself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in legs or tanks, the addedmass of water (massof water displacedby the member and determinedfrom potential flow theory) and the mass of marine growth Massesare generally'lumped at discretepoints of the model. The mass matrix consequently,-becomes diagonal but local:modes of vibration of single rnembers,are ignored (thesemodes may be important for certain members subjectedto an earthquake).The selectio of lumping points maysignifiantly affect the ensuing solution. As a fuither simplification to larger models involving considerabledegrees-of-freedom, system the can be condensedto a few freedomswhile still retaining its basic energy distribution. 6.2.2 Damping Damping is the most difficult to estimateamong all parametersgoverning the dynamic responseof a structure. It may consist of structural and hydrodynamic damping. Structural Damping Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the material., It increaseswith the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain energy involved in each. Hydrodynamic Damping Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to the former, but may alternatively be accountedas part of the forcing function when vibrations are close to resonance (vortex-shedding in particular). Representation of Damping

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Viscous damping representsthe most common and simple form of damping. It may have one of the following representations : o modal damping: a specific damping rato expressingthe percentageto critical associated with eachmode (typically (:0,5o/o structural;: 1,5%o hydrodynamic) o proportional damping: defined as a linear combination of stiffness and massmatrices. All other types of non-viscous damping should preferably be expressedas an equivalent viscous damping matrix. 6.2.3 Stiffness The stifressmatrix is in all aspectssimilar to the one used in static analyses.

6.3 Free Vibration Mode Shapes and Frequencies

The first step in a dynamic analysis consistsof determining the principal natural vibration mode shapel and frequenciesof the undamped,multi-degree-of-freedom sffucture up to a given order (30th to 50th). This consistsin solving the eigenvalueproblem: KX = I l\,D( Fol rigid structureshaving a fundamentalvibration period well below the range,of wave periods (typically less than 3 s), the dynamic behaviow is simply accountedfor by multiplying th,timedependentloads by a dynamic amplification factor (DAF):

+(z'J7' 1-,-+)t
whereB : T*/T is the ratio of theperiodof the structure the waveperiod. to

6.4 Modal Superposition Method

A convenienttechnique consistsof uncoupling the equationsthrough the normal modes of the system. This method is only applicable if: o eachmass, stiffiress and damping matrix is time-independent. . non-linear forces arclineanzed beforehand(drag). The total responseis obtained by summing the responsesof the individual single-degree-of-freedom oscillators associated each normal mode of the structure. to This method offers the advantagethat the eigen modes provide substantial insight into the problem, and can be re-usedfor as many subsequent responsecalculations as neededat later stages. It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes is required to representthe responseaccurately.Therefore:

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. non-linear problems involving special forms of damping and response-dependent loadings. o responses involving many vibration modes to be determined over a short time interval. The dynamic equilibrium at an instant r is governedby the sametype of equations,where all matrices (mass,damping, stifflness, load) are simultaneously dependentonhe time and structural response well. as All available integration techniquesare characterised their stability (i.e. the tendency for by uncontrolled divergence of amplitude to occur with increasing time steps).Unconditionally stable methods are always to be preferred (for instanceNewmark-beta with : ll4 or wilson-theta with 0 :1,4).

7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
a a

o a

The analysis of ofhore structuresis an extensivetask. The analical models used in offshore engineering are in some respectssimilar to those used for other types of steel structures.The samemodef is usedthroughout the analysis process. : The verification of an element consistsof comparing its characteristicresistance(sfto a design force or stress.Severalmethods are available. .. Simple rules are available for preliminary member sizing. Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stageof a project to size the main elementsof the structure.A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure. PreviouslNext I Contents

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ES D E P G 1 5A W STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:OFFSHORE

Lecture 154.5 - AnalysisII

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To presentthe analysisproceduresfor offshore structuresrelating to fatigue, abnormal and accident conditions, load-out and transportation,installation and local design. PREREQTIISITES Lecture 154.1: Offshore Structures:General Introduction Lecture 154.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental T 6d5 Lecture 154.3: Loads II: Other Loads RELATED LECTURES Lecture 154.4: Analysis I SUMMARY Methods of fatigue analysis are describedincluding the fatigue model (structural, hydrodynamic loading, andjoint stressmodels) and the methodsof fatigue damage assessment Abnormal and accidental conditions are consideredrelating to earthquake,impact and progressive collapse. Analyses required for load-out and transportationand for installation are outlined. Local analysis for specific parts of the structure which are better treatedby dedicatedmodels outside of the global analysis are identified.

1.. FATIGUE ANALYSIS

A fatigue analysis is performed for those structuressensitive to the action of cyclic loadings such as: r wrv fiackets, floating structures). o wind (flare booms, stair towers). o structures under rotating equipments.

1.1 FatigueModel 1.1.1 Structural Model

The in-place model is used for the fatigue analysis.

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to Quasi-static analysis is often chosen;it permits all local stresses be comprehensivelyrepresented. The dynamic effects are accountedfor by factoring the loads by the relevant DAF. Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may also overlook important local responsemodes,particularly near the waterline where direct wave action causeshigh out-of-plane bending (seeSection5.2). The mode - accelerationmethod may overcome this problem. 1.1.2Hydrodynamic Loading Model A very large number of computer runs may be necessaqito evaluatethe stressrange at the joints. The wave is repeatedlygeneratedfor: i o different blocks of wave heights (typicatly from 2 to 28min stepsof 2m), each associatedwith a charactensticwave and zero-upcroqsingperiod. o different incidences(typically eight). . different phasesto determinethe stressrange for a given wave at eachjoint. 1.1.3Joint StressModel Nominal joint stresses calculatedfor eight points around the circumferenceof the brace. The are (hot spot) stressis obtained by multiplying the former by a stressconcentration maximum local factor (SCF) given by parametric formulae which are functions of the joint geometry and the load pattern (balanced/unbalanced). I.|.4atigue I)amage Model :

The fatigue failure ofjoints in offshore structuresprimarily dependson the stressranges and their number of occurrences,formulated by S-N curves: log N,: log cr + mlog Ao The number of cycles to failure N, correspondsto a stressrange. The effect of the constant stresses, mainly welding residual stresses, implicitly accountedfor in this formulation. is The cumulative damagecausedby n, cycles of stresso,, over the operational life of the platform (30 to 50 years) is obtainedby the Palmgren-Miner rule:
rffli

D : iN;
The limit of this ratio dependson the position of the joint with respectto the splashzone (typically +l-4m on either side of the mean sealevel). The ratio should normally not exceed: o 1,0above, . 0,1 within, o 0,3 below the splashzone. 1.1.5 Closed tr'orm Expression The damagemay alternatively be expressedin closed form:

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o:lpffi
where

rftm+l)

cr, m are coefficients of the selectedS-N curve. o is the stressrange exceededonce in N cycles. k is a long-term distribution parameter,dependingon the position of the joint in the structure.' N is the total number of cycles.

1.2 Deterministic Analysis

This analysis consistsof time-domain analysis of the structure.The main advantage this .. , of representationis that non-linear effects (drag, high order wave theories) are handld explicitly. A minimum of four regular waves describedin terms'of height 'andassociated period are considered for each heading angle.

1.3 SpectralAnalysis
frequencies.If this range correspondsto a peak in the structural response,the fatigue life predicted ,., , by the deterministic method can be seriously distorted. This problem is overco-9 by using a scatterdiagram, in which the joint occruenceof wave height 'Wave and period is quantified. directionality may also be accountedfor. Eventually the most thorough representationofa sea stateconsistsof: . the frequency spectrum constructedfrom the significant wave heights and mean zero-crossins a---- -----Periods. o the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associatedspreadingfunction. This approachrequires that the physical processbe approximately linear (or properly linearised) and stationary.Transfer functions TF are determinedfrom time-domain analyseJinvolving various wave heights, eachwith different period and incidence:
If .* [r1{ r:] = 'e -

Wves a given of height not characterised a unique are by frequency, rather a range but by of

The response normallya narrow-banded has spectrum canbe described a Rayleigh and by distribution The zero-upcrossing frequency stress of cyclesis thenapproximated by:

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where mn is the nth order moment of the response. The significant stressrange is readily obtained for each seastateas:

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4.
Osis: J o F

where S(ro,0)is the directional wave energy spectrum.

1.4Wind Fatigue 1.4.1Wind Gusts

The fatigue damage causedby the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender structures like flare booms and bridges is usually predicted by spectralmethods The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherencefunctions accounting for the spanwisecorrelation of forces. : l.4.2YorJex Shedding Vortex induced failure occurs for tubes subjectedto a uniform or oscillating flow of fluid. V/ithin a specif,rc range of fluid velocities, eddiesare shed at a frequency close to the resonant :' , frequency of the member. This phenomenoninvolves forced displacements, which can be determinedby models such as those suggested [1]. in

2. ABNORMAL AND ACCIDENTAL CONDITIONS

This type of analysis addresses conditions which may considerably affect the integrity of the structure,but only have a limited risk of occuffence. Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-athreshold are disregarded.

2.1 Earthquake Analysis 2.1.1 Model

Particular attention shall be paid to: . foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the structure) shall accuratelyrepresentload-deflection behaviour. As a generalrule the lateral foundation behaviour is essentiallycontrolled by horizontal ground motions of shallow soil layers. o modal damping (in generaltaken as 5Yo andTYoof critical for ULS and PLS analyles respectively). 2.1.2 Ductilify Requirements The seismic forces in a structureare highly dependenton its dynamic characteristics.Design

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recommendationsare given by API to determine an eff,rcientgeometry. The recommendationscall for: o . o . providing sufficient redundancy and symmetry in the structure. favowing X-bracings instead of K-bracings. avoiding abrupt changesin stiffness. improving the post-buckling behaviow of bracings.

2.1.3 Analysis Method Earthquake analysescan be canied out according to the generalmethodspresentedin Lecture 154.4. However their distinctive feature is that they representessentially a basemotion problem andfhat the seismic loads are therefore dependenton the dynamic characteristicsof the structure. Modal spectralresponseanalysis is normally used.It consistsof a superpositionof maximum mode. responseand forms a responsespectrum curve characteristicof the input motion, Thisrspeptrurnis., the result of time-histories of a SDOF system for different natural periods of vibration and damping. Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerogramsadaptedto the site. : :

2.2Impact Theanalysis impact of loads structures carried locallyusingsimple on is out plastic models [2].
Should a more sophisticatednaly-sis required, it can be accomplishedusing time=domain . be techniques presented Section6 of Lecture l5A.4 in : ::: : The whole energy must be absorbedwithin acceptabledeformations. 2.2.1 Dropped Objec tlBoat Impact When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube fiacket leg, fender) is crushed by a supply boat, two load/deformationmechanismsoccur simultaneously: o local punch-through (cover) or denting (tube). o global deformation along plastic hinges with possible appearance membraneforces. of 2.2.2Blast and Fire Owing to the current lack of definitive guidanceregarding explosions and fire, the behaviour of structuresin such eventshas so far been only predicted by simple models basedon: o equivalent static overpressureand plastic deformation of plates for blast analysis. o the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperatureincrease. In the aftermath of recent mishapshowever, more accurateanalysesmay become mandatory, based on a better understandingof the pressure-timehistories and the effective resistanceand responseof structuresto explosions and fire. r .,

2.3 ProgressiYe Collapse

Some elementsof the structure (legs, bracings, bulkheads)may partially or completely loose their

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The purpose of such analysis is to ensurethat the spareresistanceof the remaining structure is sufficient to allow the loads to redistribute. Since such a configuration is only temporary (mobilisation period prior to repairs) and that operationswill also be restricted around the damagedarea,reducedlive and environmental loads are generally accepted. In this analysis,the damagedelementsare removed from the model. Their residual strength may be represented forces applied at the boundary nodes with the intact structure. by

3. LOAD OUT & TRANSPORTATIOI{

3.1 Load-Out
The load-out procedure consistsin moving the jacket or module from its construction site to the transportationbarge by skidding, or by using trailers underneathit. The barge may be floating and is continuously deballastedas the packageprogressesonto it, or grounded on the bottom of the harbow. 3.1.1Skidding The most severecorifiguration during skidding occurs when the part of the structure is cantilevering out: o from the quayside before it touchesthe barge. o from the bargejust after it has left the quay. The analysis should also investigatethe possibility of high local reactions being the result of settlementof the skidway or effors in the ballasting procedure. 3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant,analysis of load-out by trailers only requires a single step to determine the optimal distribution of trailers.

3.2 Transportation
3.2.L Naval Architectural Model The model consistsof the rigid-body assemblyof the barge and the structure. Barges are in general characterised a low length/beamratio and a high bearn/draughtratio, as well by a_s sharpcomers which introduce heavy viscous damping. For jacket transport, particular care shall be taken in the representationof overhanging parts (legs, buoyancy tanks) which contribute signifrcant to the righting moment. Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply representedby their mass and moments of inertia.

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This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerationsand displacementsof the structureto be entered in the structural model as inertia forces, and also the partition and intensity of buoyancy and slamming forces. 3.2.2 Structural Model The jacket model is a simplified version of the in-place model, from which eccentricities and local reinforcementsmay be omitted The barge is modelled as a plane grid, with membershaving the equivalent properties of the longitudinal'and transversalbulkheads. As the barge passesover a wave trough or a crest, a portion only of the barge is supportedby buoyancy (long bargesmay be spanning over a whole trough or be half-cantilevered). The model therefore represents jacket and the barge as two structurescoupled together by the the seafasteningmembers

4. TNSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
4.1.1 Naval Architectural Model Athreedirnensonalanalysisiscarriedouttoevaluatetheglobalforces.actingonthejackt,at various time stepsduring the launch sequence. At each time step,the jacket/bargerigid body systemis repositionedto equilibrate the internal and external forces produced by: o jacket weight, inertia, buoyancy and drag forces, o barge weight, buoyancy and ballast forces. o vertical reactionsand friction forces betweenjacket and barge. The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just startsrotating about the rocker hinge. 4.1.2 Structural Model The structural model is in all aspectsidentical to the one used for the transportation analysis,with possibly a finer representationof the launch legs. The rocker arm is also represented a vertical beam hinged approximately at midspan. Interface as -on loads obtained by the rigid body analysis are input at boundary onditions the launch legs. All interface membersmust remain in compression,otherwise they are inactivated and the analysis restartedfor that step. Once the tilting phasehas begun, the jacket is analysedat least for each main leg node being at the vertical of the rocker arm pivot.

4.2 Upending
No dedicatedstructural analysis is required for this phase,which is essentially a naval architecture

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problem. A local analysis of the lugs is performed for crane-assisted upendings.

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4.3 Docking
Docking of a jaeket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysedfor local impact. The samerequirement applied for bumpersto aid the installation of modules.

4.4 Unpiled Stability

The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is analysedfor the design installation wave. The stability of the jacket as a whole (overturning tendency) is investigated,together with the resistanceof the mudmats against soil pressure.

4.5 Piling
The piles are checkedduring driving for the dynamic stresses causedby the impact wave of the hammer blow. The maximum cantilevered(stick-up) length of pile must be establishedfor the selfweight of the pile and hammer combined, accounting for first and secondorder moments arising from the pile batter. Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater driving. Elements'inthevicinity of the piles (guides,sleeves) shall also be checked,seeSection5.1. 4.6 Lifting 4.6.1Model The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consistsofthe in-place model plus the representationof the rigging arrangement(slings, spreaderframes). ,: ::

For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole vertical support in the model and shall be located exactly on the vertical through the centre of gracity (CoG) of the model. For heavier dual-cranelifts, the CoG shall be contained in the vertical plane defined by the two hook joints. The mathematicalinstability of the model with respectto horizontal forces is avoided by using sofl horizontal springs at the padeyes.The force and elongation in these springs should always remain small. 4.6.2 Design Factors Diferentfactors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects dwing lifting operations. 4.6.2.1Skew Factor (SKL) Load This factor represents effect of fabrication tolerancesand lack-of-fit of the slings on the load the repartition in a statically tmdeterminedrigging urangement slings or more). Skew factors may (4 either be directly computed by applying to a pair of opposite slings a temperaturedifference such

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that their elongation/shortening corresponds the mismatch, determined to or arbitrarily(typically 1/3 - 213repartition).
4.6.2.2Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)

This factor accountsfor global dynamic effects normally experiencedduring lifting operations.DnV [24] recommendsminimum values as follows:
Lifted Weight W (tonnes)

up to 100t

100t to 1000t

1000t to 2500t

more than 2500t

4.6.2.3Tilt Effect Factor (TEF)

This factor accountsfor additional sling loading causedby the rotation of the lifted object about a horizontal axis and by the longitudinal deviation of the hooks from their theoretical position in the caseof a multi-hook lift. It shall normally be based on 5o and 3" tilt respectively depending on :; whether cranesare on different vesselsor not. 4.6.2.4 Yaw EffectFactor(YE This factor accountsfor the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal to 1,05 typically). .'''' 4.6.3 ConsequenceFactors Forces in elementscheckedunder lift conditions are multiplied by a factor reflecting the .. .: consequence failure of that specific element would have on the integrity of the overall structwe: a o 1,30 for spreaderframes, lifting points (padeyes)and their attachmentto the structure. . 1,15 for all memberstransferring the load to the lifting points. o 1,00 for other elements.

5. LOCAL ANALYSESAND DESIGN

Local analysesaddressspecific parts of the structure which are better treatedby dedicatedmodels outside the global analysis. The list of analysesbelow is not exhaustiveand more information can be found :rr.ll-24]which provide a complete design procedurein eachparticular case.

5.1 Pile/Sleeve Connections

Underwater pile/sleeve connectionis usually achieved by grouting the annulus between the outside of the pile and the inner sleeve. The main verifications address: . the shear stresses the concrete. in the fatigue damagein the shearplates and the attachmentwelds to the main jacket accumulated dwing pile driving and throughout the life of the platform.

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5.2 Members within the Splash Zone

Horizontal members(conductor guide frames in particular) located within the splashzone (*/-5m on either side of the mean-sea-levelapproximately) shall be analysedfor fatigue causedby repeated wave slamming. A slamming coefflrcientCr:3,5 is often selected.

5.3 Straightened Nodes

Typical straightenednodes (ring-stiffened nodes,bottle legs nodes with diaphragms)are analysedby finite-elementsmodels, from which parametric envelopeformulae are drawn and applied to all nodes representativeof the sameclass

5.4 Appurtenances 5.4.L Riserso Caissons J'Tubes &

Static In-PIace and Fatigu e .

Risers, caissonsand J-tubesare verified either by structural or piping progrrims for the action of environmental forces, intemal pressureand temperature.Particular attention is paid to the bends not always satisfactorily representedby structural programs and the location of the touch-down point now known a-priori. A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess fatigue damageto the clamps and the attiachments the jacket. to the Pull-In J-tubesare empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside, They are verified by empirieal plastic models against the forees generatedduring pull-in by the friction of the cable and the deformation of the pull head, see[22]. 5.4.2 Conductors Conductorsare analysedin-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports,thesebeing provided by the horizontal framing of the jacket (typically 20to 25 m span). The installation sequence the different casingsmust be consideredto assess distribution of of the stresses the different tubes forming the overall composite section. in Also the portion of compressionforce in the conductor causedby the hanging casingsis regardedas an internal force (similar to prestressing)which therefore does not induce any buckling tendency, see

1231. 5.5Helidecks
The helideck is normally designedto resist an impact load equal to 2,5 times the take-offweight of the heaviesthelicopter factored by a DAF of 1,30. Plastic theories are applicable for designing the plate and stiffeners, while the main framing is analysedelastically.

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Analyses of flare booms particularly consider:

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o variable positions during installation (horizontal pick-up from the barge, lift upright). . reducedmaterial characteristicsdue to high temperaturein the vicinity of the tip during , operation. . dynamic rssponseunder gusqywinds. o local excitation of diagonalsby wind vortex-shedding.

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
o With the trend to ever deeperand more slender offshore structuresin yet harsher environments,more elaboratetheories are necessaryto analysecomplex situations. There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to rely on the sole results of computer analysesat the expenseofsound designpractice. o To retain enough control of the processof analysis, the following recommendationsare given: ' check the interfaces betweenthe different analysesand ensurethe consistencyof the inpulouut. ' veriff the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis againsta simplified model, which can also be used to assess influence of a particular parameter. the ' make full use of "good engineeringjudgement" to criticise the unexpectedresults of an analysis.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced Vibrations of Ofhore Structures/OTC paper 1843,May 1973. l2lDeOliveira J.G., The Behaviour of Steel Ofhore Structuresunder Accidental Collisions/OTC : paper 4136,May 1981. [3] API-RP2A, RecommendedPractice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms/l 8th edition, September 989. 1 [4] DnV, Rules forthe Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures,Sepember 1989. [5] DnV, Standardfor InsuranceWarranty Surveys in Marine Operations,June 1985. [6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing StructuresIntended for Exploitation of Petroleum Resources,Octoberl984 andVeiledning om Utforming, Beregning og Dimensjonering av Stalkonstruksj oner i Petroleumsvirksomheten, December1989. [7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidanceon Design and Construction/London,April 1984. [8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Ofhore Platforms/Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986. [9] LIEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/ClRlA Report 1JF{22,1984. [10] Hallam M.G., HeafN.J. & V/ootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/CIRIA Report UR8

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ESDEPLECTURENOTE [WG15A] (2ndedition), October 1978.

[11] 'WilsonJ.F.,Dynamics of Offshore StructuresViley Interscience,IgS4.

Page12 of 12

Dynamics Structwes4cGraw-Hill, York, 1975. of New [12] CloughR.W. &.PenzenJ., VibrationsandSpectral Analysis/Longman Scientific(2nd editibn), [13] NewlandD.E., Random 1984. o.c., Lewis R.v/. & staggK.G., NumericalMethodsin ofhore 114)zienr<tewicz Engineering/Wiley Interscienc 197 e, 8. 4.G., The Response Slender of Line-Like Structures a GustyV/ind/ICEVo1.23. to [15] Davenport 1962. Analysis SteelOffshore of Structures/ICE [16] WilliamsA.K. & RhinneJ.E.,Fatigue Vol.60. November 1976. S.4., Vy'ave Earthquake and Response OffshoreStructures: of Evaluationof [17] Anagnostopoulos Modal Solutions/AscE of the Structural J. Div., vol. 108,No ST10,october 1982. 4., Analysis [18] ChianisJ.W. & Mangiavacchi A Critical Reviewof Transportation Procedures/OTC paper4617, Mayl 983. Analysisof Barge-Platform [19] KaplanP. Systems in 'Waves/RoyalJiangC.W. & BentsonJ, Hydrodynamic Inst. of Naval Architects,London,April 1982. LaunchingSimulation Differentiationof Constraints/ by [20] HambroL., Jacket Applied Ocean Research, Vol.4 No.3, 1982. of [21] BunceJ.V/.& Wyatt T.4., Development Unified DesignCriteriafor HeavyLift Operations paper4192, Offshore/OTC May 1982. 122]WalkerA.C. & DaviesP., A DesignBasisfor the J-TubeMethodof RiserInstallation/J. of -270,September983. EnergyResources Technology, 263 pp. 1 for [23] StahtB. & Baur M.P., DesignMethodology OffshorePlatformConductors/J. Petroleum of Technology, November 983. I of [24] DnV - Rulesfor the Classification SteelShips,January1989. Previous lNext I Contents

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PreviouslNext I Contents ESDEP WG 154 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

Lecture 154.6: Foundations

OBJECTIVE\SCOPE . to classiS differenttypesofpiles o to understand main designmethods to cover vaious methodsof installation PREREQUISITES Lecture 18..2.2: Limit StateDesignPhilosophyandPartialSafetyFactors Lectures10.6:ShearConnection Lectures, 12.4:FatigueBehaviourof Hollow SectionJoints Lecturp 154.12: Connetions Ofhore Deck Structures in Lecture I 7.5: Requirements Verificationsof SeismicResistantStructures and A geneallnowledge ofdesign in offshorestructures an understanrling and ofoffshore installationarealsorequired. SUMMRY ln this lecturepiled foundations ofhore structures presented. for are The lecturestartswith the classification ofsoil. The main stepsin the design ofpiles arethen explained. The differentkinds ofpiles andhammersaredescribed. threemain execution phases briefly discussed: The are fabrication, transport and installation.

I.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification of Soils

The stratigraphy ofthe seabedresultsfrom a complexgeologicalprocess duringwhich variousmaterialswere deposited,.remoulded pressed and together. Soil textureconsists ofsmall mineralor organicparticlesbasicallycharacterized their grain sizeandmutual interaction(friction, cohesion)by The pioperties of a specific soil dependmainly on the following factors: . density. . water Content. . over consolidation ratio. For designpurposes influenceofthese factorson.soilbehaviouris expressed termsoftwo frndamental the parmeters: in . friction angle. o undrained shearstrengthCu. Sincethe leastsignificantofeither ofthese parameters often neglected, is soils canbe classied within "ideal" categories: . granularsoils. o cohesivesoils. 1.2 Granular Soils particles.They ihclude: Granularsoils arenon-plastic soilswith negligiblecohesion between snds: chaacterized large to medium particl sizes (1mm to 0,05mm) offering a high permeability, by '. silts : characterized particle sizesbetween0,05 and 0,02mm; they are generally over-consolidated;they may exhibit some by cohesion. 1.3 Cohesive Soils Clays are plastic soils with particle sizeslessthan 0,002mm which tend to stick together; their permeability is low. 1.4 Multi-Layered Strata

The nature and chaacteristics ofthe soil surroundinga pile generally vary with the depth.For analysispurposes,the soil is divided into several layers, eachhaving constantpropertiesthroughout. The number oflayers dependson the precision required ofthe analysis.

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2. DESIGN
Steelofhore platformsareusually foundedon piles,driven deepinto the soil (Figure 1). The piles haveto transfethe loadsactingon thejacket into the seabed.In this sectiontheoreticalaspects ofthe designofpiles arepresented. Checkingofthe pile itselfis described detail in the in WorkedExample.

Typical slope 1:6

Dead weight

Skin Triction

J
( B e n d i n g e f o r m a t i o n sa r e p u r p o s e l ye x a g g e r a t e d ) d

T /0|

Li

tl

LHT Fr=Tsin e R"=

/ l

Figure 1 Pile soil interaction

2.1 DesignLoads
Theseloads ae thosetransfered from the iacket to the foundation. Thev are calculatedat the mudline. 2.1.1Gravity loads Gravity loads latform deadload and live loads) are distributed as axial compressionforces on the piles dependingupon their respective eccentricity. 2.1.2Environmental loads Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically horizontal. Their resultant at mudline consistsof: . sheardistributed as horizontal forces on the piles. . overturning moment on thejacket, equilibratedby axial tension/ compressionin symmetrically disposedpiles (upstream-/downsfeam), 2.1.3Load combinations The basic gravity and environmental loads multiplied by relevant load factors are combined in order to produce the most severeeffect(s) at mudline,resultingin: o vertical compressionor pullout force, and . lateralshearforceplus sding. 2.2 Static Axial Pile Resistance

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The overallresistance ofthe pile againstaxial force is the sum ofshaft friction and end bearing. 2,2.I Lateral friction along the shaft (shaft friction)

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Skin friction is mobilized alongthe shaftof the tubularpile (andpossiblyalsoalongthe innerwall when the soil plug is not removed). The unit shaft friction: presswe, . for sands:is proportional the oveburden to . for clays: is calculatedby the "alpha" or "lambda" method and is a constantequal to the sheastrengthC, at great depth. alongthe whole penetration ofthe pile. Lateralfriction is integrated 2.2.2Bnd bearing Endbearingistheresultantofbearingpressureoverthegrossendareaofthepile,i.e.withowithouttheareaofplugifrelevant.. The bearingpressure: . for clays:is equalto 9 x Cu. . for sands:is proportional the overburden pressure explainedin Section6.4.2ofAPI.RP2A []. as to 2.2.3 Pile penetration The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generateenoughfriction and bearing resistanceagainstthe maximum design compressionmultiplied by the appropriatefactor of safety.No bearingresistancecan be mobilized againstpull-out: the friction available must be equatedto lle pull out force multiplied by the appropriatefactor of safety. .: : 2.3 Lateral Pile Resistance large loadsis resisted lateralbearingofthe pile on the soil. This actionmay generate by The sheaat the mudline caused environmental by deformations and high bendingmomentsin the part of the pile directly below the mudline, paficularly in soft soils. 2.3.1P-y curves versusdeflection. type of soil at the The shape ofthese curvesvarieswith the depthand.the P-y curvesrepresent lateralsoil esistance the displacement features: considered elevation.The general shape ofthe curvesfor increasing o elastic(linear)behaviourfor small deflections, . elastic/plastic behaviourfor mediumdeflections, (clay undercyclic load in particular), . constant when the soil skeletondeteriorates resistance largedeflections lossof resistance for or 2.3.2 Lateral pile analysis For analysispurposes,the soil s modelled as lumped non-linear springs distributed along the pile. The fourth order differential equationwhich updaledat eachsfep., . .- by iterations, secant the stiffuessofthe soil springsb-eing expresses pile deformation integrated successive the is For large deformations,the secondorde contribution of the axial compressionto the bending moment @-Delta effect) shall be taken into account. 2.4 Pile Driving Piles installed by driving ae forced into the soil by a ram hitting ttre top. The impact is transmittedalong the pile in the form of a wave, which lost reflectson the pile tip. The energyis progressively by plasticfriction on the sidesandbearingat the t ofthe pile. 2.4.1 Empirical formulae numberof empiricalformulaeexistto predictpile driveabil. Each formulais generallylimited to a particulartype of soil and A considerable hammer. 2.4.2Waveequation the 5 assembly masses, of consists representing ensemble pile/soil/hammg os-rlimensional of of This methodof analysing drvingprocess the springsand dashpots: . . o . . assembly masses elasticsprings. of and the pile is modelledas a discrete by medium characterzed elastic-perfectly-plasticsprings and linear dashpots. the soil is idealized as a massless the hammeris modelledasa massfalling with an initial velocity. by sprng(seeFigure3). the cushionis represented a weightless the pile cap is represented a massof infinite rigidity. by

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oull1 stem Ch ber

Exhuston nd velve

Stem conll Pslon Rm Stem outlet Cushon

Guidecolumn Pston -

Housng C!shio n Ple

Moving niston

Fied pston

{1} Singleacting steam hammers

Tdp

gt***,',1;",,
*"*-;;"

ilH
(d) Diesel lluid e xp l o s i o n
/

( a )T r i p p i n ga l stert ol stroke

(b) Fuel

(cl Compression and impact

(cl Top of slro ke

diesel hammer
Pgton(doublclonl Hvdulc

or
Floetng 5lon Nrgen Rm cylnder lmpcl hed

I ) Ram

;"__#_",
li 1l*""*'"n
fbl Menck- tvPe

I )

shock

HydEUlc oylnder (doubl acting) -. Anvl Sleeve Ple

:;:"*"'ffio".,,

"**=.-)fr1

la) Hydroblok- tvpe

u-'-

hammer l3l Hydraulic

Figure3 Hammers
a The enerry ofthe ram hitting the top ofthe pile generates stresswave in the pile, which dissipatesprogressivelyby friction between the pile and the soil andby reflectionat the exremities of the pile. The plastic displacementof the tip relative to the soil is the set achievedby the blow. Curves can be drawn to representthe number of blows per unit length required to drive the pile at different penefrations. still suffersa lack ofaccuracy,mostly caused to the thoughrepresenting most rigorousassessment dateofthe driving process, The wave equation, in by the inaccuracies the soil model.

3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES

Driven ples are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore structures. As shown in Figure 2, the following altemativesmay be chosenwhen driving proves impractical: r insertpiles. . drilled and groutedpiles. . belledpiles.

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Driven

Controlled drilling

Uncontrolled drilling

Insert pile

Grouted pile

Belled pile

Figure 2. Different kinds of pile

3.1 Driven Piles

Pilesareusuallymadeup in sesrents.After placing and driving the first long segment, extension segments calledadd-ons seton pieceby are pieceas driving proceeds until the overalldesignlengthis achieved. piles havebeenwidely usedin the North Seasincethe ofhore work is considerably In recentyearsone-piece reduced. Wall thickness may vary. A thickerwall is sometimes required: o in sectionsfrom mudline down to a specified depthwithin which bending stresses especiallyhigh, are r at the pile tip (driving shoe)to resist local bearing stresses while driving. Uniform wall thiclness is however preferablethus avoiding construction and installation problems. 3.2 Insert Piles Insert piles are smaller diameterpiles driven through the main pile om which the soil plug has beenpreviously drilled out. They are therefore not subjectedto skin friction over the length ofthe main pile and can reach substantialadditional penetration. The insertpile is weldedto the main pile at the top ofthejacket andthe annularspace betweenthe tubesis grouted. This type ofpile is used: . in a preplannedsituation: performanceis good although material and installation costsare higher than for normal driven piles. . as an emergencyprocedure:when scheduledpiles cannotbe driven to the required penetration,resulting therefore in one ofthe following drawbacks. . a thicke wall section of the main pile will be within thejacket height insteadof below the mudline. .reducedfriction areaand end bearingpressure, . difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting, i.e. the concem is the leakageof gtout or the impossibility to fill with the calculated volume of $out. 3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles

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in that This procedure the only meansofinstalling piles with tensionresistance had soils or soft rocks; it resembles for drilling a conductor is well. pile penetration depth.The pile is then lowereddown, sometimes centredin the hole by hole is initially drilled to the proposed An ovesized the soil is grouted. spacers lle annularspace and between pile shaftand the surrounding Designuncertainty resultsbecause: . hard soil formation softenswhen exposedto the water or mud usedduring drilling and extribits lower skin friction resistance. o in caseof calcareoussand,external grouting just crushesthe sand,slightly extendingthe effective pile diameterbut not increasingthe friction significantly. 3.4 Belled Piles the undera pi1e,offshorebelled pilesprovide a largebearingareato increase tip While belledpiles, on land areusedto decrease bearingstess uplift resistance hole ahead. belling tool (underreamer) A The main pile, normally driven,serves hereas a casingtbroughwhich a rig drills a slightly oversized then enlargesthe socketto a conical bell with a basediameter a few times that of the main pile. A heavy reinforcement cageis lowered inside the (maximumsize 10mm). filled with concrete madeusing fine aggregate bell which is subsequently

4. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION

4.1 Fabrication . : . The piles areusuallymadeup of "cans"- cylindersof rolled platewith a longitudinalseam.Single cansaretypically l,5m long or more. are Longitudinalseams oftwo adjacenl segments rotated90o apartat least. l,; is Bevelling is mandatoryshould the wall thickness difference exceed3mm betweenadjacentcas. Maximum deviation from straightness specified(0. l% in length). Commonlyusedsteelgradeis X52 or X60. The outsidesurfaceofgrouted piles shouldbe ee ofmill scaleand vamished. current.ln the splashzone'additional,thickness underwater sacrificialanodes by impressed by or to In certaininstances, steelpiles areprotected , coating,monel or copper-nickel sheeting provided.. are allow for corrosion(3mm for example)andepoxy or rubberized 4.2 Transportation 4.2.1 Barge transportation Pile Pile segr.ents chokedand fastenedto the bargeto prevent them Aom falling overboardunder severeseastates. plate should be thick are enoush to prevent any deformation causedby stacking. 4.2.2 Self floating mode ofpile are to be lifted and set in guides far below the seasurface (skirt piles for example). This method is attractivewhere long segments The endsof the piles are sealedby steel closureplates or rubber diaphragmswhich should be able to resist wave slamming during the tow. 4.2.3Transport within the jacket generating additionalweight andpossiblybuoyancy(ifclosed). They areheld in The piles arepre-setinsidethe main legsor in the guides/sleeves, place by shims which preventthem om escapingfrom their guides during launch and uprightng ofthejacket. immediatelyafter thejacket hastoucheddown,providing initial stability againstthe actionofwaves and current. Severalpiles ale dr"iven 4.3 Hammers Piles arepositioned: .. eitherinsidethejacket legs,ssding the full height ofthe jacket, protrudingat the bottom ofthejacket, runningvertical or parallelto the legs (typical batter 1/l2to l/6). . or encased sleeves in of Piles canthen be drivenusing any type of hammer(or a combination types).Hammersareillustated in Figure 3. 43.1 Steamhammers Steamhammersarewidely usedfor offshore installation ofjackets. They are generally single acting with rates of up to 40 blows/minute. Energies rangefrom 60 000 to I 250 000 ft lb/blow. (82I(Nm 1o 1725I(Nmper blow). of currenthammers During driving, the hammerwith attacheddriving headrides the pile rather than being supportedby leads. The hsmmer line from the craneboom is slackenedso asto prevent tansmission of impact and vibration into the boom. 4.3.2Dieselbammers ,a

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Dieselhammers much usedat offshoreterminals.They arelighter to handleand lessenergyconsuming are than steamhammers, their but eflective energy is limited. 4.3.3Hydraulic hammers Hydraulic hammersare dedicatedto underwaterdriving (skirt piles terminati-ngfar below the seasurface). Menck hydraulichammers widely used.They utilize a solid steelram anda fleble steelpile capto limit impactforces.They aredouble are acting.Hydraulic fluid underhigh pressure usedto force a piston or setofpistons,'andin tum, lhe rm up anddown. is Properties se6 fuammss sf usedoffshoreareshownin Table 1. A selection large oflshorepile driving hammers of driving on heavypiles is also shownin Table2. 4.3.4Selectionof hammer siz Selection hammersDeis basedon: of . experience ofsimilar situations(seeQuality Control:Section4.6), . numericalmodellingof driving for eachparticularsite (seePile Driving: Section2.4) Typical valuesof pile sizes,wall thicknesses, hammerenergies steai hmmers aeshownin Table3. and for 4.4 Installation 4.4.1Pile handling and positioning Figrue4 showsthe differentways ofproviding lifting pointsfor positioningpile sections. Padeyes generallyused(weldedin the fabrication are yard; their design should take into accountthe changesin load direction during lifting). Padeyesarethen carefully.cut before lowering fhe next pile section.

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ffi
S h a c k l e st h r o u g h holes near pile top

f \

n-)-j
Cho king with slings Add-on Welds

Pedeves

(11 Lifting methods

F r i c t i o nf i t

::
il

-l}i
' tl

atjoint

|J- -L l[+eite
I n t e r n a ls t a b b i n gg u i d e E x t e r n e ls t a b b i n g g u i d e

(2) Stabbingguides

Follower Followerpile i n t e rf a c e (No weld)

Skirt pile

m
t-_J--{
Brechbloc connector k Detail of hydraulic connerof

ffi

Gravily lollower

(3) Mechanical connectors

Figure 4 Pile devices

SketchE showsthe differentstepsfor the positioningofpile sections: o pile or add-on lifted from the barge deck. . rotationofthe craneto positionadd-on. . installing and lowering of the pile add-on. 4.4.2 Pile connections pile Different solutionsfo connecting segments back-to-back used: are o either by welding, ShieldedMetal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored, segmentsheld temporarily by intemal or external stabbing guides as shown in Figure 4. Welding time depends upon: - pile wall thickness: hoursfor lin. thick (25,4mm); 16hoursfor 3in. thiclq (76,2mm)(typical). 3 - number and qualification of the welders. - environmental conditions. . or by mechanicalconnectors(as shown in Figure 4): - breech block (twisting method). - lug type (hydraulic method). 4.4.3Hammer placement Figure 5 shows the different stepsofthis routine operation:

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- A d d - o nl i f r e d f r o m b a r q e d e c k

Hammer lilted from barge deck

Crane rolsles lo Dositon dd-on a

H a m m e r p o s i t i o n e do v e r p i l e b y boomingout or in

S i a b b i n g j o i n t m e n o e u v r e di n t o p i l e t o p

Pile cap seated by rockinghammer

Add-on lowered inio pile slring

L e a d s l o w e r e d a T t e rh a m m e r i n o l a c e

(1i Pile positonnng sequence

(2) Hammer placementsequence

Figure 5
. . o . lifting om the bargedeck. positioningover pile by booming out or in (thebell of the hammeractsasa stablingguide...very helpful in.roughweather). alignmentof the pile cap. lowering leads after hammerpositionment.

Each add-on should be desiped to prevent bending or buckling failure dwing installation and in-place conditions. 4.4.4 Driving particularmeasures takento avoid an unconolledrun. Somepeneation underthe selfweight ofthe pile is normal.For soft soil conditions, are Piles arethen driven or drilled until pile refusal Pile refusal is defined asthe minimum rate of penetrationbeyond which further advancementof the pile is no longer achievablebecauseofthe time requiredandthe possibledarnage the pile or to the hammer.A widely accepted to rate for definingrefusalis 300 blows/foot (980 blows/metre). 4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections 4.5.1Weldedshims The shimsareinsertedat the top ofthe pile within the annulus between pile andjacket leg (seeFigure 6) andweldedafterwads. the

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P a g e1 0 o f 1 6

Slot protection detail

n
t l

L-_
Detail 1

{l U
Shim

il

f'-

i I ]
Section A-A
Detail 2

Figure6 Weldedshms
4.5.2Mechanical locking system This metal-to-metal conection is achievedby a hydraulic swaging tool lowered inside the pile and expanding it into machinedgroovesprovided in the sleevesat two or thre elevationsas shown on Fieure 7.

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P a g e1 1 o f 1 6

Guide iube

(1i Swaging device in position

I
{2} Completion of pile swaging into sleeve

(3) Figure7 l-{ydra-lock system

This type ofconnectionis most popularfor subsea templates. offers immediate It strengthandthe possibilityto re-enterthe connection should swagingprove incomplete. 4.5.3Grouting This hybrid connectionis the most commonly used for connectingpiles to the main structure (in the mudline area).Forces are transmitted by shear tbrough the grout. Figure 8 showsthe two types of packerscommorly used.The expansive,non-shrinking grout must fill completely the annulusbetweenthe pile andleg (or sleeve).

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S t e e l c e n l r s l z e r n d grout selprotectot

Jac kel leg C o m b i n a t i o nw i p e r ndgroul seal

D i a p h r a g ml y p e closure-pierced by pile

(1) Mechanicl grout seal

lnflationline

Steel seal proleclors Air inflation line Mein pile

Wiper seals and packers for pile-iacketclosures (2) Inflatablepacker

Grouting arrangement

FigureI Packers

(shearkeys,stripsor weld beads Bonding shouldbe excellent;it is improvedby shear.connectors disposed the surfaceofthe sleeveandpile in on contact with the grout). pile andsleeveshouldbe maintaied constant useof centralizers be limited to: The width of e annulusbetween by and o l,5in. minimum,(3g,lmm) o about4in. (101,6mm)maximum(to avoid destruction the tensilestrength the grout by nternalmicrocracking). of of Packersae usedto confine the grout and prevent it fiom escapingat the baseofthe sleeve.Packersare often damagedduring piling and are therefore: . installedin a doubleset. . attachedto the baseofthe sleeveto protect them during pile entry and driving. gauges, Thoro"gh filling shouldbe checked suitabledevices, by e.g.electricalresistance radioactive tracers; well-logging devices overflow or pipeschecked divers. by 4.6 Quatity Control Quality control shall: . confirm the adequacyofthe foundation with respectto the design. . provide a record of pile installation for referenceto subsequent driving of nearby piles and future modifications to e platform. The installationreport shall mention: . . o o pile dentification (diameterand thickness). measured lengthsof add-ons cut-offs. and self penetration of pile (under its own weight and under static weight of the hammer). blowcount thoughout driving with identification of hammerused and energy,as shown in Figure 9. rcordofincidents and abnormalities: - unexpectedbehaviour ofthe pile and/or hammer. - intemrptions of driving (with set-uptime and blowcount subsequentlyrequired to break the pile loose). - pile darnage ifany. o elevatiosof soil plug and internal water surfaceafter driving.

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about the pile/structure conection:

. information

- equipment and procedure employed. - overall volume ofgrout and quality. - record ofintemrptions and delays.

Penetration mudline,

below

Rate of penetraton {Blows/ft) 50 100 150 20.0

o

feet 50

_--_. re1 tl a
self-weight

Y ---r-

't'

Menck SOOO

. 100

,,1, rTI

150

Menck SOOO 3 Day-18 Hour delay

I 'v -TI M e n c k3 0 O O

200

12 Hour-36 Minutes dely

250
20 Minutes delay

300

v r."n"tTooo > v n"n.tAooo I v

350
Intermixed silty fine send and crav

s i t t yf i n es a n d

t\s\\t h\\\l

rn ffi

sandv sitr

ClaY

Typical blow out record showng: . Recorded blowcount t 1 ft increments of penefiaton r Length of delays r Soil stratigraphy r Pile add-on schedule r Hammers used

Figure I

Installation record

4.7 Contingency Plan

Contingency documents shouldprovideback-upsolutionsin case"unforeseen" eventsoccur suchas: . impossibilityto get the requiredpile penefation. . mechanical breakdown the hammer. of . groutpipe blockage.

5. CONCLT]DING SUMMARY
This lecturehas described: . the difcult aspects offoundationsin avariety ofsoils. . the multiplicity of solutions and the different kind of piles and hmmers. . the complexityof the process from designto installation.

6. REFERENCES
Practice q planning, Designing and ConstructingFixed Offshore Platforms", American Peholeum Institute, [1] API-RP2A, "Recommended Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.

7. ADDITIONAL READING
L McClelland,B. andReifel, M. D., Planningand designof fixed offshoreplatforms,Von MostrandReinholdCompany(1982). 2. Bowles,J. E., Foundation analysisand design,MacGrawHill Book Company(4th edition 1988). J. Bowles,J. E., Analical and computer methodsin Foundation Engineering, MacGrawHill Book Company(1983). 4. Poulos,H. G. andDavis,E. H., Pile foundationanalysisand design, JohnWiley and Sons(1980),

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Grafl W. J., Introductionto ofhore sfuctues, GulfPublishing Company(1981). Technip(1976) Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance solsen mer pour I'implantationdesouwagesPtroliens, des Pieuxdansles formatinescabonates TechnipO65a (1988). patantedespieux - TechnipARGEMA (1988). Capacit Engineering, PrenticeHall Inc (1983). Dawson,T. H., OffshoreStructural JohnWiley and Sons(1986). of Gerwick Ben C., Construction Ofhore Structures,
A. AirlStem Make Rated Energy (ft-lbs) Ram Weighl (krps) Ma. Shoke (m) std. Pil4ap Weight (kps) (w/l@ds) (kps) Hffie Ratd Opqatig Preflre (Psi) Sted CoMption (bs ht) Air CoMption obs ht)

Page 4of16 1

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 0.

Model

Typical HMer Weight

Gteo

sr/F

BPM

Comaco

510.000 325.m0 5300 300 150.000 90.0 @.m0 't.582.U 4.Ttl 867.96 632.84t ->12t70 4.070 325.,180 189.850 %.3,10 18.m0 120.000 60-m0

72 60
59,0 12,7 12/

r80 1@

31.500

7.5

2@4 3@4

N 4i 6

30

q2 86 74

160 150 7m 7n 150 749.

8.06t 6.944

7.771 L4n

4 3 3

m
2-c8 794r 1767 49 170,4 10141 6,74 3E8 78,96 59 50 59 69 59

m
M6ck (MRB9

t2500 8800 8000 7W 5000 ,1600 3000 1800 U

75432 103,& 85,98

8r3 ffi 5& 583 33s

53.910 32.M .860 30.800 m.9

26.500 16.7ffi 15.900 14.830 10.400 9.9m 6.000 3.7 1.950

2@6 8 I 4@4 6 6 5

38

40 a a +

74,.

19.840 12.130 7.W 3.530

33,07 2.,

n5

742. 142

6+

MKT

9sf
0540 0920

,10 m 36
38,65 C. HydEuc Hamss 15()

Make

Model

Rated Energy

Rm Weight

Standard Pilap Weight

Ha'Mer

Weight

Tfpical Opsating Pre

Rted

Rated

8PM

(ft-lb) (hps) (kips)

(krps)

(Psi)

(gal. mi)

HMB

4m0 30004 3000 1ilo 9m 5dl

12m.000 800.000 725.ffi 290.000 170.000 71m 7.m 1230.0m 650.000 r41.OO0 119.000 10;.000 87.m0 69.m0

205
16t

4, 474

44-70

139 t7,6 172 88

Mock

MRBU MHU 17M MHUqN MHlS MH]6t MH 115 MH 120 MH

84 7 110 2'O 79,O 16 77

415

3400 3{n

845 E45 580

5040
JZS

386

3100

,t865

6,0 6,O 60 6,0

5i 4 4 27

3190 55 4m 28

103 102 103

a. 42 44 48

11,0

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ll
Hme

MHso ll

**ll e3 |

TABLE I Properties of somehammers used offshore

Rated Skiking Energy TyPe Blows per Minute
Weightincluding Offshore Cag if my (mebic tons) Expected Net Energy (ftJb x 1000)

(ftlb x 1000) 750 Llv 1100 1120

KNm

On Anvil

On Pile

Vulcan 3250 HBM 3OOO HBM 3OOO A HBM 3OOO P Menck MHU 900 Menck MRBS8000 Vulcan t1250 HBM 4OOO Vulcan 6300 Menck MRBS 12500 Mmck MHU 1700 IHC 9300 IHC 98OO IHC9100 IHC92000 IHC92300

Single-acting steam
Hydraulic Hydraulic mdemater mdemater mdeffater mdemater

60 5G60 40-70 40-70

+

300
L/

1040 L430 L520

ICCU

o/5

600 g2

190 170
IJf,

796 800
I

796 800 678 629 800 11-57 74i10 1747 1769

Slender hydraulic Slender hydaulic Singie-acting

steam

38 53 40-70 37 38 32-65 40 40
JU

a0
337
a2a

864

1200 1380 2350 2490 2790

/\J

Single-acting steam Hydraulic rndemater stem steam rmdemater rmdemater

1000 7700 1800 1.582

901 t157 L697 L3U \230

Single-acting Single-acting

380 385 %5

Slender hvdaulic Slender hydraulic

220 80 160 260 580 1160 7449 7566

300 800 1600 2000 ,00

Slender hydraulic underwate Slender hydraulic undemater Slender hydraulic underwater Slender hydraulic underwater

TABLE 2 Large pile driving hammers Pile Outer Diameter (in) (mm) Wall Thickness HammerEnergy

(in.)

(mm)

(ft-t 50.000 120.000 50.000 120.000 50.000 180.000 60.000 300.000 90.000 500.000 90.000 500.000 120.000700.000 180.0001.000.000 180.0001.000.000 300.0001.000.000 300.000 1.000.000

ftN-m)
70 -1,68 70 -1,68 70 -252 u-120 126-700 126-700 168- 980 252- 1,.400 252-1,.400 420-1,.400 420-L.400

600 30 36
42

5 / 8- 7 / 8
"/4

1,5-21 19 21,-25 25-32 28-44 28-M 32-50 32-50 32-50 37-62 37-62

750 900 1.050 -1.200 1.500 1.800 2.1,00 2.400 2100 3.000

7/8-1
']..11/+ L/- r"/4

48 60 72

17 -13/+
L'/4 - Z

u
96 108 120

11/+ 2 11/+ 2 llz-2!z llz-2lz

Note 1: 'With the heavier hammersin the range given, the wall thicknesses must be near the upper range of those listed in order to prevent overstess (yielding) in the pile under hard driving. Note 2: With dieselhammers,the effective harnmerenergy is from one-half to two-thirds the values generally listed by the manufactuersand the would normally only be usedon 36-in. or lessdiameterpiles. abovetablemustbe adjusted accordingly. Dieselhammers wave pattern. Note 3: Hydraulichammers havea more sustained blow, andhencethe abovetable canbe modified to fit the stress

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TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes,wall thicknessand hammer energies Previous I Next I Contents

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Page1 of21

Lecture154.7:Tubular Jointsin Offshore Structures

OBJECTI\rE/SCOPE To present methods the designof largetubularjoints typically found on ofhore structures. for PREREQUISITES Lecture154.1: OffshoreStructures: General Introduction RELATED LECTURES Lecture15A.8: Fabrication Lecture154.12:Connections Offshore in DeckStructures SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It presentsthe classificationsfor T, Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discussesthe significance of gaps, overlaps, multiplanar joints and the details ofjoint arrangements. describesdesign methods for static and It faJiguestrength,presenting some detailed information on stressconcentrationfactors.

1.. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of a topside consistsof either an integrated deck or a module support frame and modules. Commonly'tubular lattice frames are present,however a significant amount of rolled and built up sectionsare also used. This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore, particularly for jacket structures.Corurectionof l-shape sectionsor boxed beamswhether rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore structures.Refer to the correspondinglectures for appropriatedesign guidance. Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequatelydesign a tubular joint. These are: 1. Static strength considerations 2. Fatigue behaviow considerations The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple assessment of joint designermust therefore always be fatigue behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The "fatigueminded".

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2. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for clarification):

'*

,'

,',

7,lI
I Saddle

/
+ e

;/

-{ t+

o'l ---l-l

l*

D _ Chord dimension T _ Chord wall thickness

t J c L : : : :

d : Braoe dimension t : Braoe wall thickness

Angle between chord and brace axes Critical gap Eccentricity Length of chord can

Figure 1 Definitions
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The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components.It is necessarilya through member. The other tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through the chord at the intersection. Other tubulars belonging to the joint assemblymay be as large as the chord, but they can never be larger. The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increasedwall thickness.or stiffeners. The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically terminate on the chord skin. The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increasedwall thickness. Different positions have to be iJentified along the brace - chord intersection line:
o

CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crossesthe plane containing the brace and chord. . SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crossesthe plane perpendicular t9 th9 plane containing the brace and chord, which also contains the brace axis.

2.1 Geometrical definitions Referto Figure 1 L is the lengthof the chordcan D is the chordoutsidediameter T is the chordwall thickness d is the braceoutsidediameter
t is the brace wall thickness (where there are severalbraces,a subscript identifies the brace) g is the theoretical gap between weld toes e is the eccentricity . Positive when opposite to the brace side, Negative when on the brace side 0 is the angle between brace and chord axis.

2.2 Geometricalratios 2L
cr.: D
I

Can slendemess ratio

: U Brace to chord diameter ratio (always < 1)

D
y: * I Chord slenderness ratio

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r : f Braceto chordthickness ratio

g : D Relative gap

These are non-dimensional variables for use in parametrical equations.

3. CLASSIFICATION
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The following classification is used, seeFigure 2.

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TandY loints

T ioint o

t:9O

Y ioint tF g" o 1- t 2 Dt : Dz t1 : tz

ldeallv

X ioints

Nandk joints

N joint

r: 9o

K ioint flrFgO"t2F

KT joints

Figure 2 Joint classif ication

3 . 1T a n d Y J o i n t s
These arejoints made up of a single brace,perpendicularto the chord (T joint) or inclined to it (Y

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In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reactedby bending in the chord. In a Y joint, the axial force is reactedby bending and axial force in the chord.

Page6 of2l

3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braceson either side of the chord. Axial forces are balancedin the braces,which in an ideal X joint have the samediameter and thickness.In fact, other considerationssuch as brace length, which can be very differsnt on each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different braces.Angles may be slightly different as well. The important point to note is the balanceof forces in the braces.If the axial force in one brace is far higher than the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y (or a T) joint rather than an X joint.

3.3NandKJoints

.,.

Thesejoints include two braces.One of them may be perpendicularto the chord Q.[joint) or both inclined (K joint). The ideal load pattem of thesejoints is reachedwhen axial forces are balancedin the braces,'i.e.net : force into chord member is low. i.

3.4 KT Joints
Thesejoints include three braces.

joints is morecomplex.Ideally axial forcesshouldbe balzurced The loadpatternfor these within the braces, net force into chordmember low. i.e. is 3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometricalratios given in Section2.2 have limitations. Table 3.1 shows theselimits and their typical ranges.

0,4- 0,8

0,3- 0,7

0,2

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(1) Physicallimitation (2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (seepunching shear) (3) Angle limitation to get a correct workmanship of welds. Table 3.1 Geometrical Limits and Typical Ranges

3.6 How to classifya joint

This classification deals only with braceslocated in one plane. It must always be rememberedthat this classification is basedon load pattem as well as the geometry. Engineeringjudgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For example a geometrical K joint may be classified as. o a K joint when forces are balancedwithin braces. o a Y joint when the force in one brace is reactedpredominantly by the chord, rather than by the secondbrace.

4. GAP AND OVERLAP

4.1 Definitions (Figure3). The GAP is the distance alongthe chordbetween weld toesof the braces the

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l t t l

Figure3 Gap and overlap

The theoretical gap is the shortestdistancebetweenthe outer surfacesof two braces,measuredon the line where they cross the chord outer surface.The real gap is the one measuredat the correspondinglocation, betweenactual weld toes. A brace OVERLAPS anotherbrace when one brace is welded to the other brace The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace. The overlappedbrace is always completely welded to the chord.

4.2Limitations
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing. This is important becausethe gap is a highly stressed zone.

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4.3 Multiplanar Joints

The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.

5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stressconcentration. The following practice, seeFigure 4, should be followed: 1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of the chord diameter, whichever is the greater,from the nearestpoint of a brace-chordconnection 2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace diameter, whichever is the greatest,from the nearestpoint of the brace-chord connection. 3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achievethis, most designersuse a 70 or 75mm theoretical gap. 4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diametef. When higher values can not be avoided, secondarymoments have to be introduced in the structural analysis by introducing extra nodes. 5. Thickness transitions are smoothedto a 7 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall.

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lr>- Max.{D/4, 3OmmJ

Can length

l z Z Max.(D/4, StOmmJ

M a x . { d6 0 t m m } ,

Stub length

Ecceniricityo be modeled t uhen e D/4

Eccentricity

D
C o m p u t e rm o d e l l i n g n o d e s 2 o n t h e c h o r dc o n n e c t i o n y b e d d i t i o n am e m b e r s l Additional odes n

Thickness transition
Stubor can

Figure4 Joint arrngement

6. STATIC STRENGTH

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P a g e1 1 o f 2 1

The loads consideredin a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane bending moment and the out-of-plane bending moment for each brace. The other components(transverseshearand brace torsion moment) are usually neglectedsince unlike the preceding loads, theseloads do not induce bending in the chord wall. Nevertheless,their The presencemust never be forgotten and in some specific cases,their effects must be assessed. axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments are normally the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.

6.2 Punchingshear shear 6.2.1 Actingpunching

The acting punching shearis the shearstressdevelopedin the chord by the brace load. The acting punching stressvo is written as: up: f sin 0

"

where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stressin the brace (punching see shearfor each kept separate), Figure 5.

f* : fu+ f
I

=T

-T
I

+
I I

\ c t d

Y
F i g u r e5 P u n c h i n gs h e a r
6.2.2 AJ,lowablepunching shear Allowable punching shearvalues in the chord wall are determined from test results carried out on fulI scale or on reduced scalemodels.

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Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are performed for a single load-case(axial force, in-plane bending, or out-oplane bending).

Hydraulic iack

Test piece L o a d m e a s u r i n gd e v i c e

Figure 6 Experimentalrig {trljointi.

The ultimate static strength obtained through thesetests can then be expressedin terms of punching shear,as defined above. Statistical treatment of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching shear stress. 6.2.3The API method Severaloffshore design regulations are basedon the punching shearconcept [1,2]. The following method is presentedin API RP2A [2]: A. Principle o This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffenedjoint. When the joint includes severalbraces,each brace connectionis checked independently. o Punching shearfor each load component(axial force, in-plane bending, and out of plane bending) is calculatedand comparedto the allowable punching shearstressfor the appropriate load and geometry. o Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching shearratio calculatedfor each component. B. Allowable punching shearstress The allowable punching shearstressfor each load component is:

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Ey c

vou: QoQ, o$ r
where: Fr" is the yield strengthof the chord member Qo is to accourt for the effects of type of loading and geometry, seeTable 6. 1. Q is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stressin the chord
nZ J.2 J.? I T ' I I P B ' I O P B

Q:1-y

\u'uflr'r

ffi (n

\?

in Lx, trs, fope *" thenominal axial,in-planebendingandout of planebendingstresses the

chord Value for ,and Qo are given in Table 6.1

Vo*: c fo sin 0

Vo=rforsin0

Vo=rfo"sin0

[','o.S]r* t,to otr

w/o diaphragm X Tension Compression

[',='*#]0,
[',"*=]*

[','o.S] [o,".TJo,
w diaphragm

["'.Tl

Table 6.1 Values oQu for allowable punching shear stressfrom APIRP2A
g
QO

T 1,8-0,1 fory<20 1,4-4glDfory>20

Q,

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a U,J

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OB: Ort-o$r* forB>0,6

Qg: 1,0for B < 0,6 C. LoadingCombination
For combined loadings involving more than one load component,the following equations shall be satisfied:

l]&-l*llLl ,,,0
Ivn"J*,Ivn",fon,
where: IPB refers to in-plane bending component OPB refers to out-of-plane bending component AX refers to axial force component and ,

*3*.,* #l;,.[#J,,, t*]

I i.t
IX

where: arc sin term is in radians.

6.3 Overlappingjoints
The parametric formulae discussedin Section 6.2 were specifically establishedfor non-overlapping joints with no internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used for overlappingjoints. In an overlappingjoint, part of the load is transferreddirectly from one brace to the other through the overlapping section, without that part of the load transferring through the chord. The static strength of an overlappingjoint is higher than a similar joint without an overlap. API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be added to the punching shearcapacity ofthe brace-chordconnection, seeFigure 7.

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joints Figure7 Calculationof overlapping

The allowable axial load componentperpendicularto the chord, PI (in Newtons) should be taken to be: + Pr: (vpaT 11) (2v*ut*12) where: uouit the allowable punching shearstoess (MPa) for axial stress. It is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contactsthe chord'(mm), seeFigure 7. v*u is the allowable shearstressfor weld between braces (MPa). t* is the lesserof the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm). l, is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measuredperpendicularto the chord (mm), seeFigure 7.

6.4 Reinforced joints

6.4.l Definition Large chord wall thickness may be reducedby stiffening the chord. The most usual reinforcement consistsof ring stiffening inside the chord. Somejoints may require more complex stiffening. This is the casefor large diameter chords which would otherwise require an un-economic chord wall thickness. There are very many different stifening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore there are no parametric formulae available for thesedesigns.Specific analysesmust therefore be ca:ried out for an accwate solution. This mav involve finite element analvsis.

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Ring stiffening consistsof ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the braces to it. The punching shear capacityof the chord still may be taken into account when calculating the forces acting on the stiffeners. Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various publications, the best known being published by Roark [3].

7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanicalbody presenting discontinuities, stresses not tniform along the connecting are surface of a brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stressdistribution in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinitv of the brace chord intersection. Hot spot

Axial stress in the hrace

FiqureI

Stresses in a T - Node

7.1 Stress concentration factor (or The stress concentration factor (SCF)is definedasthe ratio of the higheststress the connection in hot spotstress frr) to the nominalbracestress tront

SCF: lrs/f*olo 7.2 Kellog equation

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This approximate formula can be used for rapidly assessing SCF, for preliminary analyses. tHsrrp_ I, 1T vo being the punching shear.
I

7.3 P arametric formulae

SCF parametric formulae have been determinedbasedon a large number of finite element analyses and cross-checked with either full scaleor model tests. They are basedon many man years of work by numerousresearchteams. A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7 .3.l to 7 .3.3 give, as an example,the most commonly used and acknowledgedformulae. In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classiffing the situation and ascertainingany limitations that apply. The only alternativesto theseformulae are to perform model tests (full size or at reduced scale)or finite element analyses. No parametric formulae ate presently available for stiffenedjoints. The only ones published to date concernnon-stiffened, non overlappingj oints. 7.3.1 Kuang equations for T/Y joints [4] Axial load scFcHoRD : 1,9810'808 'cl'333 cr0'057 l'6946 ,it "*p(-1,23 scFBRAcE:3r751y0,55 Out-of-plane bending g scFcHoRD : 1,024 yl'01410'889 ttt1'557 90'787 g scFcHoRD : 0,462 Tl'01410'889 ,i,t1'557 BG0'619) : SCFBRACE 7,522 y0'852 .-0'543 ttt2'033 I 90'801 : SCFBRACE 0,796 y0'852 10'543 't2'033 6 Bc0'281) In-plane bending
SCFCHORD:0,702y0,60 10,86 sin0,57 e Bq-0,0a)

3 o0,12 rinl'94 g ""*p(-1,35p

0,3 < B < 0,55 0,55 < B < 0,75 0,3 < P < 0,55 0,55 < < 0,75

10,38 SCFBRACE : 1,301y0,23 sin0,21 e BC0,38)

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7.3.2 Kaang equations for K joints [4] Balanced axial load (glD)0,067 :.1,704 SCF.H.RD:1,506 y0,666 rinl,52l g BC0'059)

:0,92 T0,rs7 Bq-0,40t) (gD)o'os8 10,56 Exp(1,448 0 ) sin SCFBRACE

In-plane bending (bending moment applied to one brace only) 10'94 scFcHoRD : 1,822 y0'38 90'06tittO'96

:2,827 SCFBRACE

sino'5 o B-o'35 "o'35

7.3.3Kuang equations KT joints [41 for only loaded Balancedaxial load Outerbraces t1'068 sin scFcHoRD: 1,83 Yo'54 Bo'12 o
:6,06y0'l t0'68 SCFBRACE 9-0'36{G1+g2)lD0'126sin0'5e : e SCFBRACE 13,8y0'110'68 {Gl+g2)lD0'126 sin2'88 B-0'36 00<e<900 00<e>45" 45" < e > 90o

:4,89 y0'r23.'0'672 g SCFBRACE tin2'267 {@1+g2)lD}0'1s9 9-0'396 In-plane bending - as for K joint Validity range The above equationfor T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameterswithin the following limits: < 8,333 y<33,3 0,20<r<0,8 0,3 < p < 0,8 unless statedotherwise 6,667 S cr 140 unlessstatedotherwise 0o ( o < 90" unless statedotherwise.

8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of ajoint consistsof the following steps: 1. Calculation of nominal stressranses in the brace and the chords

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2. Calculation of hot-spot stressrange

a J.

Calculation ofjoint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular membersat joints.

8.1 Nominal stressrange

Nominal stressrangesin braces and chords are calculatedby a global stressanalyses. 8.1.1Wave histogram A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple form of a wave histogram is as follows: Wave height (metres) Average number per year

0 -1 ,5 7 ,5 -3
7-4 5

3 100 000 410 000 730000 5 000 800 20

4,5-6 6-8 8-10

8.2.2 Nominal stressranges Nominal stressrangescan be calculatedby following the stepsbelow:

1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stressrange will be calculated. Different wave directions need to be consideredwith a minimum of three "blocks" per wave direction. 2. For eachblock one representativewave is chosen,whose action is supposed.torepresentthe action of the whole block. The highest wave of the block is normally chosen. for 3. Nominal stresses eachjoint component are then calculated for.different phaseangles of the chosenwave, for one complete cycle (360'). The nominal stressrange for the joint component is defined as the difference betweenthe highest and the lowest stressobtained for a ful1 wave cycle. Four to twelve phaseanglesper wave are usually considered.

8.2 Hot spot stressranges

Hot spot stressrangesare then evaluatedfor each chosenjoint location by applying parametric formulae [4] (or by applying the SCF calculatedfrom a detailed analysis). 'When using parametric formulae, stresscomponents(axial, in plane bending and out of plane bending) have to be distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae apply individually for each load component. Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosenaround the intersection line. For each of these locations the stressresponsefor each sea state should be computed, giving

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adequateconsiderationto both global and local stresseffects.

Pase2} of2t

8.3 S-N Curves

regulations are S-N cwvesto be usedfor offshorestructures givenby statutory [1,2].APIRP2A uses the curvesshownin Figure9. Hot spot cyclic stress range Mpa

700 350 14t 7t 35 14

? I

3,5
104 15 106 107

1t8

lts
N

cvcles of loads N Figureg Fermissible

The X and Xl curves should be used with hot spot stressrangesbasedon suitable stress concentration factors. The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N curve by taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph. It should be noted that Curve X presumeswelds which merge smoothly with the adjoining base metal. For weld without such profile control, the X' curve is applicable.

8.4 Cumulative Fatigue DamageRatio

The stressresponsesshould be combined into the long term stressdistribution, which should then be used to calculate the cumulative fatigue damageratio, D, given by:

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/ t

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D_

El: I

[NJ

where n is the number of cycles applied at a given stressrange N is the number of cycles to causefailwe for the given stressrange (obtained from appropriate S-N curve). In generalthe design fatigue life of eachjoint and member should be at least twice the intended service life of the structure,i.e. a safety factor of 2,0. For critical elementswhose sole failure would be catastrophic,use of a larger safety factor should be considered

9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
a a a

a a a

for Terminology, geometric ratios andjoint classificationsare now standardised tubular joints. The presenceof gaps and overlaps signiflrcantlyinfluence joint behaviour. Determination of static strength is generally basedon the concept of punching shear,with the allowance of overlappingjoints. Special analysis are required for reinforcedjoints. Stressconcentrationfactors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring joints.' Determination of fatigue strength is basedon nominal stressrange multiplied by appropriate SCF.

10.REFEREI{CES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth Edition, HMSO, 1990. [2] RecommendedPractice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth Edition. [3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stressand Strain. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill. [4] StressConcentrationFactors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5, Lloyds Register of Shipping-Offshore Division. PreviouslNext I Contents

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PreviousI Next I Contents E S D E PW G 1 5 4 STRUCTURALSYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

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Lecture15A.8:Fabrication
OBJECTIVE the To describethe generalmethodsofjacket fabrication.To discuss various stagesof operationfrom material selection, To normally involved. through erection,including constructionpracticesand equipment. indicatethe calculations PREREQUISITES : Lecture 154. 1: Offshore StructuresGeneralIntroduction Lectures3.1: GeneralFabricationofSteel Structures 3.2: Erection Lectures 3.3: Principles Welding of Lectures Lectures 3.4: WeldingProcesses RELATED LECTURES Lectures 15; StncturalSvstems: Offshore SUMMARY

phases ofthe fabricationofoffshore structures described. are The constructionphilosophyand definition ofthe construction organisation its implementationare introducedand constructabilityi.e. the for The overall executionplan and the contractor's welding access construction considerations, more generalaspects design- the size and transportabilityof components, of tolerance,is discussed. together The fabricationofnodes and reinforcedtubulars,includingthe fabricationprocedurefor a typical node is described for with jacket assembly and erectionand the procedures "big lift".

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Construction Phases Jacketconstructioninvolvesthe following work phases: Procurement productsto enablethe executionof The technicaland commercialactivitiesrequiredto supplymaterialand specialised constructionactivities. Fabrication normally carriedout in a fabrication shopto producerelatively small units. Thus fabricationincludesprocesses The processes relieving on such items as welded tubulars,beams,nodes,girders, suchas cutting,rolling, pressing,fitting, welding, stress cones,supports, clamps,etc. Assembly groups of shop The processes normally performedoutsidethe fabricationshopbut at ground level in orderto assemble erectionin accordance with a constructionsequence. fabricateditems into an (assembled) unit for subsequent Erection requiredto install assembled and shopfabricateditemstogetherin their final configuration.Theseprocesses The processes and lifting of heavy assemblies. include fitting and welding. Howeverthe emphasisis on the transportation

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1.2 Construction Philosophy

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The designof a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launchedor self-floatingjacket, is determinedprimarily by the offshore installation equipmentavailableand the intendedwater depth.In generalthe preferenceis to lift the jacket in place.The size of suchjackets hasbeing increasingas offshore lifting capacityhas grown. With modem lifting capacitynow up to 14,000tonnes,jackets for this order of magnitudearenow candidates lifting into position. approaching erectionis usually carried For jackets destinedfor shallow water,where the height is of the sameorder asthe plan dimensions, out vertically, i.e. in the sameattitudeasthe final installation.Suchjackets may be lifted or skiddedonto the barge. Jackets destinedfor deeperwater are usually erectedon their side. Suchjacketsare loadedby skidding out onto a barge. usually involves additional flotation This methodof construction Historically most largejackets havebeenbargelaunched. tanks and extensivepipework and valving to enablethe legs to be flooded for ballastingthejacket into the vertical position on ofthis, site. This methodofconstruction is currently applicableforjackets up to 25,000tonnes.Very largejackets,in excess to as havebeenconstructed self-floatersin a graving dock and towed offshore subsequent flooding the dock. and In consideringthe constructionphilosophyand contractstratery,the objectivesof achievingquality requirements An efficiency are of fundamentalimportance. offshorejacket goesthrough a seriesof very distinct stagesas it movesfrom which are almosttotally automaticundervery controlled conditions, rangefrom operations fabricationto load-out.Thesestages which are almosttotally manualin very variable conditions,e.g.yard e.g. steelproduction,automaticwelding, to operations advances. addition,the In efficiency occursas progressthroughtheseoperations erection,ofhore activities.Thus decreasing are of of stableconditionsin repetitiveprocesses the early operations more conduciveto the maintenance high quality. A third with eachprogressive stage.Thesegeneraltrendsduring constructionare shownin is basic consideration that risk increases Table 1. in It is clearthereforethat, as a generalprinciple, as much work as possibleshouldbe undertaken the earlier more productive, higher quality, lessris phasesofthe project. Someof the principleswhich reducethe time and cost of constructionare: . Subdivisioninto as large components modulesas it is possibleto fabricateand assemble. and Concurrentfabricationof major components the most favourablelocation and underthe most favourableconditions in applicableto eachcomponent. r Planningthe flow of components their assemblysite. Providing adequate facilities and equipmentfor assembly, to including suchitems as synchrolifts,and heavy.lift cranes. e Simplification of configurationsand standardisation details,gradesand sizes.Avoidanceof excessively tight of tolerances. . Selectionof structuralsystems that utilise skills and tradeson a relatively continuousand uniform basis.Avoidanceof procedures which areweathersensitiveare that are overly sensitiveto weatherconditions;ensuringthat processes completedduring shop fabrication,e.g. protectivecoating. of of is Quality management a vital and integralcomponent all aspects offshore fabrication.Essentiallyit involves ensuringthat The requirements documentation, for hold point, audits,reviews and correctiveactionsare what is producedis what is needed. part ofthe quality nssurance process. They are crucial tools for controlling the project executionand providing verifiable evidenceof the fabricator'scompetence. Qual control, inspectionand testing shouldbe performedduring all phasesofconstruction to ensurethat specified requirements being met. The most effective quality schemeis one which preventsthe introductionof defectivematerials are and workmanshipinto a structure,ratherthan finding problemsafter they occur. A generalnote on Quality Assurance OffshoreConstructionis included in Appendix 1. It is applicableto this lectureand for alsoto Lecture154.9: Installation.

2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
entailsthe work required during eachphaseofexecution to ensure that the Engineeringofexecution, 'construction engineering', of designrequirements fulfilled. A generalmethodof executionis envisagedatthe jacket designstage.Sincethe shape the are jacket, its form and propertiesrequirequite specificmethodsofload-out, offshoretransportation and installation(which are interfacingof engineeringrequirements constructionactivities executedundercontractorresponsibility),there is considerable i.e. through assemblyand erection,the contractor,while being limited by in thesephases. the earlier phases, procurement In designspecificationrequirements, freedomof choicewith regardto the exactmethodof executionadopted.However,in all has phases contractoris requiredto demonstrate the methodswhich he adoptsare compatiblewith the specification that the requirements and do not affect the integrity ofthe structue. requirements which are determinedby the processes executed during Each phaseof executionhas its own specificengineering that phase. Theseprocesses rangefrom thosewhich arelargely repetitive early in executionto one-offactivities in the latter phases. and shopfabrication is voluminousbut repetitive,e.g. Accordingly the engineering which supportsprocurement are materialtake-offs,shopdrawings,cutting plans,etc. The assemblyand erectionphases supportedby a mix of repetitive

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engineering,e.g. scaffolding,and specificstudiesfor limited seriesof activities.

Page3 of16

The volume ofcontractor constructionengineeringon a largejacket is typically 130,000/150,000 hours.The typical organisationof a contractor's technicaldocumentsis shown in Table 2. consideration which will not distort when When designinglarger components must be given to their subdivisioninto elements problems.For instance, fabricatedand which can be relatively easily assembled without welding/dimensional nodesare categorised either complex or simple from the executionviewpoint basedon the number of separate as fitting-welding-NDT (non-destructive testing)cyclesrequiredduring fabrication andthe possibility of automaticwelding betweenthe node can and . The the tubular during sub-assembly. numberof fitting-welding-NDT cyclesdepends the existence ring stiffenersand the on of number and dispositionof stubs.Ior reasons relating to weld distortionand to allow automaticwelding, it is almost essential that ring stiffenersbe installedprior to fitting/welding of stubs.This addsan extra cycle to the fabricationof the node. Thus ring stiffenersarebest avoided.lilhere this is not possible,careshouldbe taken to define them at an early stageon critical nodes. Node stubscan be classifiedas simple or overlapping.Overlappingstubsadd at leastone completecycle to node fabrication and shouldthereforebe avoidedwherepossible.The minimum separation betweenthe weld toesof adjacentsimple stubsis typically specifiedas 50mm, seeAPI RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 []. Howeverthis distanceis too small to allow simultaneous welding of adjacentstubs- 150mmis a more practicaldistance.

3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes The specifications fabricationof offshorejackets are determined the designer.They are usually basedon one or more of for by the well known codes,with additionalrequirements dictatedby the specific design,client standards, statutoryrules, etc. Two recognisedcodeswhich areusedextensivelyfor establishinggeneralrequirements the API RP2A Recommended are Practice for Planning,Designingand ConstructingFixed Offshore Platforms,[1] and AISC Specificationfor the Design,Fabricationand Erection ofStructural Steelfor Buildings [2]. For largerjackets,the nodestend to be fabricatedseparatelyunderhighly controlled shop conditions.Alternatively cast steel nodesmay be usedin orderto eliminatecritical welding details. Recentexperience, both in the laboratoryand as a result of in-serviceinspection,has promptedincreasinglygreaterattentionto the welding aspects fabrication.In particulargreaterattentionhasbeenfocusdon the importanceof completejoint . of penetrationgroovewelds, eliminationof "notch effects" at the root and especiallythe cap of nodewelds, and achievingthe requiredweld profile. Welds which are critical for fatigue endurance may be requiredto be groundto a smoothcurve. This processreduces probability of brittle failure. However it also implies increasinglysophisticated stringentfabrication the and and quality assurance/quality conhol (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding detailsfrom API RP2A [], showing tubular membersframing into or overlappinganothermemberwith access from one side only, are shownin Figure l. However, a lot of is emphasis placedon designingstubswhich canbe welded from both sides.For instance,in the weld detailsfor the Bouri . jacket, Figure 2, most stubsare accessible from both sides.

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G r o o v ea n g l e "b'
UVET VU

r o t o p e n i n qG
tn

mm

45 to 9O Unde45 r

O to 3/16 O io 4,8 1 1 1 6 o 3 t 1 6 1 , 6t o 4 , 8 r 1lE to 114 3,2 to 6,4

Note : lncludes tolerance
0t

Min 'rT"

5 t o 13 5 o 35 1o 5Oo

Under35*
Over 135o
see

1 . 2 5t 1 , 5 0i 1 . 7 5t
5ec1 E-

Typical connestion
A n g l e c { st h e a n g l e f o r m e d b y the exterior surfoces of the brece and chord et any point on their j o i n t l i n e { l o c a l d i h e d r a la n g l e ) Build out to full thicknes except "T" need not exceed 1.75t

t l Section B-

F+l

1 1 1 6i n ( 1 , 6 m m )

_j_
, -2 f Section C-C
Eack-uoweld not subjecl io Section insoection

C-C

{Alternate)

F i g u reI We l d e dtubular connections: shieldedmetal arc welding

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Page5 of 16

Figure2 DP-4 jacket and piles

joint design,welding consumables, Welds aretypically subjectto etc. Welding procedures required,detailing steelgrades, are criteri4 e.g. 100%visual, magneticparticle inspection(MPI) and ultrasonictest (UT) inspection.The weld acceptance maximum weld undercutlenglh (tlZ or lOmm), and maximum depth (120 or 0,25mm),imply an exceptionallyhigh quality of welding. In addition all weldersshould be qualified for the type of work assigned them and certified accordingly. to The location and orientationof circumferentialand longitudinal welds during constructionis basedon minimising interferences and ensuringthe minimum distance betweencircumferentialwelds. Specialattentionis required on items suchas pile sleeve shearplates,launchrunners,mudmats,etc. whereplannedavoidance weld interference critical. of is for All temporaryplatesand fittings shouldbe subjected the samerequirements weld testing as the memberto which they are to to are being affixed. There is also an overriding necessity ensurethat suchattachments locatedat a safedistancefrom main structuralwelds in orderto minimise the risk of defectpropagation.This is not unduly conservative- the "Alexander Kielland'! of capsized due to a fatigue crack initiated at the attachment a sonardeviceto a principal structuralmember.TemporarycutComersshouldbe rornded minimise stressconcentrations. to outs shouldbe of sufficient sizeto allow soundreplacement. Where welds are found to be defective,they shouldbe rectified by grinding, machining or welding asrequired.Welds of insufFrcient strength,ductility or notch toughness shouldbe completelyremovedprior to repair. ae so In general,sub-assemblies executed that at leastone ofthe two edgeswhich will mate during subsequent can has assembly/erection a cut-off allowance.This procedureprovidesflexibility in that the sub-assemblies be sentto the field dwing subwith the cut-offallowance in place and cut to fit on location.Alternatively they can be cut to exact dimensions assemblywhere the as-builtdimensionhas alreadybeendetermined.

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3.2 Node Fabrication

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particularproblems, cornplex.Accordingly their fabricationpresents nodesare frequently geornetrically The primary struoture especiallyfrom the points of view of welding and dimensionalcontrol. On a complexjacket the designermay speci$rthe node cans,or the whole node including stubsand ring stiffeners,in material properties.This requirementis introducedbecause tearing or punchingeffects likely to be of with specifiedthrough-thickness by sustained theseelementsduring their designlife and indeedduring fabrication.The designermay also "thicken" or reinforce that node welds containminimal levels of residualstressdue Finally, in areffort to ensure the cansto withstandlocal stresses. welds may be. relieving or post-weldheattreatment(PWHT) of the heaviermore restrained to fabrication,thermal stress jackets. prescribed. This is frequentlya requirementfor thicker walled North Sea which preserve API RP2A [1] providesspecifictolerancesfor final fabrication.The contractormust work within tolerances Bearingtheserequirements aI dimensionalompatibility and observeweight control requirements eachphaseof construction. are in mind, nodefabricationtolerances tight, e.g.typical working points within 6mm oftheoretical, stub angle within I minute, all braceswithin 12mmof the designdimension. that the can (with or without ring stiffeners)has alreadybeen The typical fabricationprocessfor a conventionalnode,assuming with UT inspectionof the finishednode after PWHT. with profiling of stubsand terminates fabricated,commences stagesc4n be performedin severaldifferent ways, someof which dependon the specificgeometryof the node The intermediate Somefabricatorspreferto orient the can upright, maintainingthat it and many of which dependon fabricatorpreference. simultaneously. Howeverthe majority of fabricatorstend to fit the stubsto a can placedon enables more stubsto be f,rtted horizontalrollers. The sequential stepsin the fabricationofatypical node are as follows: onto o Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can.Cut and profile the stubs.Touch up bevelsand trace generators the stubs.Tracenode locationsonto the can surfaceand grind or blast areas.UT the cleanedareasto ensurethat the steel direction may leadto is free from laminations.Particularcareis requiredwhere shrinkagestrainsin the through-thickness joints. lamellartearingin highly restrained r Assembleone or two adjacentstubsin the sameplane on the can.Tack-weld in position. Verifu dimensionalconhol and

. ir:1'rpiffii:i1"t#?;"d

processes are rhe used usualty shielded to sequencelimitdeformarion. welding meral

If arc welding (SMAW) or flux cored arc welding (FCAW), seeLecture 3.4 Welding Processes. the weld is double-sided, back-grindand cleanweld roots frorn oppositeside.Perform MPI test on groundroots; Complete. after 3 or 4 passes, weld body. Depositweld beadfor cap profiling. Toe-grindprofiles if required.Grind weld beadsat basemetal to remove undercut.Allowweldstocool.Visually'inspectfrnishedwelds.MPIandUTfinishedweIds. r Repeatpreviousstepsfor successive stubs. . When all stubshavebeenfrtted and welded out perform post weld heattreatment(PWHT) as required,blast or grind welds and perform NDT re-teston all welds. r Cut any requiredoff-cuts on cansor stubs.Perform final dimensionalcontrol ofnode. 3.3 Jacket Sub-assemblies shopfabrication,i.e. nodes,tubulars,beamsetc. and as stagebetweenstandard Sub-assembly be conside.red an intermediate can the or is assembly erection.The emphasis on performingthe maximum numberof welds in the shop.This ensures highestweld quality sincemany node andtubular welds can be double-sided and/orautomaticwhen performedin the fabrication shop. the Whendefining sub-assemblies, principal factorsto be bome in mind arethe following: . Size/lVeight/Dimensions: of theseare largely governedby considerations transportability. causingdistortion or inducedstresses . Welding Sequence: shouldnot imply a difficult welding sequence sub-assemblies assemblyor erection. welding or the subsequent during sub-assembly with them, e.g. short,large Constructability:certainsub-assemblies may have specificconsffuctiondifficulties associated if diameterinfillings are difficult to erectvertically and are bestincluded in sub-assemblies, possible. 3.4 Dimensional Controt in Of all the areasof qual control (QC) which requireattention,that of dimensionalcontrol, as emphasised the code and which have structural However, it is clearthat attentionmust be paid to the dimensions tendsto be exaggerated. specifications, ovality oftubulars, eccentricities nodejoints, etc. It is also clear that on a at of significance,e.g. the straightness elements, jacketthe global alignmenlverticality of items suchas pile sleeves, conductorguides,launchrunners,etc. are also important. Fihally dimensionalcontrol of items which are intendedfor "mating" or "removal" offshore,for examplepilesile sleeves, jackettop/lv1SF etc. base,buoyancytanldsupports, is vital to the efciency of offshore installation.There aretherefore,many wherethe attentionto dimensionalconhol is justified evenif the overall designmight occasionallybenefit if the aspects did designer not alwaysrequirethat everythingfitted so tightly. dimensionalcontrol ofnodes and tubularsduring fabricationis not because of The principal reasonfor requiring such accurate the the structuralconsequences ofout-of-tolerancebut ratherbecause partsmay not fit togetherin the yard. It is one ofthe most

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on vexing incongruitiesofthe tubular steeljacketconceptthat the theoreticaltolerances node stub eccentricityare generous are ofconsiderationsregardingthe fitting together from the structuralviewpoint while the actualtolerances very tight because phases construction. of during subsequent of components The dimensionalcontrol of nodefabrication,in particular,involves potentially intricate calculationsin the shop.However, the and systemssimply involve the inclusion on the shop drawingsof severaladditional "checking"measurements most successful and offsets. the correctmarking ofthe nodecan and stub generators

4. JACI(ET ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION

4.1 Jacket Assembly which constitutethe major lifts of the erection and Shopfabricatedsub-assemblies looseitems are incorporatedintq assemblies are sequence. Thus for a largejacket, the assemblies typically of four types: o o Jacketlevels incorporatingconductorguide frames Top frames Jacketrows i.e. bentsor partial bents Pile sleeveclusters.

are The assemblyand erectionphases basedon the following objectives: (as . Maximise on-the-ground access aroundthe jacket during execution. to assembly opposed erection)and ma<imise Minimise erectionjoints in principal structuralelements, suchasjacket legs,launchrunners,rows, levels.Align critical launchrunners. areassuch as conductorguides,pile sleeves, principal suctuil elernents and . Sub-assemble ofjacket such asjacket legs,rows, levels. Sub-assemble, where possible items suchas anodes, risers,Jpre-test,systemssuchas grouting,ballasting.Include maximum quantity of secondary tubes,caissons. Coat or paint requiredareas(top ofjacket, risers)prior to erection. removal,suchas scaffolding,walkways, lifting aids, etc. o Minimise the use of temporaryitems which require subsequent andpre-install suchaids wherethey are necessary on The assemblyof ajacket frame,often having a spreadat the baseof 50m or more, placesseveredemands field layout and can meanthat the thermal changes be ,.. , . bracing. Such large dimensions surveyand on'temporarysupportand adjustment differences may be as great as 30gC betweendawn and afternoonand as much'as 15"C between significant.Temperature distortion.However,the practiceof 'usingthe sun'to f,ttelements ,' variousparts of the structure,resultingin severalcentimetres in in is which arenot dimensionallyin-tolerance common in the field. This procedure itselftends to induceresidualstresses the to with thermal distortion.it is normal to "correct" all measurements a.standard Becauseof the difficultv associated structure. temperature, 20" C. e.g. in Elastic deflectionsare also a sourceof difcu in maintainingtolerances the location of nodes.Foundationdisplacements and monitored. underthe skid beamsandtemporaryerectionskids must be carefully calculated and The overall assemblysequence programmerequiresthat eachassemblybe completedprior to lifting. It is normal to determine exact location,orientationand attitude,i.e. face-upor face-down,of eachassemblyin the field in anticipationof the its lifting procedure. for The centralco-ordinates are Assemblylayout drawingsareusuallypreparedshowing central co-ordinates eachassembly. the loose items,appurtenances and then usedas local benchmarkswith the object of defining the assembly, sub-assemblies, weight, referencedrawings,etc. which comprise,field welds, overall dimensions, temporaryattachments both prior to and after welding, can be by meansof a seriesof self-checking Dimensionalcontrol of the assembly the measurements the struetureitself. Providedcrosschecksare adequate, time consumingexerciseof referring on to measurements an externalbenchmark can be avoided. to for Normally the assemblyis tackedin positionto theoreticaldimensionsusing allowablepositive tolerances compensate of rule in fitting is the avoidance "force-fitting" of membersprior to welding or weld shrinkage.Perhaps most fundamental the sincesuchconditionscannothavebeenforeseen the throughthe welding sequence by to force stresses into unweldedmembers designer. of An outline sequence eventswhich apply to all types of assemblyis as follows: o o . o . Preparation ofassembly supportand staging main structureand position tacking. Dimensionalcontrol of assemblymain structure. Rough setting of assembly structure. lnfilling of secondary structureand positiontacking. Dimensionalcontrol of assemblyand secondary of Preweldinspection.Vy'eldout structuresubjectto continuousinspectionand accordingto approvedsequence. grouting and ballasting)and (e.g. anodes, supports,walkways,risers,J-tubes,caissons, Installationof appurtenances scaffolding,lifting, aids,erectionguides,temporary atachments.

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. Test (e.9.hydrotest)if required.Overall NDT, dimensionalcontrol. . Blasting and painting or touch up. Removal of temporaryassemblysupportsand staging. r Preparation transporllift/erection. for 4.4 Jacket Erection

Page8 of 16

togetherwith looseitems, are incorporatedinto the final and In this phaseassembled, sub-assembled fabricatedstructures, outlined in Figure 3a - 3e. structureaccordingto the sequence

lnfill members

Plan framings fabricated in horizontal position then rotated to vertical

Skid rails

\r, \8/-

plan framings F i g u re3 a Erectionof pre.assembled

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\ e ' '\'/ \'

.^

-kn
\

Figure3b Completion of bay 1

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P a g e1 0 o f 1 6

Frame fabricated in horizontal position ther rolled up to vertical

-{R*r.
-\/

F i g u re3 c Roll- upof fr ame ( C ) \r/

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Page11 of 16

'
:,/:

,,'7."n .t'"

/,'
,.f

,.r'' ..{
. ..f

..

\uu,
\v \te" \o/ \e" \/ \ / , -

\*

Figure d Roll-up f frame(D l 3 o

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-{**r.
-\/

Figure3e Completedjacket ready for loadout

Jacketframesaretypica laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler cranes.Co-ordinatingsucha rigging and lifting thee-dimensional layouts,firm and level foundationsfor the cranesand experienced, operationrequiresthoroughly developed well rehearsed operators. Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the erectionof platform Ceweza,which was 300m long. For the Magnusplatform and Bouri DP3, a different procedureknown as "toastrack" was used.Here thejacket horizontal levels were fabricated,erectedin place andtied in to completethejacket. transported bargeto by For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest,sectionsof thejacket were fabricatedin Japan, to usingjacking towerswhich rolled up the sections heightsas greatas 140m. Texasand assembled For jackets destinedfor shallowwater erectionis usually carriedout vertically, i.e. in the sameattitudeas the final installation. temporarypadsand bracesmust be Suchjacketsmay be lifted onto the bargeor skiddedout. In this latter case,adequate provided underthe columnsto distributethe loadsfor skidding. with the erectionprocedurefor a given assemblyusually involves a computermodel with all The structuralanalysisassociated (approximately)to which correspond The relevantstructuralcharacteristics. assemblyis analysedfor a numberof load cases bogies,saddles, etc. at the supportconditionsof the assembly its presumedcritical attitudes,i.e. the locationsof the cranes, and when it is in horizontal and vertical attitudes.The structuralanalysisfor liff/transpon when the panel is being transported to Thesecases then analysed determinethe are identifiesthe worst cases from the point ofview ofstructural response. are and The maximum stresses displacements. calculationsshouldshow that global and local stresses within allowable limits accordingto API/AISC codes. Frequently,a structuralanalysiscomputerprogrammeis usedfor this purpose.The analysiswill indicatewherebending Thus modifications can be madeto redistributestructural stresses high and/orcrane,bogie or supportloads inadmissible. are and stresses loads'at"supports"to optimiseboth and ensurethat neitherthe cranesnor the structurecan be overloadedduring erection. would be: for An outline sequence the erectionof all major components etc. . Technicalappraisaloflift methods.Calculationsfor craneconfiguration,rigging accessories, o Preparation cranesfor lift. Preparation rigging. Transportassemblyto lift location.Roll-up into position with for of

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P a g e1 3 o f 1 6

scaffoldingand stagingin position, ifpossible. r Preparation fixing systemand wind bracing(usually done by meansof guy wires and turnbuckles).Weldout at least of suff,rcient allow cranerelease. to . Cranerelease. Removal of rigging and temporaryattachments. both permanentand those Jacketstructuralcompletionis followed by a shortphaseduring which all the jacket systems, are requiredduring installation,are completedand renderedfunctional.The load-outoperations coveredin Lecture 154.9: Installation.

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
primarily by the offshoreinstallationequipmentavailableardthe intendedwater r The designof a jacket is determined depth. r In general,the preference to lift thejacket in place.Jacketsdestinedfor deeper water are usually erectedon their side. is As a generalprinciple, as much ofthe executionas possibleshouldbe undertaken the early phases fabrication. in of Eachphaseof executionhas its own engineering requirements which are determined the processes by executedduring that phase. o The specifications fabrication of offshorejackets are determined the designerand are usually basedon one or more by for of the well known codes. o Shopfabricatedsub-assemblies hoseitems are incorporated which constitutethe major lifts of the and into assemblies erectionsequence. . Assembled, togetherwith looseitems,are incorporatedinto the final structurein sub-assembled fabricatedstructures, and ofbending stresses, crane,bogie and supportloads. and a sequence which takesaccountofstructural analyses

6. REFERENCES
Practicefor Planning,Designingand Constructionof Fixed Offshore Installations,latestedition. [1] API RP2A, Recommended ofoffshore oil resources. that haveevolvedduring the development Engineeringdesignprinciplesand practices [2] AISC Specificationfor the Design,Fabricationand Erection of StnrcturalSteelfor Buildings, latestedition. , of of API coderefersto this specificationfor calculations basic allowable stresses all jacket members.

7. ADDITIONAL RE,ADING
Recommended PracticeRP5 - Lifting (June 1985). [1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Principlesand good practicefor offshoreheavylifts. WeldingCodeAWS D1.1-88. [2] AWS Structural in with this are All jacket welding and weld procedurequalifrcations requiredby the API codeto be undertaken accordance code. [3] Det Norske Veritas,Rules for the Design,Constructionand Inspectionof Offshore Structures,1977. Rulesfor constructionand installationof steeljackets as requiredby DNV. for [4] Lloyd's Registerof Shipping,Rules and Regulations the Classificationof Fixed Offshore Installations,1989. Basedon Lloyd's experience from certificationof over 500 platforms world-wide.

APPENDIX1
Quality Assurance and Quality Control to be It is becomingincreasinglycommon for operators speciff that the quality of constructionfor offshore structures quality systemmanagement standard. controlledby a recognised as standardin such situations. Management, recognised the accepted is ISO 9000/EN 2glll,Standard for Quality Systems that a soundlybasedquality management systemmust fulfil if it is to assistin Thesestandards down the requirements set properly defining and controlling product quality. Because standards the deal with the quality system,and are not product They apply in any situationwhere they are applicableto many sectorsof industry including offshoreconstruction. standards, to management wish to adopt a clearly definedpolicy and an orderly approach providing a qual product.

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including:activitiesare coveredin the standards All aspects a company's of

?ase14of16

Design ContractReview DocumentationControl Responsibility Management Purchasing CorrectiveAction Quality Records ReviedAudits Management QA Management Complexity

ProductTraceability Process Control Inspection/Testing Calibrationof Equipment Control of Non-Conforrnmces Handling/StorageiDelivery Training Etc.

number of offshoreactivities in many showsthat there are a very considerable The overall progfammefor a jacket construction, of different locationswithin a very shortperiod of time. The evaluationof the performance such a rangeof activities and at a numberof centresis a major QA/QC undertaking. on which the It is difficult to fully appreciate scopeof documentation ajacket constructionproject. Considerthe documentation until it is . to to is expected flow from one.location anotherin respectto a singlenode.From the time the plate is manufactured could commence with copiesof certificatesfrom a locatedin the f,rnalstructure, dossiermust be compiled.This documentation at through severalwelding, NDT, dimensionalcontrol phases a numberof successive the steelplate manufacturer and progress Note at the node fabricationshop. locations,culminating in the issueof a Release on Clearly this is necessary someitems,e.g. steel,welds,NDT Certificatesfor thejacket primary structure,risers,etc. These may be useful during maintenance the platform enablingmany in-serviceproblemsto be tracedto abnormalities of documents of Constructionof a largejacket typically involvesthousands steelplates.Each plate which occurredduring construction. to inevitably becomesan individual as it is allocateda unique numberconesponding a Material Utilisation Scheduleor Cutting of Plan.The individual numberof piecesof plate could be in excess 20,000 items.The primary object of material control is to the that, at any stageof cbnstruction, origin of eachand every item can be tracedback to a materialcertificatewhich in ensure to turn corresponds a set of teslchemical compositionetc. as containedin the Data Dossier.However; voluminousas this producedfor a completejacket. Considerfor lessthan half of the total documentation documentation may be, it constitutes launchrunners,.grout walkways on top of thejacket, the anodes, instance number of welds in a complexbuoyancytank, the the Howeverthe requirementto produce .l lines, etc. Each of thesemust be welded,severalmust be individually inspected. is For documentation respectofeach is questionable. this reasonit is importantthat agreement reachedat an in sophisticated early stageas to the individual itemswhich require identification,that thesebe kept to a minimum and that the identification Much more could be systembe simple. In acfualpracticeit hasprovento be very difficult to make all materialsreally traceable. in doneto structuresuchdocumentation sucha way that it would really be of help throughoutthe platform life. Procedures and Specifications must be developed the project,many of which will be specifically for organisation Within the Contractor's QA/QC procedures (e.g.Management Non Conformities,Management, Procedurs of Theseare divided into Management for jacket construction. (e.g.Procedure UltrasonicTesting of welds at JacketYard, for of JacketCompletion Onshore,etc.) and Control Procedures are DimensionalControl Procedure forNode Fabricationat factory etc.). ConstructionProcedures/Specifications also required (e.g.JacketAssembly and ErectionProcedure, etc.) in additionto a vast numberof weld procedure Pile InstallationProcedure, specifications and qualifications,welder qualificationsand inspectionplans. will still is requiredfrom eachsubcontractor minimised,a fabricationsubcontractor Even if the number of specificprocedures organisation, subcontract and specifications the following typical functions/activities: for be requiredto developprocedure post-weldheattreatmentalong procedures cutting,forming, pre-heating, for materialcontrol, fabricationmethod/sequence, and InspectionPlans.Typically hundredsof procedures/specifications with the more obviouswelding andNDT procedures must be developedby jacket subcontractors. Certification On most offshore projects,the underwritersnormally agreeto insurethe plant during its operatinglife provided it is designed, standards and certified as such.This certification is also almostinvariably constructed maintainedto predetermined and in requiredby the stateauthoritie whosewatersthe plant is installed.It is normally performedby one of the traditional ship: certificationrequiresthat the CA carry out knoyn asthe Certi$ing Authority (CA). In the widest sense, classificationsocieties chosenfor the project are satisfactoryand that the project is performedin independent surveillance ensure to that the standards of with them. Formerly this meantthat the CA inspectedevery activity likely to influencethe adequacy the final accordance product- an enorrnous auditsof the construction task. More recentlywith the adventof QA, the certification function can mern so that, ratherthan inspecteverything,the CA satisfieshimself that the mannerin which the constructionis being managedand performed(basedon incompletebut comprehensive inspection)is likely to leadto a satisfactoryproduct.

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Work Centre

Efficiency

QualityVariability

Table 1 Jacket ConstructionPhases and Characteristics

No. Document Series Croup or lndividual Subject Tifle

Shop Drawigs, Cutting PIe

Welding standards, nodes, ilbu-la, pils, pile sleeves, clusteF, conducto guide frames, launch runners, buoyancy taks, @thodic protection system, protective coating systems, rise6, j-tubes, @issons, boat laDdiDgs, boat bumpe6, Elkways, grouting systems, ballsting sysm, istallation aids, as-built dmwings.

Method and Tempomry Works Dmwings

Subassemblis, semblies, supports, access,sffolding, lifting d mruporttion ohore, test ad identifietion.

commission,

Onshore constuqtion accessoris

Offshore insallation (prepation, hnsportation, lifting, launching, anchor pattems etc.).

Offshore insallation accessories (tools, guides, accss, handling etc.).

Qulity

Assuance Procedurs

Documeirurion identifiition, disibution and approval, wimess and hold points, technicl modifitions and procurcment and non:confomance m&gemen[ material control, material identifi@tion and frebility, subcontrading, weld parameter conftol, mamgeent ofspecifo problem ars.

Qulity

Control Procedures

NDT meods (visul, UT, x-ny, dye penetmnt, MPI), dimensional conftol, d6tnctivefsting melhods, NDT operator aining and qulification, libration of inspection equipment, presure tsting, miscellaneous testing.

Mnuls

Testing, commissioning and peparation ofjacket for tow. Load-out meuls lnstallation manuals -jacket, pils, topsides.

-jacket piles, topsds.

Weld Procedu$

For qch lotion - weld procedur6 - repair procedue.

Dsign Repo, Reviem and Specifitro

Quy design, skidmy dsign, mooring system deign, soil improvement spec., skidding system speo., dredging spec., taNportaton ofjaoket and pils, buoymsy anks,jacket launching and emplacemmt, on-bofrom stability, pile drivability, jacket levelling srudy.

Engineering Meetings

Nomally held at critil phes of consmcion

atthe various @nsfuction loqtrons.

Fbrition, Assembly dd Erecon

Fabrition/welding sequence (for principal items), foming, bending, strs relieving, c@ting, Nembly md eredion, tempomry and se@dry attachments, liffing ed tmsporting, jackdoM, weight control, settlement @ntrol, jacket weghing.

l0

Inspection pan

Stl supply (at ech supplier).

Fabfition of typical jacket aqd pile components (at relevant nres).

Assembly d erection.

ll

Thnil

ProDosls dd Non-Cofommce

Rsolutions

Technical Clarifi@tion

Requests ) Requs ) Possible at every Repons ) Ph4e of lation Reports ) of the Project

TechnilReluation

Major Non-Confomce

Minor Non-Confomance

Table 2 Jacket Construction Engineerirg:

-,

Typil

Orgnsetior o[Contractor's

Technical Documts

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PreviousI Next I Contents

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Previous Next I Contents I ESDEP WG 15A STRUCTURALSYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

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Lecture 154.9: Installation

OBJECTIVE To describethe generalmethodsofjacket installation. To discussthe various stagesofoperation om loadoutthrough offshore positioning and installatior, including consfuction practicesand equipment.To indicate the calculationsnormally involved. PREREQUISITES Lectures154.1: OffshoreStructures General : Introduction RELATED LECTURES Lectures 1: GenealFabrication SteelStrucnues 3. of Lectures 3.2: Erection 3.3: Lecture. Principlesof Welrling Lecftue3.4: Welding Processes Offshore Lectues 154: Structural Systems: SUMMARY offshoreEansportation installation- aredescribed the associated and and analyses The phases ofinstallation ofa steeljacket - loadout,seafastening, aeindicated..

l.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project PhaseS jacket installation ofthe following projectphases: A steel usually consists it the structure onto the bargewhich will transport offshore. Loadout - Comprises movementof the completed Seafastening- Comprisesfitting and welding suffrcient structurebetweenthe structure andthe bargeto preventthejacket shifting during transit to ttre offshore site. with the seafastened sucture. Offshore Transportation - Comprises tow to the locationoffshoreand arrivalofthe bargeat the ofhore.site the in Installation - Comprises seriesof activities the required placethe structure the final offshorelocation.Theseactivitiesincludejacketlift and to upending,positioning, pile installation,jacket levelling and grouting, toetherwith support servicesfor theseactivities. 1.2 Construction Philosophy In deciding how bestto fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted, launchedor self-floating) a givenjacket the options are princally determinedby the nstallation equipmentavailableand thejacket's intendedwater depth-In general,the preferenceis to lift the jacket into location. The motivation for this installationmethod,ratherthan the more taditional barge-launching,is a reluctanceto spendmoney on jacket steelworkwhich will only be used during the temporaryinstallation phase.The size ofsuch liftedjackets has beenincreasingas offshore lifting capacityhas grown. With modennlifting capacitynow up to 14000tonnes(seeTable 1),jackets approachingthis order ofmagnitude are now candidates lifting into position. for Figure 1 showshow the 6000 tonnejacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Seawas lifted om the bargeinto the water and up-endedin a ready for piling. The advantageofthis approachis that thejacket, being lowered into the continuousoperation,endingwith thejacket on the seabed water, doesnot require the launch framesnecessary launching from a barge.Also, sincethe weight ofthejacket is taken by the cranes for throughout,there is no needfor specialbuoyancytanks and deballastingsystems. :

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Seabed Stage 1 Start of jacket self sliding

Figure 1a Jacket launch : principalcharacteristics

Seabed

Stage 2 Start of secondary rocker arm rotation

Figure 1b Jacket launch : principalcharacteristics

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Seabed

Stage 3 Jacket rotatin g counter clockwise

Figure 1c Jacket launch : prncipal characteristics

Seabed

Stage 4 Jacket final floating posilion

Figure 1d Jacket launch : princpal characteristics

Jacketsdestinedfor deeperwater are heavier and are usually erectedon their side and launchedfrom a barge(Figue 2). This method ofconstruction is currently applicableforjackets up to 25000 tonnes.A launchedjacketusually requires additional buoyancytankswith extensivepipework and valving to enablethe legs andtanks to be flooded in order to ballastthe jacket into the vertical position on site. For instance,in the caseofthe Brae 'B'jacket (a large 19000 tonnejacketinstalledin 100mwaterdepthin the North Sea)it was necessary provide 11000tonnesofadditional to buoyancy.This buoyancywas primarily to limit thejacket trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the seabed) but was also essentialfor maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending.The additional buoyancytook the form oftwo 'saddle'tanks,two pairs oftwin 'piggy-bark tnks' and twelve 'cigat' tubesinstalled down tbe pile guides(Figure 3). Altogether lle auxiliary buoyancyaddedabout3,300 tonnesadditional weight to the iacket.

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I tl i
I 3

l l

",. F i
l t l l
40 50 O ?o ao O 1OO 1tO 12O 13O

ffig Odrddrq drdh

rddiuE tndcst

Figure 2 Details of Micoperi-a semi submersiblerrane vessel

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Note: Some structural members are omitted from this diagram for greater clarity.

Figure 3 Model of Brae'B' jacket showing auxliary buoyancy tanks

Very largejackets,in excess oflaunch capacity, havebeenconstructed self-floaters a gravingdoc towedoffshoresubsequent ssding the as in 1s dock,andinstalledon locationby means ofcontrolled floodingofthe legs(seeFigure4).

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Water

Arrvng1 le flooding begns

Conlrolledfloodng

Step 1

Step 2

Mudline
Upending elmost compleled In pl8ce

Posloning

Step 4

Step 5

SteP 6

Figure 4 lnstallation and self.floating jacket

1.3InstallationPlanning
the to and The installation ofajacket consists ofloading out, seafastening transporting structure the installationsite,positioningthejacketon the with the designdrawings and specifications,in anticipation ofinstallation.ofthe platform site and achievinga stable stnrctue in accordance topsides. An important aspectis the avoidanceofunacceptablerisk during offshore activities om loadout through to platform completion. It is recognisec with failure to successfullyexecutemarine activities is particularly high. Normally thereforethe ' that the potential cost to the project associated levels, He is that for contractoris obliged to produceprocedures theseactivities which demonstrate the risk offailure has beenreducedto acceptable preparationshave beencompleted. of alsorequiredto demonstate at, prior to the commencement an activity, all the necessary An installation plan must be preparedfor eachinstallation. The plan will include the methodandproceduresdevelopedfor the loadout, seafastring and andtransportationand for the completeinstallation ofthejacket, piles, superstructure equipment.Dependingon the complexity ofthe installation, detailedproceduresand instructionsmay be neededfor special items such asgrouting, diving, welding inspections,etc. Limitations on the various operationsdue to factors suchas environmentalconditions,barge stability, lifting capacity,etc. must be defired. The installation plan is e.g., loadout, seafastening, transportationand installation. normally subdividedinto phases, fo must be preparedshowing all the pertinentnformation necessary comtruction ofthe total lnstallation drawings,specificationsand procedures jacking facility on location at sea.Thesedrawingstypically include details of all inspectionaids suchaslifting eyes,launch runnersor trusses, must brackets,stabbingpoints, etc. For jackets installedby flottion or lamching, drawingsshowinglaunching, up-ending and flotation procedures be prepared.In addition, details are alsoprovided for piping, valving and controls ofthe flotation system,etc. aswell asbargearrangemettsand tiedown details. rgging, slings, shackles The engineeringinput into an offshore installation projct also nvolves the designofall temporarybracing, seafastenings, with an approved offshoredesigncode,e.g.API RP2A [.l]. andinstallationaids,etc. Thesemustbe desiped n accordance is Quality management a vital and integral componentof all offshore installation projects.A generalnote on Qual Assuancefor Offshore project. to Lectue154.8 : Fabrication. is equallyapplicable an offshoeinstallation It Constnction appendedto is

2. LOADOUT AND SEAFASTEIING

entails tting and welding Loadout entailsthe movement of the completedstructureonto the bargewhich will transportit offshore. Seafastening sufficient ties betweenthe jacket andthe bargeto preventthejacket shifting while in transit to the ofhore site. Jacketswhich have been fabricatedon their side are usually loadedby skidding the entire stnctureonto a cargo or launchbarge.During loadout, the jacketis supported the skid ways,usuallyon two innerlegsofthejacket, seeFig. 9 oflecture 154.1. The legsfrmctionasthe bottom chordofa on latge truss,which can spanbetweenponts ofsupport, especiallywhen part ofthejacket is on the bargeand part still on the skid ways. lVherejackets arefabricated in the vertical, i.e. ir the sameattitude asthe final istallation, they may be lifted onto the bargeor skiddedout. In this latter case,adequate temporarypadsand bracesmust be provided under the columnsto distributethe loads during skidding. ifthejacket hasbeenerected with its weight bearing Initial friction ofthejacket on the skid waysmay be ashigh as 15per cent,especially the continuouslyon the skid way. In somecases jacket is initially fabricatedslightly abovethe skid ways using hydraulic or sandjacks. Then, at the

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the on or time ofloadout,thejacketis loweredonto the skid ways.To reduce sliding friction, grease hardwood, heavylubricatingoil on steel,or evenfibe-filledTeflon facedpads,areused.Valuesofsliding Aiction aslow as3 per centareusuallyattained. in size and stnrctural strengttrto ensurethat the stability and static and dlmamic stresses the barge and seafastenings The bargeshouldbe of adequate limits. The bargemust also havethe capability to launch the jacket, due to the loading operationand during transportationremain within acceptable of without the useof a derrickbarge.For a bargewhich floatsduringthe loadout,theballastsystemmustbe capable ifthis is required, the In to compensating changes tide andloading.It is usualin this case load out on a rising tide sothat the tide assists ballastsystem. the case the in of a bargewhich will be groundedduring loadout, the bargemust have sufcient structual strengthto distribute the concentated deck loadsto the foundation material. supporting Thejacket must be loadedin sucha mannerthat the bargeis in a balancedand stablecondition. Barge stability can be determinedin accordance with regulationssuchasthosepublishedby Noble Denton, The American Bureauof Shipping,or the US CoastGuard. Allowable static and dynamicstessesin the bargehull andframingdueto loadout,ansportationandlaunchingmustnot be exceeded. A simplifiedchecklist for the operations relatingto jacket loadoutmight be: l. lsthejacketcomplete?Hasthestructurebeenanalysedforloadoutstressesonthebasisoftheactualstructweasfabricatedatthetimeof loadout? 2. Is the launchbargesecuely mooredto the loadoutdock,so that it won't move out dwing the loading?Is the bargeproperlymooredagainst sideways movement? 3. If compression struts areusedbetweenthe barge skid ways andthoseon shore,arethey accuratelyaligned and supportedso they won't kick out during loadout?Have the pull lines, shackles,and pad eyesbeeninspectedto ensurethey areproperly installed and can't foul during loadout? adequate? ballastbe adjusted the Will aangements as 4. Canthe bargebe properlyballasted? Ifthe tide will vary duringloadout,areballasting weight ofthejacket goesonto the barge?Are there proper controls?Is there an adequate standbyballast system?Are there back-up systemsto pull thejacket back to shoreif anything goeswrong during loadout?If the ballast correctionis to be made iteratively, step-by-stepasthe jacket is loaded,arethere clearpaint marks so that eachstep canbe clearly identified? checked? Havethe mmine sur.veyors beennotified Are 5. Have clearlines of supervision controlbeenestablished? the voicerarlio chennels and Certifuing Authority? Have their approvalsbeenreceived? so that they can be present? Owner'srepresentativs? Once thejacket is on the barge,the bargemust be ballastedfor transportation.During loadout, many tanks will be partially fulI, in order to control are deck elevationandtrim. However, with the jacket firlly supportedon the barge,theseconsiderations no longer relevant and the tanks can be Ballasttanksshouldnormallyeitherbe full or completely empty,to eliminatefreesurface and to of ballasted suit the demands the seavoyage. to to of will havebeencarefifly selected maximisestability,andespecially minimisesubmersion sloshingeffects.The draft andeeboad projectingmembers forces. slamming, buoyancyandcollapse ofthejacket duringthe tow and the consequent Largejacket launch and cargobargesare relatively flexible structuresin that the jacket structureis normally (much) stiffer. Therefore,ballastingthe are Ifone scheme ofballasting. bargeto obtainthe requireddraft andtrim shouldpreferablybe doneat the dock sidebefoie seafastenings attached. shouldbe freed during the reballastingto avoid imposing is to be usedfo a shelteredchanneltow and anofhefor the opensea,the seafastenings to that calculations shouldbe performed demonstrate eeing is not requiredby the reballasting unduestresses thejacketlegi or, alternatively, on procedure. prior to sailaway. They aremajor stuctural systems, subjected,to both staticand are Seafastenings installedafterloadoutandmustbe completed that conditions which are "asbad as couldhavebeen dynamicloads.Whenthe bargeis on the high seasit mustbe assumed it canencounter for bargeaccelerations anglesof and be statistically foreseen". Accordingly,the gravityand inertial forcesinvolvedmust. calculated all anticipated roll andpitch during the designseaconditions adoptedfor the tow (usually the lO-yearreturn storm for that seasonand location). I determining Sincethe loadsaredynamic,.impact must.beminimised. shouldbe considered. this criteria thereliability of the shortterm weatherforecast shouldbe attached thejacket only at locations approvedby the designer.They shouldbe attachedto the barge at locationswbich to Seafastenings are capableof distributing the load to the bargeinternal aming. They should also be designedto facilitate easyremoval on location. Seafastenings for as arenormally subject the samecoderequirements fabrication thejacket. to

3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTTION
fiom a fabrication yard to the offshore site is a critical activity. It is especiallyso in the caseofthejacket The transportationofheavy components and since the behaviourofthe unit usually influencesthe verification ofbarge strength,the designof seafastenings, indeedthe designofthe jacket tow route,etc.to be considered. itself Also therearethe practicalaspects oftug selection, must The size andpower requirementsof the towing vesselsand the designof the towing mrngement be calculatedor detenninedfrom past as Tug selectioninvolves such considerations length oftow route, proximity ofsafe harboursand the anticipatedweathe conditionsand experence. wind with accompanyingwaves.However, this seastates.As a minimum the tugs should be capableof maintaining stationin a 15mehe/second criterion depends the location. For instance,the requirementin the Meditenaneanis typically that the-maintug shouldmaintain station againsta . on wind" 5,0m significant sea-state 0,5 mehe/second and curent, acting simultaneously.Weatherforecastingis provided tbroughout 20 metre/second port threatens, pre-aranged ofrefuge may be sought. a the tow so that,ifexceptionalweather There are severalreasonsfor this. In the harbour areaa big tug Experiencehas shown that the fust phaseoftransportation is the most treacherous. masses, large tug andthe the towline. With a short towline betweentwo considerable can normally exercisevery little control evenwith a shortened practice lengthen towline onceout ofthe port. Also, because the to ofthe muchlargerbarge/jacket, risk ofsnappingis high. Thusit is standard the natureofmany ports, close control is essentialin order to avoid the possibility ofrunning aground.Normally, therefore,the harbour tugs take the bargeout underthe guidanceof a pilot who knows the port. When the bargeis out of the port the problemsare not totally solved since it must be assumed that the worst canhppen,i.e- the towlne may break. The tug must have sufficient time to pick up the emergencytowline and control the bargebefore it drifts into shallow water. Thus the departureis that normallv subectto strict weatherforecastconditions for a period which assumes the speedofthe tow is between 1 and 2 lnots for the fist 100 48-hornweatherforecast requred, is e.g.Force5 and decreasing. Consequenfly, inimlm, a favouable s nauticalmiles from the coast. Once the tow is underway, trim will be adjustedto optimise tow speedand give directional stability during tow. Usually the bargewll be trimmed down by the stem. both fiom the point ofview ofstatic and dynamicstability.Both are The behaviour to oftlejacket seafastened the bargemust be satisfactory

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will usuallywarrant the However,particularlyfor largerstructures, sensitivityofthe dynamicanalysis verifiedby means ofnumerical analyses. verificationby modeltesting. a is The intactstaticstabilitycriteriausuallyadopted thatthe righting arm be positivethroughout rangeof36o aboutany axis.The so-called less dynamic stability of wind overtuming criteria simply ensurethat for a given wind, the energywhich tendsto overtum the barge is at least40o% than that which is available due to the inherentrighting stability ofthe barge. motion (from the point of view of In considering motionsof thejacket andbargeit is intuitivelyplausibletlat roll will bethe mostproblematical the true, but by and body accelerations) that the largestroll will be caused a beamsea.It may be lessobvious, nevertheless that ifthe bargewidth and, to a lesserextent the length, are reduced,the roll will diminish and if the bargeis set at a (much) deeperdraft, the roll will also diminish. All of these a can be ofthe jacket andbarge.Improvements occasionally madeby choosing narrowerbarge(although considerations reflectstaticproperties obviously stability will suffer) or increasingthe draft (althoughin this casestability may again suffer andparts ofthe structurewhich were in of can Incorrect"balancing" theseaspects havevery seriouscoslrisk implications overall previously'dry' may now be subjected 'slamming'). to project terms. Thus, for a largejacket, the bargeselectionprocessis normally perfbnned at a very early stageofthe designprocess.

4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
ofjacket installation commencingwith removal ofthe jacket ftom the bargeto its placing on the seabec This sectionis concernedwith the stages coversthe subjectofpile installation. andtemporary on-bottomstability.Lecture154.6: Foundations 4.1 Removal of Jacket from Barge used: barge.Therearetwo basicmethods Unlessajacket is a self floater,it must first be removedfrom the transportation . launch . lift 4.1.1 Launch' 1: l

to The launch site is normally at or near the installation location. With heavyjackets in shallow water it may be necessary launch thejacket in deep water at somedisance from the installation location andtow the iacket to site. Immediately prior to launch, the seafastening securingthe jacket to the bargeis cut. The jacket is then pulled along the bargeskid ways (which were whenthejacket is self the usedfor loadout)by winches.As thejacketmovestowards sternofthe barge,the bargestartto tilt anda point is reached sliding. An initial tilt to the bargemay havebeenprovided by ballasting immediately prior to launch.A stem trim of approximately5ois usually aimedfor. The skid vVays terminte in rocker amsat the stem oftlie barge;As the jacket mbves along the skid ways its centreofgravity reachesa point where causes rockerarm andjacketto rotate.Thejacketwill then slideuqderits own self the it is vertically aboie the rockr arrnivot. Furthermovement in weight into the water.Variousstages the launchofajacket areshownin Figure la to ld. vessel. Oncein the waterthe selffloatingjacket is broughtundercontrolwith linesfrom tugs and/orthe installation those caused the launch. This canbe achievedeither by strengthenng by and fabricatedto withstandthe stresses Thejacket must be desigrred memberswhich might be over-sfessedby the launching operation,or designinginto the jacket a specialtruss, commonly referred to as a launch be between larnch skid ways.Thus ajacket will generally will be dictated the spacing by members launchtrusses or truss:Spacing betweenjacket barge..by designed from the outset installation a spegific for thejacketto momentum ofthejacket. This requires ofbuoyancyin orderto stopthe downward thejacketmust float with a reserve Oncelaunched with removablerubber diaphragms. be water tight. It is commonpractice to gain additional buoyancyby sealingjacket legs and pile sleeves However, there is equently a needfor evenmore buoyancy.This is achievedby adding buoyancytanks. Theseneedto be removableand are are locatedwherethey give most benefit.Buoyancytanksfrom previouslaunches oftenused. thatthe launch designeffort is requiredir orderto ensure in The launchof ajacket is clearlya criticalphase the life ofthe jacket. Considerable is A sequence feasible. jacket launchnavalanalysis requiredin orderto: is o o o r r sliding velocity is maintainedduring tle rocker arm rotation; ensurethat an adequate clearance; verifo that the trajectory.followed has a safe seabed determinethe jacket behaviour during launch; define operationalrequirementsduring launch, lding ballast configwation; checkthe stability ofthe jacket during launch and when ee floating.

tonnesandwas beinginstalledn 105mees Thejacket weightwas 14,000 The plots shownin Figures1ato ld areextacted from suchan analysis. its 2 showedthat it shouldtakeapproximately mnutesbetweenstartofselfsliding (Figurela) andthejacketreaching final ofwate. The analysis floatingposition(Figure1d). 4.t.2Lift by An increasingnumber ofjackets arebeing installed by direct lift. This trend has beenencouraged the availability oflarge cranevesselssuch as the Micoperi 7000. Curvesshowing load capacityagainstlifting radius are shown in Figure 2. Another facto 1sding to inqease direct lift jackets in aresavings weightthat arebeing achieved jacket design. in the lift. forrn oflft is the buoyancy assisted In this case bargeis flooded in ln a diectlift thejacketis lifted offthe bargecompletely air. A second to Buoyancytarks may be added thejacketifrequired. This resultsin part ofthejacket beingbuoyan! reducinghok loacls. andhencesubmerged. Shallow waterjackets may be lifted in the vertical position. In this caseno up-ending is required and installation is straight forward. Deepwater jackets will n generalbe lifted on their side.Two craneswill normally be used,noting that large derrick bargessuch asthe Micoperi 7000 are fitted with two cranesas standard.When consideringa tandemlift it shouldbe noted that it is unlkely that both hooks will carry the sme load, aad that

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jacket weightwill be lessthan the sum of thetwo cranecapacities. shouldalsobe notedthat cranes frequently are It the maximumpermissible Finally, the lift and carrylessload ifthey arerevolving.This canfurtherreducethe apparent capacity. guyedbackto give maximumlift capacity thesecontributingasmuch 7Voof the lift weight. weight of lifting slingsneedto be consdered, vessel be correctlymooredand to bargeby lifting, it is normalfor the installation from the transportation When thejacket is to be removed may proceedas one integral1iftoperation. positionedso that up-ending set-down and to stabil andmotion it In vesselis clearlyessential. additionto lift capacity, is alsonecessary consder installation of The selection a suitable such are inslallationvessels usuallysemi-submersibles asthe Micoperi 7000.In more characteristics. the harshNorth Seaenvironments In response vessels may be used. e.g., barges. intermediate I envfuonments, the Gulf of Mexico, ship-shaped moderate watersthey areoftenflat bottomed for on usedin the North Seahaverl1dynamicpositioning.systems locatingthemselves site.They also cranevessels The largesemi-submersible have sophisticatedcomputercontrolledballast systemsto keep the vessellevel during lifting operations.During a lift the ballast systemis also used hoisting and lowering speedsduring the crucial lift-offand set-downoperations. to counteractheel and increase encormtered vessels roll, pitch andheavetendto be closeto the typical peakperiodsofthe seaspectra in The naturalperiodoflarge installation Normally this meansthat beamseasshouldbe avoidedsincethis excitesroll which is the most offshore. Thesemotions thereforepredominate. on disruptive motion. However, the "bestattitude" is not always possiblesinceit depends the work that the vesselis required to perform. perform extensivestudiesto determinepermissibleseastatesfor specific operationsand esselcaptainsinvariably Accordingly vesseloperators "experiment" with different headingsin a particular seain order to minimise motions and maximise workability. The first stagesin lifting ajacket from the transportationbarge involve positioning the bargeaad connectingthe slings to the hook. The barge will will normally be controlled by tugs. Onceeverything is ready for lift to proceedthe seafastenings be cut. The next stageis to transfer the weight of thejacket from the bargeto the crane.The generalrequirementhere is to lift asrapidly aspossible.However, careful conhol and phasingwith barge wave and cranevesselmotions is requiredin order to ensurethat once thejacket is lifted clear ofthe bargeit doesnot hit the bargeas a subsequent lift. passes tlrough. The samelift procedureis adoptedin both a direct and buoyancyassisted directly. ofthejacket will thennormallyproceed Oncethejacketis lifted cleaofthe barge,the bargeis removedby tugs.Up-ending 4.2 Jacket Up-ending and Set-down location.Up-endingmay be to and Unlessajacket is transported lifted in its uprightposition,it will be necessary up-endthejacket at the installation ofboth. or achieved controlledfloodingofbuoyancytanks,by using a cranevessel by a combination by 4.2.1Up-endingby Ballastcontroland Flooding achievedbyconholled or Upendingis theefoe will not norrnallybe requiredfor eithera launched selfloatingjacket. A largecianevessel so ofpiles oncethejacket hasbeenset-down, ths is usedasthe vessel will usuallybe requiredfor the installation flooding.A small installation platforq om which to control the various flooding operations.This installation vesselwill alsobe usedto help position thbjacket. involved.42pnmuy and22 the tanks.In this case floodingsystem of Figure3 showsa bketch the Brae'B'jacket showingthe auxiliarybuoyancy contol panelswere containedin watertight valves under direct hydraulic control. The nitrogen power sorrce and associated contingencysubsea capsules. at In ofsketches indicatinghow a selffloatingjacketis upended. step 1 the waterlinecompartments oneend ofthejacket Figure4 showsa sequence ae flooded. More water line tanks are flooded in step2 until by step3 the upper ame of the jacket reacheswaterline and may also be flooded. The jacket is then allowed to rotateunfil all le-gs eqally flooded asin st4. ThejaCktsnanual position will then be floating upright as i step 5. are Furtherfloorlingofthejacketasinstep6willenablethejackettobeloweredontotheseabedinacontrolledmanner-... jacket will be similai to that shown in Figure 4. The main difference is that there may be less excessbuoyancy with The up-endingof a launched thejacket. offlooding andlift, asshownin Figure5, may be usedto up-endandset-down In which to contol the operation. this casea combination

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B a l l a s t i n g h e l a u n c he n d t of barge

Movingjackei alongskid beams

Jecket pivols on rocker rms

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

F l o a t i n gi n w e t e r

U p e n d i n g i t h d e r r i e kb e r g e w

In plsce

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

Figure 5 lnstallationof jacket by launching

The craneand ballastingoperationsneedto be clearly definedbefore the operationbegins.This involves careful naval analysisofthe free floating position ofthe jacket at various btages during the up-endingprocedure.A featureof theseanalyses the needto considerwhat happensin the event is procedures equipment flooded,or offlooding valvesfailing to operate. and must be provided. ofbuoyancytanksbeingaccidentally Contingency 4,2.2Up-ending usingthe cranevessel Figure5 showsthemostsimpleuseofa cranto up-endandset-down ajacket.This is acceptable forjacketsthat arelaunched. horizonally For irrientedjacketsthat ae liited directly the procedureis mr involved. A horizontally lifted jacket may be upendedin one of two ways. Perhaps rhost straight forward is to lower thejacket into the water so.thatit e floats.Slingscanthenbe removedandnew slingsattached the top ofthejacket. Thejacketmay then be up-ended shownin Figure 5..This may at as requireclosures legsandsomeadditionalbuoyancy. to A second methodis to up-enddirectly,asshownin Figure6. This requires specialpadears that thenecessary so rotationbetweenslingsandjacket canoccur. Careful naval analysisis also rquired in order to carefully determinehook loads and to ensurethat the iacket remains stable.

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Stage 1 Lifting from barge

Stage 2 Upending : phase 1

Srage 3 Upending : phase 2

Stage 4 Setting in final position

Figure 6 Jacket installation by lifting

divers may be requredto disconnectthe slings Sincethe lifting points are submerged Once up-endedthejacket can be set-downon the sea-bed. from thejacket. Although two ffane hooks are shownin Figure 6, it shouldbe noted that for light weightjackets it is possibleto up-endusing a single crane.In this casethe main and auxiliary hooks areusedtogether,for examplethe main hook taking the weight of the jacket with the auxiliary hook providing the upendingforce. An increasingtrend is to install ajacket over an existing well o wells. A pre-drilling templatewill have beenusedto position the wells, the same to templatebeing usedto position thejacket. It is necessary ensurethat the well headsareprotectedom damagedueto accidentalcontactwith the jacket. plan. Oncelevel, care in at specified the installation the Onceset-down jacket shouldbe positioned or neargradeandlevelledwithin the tolerances Levellingthejacket afterall pileshavebeen ofthe jacket during subsequent operations. shouldbe exercised maintaingradeandlevelness to levellingshouldtakeplaceafter a minimurn installedshouldbe avoided at all possible it is costlyandfrequentlyinefiective.If necessary, if as procedures shouldbe usedto minimisebendingstessesin the piles. numberofpiles havebeendrivenby jacking or lifting. In this instance 4.3 On-bottom Stability Once set-downon the seabed, it is normal for piling to proceedasrapidly aspossible.However, this far into the installation procedurethe weather and henceseaconditionsmay be detioriating. This is a result oflong term weather forecastingbeing lessreliable than short term forecastng.It the should also be noted that any problemsencountered'durng installation procedurewill result in delay and that it may be sometime before the jacketis adequately fixed to the seabedby piling. on-bottom stability analysisis thereforecarried out. Tbee conditions It is necessary the jacket to be stableand level during piling. A separate for needto be met: (1) verticalresistance jacketweghtandpiling loads; to (2) stability againstsliding underwave/curentloading; (3) stabilityagnst loading. overturning underwave/current to hydro-dynamicloading. This should be the maximrni it to In carrying out the aboveanalyses is necessary use an appropriatesea-state generate statisticalwave which may occur prior to piling being completed.Assuming installation to occur in the summermonths,a typical criteria may be a I

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year slrlnmer stonn wave.

Pase of13 12

soil onjacket location,heightandon sea-bed conditions. on-bottomstabilityvary greatlydepending thatneedto be madeto ensure The provisions jacket steelwith no extraprovisonmade. directly on existing with goodsoil conditions jacket may be ableto be supported the For example, 'mudmats'may requiredin orderto spread load.Thesecaninfluencelaunchand installation the large be However,with poor soil conditions dynamics. mudmatswith For manyjackets it is not possibleto achievestability againstsliding and overhrming using flat mudmats.ln thesecircumstances improvethe resistance sliding,andn silty or clay soilscan allow nominaltensionloadingto resist. to skirtsmay be used.Skkts considerably under These will peneate somedistance ofpiles assoonasthejacketis set-down. Anotheroptionequentlyusedis to staba nrunber overturning. ofresistnce over tuming. to Sincemostpiles areinclined,the piles alsoprovidea degree selfweightprovidingadditionalslidingresistance.

5. CONCLT]DING SUMMARY
offshore transportationand installation offshore. r There arebroadly four phases the installation of a steeljacket - loadout, seafastening, to o In deciding how bestto fabricateand install a givenjacket, the options areprincipally determinedby the installation equipmentavailable and thejacket's intendedwater depth. An installation plan must be preparedfor.each installation.Loadout entails tle movementof the completedstructureonto the bargewhich will it Eansport ofhore. o Seafastening entails fitting and welrling sufficient ties betweenthe jacket and the bargeto prevent shifting while in transit to the offshore site. o The ansportationofheavy componentsom a fabricationyard to the offshore site is a critical activity requiring carerl calculation and Planning. . Removal of thejacket from the bargeis accomplishedeither by direct lifting with a derrick barge and lowering into positior or by launching. A numberofengineering studies requiredforjacket launchandset-down. are

6. REFERENCES
latesteditioh.Engineering desp of Practice Planning,DesieingandConstruction Fixed OffshoreIstallations, for Ul API RP2A,Recommended principlesandpractices haveevolvedduring the development that ofofhore oil esources.

7. ADDITIONAL READING
RP5 - Lifting (June1985).Principlesandgoodpracticefor offshoreheavy Recommended Practice l. Det NorskeVeritasMaineOperations lifts. Steelfor Buildings,latestedition.API coderefersto this : for andErectionof Structural 2. AISC Specification the Design,Fabrication ofalljacket members. for ofbasic allowablestresses specification calculation qualification-are required;by API code.to the be WeldingCodeAWS D1.1-88.All jcket weldingandweld procedure 3. AWS Structural

* #i"ti*?:iff',H.iitffbJrh,

, steeljackets asrequiredby ENV. . 5. LloydsRegisterofShipping,RulesandRegulationsfortheClassificationofFixedOffshorelnstallations,l9S9.BasedonLloyd'sexperience from certification over 500olatformsworld-wide of

Narne

1977. for and of and of srructures, Rules construction instaflation consfuction rnspectionoffshore

Operator Heerema

Type
Monohull

Mode Fx Rev

Lifting Capacity

Thor

2720 1820 2720 2450

+ 4536 3628:8164 3630+2720=6350

Odin

Monohull

Fix Rev

Hermod

Semisub

Fix Rev

Balder

Semisub

Fix Rev

+ 3630 2720: 6350 + 3000 2000:5000 4000 3800

I 820 1450

McDermott

DB5O

Monohull

Fix Rev

DBlOO

Semisub

Fx Rev

DBlOI

Semisub

Fix Rev

3360 24s0 + 6000 6000: 12000 + 7000 7000: 14000

DBl02 Micoperi M7000

Semisub Semisub

Rev Rev

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Notes:

Page13of13"

-)

1. Ratedlifting capacityin metrictonnes ctc. 60m distance at stemat approximately thesearesituated the vessels 2. Whenthe canevessels providedwith two cranes, are Table 1 Major OffshoreCraneVessels Previous.l Next I Contents

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PreviousNext I Contents I W ESDEP G 154
STRUCTURALSYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

P a s e1 o f 1 8

Lecture154.10:Superstructures I
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE To introducethe functional requirements; identiff major interfaceswith the process,equipment,logistics, and to safety;to introducethe structuralconcepts forjacket and gravity basedstructure(GBS) topsides;to elaborateon structuraldesignfor deck floors. PREREQUISITES Lectures1A & lB: SteelConstruction Lecture2.4: SteelGradesand Qualities Leture2.5: Selection SteelQuality of Lectures 3.1: General Fabrication ofSteel Structures Lecture 6.3: Elastic lnstability Modes Lecture7.6: Built-uo Columns Lectures 8.4: PlateGirder Behaviour& Design LecturesI 1.2:WeldedConnections Lectwe 12.2:AdvancedIntroduction to Fatigue Lecturesi5A: StructuralSystems- Offshore SUMMARY The topsidelay-out is discussed, referringto API-RP2G [1], and to generalaspects ofinterface control and weight control. jacket or GBS) are introducedand (relevantto the type of substrucfure, The different types of topside structures described. Thesetypes are: f. integrateddeck. 2. module supportframe. 3. modules. Floor conceptsare presented and severalaspects ofthe plate floor designare addressed.

1. INTRODUCTION
This lecturedealswith the overall aspects the designof offshoretopsides. of The topsideof an offshore structureaccommodates equipmentand supportsmodulesand accessories the suchas living quarters, helideck,flare stackor flare boom, microwavetov/er, and cranepedestals. (acket or GBS) and the The structuralconceptfor the deck is ifluenced greatly by the type of substructure methodof construction,seeFigures 7 and2.

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Accommodation module

D r i l l i n gd e r r i c k s

Productio n modules F l a r eb o o m

+-Deck

support frame

Jacket

36 well conductors o {enclosing il and water wellsl

Foundation piles

N o l e t h e l a u n c h g i r d e r si n t h e j a c k e t a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l pileguides

Figure 1 Typical jacket based modularizedtopside

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MSF trensition i I re8 |

C a s t s t e e l t r a n s i t i o nr i n g

Figure2 Module support frame {MSFi for a gravtybased substructure BSi {G

provided with a module supportframe onto which a numberof modulesare Heavy decks,over 10;000tons, ar_e placed.Smallerdecks;suchasthose locatedin the southernNorth Sea are nowadaysinstalledcompletewith all equipmentin one lift to minimize offshore hook-up.Most of this lecturerefers to this type of integrateddeck such as is shownin Fieures3 and4.

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15OO deep plate girders {typi

T
T

t - ?

t '. 5

, l 75 v

15OOC typ.

Typical deck plan

Figure3 Typical portal - frame typ* platform used in Dutch settr of Nonh sea.

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Top view

Grid line E

Grid line 81 and 85

Truss on gr.id line 83 not shown; it is identical to 81 without deck legs beneath

Figure4 Truss type strutture platform

The selectionof the conceptfor the structuraldeck is madein closecooperationwith the other disciplines.

2. BASIC ASPECTSOF DESIGN

2.1-Spaceand Elevations
for The first stepin developinga new designconceptis to considerall the requirements the deck structure.The below. and designrequirements their impact on the stncturalsystemare discussed to The lay-out ofthe deck is influencedby the type ofhydrocarbon processing be undertaken. as The arearequiredfor the equipment,piping and cableroutings,the vertical clearance well as the access/egress requirements determinethe deck areaand deck elevations. on The elevationon the lowest decksdepends the environmentalconditions.The elevationof the cellar deck, i.e. the lowest deck, is basedon the maximum elevationof the designwave crest,including tide and storm sway, plus an air gap of 1,5mminimum. The vertical distancebetweenthe decksof the topsideis generallyin the range 6 - 9m in the North Sea. of Consideration the prevailing wind direction is very important in determiningthe position of various components helideck; and the logistic and safetyprovisions. on the platform, suchasthe vent of the flare, cranes,

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below, basedon API-RP2G [1]. are for The requirements the various topsidecomponents briefly described heavily on whetherthe wells will be drilled and worked with a separate Wells: the position of the wells depends jack-up rig or with a platform-based In the first casethe wells must be close to the plafform edge rig. cantilevered and require significant deck areaabovefree ofobstacles.In the secondcasea pair ofheavy beamsto supportthe drill rig must be provided. of Equipment, piping and cable-supports: all devicesto treat the oil or gasshall comply with the requirements APr-RP2G [1]. Living quarters and helideck: the helideck shouldbe in the vicinity of the living quartersto enablefast Usually the helideck is locatedin the obstaclefree areaon top of the living quarters. evacuation. may be in Gas compressor module: the pressure gasreservoirsdeclinesdue to production.Future compression gas neededin order to achieveacceptable flow through the export pipeline. Water or gas injection module: oil productiondeclinesafter someyearsof operation.The reservoirthen reqrrires stimulationby, for example,injection of water. Deck crane: the location of the craneshouldbe selectedso asto oblain maximum deck coverageand to enablethe craneoperatorto keep eye contactwith the lifted object and the supply vessel.The location ofthe deck crane shouldbe outsidethe obstaclefree areaof the helideckand should not interferewith future facilities. productsin the air without burning them; a flare discharges gaseous Vent/flare boom or stack: a vent discharges areasand away from the and burnstheseproducts.Both vents and flares shouldbe locatedoutsidehazardous helideck.The tip shall exceedthe elevationofthe helideck by at least 100feet. Heat radiation shall be checked. A Microwave tower: A high mounting is requiredto provide obstaclefree supportfor microwave antennae. stiff supportis requiredin order to comply with the stringentdeflection criteria. Survival capsulesand man-overboard crane: the supportingstructuresfor theseitems usually cantileverfrom the the main structure.Shock loading and dynamic amplification increases supportreactionsduring operation. Walkways, ladders and stairs: theseitems'shouldbe kept obstaclefree, be non-slipperyand have sufficient ' width to allow evacuationofpersonnel on stretchers. Cladding, walls, doors and louvres: the type of cladding dependson the operationalrequirementsand the walls and doors may haveto satisfuspecifiedexplosionand fire For preference the oil comprriy. safetyreasons, of resistance requirements. Louvres may be usedto allow natural ventilation, whilst preventingentry of rain, snow and birds. Lay down areas for equipment, spares and consumables:theseareasareprovidedby cantileveringfrom the to main structurein order to allow access the lower deck levels by the deck crane,without providing hatches throughthe decks. repair and to Hatches: access the lower deckswithin reachof the craneis requiredto enablemaintenance, platform modification. The hatchesshouldbe identified early in the design' to Risers, caissons,sumps: the riser sectionof the pipeline rises from the seabed the deck. It introducesvertical for and horizontal loads(environmentaland operational)in the deck structure.Caissons pumps and sumpsfor significant vertical and horizontal loads in the deck. dischargeare hung from the cellar deck and introduce Drainage provisions: provision is requiredfor spillagein drip pansunderthe equipmentand for collecting oilpolluted rainwaterto prevent spilling into the sea. cableroutings, etc. can on Deck penetrations: pipes connectingprocess-items different decksand,vessels, shouldbe identified early in the members.The major penetrations require significant areasto be clear of structural designand coordinatedwith major structuralmembers.

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gangways alsoberequired. and may Other provisions:itemssuchasmonorails inspection 2.3 Loads identified partlyquantified. and typesof loads havebeen In Lecture154.3thedifferent

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here.Dead weight includesthe weight of structure, Dead weight, tankful live load and wind load are discussed equipment,piping, cables,machinery,and architecturaloutfitting. Tankful live load coversweight of potable wter, dieselfuel, helifuel, glycol, methanol,well-kill mud, lubrication oil, waste,etc. loads suchas baggedor palletizedconsumables, spareparts, Live load also coversall sortsof miscellaneous equipment,etc. maintenance ,Theapplicationof live load is typical for topsides.For designconsiderable judgement is required engineering concerning: o the magnitudeof the load to be appliedto the various structuralitems: - direct loadeddeck strinser - deck beam - deck truss - deckleg' - jacket - pile - pile bearingresistance

. ,

o the areato which live load is to be applied. This areais describedin the code as the non-occupiedarea. routes,etc. are considered non-occupiedby equipmentand as For local strength,the walkways, escape a.re thus loadedby live load. For overall strength,the walkways, escape routes,etc. are considered occupied(kept clear for , as 'evacuation)andconsequentlynoliveloadisapplied. o the arrangement loadsthat generates maximum stress. policy on this item shouldbe preparedfor each A of .project, statingboth variationofloads over one deck; and variation over various decks,. ' For Wind loads shouldbe properly assessed. overall structuralintegrity, the complex shapeof the platform creates problemsin assessing effective areafor wind load. Specialelementssuch as communicationtowers and flare the as boomsrequire consideration wind sensitivestructures. weight engineeringas explainedin Section2.5 below, shall be performedby the To control the designprocess, project management staff. Any structuralanalysismust be linked to the latestavailableinformation in the weight report. This requiresthat the load file for the structuralanalysisand the weight report are compatiblewith respect to total weight, weight distribution and centresof grav. 2.4lnterfice Control

The many functions of the topsideresult in the involvementof many disciplinesin the design. Due to the high cost of providing platform space,the facility must be designedto be very compact.This requirementleadsto severalmajor areasof interdisciplinarycontrol. o Spaceallocation:the structureshouldnot use spaceallocatedfor equipmentor access routes.Overhead clearance betweenpiping, cableroutes,equipmentand the floor overheadshouldbe respected. o Direct interfacecontrol; pumps,vesselsand piping require supportby the steelstructure. o Interfacebetweendrilling and workover operations. o Interfacebetweenplatform craneand helideck, deckhouse, drilling rig, and flare stack. Interfacewith the exportriser. o Interfacebetweenthe deck and modules. o Interfacebetweenthe topsideand bridge from adjacentplatform.

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. Interfacewith the substructure. 2.5 Weight Engineering

P a g e8 o f 1 8

is The weight of the overall facilty as well as its major components critical. Lack of weight control can lead to' as costly designchanges well as to major provisionsin orderto keep within the limits of the constructionstrategy. consistsof: Weight engineering o . o o weight prognosis weight reporting weight control weighing

in as Weight prognosisis the methodologywhich appliesan uncertaintysurcharge high as +30%o the conceptual

phase, Figure5. see phase, +Syo thefinal fabrication in s design Weight including unoertainty surcharge

Beducing uncertainty surcharge with time & progress

ty nicat
Y

3o9 |

TI
Best estrmate Calculated weight Calculated & weigh. weighed

-i
-f

Eg6
typical

lConcentual I design

Detail design

Desiqn& fabrication

Final

Time/ prrgress

fabrication

Figure 5 Reducingweight uncertanty.

3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
3.1 Selectionof Topside for a Main Jacket-BasedStructure
of The selectionof the conceptfor the topsidestructureis the secondstep in the development a structural system. The two possiblebasic alternatives:a trusstype (Figure 4) or a portal-frametype without braces(Figure 3), are comparedin Table 1. Table 1 Comparison of conceptsfor main jacket-based structures

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Trusstype 1. 2. 3.
+-

Frame type
..]T

Discipline non-interference Flexibility during construction Flexibility during operation Automated fabrication Constructiondepth Inspection Maintenance Weight of structure Strengthreserve Potentialfor high strengthsteel StructuralCAPEX Platform CAPEX
T T -l--+

# H #

5. 6.
n

0
#

+ 0
# #
T

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Note: # denotesgreaterbenefit -- denotesgreaterdisadvantage The selectionof the topsidemain structureconcept,truss or portal frame, is linked with the decisionof the ln position of the longitudinal structurein the cross-section. a20-25m wide deck,trusseswill generallybe arrangedin longitudinal rows: centreline and both outer walls (Figure 6).

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P a g e1 0 o f 1 8

Floor plate

Deck beam

Main strusture

Figure 6 Basic structural grid for a jacket-baseddeck.

in In suchdecks,however,portal frameswill be arranged 2 longitudinal rows, approximately 74-76m apaL, allowing floor cantileversof approximately5m (Figurg 3). 3.2 Selection of Topsides for Gravity Based Structures Topsidesofgravity basedconcretestructures(GBS) are quite diffrent from thejacket basedtopsides,seeLeture 154.1. The topsidestructureis an important elementin the overall portal-typesystem.Gravity basedsubstructures of have beenbuilt with one to four shafts.A rectangularor a T-arrangement four shaftshasbeenadopted.The form is a modularizedtopsidewith a grid of heavy box girders. basic A few elementsonly of the GBS-topsidestructuraldesignare indicatedbelow: o due to portal frame action,the deck is subjectto fatigue; a designcasedifficult to control in topsidedesign. . equipmentlay out optimization,piping and cableroutes,logistic and emergencyroutesrequire many big openingsand perforationsofplate walls, thus creatingstressconcentrations. attachment secondary structuresand of equipmenlpipe/cablesupportsto the main structuremust be of strictly controlled,to avoid fatigue problems. o the connectionareawith the concreteshaftmust provide the transition from circular (shaft) to square(deck). high strengthanchor bars,temporarycrushingdevicesfor deckmating,and requires It accommodates dimensions. tolerances deck and substructure on o inspectionand repair optionsmust be plannedcarefully, especiallyas fatigue may occur. The materialusedat presentis high strengthsteeltypically of 355 MPa yield stress.There is a trend to usehigher strength steel(420-460 MPa).

3.3 Floor Systems

is The conceptfor the floor-systemin offshore structures conventional:hot rolled beams,typically at 1000-' or 1200mmcentres,are coveredby a chequered flat steelplate 6-1Ommthick.

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The options are: . o o conventionalsteelfloor steelgating (bar-typeor plate fype) aluminium floor system orthotropic deck in steel comrgatedsteelplate

P a g e1 1 o f l S

The conventionalsteelfloor contributesapproximatelyhalf ofthe weight of the steelstructureof an offshore deck. Steelgratings,especiallywith the plate type, could gain increasedapplicationas their weight per sq.m. is atfractive. Aluminium has attractedmuch interestrecently; current developmentin Norway will show its real potential. Orthotropic decksin steelhavefound applicationin helidecks.Further study is requiredto assess their actual feasibility for floors of offshoremodules. Corrugatedsteelplate (approximatelyl-3mm thick) as sub-flooring hasbeenusedin living quarters. In summary,the floor conceptusedfor a typical floor of an offshore deck of a'moduleis a conventionalsteelfloor or steelgrating. 3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor The floor panel, defined asthe assemblyof the floor plate and the stringer,can be connected the overall to structurein two ways: o stacked:stringer over the top of deckbeams. o flush: stringerwelded in betweendeck beam,with top flange in one plane. It is practically impossibleto changefrom the flush to stackedaffangement a later phaseof the design. in All elevationsand overheadclearances involved in the choice of arrangement. are Clearances very important are for equipmentheight, pipe routing, pipe stress,cablerouting, etc. The single most important structuralaspectis the amountof prefabricationthat can be carriedout away from the main fabricationyard. The cost is also a very important factor.

3.5 Floor Stabilization Concept

The deck structurerequireslateralstabilizationofeach floor with respectto: o o o o o lateral instability of beams horizontal forces,e.g. wind, pipe reactions,seatransport horizontal components permanentbraces of horizontal components temporarybraces,e.g. seafastening of horizontal components sling forces of module skewing during installation.

Thereare essentiallytwo optionsfor floor stabilization: . provision of separate underfloorhorizontal bracings o allocatethe stabilizationfunction to the floor plate. Thereis a clear preferencefor the stabilizationby the floor plate. Where underfloor bracing is adopted,thereare two configuration options (seeFigure 11). The rhomboid solution should be chosenfor the upper deck, due to congestionat the column by the padeyes lifting. The underfloor bracing under a plate floor doescreatea very for unclearstructuralsituation.The bracing is assumed completelyto perform the stabilizing function, but in practice the floor plate is much too stiff to allow that. It is commonpractice in the structuralanalysisfor underfloorbracing to neglectcompletelythe floor plate.

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{ai Crossed. not very feasible for upper deck due to interferenoe of braae/columnloint with padeyes or trunnion stiffeners

Rhomboid stabilization

{b} Rhomboid. more feasible for upper deck. however requires stabilization

Figure 1 1 Alternative configurations for underfloor bracing.

4. DECK FLOORING DESIGN

4.1Introduction
abovein relation to lay-out requirements. The selectionof the main deck dimensionshave been considered designof the jacket and deck yields the spacingof the columns.In the Dutch The interactiveprocessof conceptual column spacingsare typically 9m for a wellheadplatform to 15m for a sectorof the North Sea,transverse production platform. Longitudinally spacingsare typically 15m. Next decisionsare madeon: o floor system:plate versusgrating . main structure:trussversusportal frame floor panelconcept:stackedversusflush

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. floor stabilizationunderfloorbracing versusplate. The structuralconceptis then complete. is A principle for economicdesignof steelstructures that the load-pathsshouldbe short. are: For a floor designof a productiondecktypical dimensions Structural item Typical span l. 2. 3. 4. 5. floor plate lm stringer(longitudinal) 5m deckbeam(transversal) 15m main structure(longitudinal) i5m column

P a g e1 3 o f 1 8

Thesecomponents identified in Figure 6. are 4.2 Floor Plate Design plate or tear plate.Another option for providing slip resistance Optionsareto choosebetweenflat plate, chequered is to coatwith a sandfnish. The floor plate thicknessis usually 8-lOmm and 6mm for lighter loaded floors, althoughwelding distortion may rule out the 6 mm thickness. In practicethe floor plate acts as horizontalbracing betweenthe columns Specialattentionis requiredto ensurethat all welds betweenthe floor plate and the underlying structuredo not form brittle points. Failure of such welds could lead to crack initiation in the rest of the structure, which are picked up unintentionally. The sameattentionappliesto the buckling of the floor plate by stresses Strength of Floor Plate loads. The strengthof the floor plate is very high both for uniform as well as concentrated results. Elastic, small-deflectiontheory providesuneconomicalconservative API-RP2A (2) doesnot speciff live loads.They are specifiedby the operator. For main decksgenerallyaccepted figures are: p:20kN/sqm, or F: 10-25 on a 0,3 x 0,3mloadarea kN membrane for Det Norske Veritas [3] presentsan expression the requiredplate thicknesst, which incorporates effectsand is ofspecial interestfor designfor local loads. Equipmentand containersare regularly offloadedby the cranein somedeck areas,such as lay-down areasand plate thicknessmay be requiredin theseareasdue to larger concentrated food containerplatforrns.An increased loads(l).

4.3 Stringers
The typical stringerfor a production platform is an IPE 240-270or I#,240-2804 profile positionedat approximatelylm centresand spanning5m. It is importantto choose,especiallyfor stackedfloor panels,a profile which allows selectionof heavier sections

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local heavy equipment. with practically identical depthto accommodate

P a g e1 4 o f 1 8

late extra load requirements Designersshould avoid choosingdeepersectionsor reinforcing them to accommodate with small diameter,hard piping or with cabletrays then is Interference by welding anothersectionunderneath. quite likely. A Joining floor plate and stringersrequireswelding. Intermittent welding is generallynot accepted. continuous generallyquite low. thin weld (a: 4 mm) is usually specified.The shearin this weld is Thejoint betweenthe stringerand the deck beamdiffers with the floor panelconceptchosen. o stackedfloors have a continuousfillet weld aroundthe flange contactareaand generally do not have web stiffening of the stringers. will require sealplatesto be someoperators for If the top of the deck beambecomesinaccessible maintenance, A welded betweenthe deck beamand the floor plate. This is quite expensive. typical joint is depictedin Figure 7.

Stringers

Fit in strip of floorplate F

Fit in frontplate of variable thickness

Figure7 Detail of stringer joint tver a deck beam for a " stacked" floor contept wth prefabricated floorpanels.
The decisionon the type of stringerjoint shouldpreferably be madeprior to material ordering. . flush floors. Welding the floor betweendeck beamsrequiresremoval of the top-flange of the stringernear its end and perfectfit betweenthe deck beamsand floor. Deck beamprefabricationis also required. 4.4 Deck Beams Deck beamssupportingthe floor panelsor providing direct supportto major equipmentare generallyprovided as beams, thoughHL 1000(400mmwide) or HX 1000(450mmwide) are alsousedfor heavierloads HE 800-1000 or greaterspans.

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The major joint in the deck beamis that with the main structure.

P a g e1 5 o f 1 8

Thejoint configurationis strongly determinedby the prefabricationconceptand elevationof the flanges.It is different for the stackedand for the flush conceot. StackedFloor Concept Figures8 and 9 illustratethe problems.

Stringer

Deck plate

Longitudinal em
(a) Haunched F l a n g ew e l d o f f s e t t o give accessfor welding

passes Flange throughweb of longitudinal beam flange {b} Continuous

Figure B Connection of transverse deck beams to longitudinal main beam for a partially stacked floor concept.

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Stringer

>2
{for weld acoessl Gusset {if requiredl Opposite flanges should align

Transverse beam Haunch {if required, no opposite flange! Longitudinal beam

Figure I ,Connection of transverse deck beam to a longitudinalman beam for a full-stackedfloor crncept.
and longitudinal main beamare positionedlower, For the full stackedconcept(Figure 9), where both transverse welding of the top flanges is straightforward. to The lower flange, typically 40mm thick, can only be velded the web, typically 20-25mmthick, if alignmentof both flangesis ensured. to The lower flange of the main structureshouldbe at least250mm underneath, enableback welding of the root. main beam is positionedlower, For the lesssuitablepartially stackedconcept(Figure 8), where only the transverse deck beamis more difficult. Direct welding of the top flange of the connectionfor the top flange of the transverse deck beamto the web.shouldbe rejected.Options are shown in Figure 9 with detail (a) haunchingand detail (b) slotting the top flange through the web. -Again it is apparentthat a decisionon joint configurationis requiredprior to material ordering. Flush Floor Concept of Detailing is dependent the prefabricationpolicy. as If the deck panel is prefabricated an assemblyof plate, stringer and deck beam,the detail shown in Figure lOa is the more appropriate.

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tr /t*l 1.5

{a} For panel pre-fabrication:floor + stringer + deck beam

{bi For anel pre-fabrication:floor + stringer + deck beam + main girder

Figure 1O Joint between transverse deck beam and man structure in a flush floor crncept.
To illowtop fTn welding a strip of the floor plate is fitted-andwelded last. If the deck panelis fabricatedas an assemblyof plate and stringeronly, the detail Figure 10b will be the most feasible. 4.5 Horizontal Bracing In Section3.5 the preference the floor plate to act as horizontal bracing was indicated. for If however separate bracing membersare required,the elevationmust be chosencarefully. The bracing members under the stringers,penetrate web of the deck beamsat sufficient the have to passwith sufficient clearance for distancefrom the lower flange. They also require good access welding of the joint. generate elevationand the maximum feasiblediameterof the brace(Figure 11). Theserequirements the Horizontal bracing can easily clash with vertical piping and major hatches. Assembly of the bracesis generallyquite cumbersome.

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
. The topsidelay-out was discussed, referring to API-RP2G,togetherwith generalaspects interfacecontrol of and weight control. jacket and GBS, the different types of topside structurewere introduced o Basedon the type of substructure,

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Thesetypes are: and described. integrateddeck. module supportframe. modules. o Floor concepts were described. o Severalaspects ofthe plate floor designwere addressed.

Page18 of 18

6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2G: Productionfacilities on offshorestructures. AmericanPetroleumInstitute 7 ed.1974. Presents basicrequirements. the practicefor planning,designingand constructingfixed platforms. [2] API-RP2A: Recommended AmericanPetroleum Institute.18thed.. 1989. The structuraloffshore code governsthe majority of platforms [3] DNV: Rules for the classificationof steelships. 5, 2.4.C,Permartent decksfor wheelloading. ParT Chapter Det Norske Veritas. Practicalapproachfor ecoromicfloor plate designunder static load.

7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. M. Langseth& c.s.:Dropped objects,plugging capacityof steelplates. pp 1988Trondheim; 1001-1014. BOSSConference Floor and roofplate behaviourunder accidentalloading. 2. D. v.d. Zee & A.G.J.Berkelder:PlacidK12BP biggestDutch productionplatform. IRO Journal, 38, 7987,pp3-9. nr. Presents recentexamplefor a portal-framedtopside. a for multishaft gravity concreteplatform. 3. P. Gjerde et al: Design of steeldeckstructures deepwater 9th. OMAE conference Houston 1990,paper90-335. Most recentpresentation GBS topsidestructure. on 4. P. Dubas& c.s.:Behaviourand designof steelplatedstructures, IABSE Surveys 3ll1985, August 1985, S pp 17-44. Good backgroundto theory ofplated structures. PreviousINext I Contents

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PreviousI Next I Contents ESDEP G 154 W STRUCTURALSYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

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II Lecture 154.11- Superstructures

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To elaborate structuralsteelconceptsfor integrateddecks,module supportframes,andmodules.To show principles and methodsof on construction (from yard to offshore site). PRE-REQUISITES Lectures1A & 1B: SteelConstruction l*cfixe 2.4: SteelGradesand Qualities Lecture2.5: Selectionof SteelQuality Lectures3.I : GeneralFabricationof SteelStruchres Lecture6.3: Elastic lnstability Modes Lecture7.6: Built-up Columns Lectures8.4: Plate Girder Behaviourand Desigr Lecture11.2:WeldedConnections Lecnre 12.2;AdvancedIntroductionto Fatigue I-ecture l5A: Offshore Struchres STJMMARY skin. Structuralsystemsfor eachtype oftopside structureare introduced,i.e. truss,portal frame,box gtder, and stressed phasesarepresented more detail, i.e.: in and Somespecialtopics ofdesign are addressed the different construction l. 2. 3. 4. 5. . 7. 8. fabrication weighing load out seatransport offshoreinstallationespeciallydeckmating moduleinstallation hook-up commissioning. l

this lecture. A briefdiscussionon inspectionand repair and on platform removal concludes

l.INTRODUCTION
following the introductionin Lecture 154.10. This lecturedealswith the structuraldesignofjacket-basedofhore deck structures, Hearrydecks,over 10.000tons, are provided with a module supportframe onto which a number of modulesareplaced,seeLecture 154. l, North Sea,arenowadaysinstalled completewith all equipmentin one lift Figs. 4 and 5. Smallerdecks,such as thoselocatedin the southern to minimize ofhore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated deck as described in Lecture l5A. 10. with the other disciplines. The selectionofthe conceptfor the stuctural deck is madein closecooperation For the design of the deck sfucture, the in-place condition has to be considered,together with the various previous stagessuch as fabricatior load-ou! transport and installation. A structuralsystemfor a deck structurecomprisesseveralofthe following elements: Floors (steelplate or grating) Deck stringer(H beams,bulbs or troughs) Horizontal bracing

)
in ) Discussed 154.10 ) Lecture )

Deck beams

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Primary girders Vertical trussesor bracing Deck legs

Discussedin this lecture

2. MAIN STRUCTURE DESIGN

2.1 Introduction
Somemajor topics in topside sfuchral designarereviewedbelow. 2.2 Main Structure-Portal Frame Design

A portal frame designhas beenusedin recentmajor projectsin the Dutch sectorsuch asAmoco Pl5, Placid Klz 51and Penzoil L8. The main girder/columnjoint, as shown in Figure l, is very important in determiningthe height.It is most practicalto position the main girder flangesat the sameelevation. longitudinal and transverse

point

3O thick diaphragm plates top & bofiom

Figure 1 Typical joint in a poftal frame type man structure

howeveris not an option as thesegirdersbecomehighly main girder, which is more lightly loaded-in-plane, Haunchingof the hansverse loaded during transport.

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The severeresaint ofwelding a tubula in a diaphragmrequiresthe selectionofTTP steel for the column section.

Pase3 of 14

on I)ue to rhe high importanceof the diaphragmplates in the overall integrity of the structureand the welding constraints the web plates in between,TTP-steelis chosenalsofor the diaphragm. as of Another option is to weld the girdersdirectly onto the unstiffenedcan sectionof the column. The assessment ultimate resistance well as fatigue strengthhas beenthe subjectof recentresearch(seeLecture I 54. I 2). Further improvement ofthe theoretical and expermental background is required. For lighter loaded truss structures,this non-stiffened type of joint has beenusedsuccessfully. A third solution is to weld the girders directly to the can section ofthe column, which is internally stiffened by rings. Its most severe disadvantageis the difficulty ofinspecting the column interior. joints is that the girder sizing is govemedby the very high momentsat the column/beam The disadvantage both direct girder-column of transitionpoint. Cast steelnodesform an altemativeto the welded designs. with increasingsectionmoduli usually includes: Member selectionfor portal frame structures . o . o . . 300 mm wide rolled beam. 400 mm wide rolled bearn 450 rnrn 1460mmwide rolled beam. castellated beamsfabricatedfrom rolled beams,giving a height 1,5 times the original beamheight. built-up girders fabricatedfiom rolled beam T-sectionswith a web plate welded-in-between. plate girder.'

The plate girder of courseprovides the greatestflexibility for design, material selection and procurement, though its cost per tonne is approximatelytwice that of a rolled beam. 2.3 Main Structure-Truss Design ofmoderate sizehave beenprovided with a truss-typestructure.Typically suchtrussesconsistofrolled beamsas Most offshorestructures chordsand tubularsas diagonals. Truss designrequiresseveralchoiceswhich affect the sfuctural efficiency andhave impact on other disciplines: o . . . .. o r numberand configurationofbraces falling or rising braces intermediate load carrying of chords presence extemalmomentson joints of braces:tubularsor H-rolled sections chords:rolled sectionorplate girders node section. trussjoints: locally reinforcedchord or prefabricated :

Figure 2 shows different arrangementsofbraces (basically N or lil-type) obtained by variation ofthe number ofnodes. It should be kept in mind that alt diagonals and verticals form obstructions for piping and cable routings of all kinds.

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plate

Web insert

Conventional design

lmproved design

Most economic design

F i g u r e2 T V p i c atl r u s s i o i n t : t h r e e d i f f e r e n td e s i g n sf o r t h e i o i n t
is trusses, transparency evenmore important,especiallynear the well aea.The number of membersrequiredshould For the hansverse thereforebe reducedto a minimum. Providing a W-truss with light verticalsshouldbe evaluatedagainstchoosinga heavierchord section. :

momentsdue to lifting, ventstaclqor sranepedestalfor.example,much of the bracing stress' If a join! e.g. at the top deck, is subjeetto severe would result from unintendedbending.Generallythe deck leg restraintcreatesa similar problem in the lower deck. An evaluationshould yield a preferredlocation thereforefor the node ofthe end brace. The trussdeflectsunder its vertical load which leadsto restraintofthe chord in the column and to bending ofthe chord. Both effectscan quite severelyeffect the efficiency. The chord sectionshouldbe kept compactthereforeand not given too much height. or Tubulars(circular, squareor rectangular) rolled sectionscan be chosenfor the braces. a primarily on the loadsand the chord width. A chord width of 300mm can accommodte l0 in. braceonly. This a wider The choicedepends chord flange is preferred. 2.4 llsdain Structure-Stressed Skin Design

A third major structural option is the sfessed skin concep! where full height plate walls take the function of the truss or the frame. skin sincethe Modules for living quartersare frequentlybuilt to this concept.Other typesof moduleshavenot beenbuilt with stressed obstruction they causeduring construction is severe. plate can be usedto provide a wall in a frame of squarehollow sections. skin modules,trapezoidcom.rgated For smallershessed is For bigger modules,flat plate stiffenedwith through-stiffeners usedfor the walls. The detailed desigr can only be made with a clear plan for assembling the module which shows the panels that must be prefabricated. 2.5 Non-Load Bearing Walls Blast or fire walls are provided in offshore platforms. Due to thet function full welding to the main structure is often unavoidable, seeFigure 3a.

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Page5 c.114

T tl T ll
r--l ----------11

a l Direct and rigid

T l.l
ffi

b ) Flexible

IJ

il

ci Flexble

]J

til

Figure 3 Methods of attachment of secondary plate walls to main structure

Specialattntionis requiredconcerning: . the capability of the walls to comply with the deformation of the main structure during load-out, seatransport, lifting and in-service. . the stength of welds to the main structure being stonger than the plate to avoid rupture and potential crack initiation of the main structure. One solution is to provide a flexible detail, seeFigure 3b and 3c, with stiffenersfalling short. 2.6 Crane Pedestals Cranepedestal,are discussed briefly below. It is structurally economical to put the cranepedestalon top of a main column. For a truss type the main structure will be close to the platform peripheryso a moderatelength ofcrane boom is sufficient. For a portal frame type with columns closer to the outer periphery, the pedestalrequires a special column in order to avoid using a crane with large boom length. Figure 4 depicts such a solution.

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Cat -/v ladder

Top deck

Main deck

Figure4 Crane pedestal arrangement for a pedestaloutsidethe platform wall cladding

The finctions of the main structure with respect to the cranepedestal are: o o r o to provide torsional supportpreferableat top deck level to provide lateral restraint at top deck level to provide lateral restraint at the lower end of the pedestal to provide vertical support preferably at the lower end ofthe pedestal.

by Bendingrestaint by deck beamsand/ormain stuchre girdersis not requiredad should be reducedwhere possible.Torsion caused slewing of the crane should preferably be resisted by the floor plate, the stiffest element. It has becomepracticeto include the taperedtop sectionofthe pedestalin the supply packageofthe crane.The top section containsthe large flange for the slewing bearing Fatigue due to crane operations is a design criterion and requires careful detailing ofthe pedestal and the adjoining stucture.

3. ANALYSIS OF DECK STRUCTT]RES

3.1 Introduction require specialattention: tas severalaspects Although the analysisofdeck stuctues is a standard . Plate girder design

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. . . . . Sheng* ofjoints Strengthofthe floorplate Lifting points Modelling of floor plates Supportofmodules. Design

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3.2Plate Girder

load-carryingresistance. Lectures Design ofplate girders requiresselectionofmany dimensionalvariablesand ofapproachesfor assessing 8.4 deal in more detail with plate girder desigrr. Web buckling due to bending, normal force and shearrestricts the slendernessof the web which is expressedas the height of the web (h) divided by the web thickness(t). API-RP2A [2] refers to the AISC manual [3] which gives the figures below for materialwith yield-stressof 355 MPa: Allowable bendine stress Ratio web heighth to thicknesst t Ratio flange width b to thickness

0,66Fy
90 18

0,60Fy
138 27

limits given more recentresearch, and [6], allows use ofthe post-bucklingstrength.The depth/thickness Insteadofthe abve approach, [3] abovedo not then apply. 3.3 Strengfh ofJoints The most importantjoints in a topsidesteelstructureare: . . . o the ring stiffenedjoint betweenrolled beamsor plate girders with a circular column. the non-stiffenedjoint betweenrolled beamsor plate girders with a circular column. the tubular bracejoint to singleweb beams. tubularjoint. the non-overlapped

Theseiointsare discussed Lecturel5A.l2. in 3.4 Lifting Points For The effect of lifting points on deck desigr is considerable. examplethe local forcesthat act on the lifting points (Figurg 5) have to be hansmittedsafely throughto the deck struchre.

Axial force

Transverse force

Oblique force

Lateral force

Figure 5 Forces acting on a padeye

There aretwo types oflifting points,trunnionsand padeye,Figure 6.

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Flange plates

Cheek plate

Main plate
- Bore hole

Stiffener
plate Diaphragm plate

Tubulars

Seal plate lGep plate

Sling angle

[.------tI-,

Tubular

Trunnion

Figure.6 Designof lifting ponts

Trunnions, though favourable from other points ofview, see Section 4, can generate considerableoffset ofthe sling force with respect to the topdeck system points. Sigrifrcant bending is generatedwhich is transferred to the topdeck girders to the extent that they contribute to joint stifress. is most efficient to leavethesebendingmomentsin the column,by providing stiff columns. It Padeyesgenerally provide a good opportunity to minimize or eliminate offse! as far as they can be situated on top of the column. The padeyes thosewhich arepositionedbetweenthe top and bottom flange elevation) or the requirement ofrecessedpadeyes(recessed are presenceofother structures on the top deck can lead to very eccenhic positioning and resulting heavy moments. For this reason the lifting conceptmust be developed the conceptphaseofthe structuraldevelopment. in API-RP2A [1] requireslarger load factorsto be usedfor membersdirect-loaded padeyesor trunnions. by 3.5 Modelling of Floor Plates There are two points of major interest: . representationofthe floorplate in the structural model o true elevation which allows selectionof plate elements.A There areseveralways to model the plate. The most direct is to choosea computer-program secondoption is to define representativemembers which model the plate stifress by diagonals. The deck plate is often positionedin the model at the elevationof the centreline, i.e. the mid height of the main structuregirders, in order to that this "error" ofelevation, amountingto 0,5 - lm, can affect the results.A savenodesin the model. It shouldhowever be recognised separateevaluation should then be perforrned on the effect to this deliberate "error" at least at some critical points. 3.6 Support of Modules Modules and deck structures interactstructurally.API-RP2A [1] requiresthat modules aremodelled as elasticstruchres for the analysisof the

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as moduleswere represented a set because supportingdeck. In the 1970'smajor difficulties arosein the decksfor concretegravity stnrctures, ofthis acting at the supportpoints, and neglectingstructuralinteraction.The basic phenomenon ofloads for the different load cases, 'interaction that the distribution of the supportreactionsof the module is quteunequaland varies with the load case.Dimensionalcontrol of is further provide control over the module - deck interaction.Somemodules,such the module aswell as the suppor! with correctivemeasures, and as living quartermodules,gas compressor iqjection modules,are often placedon anti-vibrationpadsin order to isolatethem from vibrations.

4. CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Introduction of of ln Lecturel5A.l.the principal aspects construction offshore structuresand their major equipmentwas introduced. are below For topsidesmore speciflc aspects discussed 4.2 Fabrication 4.2.1Operations up The designshould allow efhcient prefabricationofmajor sections.Prefabricationwill avoid congestionin one working areaand it speeds the whole constructionprocess. Prefabrication and assembly shall properly incorporate the aspectsof ihstallation of major and smaller mechanical equipment, as well as outfrtting with piping, electricaland instrumentcablesand lines. It should be recognizedthat major mechanicaland electricalequipmentis often not availableat the start ofassembly and must be brought in during fabrication. 4.2.2 Design aspects Sincethe overheadspaceis well coveredby extensivepiping routesas well as cabletrays during construction,"late" structuralwork should preferablynot be positioned overhead that underfloorarea. in is Fabricationof offshore steelstructures principally assemblyby welding. The prefabricationconceptandjoint deiling shouldmaximize welding productivity with many horizontal welds preferablymadeusing SMAW technology. and to keep within constructiontoleranc,es. shouldbe well controlledto avoid settlement Supportto the topside during construction shouldbe given to the selectionof materialssuitablefor the fabrication.Wherethick-walled elementsareinvolved Specialconsideration (PWI{T), the designshouldposition suchwelding and the PWHT in the prefabricationphase. rquiring Post Weld Heat Treatrent 4.3 Weight Engineering Tlie topsidemust be kept under strict weight control, as explainedin Lecture 154.10. To that end the topsideis usually weighedprior to load of out. The basic-design a-weighingsystemusuallyconsistsof a set of hydraulicjacks with electricalload cells on toptinstalled'between.the topsideand the shop floor. The accuracyof suchsystemsis typically 0,5-l%. in Accuracy is necessary order to checkthe actualposition ofthe cenfie ofgravity. Knowledgeofthe position is vital for the installation. The systemfor supportof the topsideshouldbe similar to the anticipatedmethod of load out. 4.4 Load Out 4.4.1Operations The load out usually combinestwo operations: o moving the topside from the fabrication hall to the nearby quay. . moving the topside from the quay onto the barge. The shortjoumey on land can be complicatedwhen the track is not flat or cuwes have to be taken. wheels,seeFigure 7 and Slide l. The most preferredoption for load out is thereforeto use a platform trailer with individual suspended

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for Figure7 Basiclifting arrangement ajacket-basedtopside

Slide I : Generalarrangement a load out though skidding of The trailer drives from the quay over a rocker flap resting on the quay and the barge and then slowly onto the barge. The barge is kept in right trim by ballastpumping. When it reachedthe right position, the topside is set down on the beam grid of the sea fastening. 4.4.2Designspects load out When using platform hailers the lower deck should be desigredto meetthreebasic load-outrequirements: o the bottom flange platesofthe transverse beamsshouldall be in one plane r the distanceof transverse beamsshouldnot exceedapproximately7 m. . the lower deck shouldbe able to take an upward reactiontypically in the rangeof 50-60 kN/m2 of ground area. A uriform distribution of loads is assumedfor platform trailers. Skid systemswhich are not provided with a proper load sharing system will lead to a non-uniform load distribution. Design for load-out requires coordination with sea fastening design. 4.5 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening 4.5.1Operations

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Seatransportis a very critical operation,especiallyfor topsides(seeSlide 2).

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Slide 2 : Seafastening 105MN Brent C topside of After completionofthe load out and full fasteningto the barge,the bargeis ballastedto its targetdraft and clearedfor the transport. The bargeis towed by one or two tugs to the offshorelocation.Therethe barge is positionedclosealongsidethe cranevessel. Prior to lifting, the seafasteningis cut free. Planningthe seahansport containsseveralsteps: r . o . . . . identification of critical clearances, (harbourdepth,width of bridges or locks, etc inshore) e.g. bargeselection(a.o. stability, dynamicbehaviour,location ofbulkends). evaluationof searoute (Wqather, length of tow). assessment bargemotions in seastate. of development a sea fasteningconcept. of assessment declc/module integrity. of assessment ofbarge integrity.

Thereis also the option with somecranevessels hansportthe top side on board. Usually an extratake ovet is required as the draft ofthe to cranevesselexceeds depth at the fabricator'squay.The advantage the however is that seafasteningrequiresless effort. Furthermore, the offshoreoperationis simpler and quicker,asthe most critical and weathersensitiveoperation- lift offthe barge- is avoided. 4.5.2 Design aspectsofsea trangpoft AId,.Spa fastening Severalelementsofthe struchre are dominatedby the load condition during transport,seeLecture 154.1 All equipmentin or on the topsideis alsosubjectto heavy loads,e.g. conhol panels,generatorskids,platform crane,during transport. lntemal bracing ofa topsidefor transportis not favouredsinceit creates obstaclesand risk ofdamage or fire to cables,instruments, piping and equipment during subsequentremoval. External bracing is also not without problems. The width of the topside requires an exta wide barge. It is difficult to find "strong" points on the topside exterior. The basic concept is therefore to fix the topside to the barge by its columns only. The designershouldbe aware that the bendingstif&ress ofthe topsideoften exceedsrhat ofthe barge.Considerable"composite"action can result when the bargedeflectsin heavyhead-onseas. It is very important for any sea fastening concept to consider aspectsofde-seafastening, i.e. cutting free, prior to lift off, and the need to remain safein a moderateseastate. De-seafastening shouldnot require any handling by cranes. Bracescut loose at one end shouldthereforeremain stableand safewhile fixed at one endonly. Desigt of the seafasteningshouldnot require any welding in the columnjoint, sincethe topsidewould not then be ready for immediateset down onto thejacket. When the tow is mofe than one or t'r'odays long, fatigue may have to be considered on critical nodes. 4.6 Installation 4.6.1 Opemtions Installation on the substructue can be: o deck mating with a deepsubmerged floating GBS (Slide 3)

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. lifthg onto an alreadyinstalledjacket (Slide 4).

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Slide 3 : Decknatine of the 500MN Gullfaks-C tooside

Slide 4 : lnstallation of 60MN K12-BP toosidebv floatine crane Deck mating is a floating operationin a sheltered location, e.g. a Norwegianfiord or Scottishloch. Deck mating requiresthat the deck is temporarily supportedwith the final supports free. This requirement createsa very awkward load situation for the deck structure. Lifting is the usualinstallationmethodforjacket-basedtopsides.During development ofa platform concept,the lift strategl should be defined as part ofthe overall conskuctionstrategy.The lifting capacityofcrane vesselsis defined by hook-loadand reach. The required reach is determined mainly by the width of the topside and/or the transport barge. The major stepsare: . o . . . . r review ofthe weight report. assessment "critical" elevations. of assessment feasiblecranevessels. of development a lift concept. of preliminary sizing of slings,shackles, trurnions,etc. conceptdesignofguides and bumpers. analysisof deck or module sfucture for lift condition.

4.6.2 Design aspectsof installation by lifting The lift conceptconsistsofseveral elements: r . o . o o the single or dual crane lift the sling configuration choiceof topsidepick-up points the necessity(or not) for spreader bars or even spreaderframes the.single,doubleor paired slings the choiceofpadeyes,ortrunnions.

Cranevesselswere listed in Lecture 154.1. Slings are availableup to over 400mm nominal diameterwith safeworking loads of 20-25 MN. A basic elementin all elevationsis the inevitabletolerancein sling length which leadsto an unequaldistribution ofsling forces.(typically 25"/n75 in a four sling lift. The unequalsling forces lead to significant stresses the module (seeFigure 8). in

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Veflicl omponentsof lhe lifting forces

Disforlional forces are teken by the trusses and the deck plate to lhe sway bracing

4
I
t

l Y
l

wE [------lr wBll ll'-i-

WE lbH

rrt

rwB tll

1l----__lr wB l rb lrt I
*s ll
_WB hH
Distortional comonenl

WB tt-t-

Verlicel out-of belance loads

Torsional comonent

H o r i z o n t e lf o r c e s i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e t o p d e c k d u e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a lc o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s l i n g f o r c e s .

u,ltEcosg Note:The ebove and adjacent expressions mey be obtainedfrom a basic mechanics treatise. They are vey well suited for conceptualdesign e v lu t i o n Shear flow in rool, wells and floor of a rectangularmodule,with 7 5 1 2 5 s l i n g f o r c e d i s l r i b u l i o n a n d s l i n g i n c l i n a l i o no f 6 O d e g r e e s

Wcos 0 W sin

0 , 2 1 6 5W s i n 0,0722 W sin

1 6 5W s i n 0

l n - o l a n ef o r c e s d u e t o h o i z o n t e l components of sling forces

FigureI

Lift analysis

The useof spreader bars leadsto a fully balanced without distorting the module. However the spreader is quite expensiveand usually lift bar leadsto a requirementfor a higher hook elevation. The use ofa spreader frame should only be considered exceptionalcases in and doesnot preventmodule distortion. The padeye/shackle option is limited by the safeworking load (maximum 10MN) of the biggestshackle.The trunnion can accommedate higher loads,

4.7Hookup
Hook up is the completionof all joints and connections afte. installation. For economicreasons, overall construction the strategyshouldkeep hook up work to a minimum. Critical hook up work is the work required immediatelyto securethe object in order to survive the next storm. 4.8 Commissioning Commissioningis not relevantto the structuraldesigr. 4.9 Inspection Maintenance and Repair (IMR) Theseactivities are a major sourceof operational expendihre, OPEX, as introducedin Lecture 154.1. Somerequirements are: . o . o o . o inspectionof the primary structureis a statutory,fully plannedactivity. inspectionis only possiblewhen properaccess the areaorjoint is provided. to gaining access costly and requiresspace be left behind equipment. is. to minimum provisions,e.g. small clampsunderthe deck, greatly speeds scaffolding. up crck growth through fatigue is slow. A crack is usually detectable before one quarter of its life is passed. dirt accumulation promotes corrosion damage. maximum use shouldbe made of re resultsof inspection.Evaluationshould lead to modification of the inspectionprogrammewhere appropriate.

4.10 Removal Removal requirements re different from country to country. In some depths of water fuIl removal is required in some countries from the mudline upwrd. Elsewhere only the structure 75 m or more above the mudline must be removed. Extensiveengineeringof removal is requiredto achievea safe and effective operation.In the Gulf of Mexico removedstructures dumped are in the form ofreefs. It is very difficult and inefficient at presentto include conceptual removal engineeringin the designphase.When re-use

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ofthe facility is planned,then removal engineering should be devloped early in the design.

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5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Shuctural systemsfor eachtype oftopside structurewere introduced,i.e. truss,portal, box girder, and stressed skin systems. In the sectionon designsometopicswere addressed more detail. in In the sectionon construction different phases the were presented more detail, i.e. in i. fabrication ii. weighing iii. load out iv. seahansport v. offshoreinstallationespeciallydeckrnating vi. module installation vii. hook-up viii. commissionine . A briefdiscussionon inspectionandrepair and on platform removal concludedthe lecture.

6. REFERENCES
practicefor planning, designingand constructingfixed platforms. [1] API-RP2A: Recommended American Petroleumlnstitute, lSth ed., 1989. The structuraloffshorecode,governsthe majorify ofplatforms. [2] AISC: Allowable stess desigr manual(ASD). 9th ed., American Instituteof SteelConsnuction,1989. Widely usedstructuralcodefor topsides. [3] APl-Bulletin 2V: Bulletin on designof flat plate structures. American PetroleumInstitute, lst ed., 1987. Valuable specialistaddendum API-RP2A. to [4] APl-Bulletin 2U: Bulletin on stability designof cylindrical shells. American PeholeumInstitute, Ist ed., 1987. Valuable specialistaddendum API-RP2A. to [5] D.v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder:Placid K12BP biggestDutch productionplatform. IRO Journal,nr. 38, 1987,pp 3-9. Presents recentexamplefor a portal framedtopside. a [6] R. Narayanan: Plated structures/Stability and Snengttr. Applied SciencePublishers, London, 1983. guide to platedstructures Good designers design. [7] ANON: Gullfaks C platform declonating. Oceanlndustry, April 1989,pp 24. Good descriptionof the actualmating of deckto GBS. 105 t8l A.G.J. Berkelder:Seafastening MN Brent C deck. Bouwen met Staal, nr.24 1979. Presentation ofseafastening designfor GBS topside. PreviousI Next I Contents

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WG 154: ESDEP STRUCTURES OFFSHORE

in Lecture 154.12: Connections Offshore Deck Structures

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE To outline and explain the best methodsfor forming structuralconnectionsin offshore deck structures;to discussthe importariceofa proper choice ofconnection type to achieveboth the required strengthand stiffrress,and easeoffabrication. PREREQUISITES Lectures11.2:WeldedConnections Lectures 1I .4: Analysis of Connections Lectures 13: Tubular Structures Lectures 154: StructuralSystems:Offshore RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail) Leture 2.4: Steel Gradesand Qualities Lecture2.5: Selection SteelQuality of Lectures 3.6: Inspection/QualityAssurance Lecture 44.5: Corrosion Protectionin Offshore Structuresand SheetPiling Lecture 11.5:SimpleConnections Buildings for Lecxe 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue Lectures 12.4: FatigueBehaviour of Hollow SectionJoints ST]MMARY these cover the connectionsbetween Various forms of structuralconnectionsin steel offshore deck structuresare discussed: deck stringersand main beams,betweenmain beamsthemselves,betweenmain beamsand deck legs, truss connectionsand connectionsbetweencolumns and beams.The importance of designingand dimensioningto minimise fabrication and maintenanceis emphasised.

1. INTRODUCTION
see Large offshore deck structureshave traditionally been built up using modular components, Lectures l5A: 10 and 15A..1 ; 1 a module supportframe is built on top of the deck legs of the jacket structureon which the various modules are installed. With the high lifting capacitiescurrently available,the topsidesof light to medium offshore structurescan now be installed in one lift. This developmenthas had a considerableinfluence on the fabrication and design ofdeck structures,and has resultedin heaviermodules,constructedof larger and heaviermembers,with consequences the connections. for Another aspectinfluencing fabrication, and thus the design,was the developmentof cleanersteels,with modified chemical properties.This so-calledTTP steel (i.e. steelwith through-thicknessproperties, compositionsand good through-thickness seeLecture 2.4) has a low sulphur contentto avoid lamellar tearing. Furthermore,if the carbon and carbon equivalent (CEV) is low, the preheattemperatureof the steel can be lowered, resulting in easierwelding (without preheating)which again influencesthe connectiondesign. The increasein lifting capacity,and the exploration for gas and oil in deeperwater, have both resulted in larger structures,

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and have stimulatedthe use of higher strengthsteels,with yield strengthsabove 355 N/mm2. The joints have to be designedto withstandthe various loading conditions (seeLectures 154.2 and 154.3) experienced during fabrication, load-out,fransport,installation and the in-place condition (operationand storm). In order to allow redistribution of stresses is important that the joints are strongerthan the connectedmembers;if this is not the casethe it j oints themselvesmust have suffi cient deformation /rotation capacity . The connectiondesigrshould take accountofall the aforementionedaspectsand should be consideredas an interactive procedureinvolving the choice ofthe structurallayout, the fabrication sequence and the steel gradesand qualities to be used. must also be considered. Other aspectssuch as inspectionand corrosionprotection requirements Since the fabrication costsare mainly governedby the costsof welding, the connectionsshould be simple, and where possible,avoid the use ofstiffeners.

2. CONNECTIONS IN OFFSHORE DECK MODULES

The type ofconnections usedin offshore deck modules dependsdirectly on the type ofstructure involved: . ffuss types o frame trpes stressed skin As discussedin more detail in Lectures 154.10 and 154.11, the structuralsystemfor a deck includes severalof the following elements: . . . . . floor (steel plate or grating) deck stringers (I-beams,bulb flats ortroughs) deck beams main beams or girders (beamson main grid lines) vertical trussesor braces deck legs and columns

Depending on their function, loading, and availability of sections,theseelementscan be made ofirolled I or H-sections, rolled circular or rectangularhollow sections,or welded sections;for the larger sizes,welded I or box plate girders, or . : welded tubular membersare used. Theseelementshave to be connected together;since the modules are generally fabricatedunder controlled conditions at the fabrication yard, welded connectionsare common practice.The main connectiontypes are discussed more in detail below. Although it is common practice in offshore designto use the API-RP2A [l] or the AISC rules l2l,the basicjoint behaviour is discussed this lecturewithout referenceto the safetyfactors to be used. in

3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DECK STRINGERS AND BEAMS

The deck floor structurecan be designedas a floor plate with stringers,or as an orthotropic plate. The floor plate with etc). stringersis the most common type as it gives design flexibility for later changes(local loads, deck penetrations, Orthotropic plate structures,are generally usedin helidecks,seeLectures l5A. I 0 and 154.1 I . The use of stackedstringers,as shown in Figure 1, facilitates fabrication and is, thereforeto be preferredto the use of continuousconnections,as shown in Figure 2.

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Load distribution in deck beam

Load distribution in deck stringer

Load distribution in deck stringer end

Figure 1 Load transfer in a stacked stringer/deckbeamconnecton

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F u l lp e n e t r o i i o n weld

Critical - Section I - I Bending stress u due to shear force v and elastc shear stress r - Check local buckling of unsuppofted web at the notch

Load transfer in a flush deck sftinger with a mouse hole

F i g u re2 L o a d transfer in a flush deck stringer/deck beam connecton

For easeof fabrication, stiffenersshould be avoided if possible.This meansthat the vertical loads have to be transmitted by the webs, as shown in Figure l, over a length l, for the stringer, and lo for the deck beam; web crippling failure is also possibleand should be checked.Theseae a common details which are dealt with in Eurocode 3 [3] and other codes. For the continuousconnections,shown in Figure 2, the moment is assumed be transferredby the flange connectionand to the shearby the web connection. The type offull penetrationweld at the top flange for continuousconnEctions dependson the fabrication sequence and should be decidedby the fabricator. The bottom flange and web can generallybe connectedby fillet welds. A full penetrationweld of the flange, without a'mouse hole', is preferred becauSe corrosion protection althoughthis results in a of small weld defect at the neck betweenflange and web. However, even under fatigue loading such a defectcan be accepted [4] the same is also valid for static loading. Only in caseswhere very high strengthsteel (! > 500N/mm2) is usedand a high yield to ultimate stressratio, fr/t > 0,9 occurs should this detail be evaluatedrigorously. Since all loadigcasesare not ".g. always checked,the welds have to be designedto have at least the samestrengthas the connectedparts, i.e. as the flange or web. It should be recognizedthat the shearstressdistribution (Figure 2) for a detail with a'mouse hole' is more severethan that without a'mouse hole'. Specialattention should be given to the unsupportedupper side of the web in Figure 2b, as local buckling may be a problem, see'Lecture6.2 and [5].

4. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN INTERMEDIATE AND MAIN DECK

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BEAMS
The connectionbetweenthe deck beamsis most convenientif thesebeamshave the sameheight, as shown in Figure 3b. Here the flangesare connectedwith full penetrationwelds, and the web by fillet welds or a full penetrationweld depending on the thickness.Tolerancecontrol is necessary avoid differencesat the deck floor level, betweenstringers,The shear to loads are generallytoo high to allow a single or double sided notch as shown in Figure 3b since this results in a higher shear stress,seeFigure 2. In caseofequal heights, no TTP requirementsare necessary the beams.For the connection ofbeams for with unequalheights,however, as shown in Figure 3a,the web of the main beam should have a TTP quality due to the loads being transferredthrough the web thickness.Furthermore,to satisfuthe requirementsfor avoidanceof cold cracking, etc., either the flange thicknessof the intermediatebeam should be lessthan 1,5 times the web thicknessof the main beam, or the material should have a low carbon content (seeLecture 2.5).

lntermediate lntermediate Stringer Strinqer

beam

t < r,b
tw -

Beam of main strutture {ai Beam-to-beamconnection {unequal beam heights}

{b} Beam-to-beamconnestion iequal beam heights}

Figure 3 Beam-to-beamcnnectons for a stacked floor svstem

As an expensivealternativesolution, a plate connectingthe flanges can be slottedthrough the web, as shown in Figure 4. Haunchedaltemativesare siven in Lectures I 54.1 0 and 154.1 I .

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Alternative details for

+,

t 1,b iexpensive)

Figure 4 Beam-to-beamconnection with unequal b e a m h eights and thick flanges

All welds should be designedto have the strength ofthe connectedparts. the As a consequence connectionis as strohg as the member;only in caseof large 'mouseholes' the shearstressand possible web part [5] have to be checked. local buckling ofthe unsupported

5. BEAM TO DECK LEG CONNECTIONS

The main beams,either rolled H sectionsor plate girders,must be connectedto the deck legs, which are normally fabricated tubula membe, Fo a frame type structure,this connectionshould be rigid and capableof transmitting-theyield moment resistance ofthe connected beams.Theseconnections,or nodes,are generally prefabricated,consisting ofa tubular "can" with surrounding"diamond"(diaphragm) plates for the connectionwith the beams,as shown in Figure 5. This type of onnectionrequiresspecialmaterial specificationsand specialwelding procedures.

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Bending moment diagram

Mcw:

Mu*-

-Vdo

Can wall

Figure 5 Typical joint in a poftalframe type man structure

Stiffened Connections The shearloads are transferredby the connectionof the web platesto the tube walls. The moment is transmittedby the diamond plate in combination with an effective ring width of the tubular "can". The designresistance, factored loading, for is normally checkedwith the experimentalKamba formula, which is simplified by Kurobane [6] as follows: r fy. (4,29 +1,9) h.[ qo Nn: where: N*o is the design resistancefor the flange for factored loading (t" +t J

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is the yield stress ofdeck leg "can"

Pie 8'of 18

b, is the flange width of deck beam do is the outer diameter of tube to is the wall thicknessof the deck leg "can" t, is the thicknessofring plate h, is the smallestwidth of the ring plate

br=

[+.n,;"u
to

Validify ranges:
.. IJ t do t.n l-:JU

o , o r < & < o , i, s s o . r o

do d,

The axial force in the flange N, is derived from N: Mr*(h, - t1) (seeFigure 5). This formula is basedon the test resultsfor a ring-stiffenedjoint with two oppositeloads;more detailed researchis currently being carried out [7]. In the caseof multiplanar loading, for four loads acting in the samesense, joint strengthwill be greater.However, if the two loads in one the direction are tensile and the two in the direction pependicularto that are compressive, joint strengthmay be decreased. the Reference[7] reportsthat this decrease was found to be a maximum of 30Yo. Furthermore,if the deck leg is loadedby axial compressivestressamountingto 60yoof the yield value, the strengthof the connectionhas to be reducedby 20o/o.' Non-StiffenedConnection ,

For truss type frames,the beamto deck leg connectionhas to transfer mainly axial loading and an unstiffened connection,as shown in Figure 6, could be used;this is, however,not yet common practice.If suff,rcient deformation capacity exists,the secondary bending moments can be neglectedfor static loading. If fatigue loading has to be checked,however,.care should be taken with thesesecondarybending moments;because stressconcentrationfactors at the flange to tubular connection the are rather high. For.practical cases thesestressconcentrationfactors can be in the order of l0 for

9= 25, !l= 0.4 and il =1.0

to d" . to , see [g].

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Elastic stress distribution in the flange

Deckleg typically lOO-16OOmm .D. O

. ll\lfr

'l

j
tn

ypically Typically 3O mm Typically 5O mm vpically

, t,l

r : ,

/l\

do;

r
/'\
::--------:----- h J .-

II

r h

ht t \

_t

Deckbeam Deckleg can

Figure 6 Non-stiffened connection of deck beams with deck leg

The static designresistance factored load ofthe unstifFened for connectionis determinedby the strengthofthe flange to tube connection,which can be basedon Togo's ring model, seeLecture 13.2.The designresistancefor flange loads in one direction (X-joint loading) is given by Eurocode3 [3] and [9].
r)-!o.ffi

"

Nn : where:

f_u (l - u' I,l4

Ap

N*o is the design strengthfor the flange for factored loading o it th" yield stressofjoint "can"

to is the wall thicknessofjoint "can" p is the flange width bl to "can" diameterdo ratio \ is the influence function for additional stressin the chord.

Validity ranges:

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P a g e1 0 o f 1 8

',aadoaaat

0,4< p < 1,0

Io

For bending momentsin-plane,the axial force N is derived from N: Mr*(h,

-t1) as shown in Figure 5.

For an axial loading the flange connectionscan interact suchthat the connectionstrength(I to tubular) is not twice the strengthofone flange connectionbut: f

,r.' d ' I' .R

ll+o,z:rll
d"J

, 1

Consequentlythe beamto deck leg connectionhasto be checkedfor:

f

Ns 'Nn

lr*o,z:l d"J |.

Mipsa <NR.d ftt - tl) Currently, for multi-planar loading with loads and momentsacting in the oppositesense, the same30%o reduction in joint strengthas before is recoinmended,,although initial investigationsindicate that this may be conservative[10]. No reduction has to be applied if the loads are acting n the samesense.

6. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS

Columns betweendecksare necessary where externalsurfacesof the modules are clad, or where cantileversor laydown areasare provided. The connectionwith the deck beamscan be flexible in the longitudinal direction if these columns have, only to withstand lateral l-oading. however, they are usedto transfer loadings from cantileversto both decks, the If, connectionsshould have the samestrengthas the coluinn or they should have sufficient deformation capacity. Figure 7 showsa possiblefull strength detail for columns connectedto a plate girder, with possibleconnecting side beams and an extendedcantilever.Here the web of the plate girder is endedbefore the flange to aliow afubular sectin to be welded betweenthe flanges.I-beam sections,even with difFerentdepths,can be easily welded to this tubular section, and the columns can be welded to the flanses.

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P a g e1 1 o f 1 8

// t t

| l

r\ r
-F

\
-

'1, ,tt =,1. Main beam plate girder wide flange rolled beam

Cantilever beam

tonnectian at lower flange of transverse beam

Figure 7 Wall column/deck row beam connection, applyng a weded-nbetween tubular

The "joint can" should have about the samediameterand thicknessas the column. In Figure 7 longitudinal beams and a cantileverbeam are also connected this can. The bending moment resistanceis here determinedby the connection of the to bottom flange to the tubular can, similarly as discussed Section5. in

7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Sincethe chords of the trussesare part of the deck floors, they are almost always made from an I or H-section; in exceptionalcases,welded box sectionsare used.The diagonalsare tubular, rectangularhollow sections,or H sections;all have their advantages and disadvantages with regard to material costs,maintenanceand fabrication. Where these diagonals are connectedto an I sectionchord, the chord should be stiffened to obtain a full strengthconnection;it should be kept in mind that intermediatebeamsmay have to be connectedto the chord at this location. The connectionshould be designedin such a way that fabrication and inspection will be easily possible. Figure 8 shows some connectiondetails for lightly loadedtrusses.

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P a s e1 2 o f 1 8

icl

{d}

Figure I

for Unstiffened cCInnections lightlv loaded trusses

Theseconnectionsgenerally do not developa strengthequal to or larger than the yield strengthofthe diagonals, deformation capacity.However experimentalevidenceis only available Consequentlythe connectionshould have sufFrcient for the connectionaccording to Figure 8a. From a fabrication point of view, the connections with a gap betweenthe bracesare preferred.However the connections with overlappedbracesas shown in Figures 8c and 8d are stronger. The connectionstrengthmay be governedby various criteria, dependingon the geometry, i.e: a. chord web strength brace b. chord web crippling under a compression ofa gapjoint c. chordweb shearbetween diagonals the d. chord web buckling e. brace (diagonal) effective width f. brace shearfailure at the flange connection g. weld failure (to be avoided by full strengthwelds) h. lamellar tearing (to be avoided by TTP material for the flange). For connectionsaccording to Figure 8a, Eurocode3 [3] provides design strengthformulae which can be used in a modified way forthe connections ofFigure 8b to 8d. Within the scopeof this lecture it is not possibleto deal with all connectionsin deil, however one example is given for a connectionbetweentubular bracesand an l-section chord as shown in Fieure 9.

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tr I

-"F
Bf^
tt
fZ

;+*
Joint configuration

n',,F

l',r,

r.

bmz

ll ->l|<-t "
Effective area in cross-section A-A ione diagonali
bez

o"'C#
Effective area in cross-section B-B {one diagonal}

f-7

Principleload transfer

Figure I

Effective areas for joint design of a plate stiffened truss connection wth gap

The strengthof the connection for axial loads at the chord intersection(cross-section is govemed by the effectivewidth A) area: A"ff.": 2 (bmt tp + bn,' tw) For the brace intersectionthe eflective width is given by: Aeff.b:2 (bel + be2)rp The strengthofthe connection is thus given by:

Nrsin 0r: A.n. to

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and

P a g e1 4 o f 1 8

Nrsin 0, : A.ffb fyo The effectivewidths b^1,b^2, b., and b"rare given in Eurocode3 (6.6.8and Appendix K, Table K;8.2). As an additional checkthe chord cross-section betweenthe braceshas to be checkedfor shearand shearin combination with axial loading and bendingmoments,seeTable K.8.2 of Eurocode3. The chord and braceshave furthermoreto satisfu the limits for d/t and h,/tto avoid local buckling. Weld failure and lamellar tearing should always be avoided by choosingfull strengthwelds and proper selectionof the steel grade and quality. ln these caseswhere the joint strengthis lower than the bracemember strength,sufcient rotation capacityshould be, available if the bendingmomentsare neglected.Since it is difficult to show.thatsufficient deformation capacity exists due to a lack of researchevidence,either the bending moments have to be incorporatedin the strengthassessment the joint is or stiffened to such an extentthat the joint strengthis larger than the brace member strength,e.g. as shown in Figure 10.

l=
dr

,/ l'1 t ' \

li+k\)\. -iijj[,,\)

For effective areas. the principles of Figures 7 and I apply

F i q u re 1 O S tiffened tr uss connect on

8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
The previous sectionsdealt with the most common types of connection;however, dependingon the platform layout, other types of connectionsmay be necessary. Figure I 1, for example,showsthe connectionbetweentwo panels of stiffened plates.Here both panelsare made by (semi) automatic welding processes. Allowance is made for welding tolerancesby welding the endsof the stringersafter the fitting together of the panels.This procedurecan be usedfor modules which are designedusing the stressed skin method.

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P a s e1 5 o f 1 8

F i g u re 1 1 Connectionbetween two stiffened plate panels

Specialprovisions are necessary lifting the modules;padeyesor trunnions, for example,can be provided for this purpose, for as shown in Figure 12; nowadaysthesedevicesare sometimesmade of cast steel.It is important that these lifting devicesare designedin such away that they can be connected the deck structure atalaer stagewhen the precise location ofthe to centreof gravity of the module, and the lifting method, are known.

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* - -* - I I
I

--_-=j
- - - - - 1

t-__--=--i,____ij

t:-----:---r- Elevation

piun
{ai Trunnion

T b'l' Y-

kSl
k__P_;
{bi Padeye {c} Padeye dimensions

F i g u re 1 2 D e sign of lifting po nts

by Strengthof padeyesis often assessed meansof "Lloyds" formulae,which are presentedin the S.WL (safeworking load) format. The SWL is the least of the following valuesof N,: Nr:0,60 (at, + 2btfy Nr: 1,08(c t, + (D - d) tE) fv

N3 : 0,87 (tl + 2tE) fy where the following limitations apply:

f o l ,
[ 1 , 0 <t r + 2 t " J . r , o

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A

P a g e1 7 o f 1 8

. a n di f o * t *

= ,,0

then put tL+ 2 tE = d in the aboveformulae. r t, not to exceed,t /2 o dn.r'/dr^ < 1,05

Tubular connectionsare not dealt with in this lecture sincetheseare discussed more detail in Lectures 13.2 and 13.3. in For offshore deck structures, built up from stiffenedplate panels,referenceshould be made to Lectures 8.3 and 8.4. For living quartersand helicopter decks, use can be made of the information in the previous sections.

9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
r The optimal designof offshore deck structuresdepends, a large extent, on the coordination betweenthe specialists to for the various disciplines;for the layout, coordinationbetweenstructural,mechanical,electrical, fabrication, load out and installation engineersis important. The structuraldesignerhas to considerthe fabrication sequence; conditions for welding and inspection (e.g. can it the be welded properly?); the consequences ofthe choice ofmaterial gradeand quality on the fabrication; and the various load conditions. o In general,most connectionscan be designedwith the basic formulae usedfor tubular connectionsand beam-tocolumn connections. Backgroundinformationis given in ll , 2,9, 1I - l5]. o Recently a study has been carried out to investigatethe use of RHS in deck structures[16]. This showsthat the use of RHS, insteadof beams,for deck trussescan be economical.However, due to restrictions in available sizes, economicalsolutionsare mainly found for smaller platform sizesand for secondarysteelwork such as staircase platforms and equipmentsupports. towers, access

10.REFERENCES.

, 1

'

Practice for Planning,Designing and ConstructingFixed Offshore Platforms". American [] API-RP2A "Recommended PetroleumInstitute, 18th Edition, 1989 [2] AISC "Specificationfor the Design, Fabricationand Erection of Structural Steelfor Buildings". American Institute of SteelConstruction.Chicago, 1980 ENV 1993-1-l: Part 1.1,GeneralRulesand Rules for Buildings,CEN, 1992. [3] Eurocode3: "Designof SteelStructures": [4] Dijkstra, O.D., Wardenier,J. "The Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Spliceswith and without Mouseholesin IPE 400 and FIEM 320 beams".Paper14Int. ConferenceWeld Failures,November 1988,London [5] Lindner, F. and Gietzeit, R. "Zur Tragfihigkeit ausgeklinkterTrger" Stahlbauwz.1985. Y. '1.{ew Developments and Practices TubularJoint Design".IIW doc. XV-488-81DII-1004-81, in [6] Kurobane, InternationalInstitute of Welding, 1981 '1.{umericalInvestigation into the Static Strengthof Stiffened I-Beam to [7] Rink, H.D., Wardenier,J. and Winkel, G.D. de Column Connections".ProceedingsInternational Symposiumon Tubular Structures, Delft, June 1991.Delft University Press. [8] Hertogs,4.4., Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "StressConcentrationFactorsin Plateto Tube Connections".Proceedings ASME/OMAE Conference, March 1989,Vol. II,pp.719-727 [9] Wardenier,J. "Hollow SectionJoints". Delft University Press,Delft, 1982 [10] Broek, T.J. van der, Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier,J. "The Influence ofMultiplanar Loading on the Strengthand Stiffrress of Plate1oTubular Column Connections".Proceedings InternationalConference"Welded Structures90", London, IJK, November1990 [1 1] DNV "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspectionof Fixed offshore Structures"1977(with corrections 1982) of [2] Lloyd's Register "Rules and Regulationsfor the Classif,rcation Fixed Ofhore Installation". London, July 1988

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for [3] IIV/-XV-E "Design Recommendations Hollow SectionJoints - Predominantly Statically Loaded - 2nd edition". 1989,IIW doc XV-701-89 [14] IIEG "Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures".UEG, London, 1985 (3 volumes) Vollwandtrger aus Stahl im Hinblick auf die Bemessung von Lagersteifen". [5] Voss, R.P. "Lasteinleitungin geschweisste TU Ph.D-Thesis. Berlin D83. 1983 [6] Guy, H.D. "StructuralHollow Sectionsfor Topside Constructions".Steel ConstructionToday, 1990,4

11. ADDITIONAL READING

1. Marshall, P.W. "Design of Welded Tubular Connections:Basis and Use of AWS Provisions". Elsvier, 1991 2. Schaap, Pal, A.H.M. v.d., Vries, A. de.,Dague.D. and Wardenier,J. D., "The Design of Amoco's'Rijn'Production Platform". Proceedings the International Conferenceon Steel and Aluminium Structures,Cardiff, LIK, 8-10 July of 1987,Vol. Steel Structures 3. Paul, J.C., Valk, C.A.C. v.d., and Wardenier, J. "The Static Strengthof Circular Multiplanar X-joints". Proceedingsof the third IIW Intemational Symposium on Tubular Structures, Lappeenranta, September1989 Previous lNext I Contents

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